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HenryVIII(28June149128January1547)wasKingofEnglandfrom21April1509untilhisdeath.HewasLord,andlaterKing,ofIreland,aswellascontinuingthenominalclaimbytheEnglishmonarchstotheKingdomofFrance.HenrywasthesecondmonarchoftheHouseofTudor,succeedinghisfather,HenryVII.Besideshissixmarriages,HenryVIIIisknownforhisroleintheseparationoftheChurchofEnglandfromtheRomanCatholicChurch.Henry'sstruggleswithRomeledtotheseparationoftheChurchofEnglandfrompapalauthority,theDissolutionoftheMonasteries,andestablishinghimselfastheSupremeHeadoftheChurchofEngland.YetheremainedabelieverincoreCatholictheologicalteachings,evenafterhisexcommunicationfromtheCatholicChurch.HenryoversawthelegalunionofEnglandandWaleswiththeLawsinWalesActs15351542.Henrywasconsideredanattractive,educatedandaccomplishedkinginhisprimeandhasareputationas"oneofthemostcharismaticrulerstositontheEnglishthrone".Besidesrulingwithabsolutepower,healsoengagedhimselfasanauthorandcomposer.HisdesiretoprovideEnglandwithamaleheirwhichstemmedpartlyfrompersonalvanityandpartlybecausehebelievedadaughterwouldbeunabletoconsolidatetheTudorDynastyandthefragilepeacethatexistedfollowingtheWarsoftheRosesledtothetwothingsforwhichHenryisremembered:hissixmarriages,andtheEnglishReformation,makingEnglandamostlyProtestantnation.Inlaterlifehebecamemorbidlyobeseandhishealthsuffered;hispublicimageisfrequentlydepictedasoneofalustful,egotistical,harsh,andinsecureking.

Earlyyears:14911509

CatherineofAragonasayoungwidow,byHenryVII'scourtpainter,MichaelSittow,inc.1502.BornatGreenwichPalace,HenryVIIIwasthethirdchildofHenryVIIandElizabethofYork.[6]OftheyoungHenry'ssixsiblings,onlythreeArthur,PrinceofWales;Margaret;andMarysurvivedinfancy.In1493,attheageoftwo,HenrywasappointedConstableofDoverCastleandLordWardenoftheCinquePorts.In1494,hewasmadeDukeofYork.HewassubsequentlyappointedEarlMarshalofEnglandandLordLieutenantofIreland.Henrywasgivenafirst-rateeducationfromleadingtutors,becomingfluentinLatin,French,andSpanish.[7]AsitwasexpectedthatthethronewouldpasstoPrinceArthur,Henry'solderbrother,Henrywaspreparedforaclericalcareer.ElizabethofYork,hismother,diedwhenHenrywasaged11.[8]

DeathofPrinceArthurIn1502,Arthurdiedattheageof15,afteronly20weeksofmarriagetoCatherineofAragon.Arthur'sdeaththrustallhisdutiesuponhisyoungerbrother,the10-year-oldHenry,whothenbecamePrinceofWales.HenryVIIrenewedhiseffortstosealamaritalalliancebetweenEnglandandSpain,byofferinghissecondsoninmarriagetoPrinceArthur'swidow,CatherineofAragon,youngestsurvivingchildofKingFerdinandIIofAragonandQueenIsabellaIofCastile.ForthenewPrinceofWalestomarryhisbrother'swidow,adispensationfromthePopewasnormallyrequiredtooverruletheimpedimentofaffinitybecause,astoldintheBookofLeviticus,"Ifabrotheristomarrythewifeofabrothertheywillremainchildless."CatherinesworethathermarriagetoPrinceArthurhadnotbeenconsummated.Still,boththeEnglishandSpanishpartiesagreedthatanadditionalpapaldispensationofaffinitywouldbeprudenttoremovealldoubtrega

rdingthelegitimacyofthemarriage.DeathofPrinceArthur

In1502,Arthurdiedattheageof15,afteronly20weeksofmarriagetoCatherineofAragon.Arthur'sdeaththrustallhisdutiesuponhisyoungerbrother,the10-year-oldHenry,whothenbecamePrinceofWales.HenryVIIrenewedhiseffortstosealamaritalalliancebetweenEnglandandSpain,byofferinghissecondsoninmarriagetoPrinceArthur'swidow,CatherineofAragon,youngestsurvivingchildofKingFerdinandIIofAragonandQueenIsabellaIofCastile.[9]For

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thenewPrinceofWalestomarryhisbrother'swidow,adispensationfromthePopewasnormallyrequiredtooverruletheimpedimentofaffinitybecause,astoldintheBookofLeviticus,"Ifabrotheristomarrythewifeofabrothertheywillremainchildless."CatherinesworethathermarriagetoPrinceArthurhadnotbeenconsummated.Still,boththeEnglishandSpanishpartiesagreedthatanadditionalpapaldispensationofaffinitywouldbeprudenttoremovealldoubtregardingthelegitimacyofthemarriage.TheimpatienceofCatherine'smother,QueenIsabellaI,inducedPopeJuliusIItograntdispensationintheformofaPapalbull.So,14monthsafterheryounghusband'sdeath,Catherinewasbetrothedtohisevenyoungerbrother,Henry.Yetby1505,HenryVIIlostinterestinaSpanishallianceandtheyoungerHenrydeclaredthathisbetrothalhadbeenarrangedwithouthisconsent.ContinueddiplomaticmanoeuvringoverthefateoftheproposedmarriagelingereduntilthedeathofHenryVIIin1509.Only17yearsold,HenrymarriedCatherineon11June1509and,on24June1509,thetwowerecrownedatWestminsterAbbey.

GovernmentandfinancesunderHenryFinancially,thereignofHenrywasanear-disaster.Althoughheinheritedaprosperouseconomy(andfurtheraugmentedhisroyaltreasurybyseizuresofchurchlands),Henry'sheavyspendingandhightaxesdamagedtheeconomy.Forexample,HenryexpandedtheRoyalNavyfrom5to53ships.Helovedpalaces;hebeganwithadozenanddiedwithfifty-five,inwhichhehung2,000tapestries.Bycomparison,hisneighbourandnephewJamesVofScotlandhadfivepalacesand200tape

stries.Hetookprideinshowingoffhiscollectionofweapons,whichincludedexoticarcheryequipment,2,250piecesoflandordnanceand6,500handguns.

HenryVIIIwithCharlesQuint(right)andPopeLeoX(center),circa1520.Henrybeganhisreignwithheavyrelianceonadvisersandendedwithcompletecontrol.From1514to1529,ThomasWolsey(14731530),aCatholiccardinal,servedaslordchancellorandpracticallycontrolleddomesticandforeignpolicyfortheyoungking.HenegotiatedthetrucewithFrancethatwassignalledbythedramaticdisplayofamityontheFieldoftheClothofGold(1520).HeswitchedEnglandbackandforthasanallyofFranceandtheHolyRomanEmpire.Wolseycentralisedthenationalgovernmentandextendedthejurisdictionoftheconciliarcourts,particularlytheStarChamber.Hisuseofforcedloanstopayforforeignwarsangeredtherich,whowereannoyedaswellbyhisenormouswealthandostenta

tiousliving.WolseydisappointedthekingwhenhefailedtosecureadivorcefromQueenCatherine.Thetreasurywasemptyafteryearsofextravagance;thepeersandpeopleweredissatisfiedandHenryneededanentirelynewapproach;Wolseyhadtobereplaced.After16yearsatthetophelostpowerin1529andin1530wasarrestedonfalsechargesoftreasonanddiedincustody.Wolsey'sfallwasawarningtothePopeandtotheclergyofEnglandofwhatmightbeexpectedforfailuretocomplywiththeking'swishes.Henrythentookfullcontrolofhisgovernment,althoughatcourtnumerouscomplexfactionscontinuedtotrytoruinanddestroyeachother.

HenryVIII'ssuitofarmour,c.1544,Italianmade.MetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYorkGeoffreyElton(1962)arguestherewasamajorTudorrevolutioningovernment.W

hilecreditingHenrywithintelligenceandshrewdness,Eltonfindsthatmuchofthepositiveaction,especiallythebreakwithRome,wastheworkofThomasCromwellandnottheking.EltonseesHenryascompetent,buttoolazytotakedirectcontrolofaffairsforanyextendedperiod;thatis,thekingwasanopportunistwhoreliedonothersformostofhisideasandtodomostofthework.Henry'smaritaladventuresarepartofElton'schainofevidence;amanwhomarriessixwives,Eltonnotes,isnotsomeonewhofullycontrolshisownfate.EltonshowsthatThomasCromwellhadconceivedofacommonwealthofEnglandthatincludedpopularparticipationthroughParliamentandthatthiswasgenerallyexpressedinthepreamblestolegislation.Parliamentaryconsentdidnotmeanthattheking

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hadyieldedanyofhisauthority;HenryVIIIwasapaternalisticrulerwhodidnothesitatetousehispower.Popular"consent"wasameanstoaugmentratherthanlimitroyalpower.ReformationMainarticle:EnglishReformationHenryneverformallyrepudiatedthedoctrinesoftheCatholicChurch,buthedeclaredhimselfsupremeheadofthechurchinEnglandin1534.This,combinedwithsubsequentactions,eventuallyresultedinaseparatedchurch,theChurchofEngland.HenryandhisadvisorsfeltthepopewasactingintheroleofanItalianprinceinvolvedinsecularaffairs,whichobscuredhisreligiousrole.TheysaidRometreatedEnglandasaminorstepchild,allowingitonecardinaloutoffifty,andnopossibilityofthatcardinalbecomingpope.ForreasonsofstateitwasincreasinglyintolerabletoHenrythatmajordecisionsinEnglandweresettledbyItalians.Thedivorceissueexemplifiedtheproblembutwasnotitselfthecauseoftheproblem.[20]Henry'sreformationoftheEnglishchurchinvolvedmorecomplexmotivesandmethodsthanhisdesireforanewwifeandanheir.Henryassertedthathisfirstmarriagehadneverbeenvalid,butthedivorceissuewasonlyonefactorinHenry'sdesiretoreformthechurch.In15321537,heinstitutedanumberofstatutestheactofappeal(StatuteinRestraintofAppeals,1533),thevariousActsofSuccession(1533,1534,and1536),thefirstActofSupremacy(1534),andothersthatdealtwiththerelationshipbetweenthekingandthepopeandthestructureoftheChurchofEngland.Duringtheseyears,Henrysuppressedmonasteriesandpilgrimageshrinesinhisattempttoreformthechurch.Thekingwasalwaysthedo

minantforceinthemakingofreligiouspolicy;hispolicy,whichhepursuedskilfullyandconsistently,isbestcharacterisedasasearchforthemiddleway.Questionsoverwhatwasthetruefaithwereresolvedwiththeadoptionoftheorthodox"ActofSixArticles"(1539)andacarefulholdingofthebalancebetweenextremefactionsafter1540.Evenso,theerasawmovementawayfromreligiousorthodoxy,themoresoasthepillarsoftheoldbeliefs,especiallyThomasMoreandJohnFisher,hadbeenunabletoacceptthechangeandhadbeenexecutedin1535forrefusingtorenouncepapalauthority.CriticalfortheHenricianreformationwasthenewpoliticaltheologyofobediencetotheprincethatwasenthusiasticallyadoptedbytheChurchofEnglandinthe1530s.ItreflectedMartinLuther'snewinterpretationofthefourthcommandment("Honorthyfatherandmother")andwasmediatedtoanEnglishaudiencebyWilliamTyndale.

FranceandtheHabsburgs

In1511PopeJuliusIIproclaimedaHolyLeagueagainstFrance.ThenewalliancerapidlygrewtoincludenotonlySpainandtheHolyRomanEmpirebutEnglandaswell.HenrydecidedtousetheoccasiontoexpandhisholdingsinnorthernFrance.HeconcludedtheTreatyofWestminster,apledgeofmutualaidwithSpainagainstFrance,inNovember1511andpreparedforinvolvementintheWaroftheLeagueofCambrai.In1513HenryinvadedFranceandhistroopsdefeatedaFrencharmyattheBattleoftheSpurs.Hisbrother-in-law,JamesIVofScotland,invadedEnglandatthebehestofLouisXIIofFrance,[13]butfailedtodrawHenry'sattentionawayfromFrance.TheEnglisharmy,ledbyQueenCatherine,whoactedasregentofEnglandwhileHenrywasinFrance,defeatedtheScotsattheBattleofFloddenon9S

eptember1513.AmongthedeadwastheScottishKingJamesIV,endingScotland'sbriefinvolvementinthewar.On18February1516QueenCatherineboreHenryhisfirstchildtosurviveinfancy,PrincessMary.(Ason,Henry,DukeofCornwall,hadbeenbornin1511butlivedonlyafewweeks.)