A guide to indoor airquality in the homefor buyers, builders

and renovators

healthy homes

Healthy Homes cover 27/2/03 12:07 pm Page 1

A guide to indoor airquality in the homefor buyers, builders

and renovators

Images from Your Home Consumer Guide / Technical Manual © Commonwealth of Australia are publishedby permission of the Australian Greenhouse Office. The Your Home Consumer Guide and TechnicalManual are available on line at www.yourhome.gov.au. A free copy of the Consumer Guide is available by phone on 1300 130 606.

Images are numbered sequentially and attributed in the order: left to right, top to bottom on any page.

© Commonwealth of Australia 2002

ISBN: 0 642 82121 6

Publications Approval number: 3137

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may bereproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth available from theDepartment of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts. Requests and inquiries concerningreproduction and rights should be addressed to the Manager, Copyright Services, Info Access, GPO Box 1920, Canberra ACT 2601.

Department of Health and Ageing

Page 19 1. Nigel Noyes Photography2. Mirvac Lend Lease Village

Consortium3. Colin Bell Photographer

Page 20 1. Luxury Home Design2. Elsa Hutton Photographer /

Inside Out Magazine3. Sunpower Design P/L

Page 23 1. Clare Design3. Henley Properties5. Insulation Solutions6. Mirvac Lend Lease Village

Consortium7. Henley Properties8. Yvonne Haber &

Joanna Rich Architects

Page 24 1. Environa Studio / SIMARTPhotography

Page 25 1. Paul Kahrau2. Philip Follent Architects3. Yvonne Haber &

Joanna Rich Architects

Page 26 1. Insulation Solutions

Page 27 1. Colin Bell Photographer2. Caroline Pidcock Architects

Page 30 1. Insulation Solutions2. Environa Studio3. Austral

Page 33 1. Mike Bowman

Page 41 1. QMBA / Your New Home

Cover and 1. Yvonne Haber & Title page Joanna Rich Architects

2. Nigel Noyes Photography

Page 1 1. Nigel Noyes Photography

Page 5 1. Austral3. Yvonne Haber &

Joanna Rich Architects6. Ricardo Zen8. Tri-Scan Pty Ltd

Page 7 1. Austral

Page 8 1. Taylor Oppenheim Architects Pty Ltd

Page 9 1. Mirvac Lend Lease VillageConsortium

2. Philip Follent Architects3. Austral4. Philip Follent Architects

Page 11 1. Chris Barnett Architects / Paul Kahrau Photography

2. Insulation Solutions5. Ricardo Zen6. Alliance Clare Design /

Richard Stringer Photography

Page 12 1. Mirvac Lend Lease VillageConsortium

2. Caroline Pidcock Architects

Page 14 1. McKenzie Homes

Page 18 1. Henley Properties

iii

Acknowledgments

The Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing acknowledges the assistance of the BuiltEnvironment Research Unit, Building Division, Queensland Department of Public Works in creatingthis booklet.

The support of the Housing Industry Association and Master Builders Australia is gratefullyacknowledged.

Concept/Editor: Chris Greenaway

Contributions: Michael Ball, Anne Bullen, Neil Davidson, Keith Eigeland

Editor: Jenny Cook, PenUltimate

The technical advice provided by the Editorial Committee is gratefully acknowledged. The EditorialCommittee members were; Jan Bowman, Sophie Dwyer, Geoff Morgan and Steve Brown. Our thanks also to Anne-Louise Ponsonby for her contribution.

Photos courtesy of the Australian Greenhouse Office and The Carpet Institute of Australia Ltd.

Critical Review Group

Dr Keith Adam, a medical practitioner and Director of Health for Industry, a commercial practicewhich specialises in occupational health.

Ms Mary Baker, a graduate architect and trained nurse, specialising in hospital and health facilitydesign.

Dr Steve Brown, a principal research scientist with CSIRO Manufacturing & Infrastructure,specialising in particulate and gaseous pollutants in indoor air and control of indoor pollutant sources.

Mr Dale Gilbert, Director of the Built Environment Research Unit and specialist in public policydevelopment.

Dr Ray Mullins, immunology and allergy specialist, Canberra, representative of Australasian Societyof Clinical Immunology and Allergy.

Dr Anne Neller, a lecturer with University of the Sunshine Coast, specialising in public and environ-mental health.

Dr Shannon Rutherford, a lecturer with Griffith University, specialising in airborne biologicalparticles and public health.

Dr Melissa Stoneham, a lecturer with Queensland University of Technology, specialising in publichealth promotion.

Dr Mimi Lai-Kuan Tang, allergist, immunologist, representative of National Asthma Council Australia.

Disclaimer

The Commonwealth, the members of the enHealth Council, Master Builders Australia and HousingIndustry Association make no representations or warranties, express or implied, in relation to therelevance, accuracy, completeness or fitness for purpose of this document in respect of anyparticular user’s circumstances. Users of this document should satisfy themselves concerning theapplication of this publication to their situation and, where necessary, seek expert advice. TheCommonwealth, the members of enHealth Council, Master Builders Australia and Housing IndustryAssociation shall not be liable to any person or entity with respect to any liability, loss or damagecaused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this publication.

HIA’s GreenSmart initiative focuses on educating builders, designers, product manufacturers andconsumers about the benefits of environmentally responsible housing.

HIAGreenSmart is an industry-driven response that aims to encourage a mainstream application ofits principles to today’s housing. As a voluntary initiative, GreenSmart provides appropriate marketrecognition for environmental endeavours in the residential construction industry. You can find outmore about GreenSmart at www.greensmart.com.au

The Healthy Homes Guide provides the consumer with valuable information about indoor air qualityand therefore complements GreenSmart’s market-driven approach to advancing responsiblebuilding practices.

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What�s it all about? ............................................................................3

Clean air, or mean air?........................................................................5How does indoor air quality affect your health? ..........................................................................6

What contributes to poor indoor air quality?................................................................................6

How can pollutants enter the human body? ..............................................................................8

How does the human body defend itself? ..................................................................................8

Size matters … ..........................................................................................................................8

… as does the amount (dose)....................................................................................................9

Potentially hazardous air substances................................................11Passive smoke ........................................................................................................................12

Lead ........................................................................................................................................12

Asbestos..................................................................................................................................14

Combustion products ..............................................................................................................15

Volatile organic compounds ....................................................................................................16

Pesticides ................................................................................................................................17

House dust mites ....................................................................................................................18

Pollen ......................................................................................................................................18

Pets ........................................................................................................................................19

Fungi and moulds....................................................................................................................20

Cockroaches............................................................................................................................20

Bacteria ..................................................................................................................................21

Clear the air: questions for a healthy home ......................................23Planning ..................................................................................................................................24

Design ....................................................................................................................................25

In-use/maintenance ................................................................................................................28

Renovation ..............................................................................................................................30

Further information ........................................................................33

Glossary ..........................................................................................38

enHealth Council ..............................................................................41

Terms of reference............................................................................42

Publications ....................................................................................42

contents

3

The old saying, ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’, neatly summarises what thisbooklet is about.

With ever increasing emphasis being placed on healthy lifestyles, many people are asking: how‘healthy’ is the air we breathe? By world standards, Australia has relatively clean outdoor air.Nevertheless, many Australians list air quality as one of their highest environmental concerns.

So, as most of us spend more than 90 per cent of our lives indoors, it is worth thinking moreclosely about air quality, especially inside the home.

This booklet provides householders, home-buyers, builders and renovators with balancedinformation and health advice about air pollutants that may be found inside the home.

It discusses the likely sources of indoor air pollutants, and the health conditions that may beassociated with these pollutants. It provides advice and actions that you can take to protect yourhealth and the health of other people in your home. This booklet will also help householders makebetter-informed decisions about health and indoor air quality issues when discussing homemaintenance or renovation activities with their architect, builder or building material suppliers.

This booklet is divided into four sections:

1. Clean air, or mean air? — a description of sources of indoor air pollutants, how the humanbody may become exposed and how it deals with these pollutants;

2. Potentially hazardous air substances — a description of some of the air pollutants thatmight be found in your home in a little more detail, and whether or not they have thepotential to create health problems for you or your family; and practical advice on how tomaintain a healthy indoor air environment;

3. Clear the air: questions for a healthy home — a list of questions you could ask whenplanning, designing, using and/or renovating a home; and

4. Further information — ideas on where to go for more advice or help on a particular issue.

what’s it all about?

Is the air in your home affecting the health of you or your family?

Air is a mixture of gases andsmall particles and the air inyour home can containsubstances that may affect yourhealth. These substances maybe pollutants or allergens. Airpollutants may be gases orparticles, and may come fromman-made sources or occurnaturally.

Clean air, or mean air?

6

how does indoor airquality affect yourhealth?

Poor indoor air quality may cause arange of health effects from mildand generally non-specificsymptoms such as headaches,tiredness or lethargy to more severeeffects such as aggravation ofasthma and allergic responses.Most of these conditions can alsoarise from a number of differentcauses other than the quality of theair in your home.

(A glossary of health terms isprovided at the end of this booklet).

Consult your doctor if you areconcerned about any of thesehealth conditions.

what contributes topoor indoor airquality?

Whether a source of air pollutantscauses an indoor air qualityproblem or not depends on:

• the type of air pollutant;

• the amount and rate at which itis released from its source; and

• the degree of ventilationavailable in the home to removeit from indoors.

Figure 1. Indoor air pollutant sources

Sources of indoor air pollutantsinclude:

• building operations andconstruction materials;

• household products;

• various human indoor activities;and

• external factors (from outdoors).

Figure 1 summarises typical indoorair pollutant sources.

Table 1 identifies some indoor airpollutants and their potential healtheffects.

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pollutant major source(s) health effects

Nitrogen dioxide gas combustion chronic respiratory disease

Carbon monoxide kerosene, gas and solid fuel aggravation of cardiovascularcombustion, cars idling in enclosed disease, poor foetal developmentgarage, cigarette smoke

Formaldehyde pressed wood products, laminates eye, nose, and throat irritation,consumer products (hobbies, crafts) reduced lung function,

aggravation of asthma

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) new building products, cleaning eye, nose and throat irritation, products, office equipment, headache, lethargyconsumer products

Passive smoke tobacco smoking eye, nose and throat irritation, aggravation of asthma, chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer

House dust mite allergens dust mites in bedding, carpets, aggravation of asthma, nasal furniture inflammation, eczema

Mould spores bathrooms, damp rooms, aggravation of asthma, nasal window sills, indoor plants, irritation and inflammationpoorly ventilated areas

Lead in indoor dust Pre-1970s paint, hobbies and poor childhood intellectual renovation development

Table 1. Indoor air pollutants

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how can pollutantsenter the humanbody?

In general, pollutants enter thehuman body through:

• breathing in polluted air(inhalation),

• swallowing harmful substances(ingestion), and

• absorbing pollutants through theskin (absorption).

A person is most commonlyexposed to air pollutants when theybreathe in an air pollutant orallergen. Exposure to an airpollutant by swallowing or throughthe skin may occur in some circum-stances. For example, infants canget substances on their handswhen they spend time on the floor,and may swallow the substanceswhen they put their fingers in theirmouths.

how does the humanbody defend itself?

The body has a range of defencesagainst airborne substances. Somedefences keep substances out ofthe body; others overcomesubstances once they enter thebody.

The skin is a very effective barrier.It stops most substances enteringthe body. However, somesubstances, such as solvents arecapable of moving past this barrier.

The skin’s protection is lesseffective if it is damaged ordiseased.

The respiratory tract has built-indefences from the nose to thedeepest part of the lungs. Largerparticles in the air are likely to becaught in the nose and upperairways, becoming trapped in themucus that lines them. Mucus inthe upper airways is constantlypushed back up the airway to thethroat by millions of special hair-likefilaments called cilia. These ciliacan be damaged by smoking.

Small particles penetrate deeperinto the lung, down to the smallerairways and the tiny air sacs(alveoli). The alveoli are normallyresponsible for moving oxygen fromthe lungs into the blood stream.The particles are engulfed byspecialised defensive cells calledmacrophages and removed fromthe lungs.

Some particles are made ofproteins, for example, pollen or catdander. When these particles areinhaled they may initiate an allergicresponse by the complex network ofcells and organs that make up theimmune system. The immunesystem fights ‘foreign’ proteins thatcause disease, like viruses, bacteriaand fungi. An allergic reaction is anoverreaction by the immune systemto foreign substances that, on theirown, might not cause disease.

Everybody’s immune system reactsdifferently to different substances.Not everyone is allergic and thereare differences between individualsas to the substances they areallergic to. Allergies can also vary

within the same individual over theirlifetime. A number of factorsinfluence the effectiveness of theimmune system, including: age,gender, genetics, state of health,and other factors in theenvironment.

Inhaled gases usually penetrate therespiratory tract barriers veryquickly. Gases pass through thesurface of the upper nasalpassages, reaching the nervesresponsible for smell, which thensend a message to the brain. Gasescan also enter the bloodstreamthrough the lungs. Once in theblood-stream, the absorbed gases,along with any other pollutantspresent, are channelled through theliver where they are processed.Most substances are eventuallyexpelled from the body.

size matters …

The body’s respiratory tract andsupporting systems operate in away that either automaticallyscreens out larger particles oractively engulfs and disposes ofsmaller particles. As a general rule,particles larger than one-hundredth(1/100th) of a millimetre rarely getpast the nose. Particles between1/100th and one-thousandth(1/1000th) of a millimetre becometrapped in the mucus of theairways. Only the very smallest ofparticles are likely to reach the mostimportant part of the lung – thealveoli. Figure 2 gives you an ideaof how small these particles are.

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In general,pollutants enterthe human body

through:breathing,

swallowing andabsorbing

… as does theamount (dose)

Generally, the greater the amount ofpollutant (exposure), the greater thehealth response.

The duration of exposure is alsoimportant. If low-level exposureoccurs over a long period of time(perhaps many years), the totaldose may be large.

Some groups of people in thecommunity are more vulnerable topollutants than others. Theseinclude:

• the very young;

• the very old;

• those with pre-existingrespiratory or cardiovasculardisease; and

• those who are sensitised to asubstance.

Some of these groups are also morelikely to spend more time indoorsthan the general population.

Figure 2. Relative particle sizes in comparison to thickness of human hair

Tobacco Smoke

1/1000

mm

1/100

mm

1/10

mm

1/10000

mm

1/100000

mm

Vehicle Exhaust

Bacteria

Fungal spores

Pollens Human Hair

potentially hazardous air substances

There are many different types of airborne substances.

Exposure to most substancesindoors is generally low and oflittle or no health consequence.This section summarises themore important types ofpollutants and allergens thatmight be found in Australianhomes.

For more detailed information onthese, and other air pollutantsand allergens, try some of thebooks and web sites listed at theend of this booklet.

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passive smoke

Passive smoke is the mixture ofgases and fine particles that comesfrom the ends of burning cigarettesand the smoke that smokersbreathe out into the environmentaround them which may be inhaledby other people. Passive smoke isalso called environmental tobaccosmoke (ETS), second-hand smokeand tobacco smoke pollution.

Tobacco smoke is known to causemany serious adverse healtheffects. The health risks of smokingare not discussed here as they arewell described in many otherpublications and generally widelyknown.

Those who are most affected bypassive smoking include babies,young children and people withasthma. People with heartconditions may also have a higherrisk of being affected than otherpeople.

The exposure of children to passivesmoking is of particular concern, asabout 40 per cent of Australianchildren, aged four and under, livein households with smokers. Youngchildren have under-developed andmore fragile lungs than adults andare more affected by breathingtobacco smoke. When childrenbreathe in passive smoke they arelikely to have decreased lungfunction (weaker lungs), sore throator eyes, coughing, wheezing andexcess phlegm.

Exposure to passive smoke is a verystrong risk factor for thedevelopment of asthma. It is also apotential risk factor for SuddenInfant Death Syndrome (SIDS)commonly known as cot death.Children exposed to environmentaltobacco smoke in the home arealso more likely to becomesmokers.

Research also suggests thattobacco smoke can multiply theharmful effects of other pollutantson the human body, for smokersand for non-smokers.

The only sure way to remove therisk completely is to stop smokinginside the home. There is noevidence that improving ventilationreduces the health risks.

lead

Lead is a naturally-occurring metalthat is found in the environment,and has been widely used in, forexample, batteries, flashing, fishingsinkers, and as an additive in paintsand petrol. Many older building andhousehold products contain leadbut newer products no longer do.Items such as old paint, flashing,and old PVC (plastic pipes, fittingsand wire) and glazed pottery cancontain variable amounts of lead.

The use of lead in new domesticproducts in Australia is, for themost part, tightly regulated. Leadedpetrol, for example, was removedfrom sale in 2002, and the use oflead in most current householdpaints is restricted.

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Sources of lead poisoning canusually be traced, with the majorityof recent cases being linked toeither home renovation (removingold paint) or drinking water that hasbeen contaminated by, for example,lead solder or old brass fittings.

You can ask your doctor to order ablood test to determine the amountof lead in your body. If you areconcerned about your health or thatof your family, in relation to lead,consult your doctor.

For general advice about managinglead risks in the home, contact yourlocal or state health department.

Some work and hobbies use lead orlead-based products, includinglead-lighting, making fishing sinkersor pottery glazing. People canunknowingly take lead residues intotheir homes on clothes, skin, hairand equipment.

Lead is a concern when smallparticles or fumes are swallowed orinhaled. People may come intocontact with lead from homerenovation activities, particularlywhen stripping old paint, throughsome hobbies or coming intocontact with contaminated soil.

Young children are especially at riskbecause their developing bodiesabsorb lead much more readilythan adults do. Crawling on theground, and putting toys or fingersin their mouths increases thechance of swallowing contaminateddust, soil or paint chips. Lead mayslow a child’s mental and/orphysical progress, and can causebehavioural problems whenabsorbed.

Household pets have also beenpoisoned by eating paint chips.Therefore, it is important to preventexposure of all members of thefamily.

People renovating old homesshould be especially careful whencleaning or removing paints (seealso the section on ‘Renovation’).Care needs to be taken to avoidsanding, abrasive blasting orburning paint containing lead toprotect yourself and your family. Donot burn old painted wood infireplaces or in barbeques.

Lead is a concern when

small particles or fumes are

swallowed or inhaled

Generally, homebuildingproducts whichcontainasbestos do notpose a risk tohealth if leftundisturbed.

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asbestos

Asbestos is a naturally occurringfibrous silicate mineral. It was usedwidely in the construction, car andtextile industries because of itsstrength and ability to resist heatand acid.

The three main types of asbestoswhich may be commonly found inold products are:

• ‘white’ — used in asbestosblankets and asbestos-cement(AC) sheets,

• ‘brown’ — used for heatinsulation (also AC sheets), and

• ‘blue’ — used for car batterycases, cement pipes and ACsheets prior to the mid-1960s.

Now that the health hazard ofasbestos is well understood, it is nolonger allowed to be used inbuilding products for the home. Theimportation and use of all forms ofasbestos will be prohibited from 31December 2003.

Asbestos-containing products wererarely labelled. Products likecement sheet, roofing sheet, sometextured paints, vinyl floor tiles, pipelagging and fire-resistant boardsand blankets bought for the homebefore the mid 1980s may containsome asbestos. Asbestos wasphased out in many of theseproducts after the mid 1980s.

Nearly all of the disease or deathsattributed to asbestos are linked topeople who mined the mineral,made and/or installed productscontaining the mineral, or closely

worked with asbestos-containingproducts (like demolition workers,maintenance workers, andbrake/clutch mechanics).

Generally, home building productswhich contain asbestos do not posea risk to health. However, if theasbestos is disturbed during activitywhich produce fibres or dust fromthe asbestos product, (for example,home maintenance or renovation)asbestos fibres may be releasedinto the air and inhaled.

Microscopic fibres become airbornewhen asbestos-containing productsare sawn, drilled, sanded or ground.Some ageing asbestos-containingproducts can deteriorate to a statewhere they are likely to crumblewhen disturbed (friable), releasingasbestos fibres into the air whenhandled.

Living with asbestos-containingproducts does not automaticallylead to ill-health. The risk to yourhealth depends on:

• whether asbestos-containingproducts are damaged orbreaking down and releasingfibres into the air;

• the size and type of the fibres;

• the length of the exposure;

• the concentration of the inhaledfibres; and

• an individual’s susceptibility or ifthey have any pre-existingdisease.

The potential for ill-effects fromasbestos fibre exposure is greater insmokers than in non-smokers.

As the level of exposure which maycause health effects is not known,exposure to asbestos fibres or dustcontaining asbestos fibre exposureshould always be kept to aminimum.

Always seek professional adviceabout managing asbestos in yourhome. Accurate identification canbe difficult, and immediate removalis not necessarily the best option.Work practices for removal and/ordisposal of asbestos-containingproducts are covered by regulations— check with your relevant state orterritory authorities for specificguidelines.

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Combustionproducts

Combustion products includesmoke (that is, small soot particles),ash and a variety of gases.Combustion products can get insideyour home from fireplaces andheaters burning wood, coal, gas orkerosene, gas cooking appliances,tobacco smoking, outdoor air,exhaust from cars in garages, andhobbies, such as welding andsoldering.

Particles produced by combustionare so small they behave almost likea gas — they can enter or leave ahome very easily. When you breathethem in they travel into the deepestpart of the lungs. Under certaincircumstances these particles andgases may cause ill-health or, inextreme cases, even death.

The type, complexity and amount ofgases given off by combustionvaries greatly; much depends onfuel type, the efficiency of theburning process and the conditionand age of the appliance.Commonly produced harmful gasesinclude carbon monoxide (CO),nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfurdioxide (SO2).

Carbon monoxide is a gas that, athigh concentrations, is verypoisonous to people. It is hard todetect because it has no colour,smell or taste. When carbonmonoxide enters the bloodstream itreduces the blood’s ability to carryoxygen, which reduces the amountof oxygen going to the brain, heartand other parts of the body.

Depending on how much you areexposed to, and for how long,symptoms may range fromheadaches to confusion, collapse oreven death. At high levels of carbonmonoxide exposure, death canoccur within minutes.

Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxidecan irritate the eyes, nose, throatand lungs. Of the two, sulfur dioxideis more noticeable — even minorexposure can lead to irritation.

More complex combustion productsknown as polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) may also beproduced and can adhere to thesurface of airborne particles. Whilea number of PAHs are eithersuspected or recognised as possiblecancer-causing substances, moreresearch is needed to understandtheir impact on health.

In many cities around Australia,wood heaters are a major source ofoutdoor air pollution during thewintertime. Wood heaters can alsoincrease indoor air pollutants if notoperated properly. Unflued or faultygas heating and cooking appliancescan also increase nitrogen dioxideand carbon monoxide exposure.

Charcoal heat beads are safe to usein outdoor barbeques, but notindoors. Never use treated orpainted woods in any barbeque orindoor fireplace; painted wood cancontain lead; treated woods, suchas fence palings, can containarsenic. When burnt, thesesubstances may be released intothe air or be present in the ash andpose a risk to health and/or to theenvironment.

Combustion products from differentsources can add together and buildup in poorly ventilated rooms tolevels that could affect your health.

To maintain good air quality whenyou have combustion sources:

• vent products to the outdoors(via a flue, chimney, exhaust fanor rangehood) where possible;

• keep flues and chimneys clean,and make sure any permanentventilation openings are notblocked;

• have heating or cookingappliances serviced regularly toensure they are working properlyand are not leaking gases intoyour home;

• make sure plenty of freshoutdoor air is coming into theroom(s);

• make sure insulation has notobstructed a heater flue orventilators in the wall or roofspace.

• always follow the appliancemanufacturer’s instructions — seek advice from themanufacturer, supplier or yourgasfitter/plumber if you have any concerns;

• make sure doors connectinggarages to the house are tightlysealed;

• minimise running time forvehicle engines in garages;

• never use an appliance if it isdamaged or not workingproperly;

• do not use a gas oven or gascooker to heat a room; and

• do not use barbeques or campstoves indoors.

Volatile organiccompounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)are chemicals (containing carbon)that evaporate into the atmosphereat room temperature. They oftenhave an odour and are present in awide range of household products,construction materials and newfurnishings. Some householdproducts that contain VOCs includepaints, varnishes, adhesives,synthetic fabrics, cleaning agents,scents and sprays. VOCs can alsooccur as a result of personalactivities, such a smoking.

When used in building products orother indoor items, VOCs slowlymake their way to the surface andescape, ‘offgas’, into thesurrounding indoor air (a processsimilar to evaporation). Mostoffgassing tends to occur when theproducts are new and/or freshlyinstalled. After this initial release,offgassing lessens dramatically overtime.

Only a few specific VOCs have beenstudied in any detail and little isknown about the health hazardswhen VOCs mix with each otherand other pollutants. The level ofVOCs in the home can vary greatly,not only over time but also fromroom to room, especially if newVOC-containing products arefrequently introduced. In somecases VOC concentrations can buildup to levels that are higher indoorsthan outdoors. Levels in poorlyventilated rooms increase withincreasing temperature.

16

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The health problems that may beattributed to VOC exposure aremany and varied. Symptomsinclude nasal or airway irritation,headache, and in some cases,vomiting, and feelings ofdrowsiness. Not only do thesymptoms vary from individual toindividual, but a person’s responsecan also change over time.Asthmatics and those with sensitiveairways, for example, canexperience effects from VOCs atlower concentrations than otherpeople do.

Strategies to reduce VOC exposurein the home take two forms:

• consider not using, or reducingthe use of, products that containVOCs; and

• if the product is necessary,ensure adequate ventilationwhen using it — you shouldopen doors and windows,whenever possible andpracticable.

Air fresheners, cleaning sprays,polishes and spray deodorants andother spray toiletries are majorsources of VOCs and should not beused excessively in non-ventilatedareas. Building products areanother source of VOCs. Whenselecting such products you should:

• look for building products thatare pre-dried in the factory orare ‘quick-drying’;

• use surface coating productsthat are water based or classedas containing zero or low levelsof VOCs;

• seek advice from the supplier ormanufacturer, particularly if theinformation displayed on thecontainer is not clear — you canask for the product’s MaterialSafety Data Sheet (MSDS).

• make sure the room is fullyventilated, when adding newfurnishings or resurfacing wallsand floors, until the odourreduces considerably ordisappears.

Pesticides

Pesticides are chemicals used tocontrol plant and animal pests andmay be used in and around thehome. There are many types ofpesticides including insecticides,herbicides, termiticides andfungicides. Some pesticides arevery specific, targeting only onetype of animal or plant species.Others are effective on a broadrange of species.

Pesticides are safe to use indoorswhen the product is used accordingto the directions on the label. Youare more likely to be exposed toharmful levels of pesticides and toexperience health effects if you donot carefully follow the instructionson the label.

Only use pesticides when absolutelynecessary. There are a number ofeffective ways to control pests inyour home that do not requirechemicals. For example, goodhygiene will reduce the opportunityfor pests to establish themselves inyour home.

In Australia, most professional pestcontrollers are licensed by stateauthorities and are required to havetraining in safe pesticide use. Whenselecting a pest controller check tosee if they are licensed andperhaps even speak with some oftheir other customers.

Only usepesticides

when absolutelynecessary.

18

house dust mites

House dust mites are microscopiccreatures closely related to ticksand spiders. Mites feed mainly onminute flakes of dead skin thatpeople shed. They thrive in warm,moderately humid conditions foundin your home.

Mite droppings and body partscrumble into tiny particles whichcan be easily inhaled. The proteinsin these particles can induce animmune response in some peoplewho are allergic to house dust mitesand make asthma, hay fever, andeczema worse. Recent researchsuggests that exposure to miteallergens as a baby or young childmay play a role in the initial onset ofasthma.

Mite activity is highest in regularlyused soft furnishings, such asmattresses, doonas, pillows,couches, chairs, cushions, carpets,curtains and drapes and in softtoys. These items, particularlybedding, potentially place people inclose contact with the allergens forlong periods of time.

To minimise house dust miteexposure, it is important to reduceexposure to the allergen by loweringthe levels of mite allergens anddiscouraging mite growth.

Things you can do include:

• Wash sheets and pillowcases inhot water. Hot water washing(greater than 55

oC) of bedding

kills mites and removesdroppings. Cooler water washesmite droppings away but is less

effective at killing mites. If youhave a house dust mite allergicdisease (such as asthma), youshould wash bedding everyweek.

• Encase mattresses, pillows,doonas and blankets in coversthat mites cannot pass through.Covers stop mite allergensscattering from bedding to theair, and reduce the amount ofmoisture getting into bedding,making them less likely toharbour dust mites. You shouldhot wash covers regularly.

• Dry cleaning kills mites but doesnot necessarily removeallergens. The dry cleaningchemicals can also leave VOCsmells.

• Vacuum your carpets regularly.Ensure the vacuum cleaner is ingood working order and has afine filter system to minimiseallergens escaping from themachine. eg HEPA cleaners (see page 28 Is the floorproperly cleaned?)

• In new homes, considerinstalling a wall-mountedvacuum system which expelsexhaust air outdoors.

• Wet-mop smooth floors ratherthan dry sweep, and dustfurniture with a damp ratherthan dry cloth to reduceairborne dust levels.

• If you have an allergy to housedust mite allergens, consult yourlocal allergy self-help group onhow to set up a low-mite-allergen home.

pollen

At certain times of the year(typically Spring) most grasses andmany trees and shrubs producelarge numbers of light-weight pollengrains that can travel in the wind formany kilometres.

Such windborne pollens are sosmall (typically between 1/100thand 6/100th of a millimetre) thatthey can be inhaled and lodge ineither the nose or upper parts ofthe lungs. When pollen comes intocontact with moisture, such as thatin mucous membranes in ourairways, many pollen proteins pourout of the grain and into the mucus.

The range of health responsesvaries, from mild nasal inflam-mation, through to hay fever,asthma and dermatitis. It is alsoknown that a person can be moreaffected by pollen allergens if otherairborne pollutants are present.

As with many allergens, it ispossible that exposure to pollenallergens during the first months oflife can mean you are more likely tobe affected and to suffer allergiesas an adult. Also, some individualsmay have a genetic predispositiontoward pollen allergy.

For pollen-sensitive people, the bestprotection remains personalawareness of the seasons andconditions that trigger a reaction. If possible, identify the plants thatcause a reaction and discuss thiswith your doctor, who may refer youto qualified medical staff for skin-prick tests. Remove the offendingplants from indoors and stay awayfrom those outdoors during thepollen season.

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Pets

The presence (or even formerpresence) of a pet can lead to ill-health for some people. A numberof diseases can be passed frompets to humans; talk to your doctoror veterinarian if you would like toknow more. What is more common,but still poorly understood, is thatpets may cause allergic reactions inpeople.

Cat and dog saliva, oil from cats’skin, dander and ‘droppings’ are allknown to carry allergens. The dailygrooming habits of dogs and catscause allergens to remain, even fora short time, on the surface of thefur. Over time, the dried oil or salivaeither falls off or sticks to othersurfaces, such as clothes,furnishings or bed covers.

Cat dander is especially sticky. It isoften found in places where there isno cat, having been carried thereon people’s clothes. The fineparticles to which the allergens areattached become part of themicroscopic dusts around thehome. If the dusts are disturbedthey become airborne and may beinhaled.

For people who are allergic toanimal proteins, such as catdander, exposure to animal danderallergen will worsen allergicdiseases, such as hayfever andasthma. However, studies haveprovided conflicting results on thepossible link between family pets inearly life and subsequent asthma.

For those with animal allergies, it isimportant to reduce exposure by:

• stopping pets from comingindoors (check local governmentby-laws about leaving cats anddogs outside);

• excluding pets from bedroomsand reducing opportunities forthem to sleep on beds, sofas orcarpets;

• washing pets regularly (evencats) to reduce the allergen load(it will not remove it completely);and

• washing hands after stroking orplaying with pets to lower therisk of swallowing or inhalingallergens; or

• removing the pet altogether, byfinding it a new home.

Removing pets from the familyhome can be a difficult decision,but one that takes into accountboth medical and social consider-ations.

Keep a record of your healthresponses and see if a patternemerges. For example, it has beenshown that many severe asthmaattacks are triggered by acombination of rainstorms and highpollen counts (the rain seems to‘burst’ the pollens, the fragments ofwhich can be inhaled deeply intothe lungs).

Medication to alleviate thesymptoms may be appropriate, butdiscuss this with your doctor.

condense in any one room —many modern coolers automat-ically drain after use whichallows them to dry out andreduces mould and fungalgrowth inside the cooler;

• clean and disinfect the internalsurfaces of evaporative coolersevery year — for moreinformation, ask themanufacturer, supplier or localhealth department; and

• do not use unflued gas andkerosene heaters as they releasewater vapour and othercombustion products.

Cockroaches

Cockroaches can be found in mosthomes, at least for short periods.The two types of cockroaches mostcommonly found in the home arethe large ‘American’ and small‘German’ species. Australia has itsown native ‘roaches, but they aremost commonly found outside.

Cockroaches in your home cancause two health problems:

• cockroaches themselves cantransfer bacteria onto food orfood preparation surfaces; and

• cockroach particles can inducean allergic reaction in somepeople.

Controlling cockroaches is bestachieved by good housekeepingand maintenance. You should:

• clean all food preparationsurfaces regularly — don’t leaveany food lying around, includingpet food and kitchen scraps;and keep all foods in sealedcontainers;

Fungi and moulds

Fungi and moulds are an importantpart of the natural world, oftenforming complex relationships withother plants or animals. Most fungiare invisible to the human eye,being nothing more than just acollection of fine transparentfilaments. Under favourableconditions however, many can growrapidly producing sizeable andsometimes colourful growths. Thesegrowths contain spores — the nextgeneration of fungi — that canbecome airborne and be inhaled.

Mould spores are present all yearround, but levels are highest inSpring and Autumn. Indoors theylike damp areas such asbathrooms, cellars, pot plants andpoorly ventilated rooms and understairs. Outdoors they will be in thegarden, lawn, bark-chips, compostheaps and piles of leaves.

The presence of moulds in oraround the home may cause healthproblems. Whilst we still don’t havea full understanding of why somepeople are more affected thanothers we do know of three ways inwhich moulds make people ill:

• allergic reactions of varyingstrengths can be triggered whenairborne mould spores areinhaled;

• toxic poisoning may occur ifvarious mycotoxins (includingVOCs), produced by a mould,become absorbed through theskin, the lungs or the intestine— reactions vary, but sometimesthey affect the human nervoussystem; and

• some fungi can infect variousparts of the human body, partic-ularly the lungs and the skin —often such infections relatedirectly to an occupation,although anyone whose immunesystem is weak can be at risk.

Having a warm dry house witheffective extraction fans is a goodway to discourage mould growth. Toreduce mould or other fungi growthin your home:

• reduce indoor relative humidityto below 50 per cent, if possible,by increasing ventilation and aircirculation, extracting moistkitchen, bathroom and laundryair to the outdoors with exhaustfans, and venting clothes driersto the outdoors;

• make sure there are enoughdoor- or window-openings ineach room to allow moisture-richair from evaporative coolers toflow through the house and not

20

• make sure cupboards, fixturesand fittings are snug, leaving nogaps into external walls — this isespecially important in kitchensand bathrooms;

• install fly screens on windowsand doors to reduce the numberof cockroaches that come in;and

• reduce access to water —cockroaches, like humans, don’tstay long in places where theycan’t drink.

Many chemicals are registered forcontrolling cockroaches — theycome as sprays, dusts and baits:

• sprays can be applied as spot orcrack and crevice treatments;

• dusts can be applied with a puffduster into cracks and hidingplaces that are hard to reachwith a spray; and

• baits (pastes, gels and particle)are generally of lower toxicity tohumans than many dusts andsprays but often require preciseplacement, are usually moreexpensive, and are often not aseffective in controlling heavyinfestations.

When selecting and usingchemicals, make sure they areregistered for use on cockroachesand are mixed and appliedaccording to the directions on thelabel. If you are unsure, ask yourlocal health department for adviceor ask a professional pest controlcompany to treat your house.

Bacteria

Bacteria are found almosteverywhere. Many bacteria occurnormally in the human body —some are even beneficial to ourhealth.

In the home, bacteria are alwayspresent, but only rarely lead tohealth problems. Where problemsdo occur, they are likely to arisefrom one of the following sources(only one of which relates directly to indoor air quality):

• food — food poisoning usuallyoccurs through a combination ofpoor hygiene, incorrect foodpreparation and inappropriatestorage practices;

• people — physical contact withpeople who have, or arecarrying, a bacteria-causedhealth condition;

• pets — physical contact withpets carrying a bacterium whichcan cause disease in humans;

• water aerosols — legionnairedisease is a rare form ofpneumonia caused by Legionellabacteria which occur naturally inthe environment in soil andwater. If this environmentalbacterium is allowed to multiplyto high numbers in warm waterwith the right conditions, it cancause illness if breathed in smalldroplets (aerosols) by vulnerablepeople, such as the elderly,diabetics, people with weakenedimmune systems and smokers;and

21

• potting mixes — a different formof legionnaire disease may becaught from potting mixes.Always use potting mix outdoors;read the manufacturer’sinstructions; and use gloves andwear a dust mask to avoidbreathing the fine potting mixdust — you can reduce theamount of dust by wetting themix. Always clean up thesurrounding surfaces and washyour hands after use.

Spa pools or hot tubs may becontaminated with Legionellabacteria, particularly if they arelocated outdoors or close to doorsor windows. You need to properlydisinfect and maintain spa pools orhot tubs that recirculate warm waterto reduce the risk of legionnairedisease and skin infection. Spabaths that are drained after eachuse are less risky and need only bemaintained in a clean conditionafter use. Your hot water systemneeds to have adequatetemperature control for storage andshould be used regularly.

Clear the air:questions for a healthy home

Seek the advice of an appropriate professional.

Asking health-oriented questionsis a positive way to add to yourstore of knowledge about whatair pollutants might be in yourhome. It also helps you to makea more informed decision aboutwhat to do next.

24

No one person will have all theanswers. The advice of friendsmight be given with the best ofintentions, but can you be sure it iscorrect? Where possible, especiallyon health and technical matters,seek the advice of an appropriateprofessional. They may charge afee, but you should look on this asan investment in the future healthof you and your family.

Before asking questions of otherpeople, it will help if you first askquestions about your own healthand that of your family. Beforejumping to conclusions aboutwhether or not your home is makingyou ill, look for clues and patterns,such as:

• Do you notice any change inyour health before and after aparticular change in the homeenvironment?

• Is there any change in yourhealth after particular activities,like dusting or cleaning?

• Do your health problems occurat the same time each year?

• Do your health problems getbetter if you and your family areaway from home for anyextended periods, such asholidays?

Planning

What was the home site previouslyused for?

The land on which you intend tobuild (or have built) may have beenused for something very different toresidential. Talk to long-standingresidents in the area — they mayrecall something about the land’sformer use. Visit the planningsection of your local government.Ask your solicitor about the variouslegal searches that can be donewhich might show how the landwas used.

Is there contamination of the site?

Your inquiries may show thatchemical residues from previousindustrial or agricultural processes(such as petrol stations or cattledips) may be present in the soil. Inextreme cases, some residues cancause toxic gases to leak from thesoil. Having the soil tested by ananalytical laboratory will give someindication as to whether a hazardexists or not.

What about current and futureindustrial or agriculturaldevelopment?

Think about how emissions fromexisting or future industries mightaffect you and your family. Thecloseness of, for example, a mainroad, bus depot, airport, orchard orindustrial plant will probablyinfluence the amount of airbornepollutants entering your home. Talkwith your local government’sPlanning Department about likelyfuture land use in your area.

Is the home site located on‘igneous’ rock?

Radon is a radioactive gas whichseeps out of some types of igneousrock, particularly granite, whenradium, a naturally occurringradioactive element decays. Itcauses problems in some Americanand European homes because thegas may accumulate in poorlyventilated basements. In Australia,however, very few homes have beenfound to contain this hazard. Thoseof greatest potential risk may besome earth-sheltered houses (suchas mudbrick, dugouts) dependingon the radioactivity levels in theearth materials. Check with yourlocal radiation health authority andyour local government’s chiefbuilding engineer. Also, GeoscienceAustralia may be able to providedetails on local radioactivity levelswww.ga.gov.au/minerals/radio.html

Does the home’s location makebest use of the local climate?

Local topography, proximity of trees,and nearness to water all have aninfluence on the air temperatureand wind patterns around yourhome. A home located on top of anexposed hill will be affected verydifferently to the same homelocated in a deep valley, or on anurban block with houses nearby.The designer must consider theunique circumstances of yourhome’s location and design it in away that enhances naturalventilation and/or shelter.

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If buying or moving to anestablished home, will majorrenovations be needed?

Upgrading and revitalising anestablished home is, in many ways,a positive and satisfying thing to do.Yet, the materials used within someold homes, as well as the activitiesassociated with renovation, canincrease the health risks forrenovators and anyone else in thehome during the work. Friableasbestos products, lead-basedpaint, pesticides, cockroach faecesand mould spores are all potentialhazards. If the renovations must bedone, consider the risks and howthey might be managed throughsafe work practices and clean-up.

Will the main types of plants inthe area to which you intendmoving make your hay feverworse?

Ask a local plant specialist toexplain what the main localvegetation types are within 1kilometre of your new home. If yourhay fever is brought on by, forexample, flowering pasture grasses,or a particular species of eucalypt,then moving to the new homewithout investigating itssurroundings might lead to futurehealth problems.

Design

How effectively does the home’sdesign use natural ventilation?

Careful design and orientation ofyour home can create conditionsthat encourage external breezesand convection currents to drawstale air out and fresher air in. Ifyou need windows to remain closedfor security or noise reasons,consider installing fixed wall ventsto ensure adequate ventilation.However, it is important to strike abalance between the need tointroduce fresh air into your homeand the need to maintaincomfortable room temperatures andacceptable energy conservation.Ask the designer to explain how thiswill work in your home.

Does the home’s design keepmoisture to a minimum?

In brick homes, if a damp-proofcourse has not been fitted (or hassince been broken) moisture maymigrate from the ground into thebuilding wall. In all homes, highand prolonged periods of humiditycan lead to an increase in moisturewithin the building. Both situationsmay encourage mould growth. Talkto an architect or building designerabout ways of lessening levels ofmoisture in your home.

Topography,trees, and

nearness towater all

influence the airtemperature and

wind patternsaround your

home.

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Will building security compromisehealth outcomes?

Concern for personal and propertysafety leads many home occupantsto close doors and windows. Whilereducing the chance of burglary, italso reduces air exchange. Considerwhat security products can beinstalled that allow you to feelsecure, but also allow you toregulate the amount of airexchanged between indoors and out.

Is mechanical ventilation a goodidea?

Few Australian homes usemechanical means to move air intoand around the home. We mostlyrely on windows and doors that canbe opened (and in older homesfixed wall vents) to provideventilation into homes. The ductedair systems we typically use mayheat or cool recirculated indoor air,but don’t introduce fresh air fromoutdoors or attempt to removepollutants. Mechanical ventilationsystems for homes are starting toappear on the Australian market —seek advice from a specialistmechanical engineer about whatsystem meets your needs.Evaporative cooling systemsincrease indoor humidity and mayincrease levels of mould or dustmites within your home. Onceinstalled, make sure the unit isregularly maintained according tothe manufacturers’ instructions.

Is your home adequatelyinsulated?

The installation of adequate andappropriate insulation in your homewill result in greater energyefficiency with significant savings in

fuel costs, will improve thermalcomfort (cooler in summer, warmerin winter), and will help reducenoise between areas inside yourhome. Home insulation is nowmandatory in most Australian statesfor all new homes and majorrenovations. The choice ofinsulation will depend on the levelof noise control, energy efficiencyand comfort required, and the cost.You should discuss the optionsavailable with a qualified builder.You should also insist on beingprovided with an MSDS (materialsafety data sheet) and otherproduct specifications from thesupplier of your preferred insulationmaterial.

Does your home ‘design out’termites?

Termites (or white ants) are a veryimportant part of Australia’s ecology.Unfortunately, our homes are oftenbuilt close to theirs, and in waysthat provide them with both foodand shelter. In the past, environ-mentally persistent chemicals(organochlorines) were used to killtermites, but these have now beenbanned due to health and environ-mental concerns. They have beenreplaced with other chemicals(organophosphates) that pose lessof an ecological hazard and haveless potential for long-term healthrisks. Ask your designer or buildinginspector whether your home isdesigned to prevent termite entry — specially designed physicalbarriers, like mesh or crushed rockto reduce the need for extensiveand repeated application of termite-killing chemicals.

Can the dust be easily removedfrom the rooms?

The visible and invisible dusts inyour home are made up of manysubstances. While most of the dustwill probably be benign, there maybe a small proportion that, ifinhaled or swallowed, could triggera health response. As most dustsare best removed with a dampcloth, it makes sense to design andfurnish your room(s) with easy toclean and washable surfaces and/orfabrics.

Carpeted floors?

Nearly all residential carpets arelaid using gripper strip but underlayand any adhesives can be sourcesof VOCs.

Carpets come in a variety ofweaves, pile heights and fibretypes. Ask for assistance from asalesperson in relation to anyindividual sensitivities and familyneeds. eg. long pile can hold moredust. It is a good idea to ventilatethe home well when carpets orother materials are introduced.

The process of removing oldcarpets can release trapped dustinto the air.

What about tiled, vinyl (plastic) orpolished floors?

Smooth floor surfaces, like ceramictiles, vinyl or polished wood, canmake it easier for you to clean.However, before specifying suchproducts, think about whether thereare likely to be any VOCs present,either in the product itself or inother products used to lay (likeadhesives) and seal the floorcovering (like varnishes and paints)and for maintenance products,such as cleaning fluids andpolishes.

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Is a wood-burning heater your bestoption?

Wood-burning heaters and stovesare a popular way of providingwarmth. But, if poorly installedand/or badly maintained, they canbe a major source of finecombustion particles and gasesfrom leaks and from opening of thedoor for refuelling. If you really wantto install a wood-burning heater orstove, first check that your localgovernment allows you to do so.Compare the safety and efficiencyclaims of competing manufacturers.There are minimum AustralianStandards that heaters and stovesmust achieve. Make sure the flue orvent is properly designed andinstalled, and is regularlymaintained and that only well-seasoned wood is burnt.

Are gas appliances vented to theoutside?

Gas is a popular way of cooking,and space and water heating, withappliances coming in many shapesand sizes. Where you have achoice, always buy appliances thatvent their combustion products tothe outside (gas cookers should bevented to the outside by an exhaustfan or a range hood).

Unvented mobile gas heaters,although cheap and convenient touse, are considered by someresearchers to pose a health riskand have been associated withmore frequent respiratorysymptoms. If use of unventedheaters is unavoidable, buy onlylow-NOx appliances, and don’t

operate them in confined spaces forlong periods of time. Also, makesure the heated area is permanentlyventilated by installing fixed wallvents (compulsory in some States).Make sure the heaters are wellmaintained by regular servicing bya licensed gasfitter.

Older heaters (pre-1990) are morelikely to produce higher NOx valuesthan new heaters. Considerreplacing your old model with anew, flued (vented) model. Thereare many rules and regulationscovering the different appliances —your local gas supplier, gasappliance fitter or appliance vendorshould be able to explain whichrules apply to which appliances.

Is there a sealable door betweenthe garage and the rest of yourhome?

The exhaust from conventionalpetrol and diesel engines containsmany pollutants, including millionsof very fine particles and a variety oftoxic gases. Such engines shouldnot be run in confined spaces (likea garage) for more than a fewseconds, unless there is goodventilation. It is not wise to allowcontaminated air from the garage tocirculate through your home. If youhave a choice, choose a garage thatstands apart from your home. If thegarage is attached to your home,make sure the linking door is wellfitted and able to be securely sealedagainst leaks.

How well does your vacuumcleaner capture fine particles?

Most modern mobile vacuumcleaners are good at picking up andretaining visible dusts. However,many struggle to remove all theparticles trapped in carpets, andnearly all machines let very fineparticles pass through the filter/bag,back into the room’s air.

If your health or that of your familyseems to suffer after floors havebeen vacuumed, you may need toconsider a central vacuum systemwhich expels exhaust air outdoors.Alternatively, you should considerpurchasing a specialised high filterefficiency (HEPA) vacuum cleaner,preferably with mechanical pileagitation (they cost more thanconventional vacuums). If you areparticularly sensitive to allergens,you should consider wearing a facemask during vacuuming and for ashort period afterwards.

Are doormats located at allentrance points?

Doormats can reduce the amountof material brought into your homeon the soles of footwear. This isrelevant to indoor air quality as leadparticles, from either vehicleexhausts or contaminated soil, canenter your home and become partof the dust load.

How good a fit is the ‘fittedkitchen’?

Cockroaches actively seek tightspaces into which they cansqueeze. So, if you provide food,water and a snug place to stay —like the little cracks and crevicescommon in poorly fitted kitchens —cockroaches couldn’t be happier.

In-use/maintenance

Do the kitchen, laundry orbathroom windows remain dampfor more than fifteen minutes aftercooking or washing?

If your home’s original design didnot have good ventilation, or recentrenovations have changed yourhome’s configuration, there may notbe enough ‘air changes’ to quicklyremove cooking odours or moisture.Ideally, the kitchen, laundry andbathrooms should have exhaustfans to vent moist air to the outside.Ask your fan supplier about energyefficient models. In the absence ofexhaust fans, and where it is safe todo so, open kitchen and/orbathroom windows to ‘flush’ the airafter cooking, washing clothes andbathing.

When was the kitchen exhaust fanor range hood last cleaned?

While a well-sited kitchen exhaustfan and/or range hood that vents tothe outside may remove many ofthe particles and gases that arisewhen cooking on gas stoves, fatdroplets settle within the vent.These deposits build up over timeand can become both a fire hazardand a home for fungi and bacteria.Kitchen exhaust fans and rangehoods should be washed regularly.

Is the floor properly cleaned?

All floors have the capacity toaccumulate fluff, dust and othermatter such as grass seeds broughtinto the house on shoes. Dustcarries mircrobiological materialssuch as bacteria and spores.Cleaning frequency will depend onthe traffic and the type of use. Avoidcleaners that use fragrancedproducts as they include VOCs.

Smooth flooring should be clearedof dust before wet mopping so thatthe water does not simply spreadthe dust. To avoid build up of dusttrapped in the pile, clean carpetsregularly. Invest in a modernvacuum cleaner with high filterefficiency (HEPA filters) andmechanical pile agitation (‘turbo’ ormotorised vacuum heads). In mosthomes, carpets should be profes-sionally cleaned every 18 months.Always seek professional adviceabout the best way to clean yourcarpet — cleaning methods willvary depending on the type ofcarpet, its ‘backing’ and anyunderlay present.

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Doormats canreduce theamount ofmaterials

brought intoyour home

Think about better food hygiene(deny them anything to eat) andplugging all those tiny gapsbetween the kitchen unit, the walland the floor. Ask your localhardware supplier about the typesof non-toxic ‘gap sealants’ available.

The wood you intend to burn: hasit been chemically treated?

When burning wood, either indoorsor out, make sure it has not beenchemically treated. Do not burnwood with varnish, paint or anyother visible chemical treatment,like creosote. Avoid burning ‘CCA-treated’ wood (CCA refers tochromated copper arsenate preser-vative). CCA timber — it often has agreen tinge, but there is no simpleway to be sure. If in doubt, don’tburn it. The best type of wood toburn in heaters and stoves is well-seasoned, clean wood.

Thinking of installing an electronic‘fly zapper’?

Be careful when deciding where toplace an electronic ‘fly zapper’.When flies strike some models theirbodies explode, creating smallparticles of fly — along with anybacteria or viruses they may becarrying — which then float in thesurrounding area. If you must havea ‘fly zapper’, place it somedistance from food preparation andeating areas. Zappers are alsoindiscriminate — they attract andkill beneficial insects too. Considerinstalling flyscreens on doors andwindows instead.

Thinking of buying an Ozonegenerator?

Ozone is a lung irritant and canincrease the health risk from otherairborne pollutants.

Thinking of buying new fixturesmade of pressed wood products?

Before you buy, check to see if thenew lounge suite, table, chair orcupboard is made, wholly or partly,from plywood, particleboard ormedium-density fibreboard (MDF).Such products often useformaldehyde resins which canrelease (off-gas) formaldehyde gasfor many years. While someAustralian manufacturers try toproduce ‘low-emission’ products,there is no guarantee that theamount of formaldehyde releasedwill be low (some importedproducts may be more likely tohave high emission levels).

Do the new soft furnishings havelow gas emissions?

Many soft furnishings contain foamsor other synthetic materials. Thesematerials can release variousunhealthy gases over time. Somemanufacturers are working toreduce off-gassing from theirproducts. Ask the supplier fordetails about the chemicals used inthe product and for their advice onpossible health effects. Especiallyask about VOCs. Try to findproducts that meet low-emissionlabels if they’re available (see also<www.aela.org.au> for relevantinformation).

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Is that fragrant product such agood idea?

Most liquid cleaning agents, manypersonal hygiene products, airfresheners and perfumed toiletriescontain VOCs of one sort or another.While some people show no ill-effects from inhaling the fragrances,there are those whose healthrapidly deteriorates after smelling orcoming into contact with one ormore of these types of product,even for just a few seconds.

Are you looking after your compostheap properly?

Although compost heaps are anexcellent way of recycling vegetablescraps and organic matter from thegarden, they need regularmaintenance, and should belocated well away from living areas.Unless the heap is managedcorrectly, not only will it attractunwanted vermin, such as rats,mice and cockroaches, but it mayalso increase the numbers of fungalspores in the air close to yourhome. Most gardening books willprovide good information on how tolook after your compost heap or youcan ask your local nursery.

Has the potting mix been stored ina cool place?

Sealed bags of soil potting mixhave, on occasions, been known tocontain high levels of the bacteriaresponsible for legionnaire disease(see also Bacteria). It is a good ideato store unopened bags in a cool,dark place. When opening a bag forthe first time, do so in a well-ventilated area and avoid breathingthe dust. Wearing a face mask mayalso help.

30

Renovation

Does the paint you intend toremove contain lead?

Lead paint is most likely to be foundin homes built before 1970. Paintscontaining up to 50 per cent leadwere commonly used on the insideand outside of houses built before1950. Even up to the late 1960spaint with more than 1 per cent leadwas still being used. Recentregulations have reduced the levelsof lead in paint to 0.1 per cent.

Commercial home test kits areavailable from some hardwarestores. For more reliable results,use the services of an analyticallaboratory. If you do find lead in oraround your home, phone yourstate or territory public health unitfor advice (see also Furtherinformation — Lead).

What precautions are you or yourpainting contractor taking whensanding back existing paint?

Rubbing existing paint with anabrasive, such as sandpaper, createsa lot of fine particles. This is apotential health risk, both when theparticles are in the air (where theycan be inhaled) and when they settleon a surface (where children or petsmay swallow them). The riskincreases if the paint contains morethan very small amounts of lead orother metals. Contractors know howto capture the dust before it travelsany distance through or into yourhome and should take care incleaning up residues. Withoutappropriate equipment, vacuuming oflead paint dust is not recommended.

What precautions are neededwhen removing or replacingexisting insulation?

The ceiling spaces, walls and somefloors of many Australian homes areinsulated at the time of building oras part of home improvements. Thematerials used have mostly beenglass wool and rock wool, but morerecent insulation materials includecellulose fibre, sheep wool,polyester, reflective foil membranesand rigid foams. Whilst most ofthese materials have been shown tobe stable and remain intact for thelife of the home, some materialsmay be prone to deteriorate orbreak down over time. Beforeremoving or replacing the existinginsulation, where available, checkthe insulation packaging materialfor handling instructions as someinsulation materials are moreunstable than others and moreprone to be dusty when disturbed.

Do you thinkyour home is

making you oryour family ill? If,after reading this

booklet andrelated web

sites, you believesomething in

your home maybe making either

you or yourfamily ill, your

next step shouldbe to discuss thematter with your

doctor.

31

If you can identify the product, youcould also ask for an MSDS(material safety data sheet) andother product specifications fromthe supplier of the material.

Regardless of the type of insulationoriginally installed in your home, allinsulation products will gather dustfrom inside the house and be blownin by the wind. Using a reflectivefoil sarking under roof tiles shouldsignificantly reduce dust fromentering the attic space and alsoprovide incremental insulationbenefits. Always take care whenremoving any insulation, andprevent skin, eye and respiratorydiscomfort by wearing loosecomfortable clothing, gloves, and adisposable dust mask. If dusty, andwhenever working overhead, alsowear eye goggles. When removinginsulation from the ceiling space, itis best to remove it from the roofrather than through the house. Youshould discuss the options availablefor removal and disposal ofdamaged or unwanted insulationwith a qualified builder, or qualifiedprofessional insulation installer.

Does the second-hand oven orheater you are buying containasbestos?

Until the 1980s asbestos waswidely used for its heat-resistingproperties. Ovens, heaters andother heat-related appliances oftenhad parts made of asbestos. Someasbestos products become moredangerous if damaged with agebecause the material gets dislodgedand particles float off into the air.Check aging appliances thoroughly— if in doubt seek professionaladvice or simply don’t buy.

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Multi-topic texts

Book Indoor Air Quality: A Report on Health Impacts and Management Options by theCommonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care, 2000. ISBN 0 6424 4667 9.

Web above text available at http://www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/publicat/document/metadata/env_indoorair.htm

Book Indoor Air Quality by S. Brown. A State of the Environment Technical Paper forEnvironment Australia, 1997. ISBN 0 6422 5279 3.

Web above text available at http://www.ea.gov.au/soe/techpapers/12indora.html

Info Indoor Air Quality Information Clearing House (IAQ INFO), Address: PO Box 37133,Washington, DC 20013-7133, Phone: (800) 438-4318 or (709) 356-4020, Fax: (703)356-5386, Email: iaqinfo@aol.com

Book State of Knowledge Report: Air Toxics and Indoor Air Quality in Australia byEnvironment Australia, 2001.

Web above text available at http://www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airtoxics/

Booklet Indoor Air Pollution: An Introduction for Health Professionals by the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency, 1994. US Gov# 1994–523–217/81322.

Web above text available at http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/hpguide.html

Book Indoor Air: A Health Perspective by J. Samet and J. Spengler (Eds), John HopkinsUniversity Press, Baltimore, 1991. ISBN 0 8018 4125 9.

Book Indoor Air Quality Handbook, J. Spengler, J. McCarthy and J. Samet (Eds), McGraw-Hill, NY 2000, ISBN 0 0744 5549 4

Book Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards by J. Harte, C. Holdren, R.Schneider and C. Shirley. Elsevier Science Ltd., 1991. ISBN 0 5200 7224 3.

Book The Low Allergy Garden by M Ragg, Hodder Headline Australia Pty Limited, NSW,1996.

Info Pamphlet on types of plants — The NSW Asthma Foundation, Unit 1, Garden Mews,82–86 Pacific Highway, St Leonards NSW 2065 http://www.asthmansw.org.au/

Allergies

Web The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA)http://www.allergy.org.au

Web Allergy Research Foundation (WA) http://www.wn.com.au/arf/

Web The Allergy Report, Vols 1, 2 & 3 by The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma andImmunology, 2000. http://www.theallergyreport.org/reportindex.html

furtherinformation

34

Analytical laboratories

Book For locally-based testers, check your Yellow Pages under LABORATORIES.

Web Main page for National Association of Testing Authorities. http://www.nata.asn.au/

Asbestos

Book A Review of Occupational and Environmental Exposure to Asbestos Dust by S. Brown.CSIRO DBR Report, 1981. ISBN 0643027890.

Asthma

Web National Asthma Campaign, 2000. http://www.nationalasthma.org.au/index.htm

Web Asthma Australia, 2000. http://www.asthmaaustralia.org.au/

Carpets

Booklet Textile Floor Coverings – Cleaning maintenance of residential and commercialcarpeting (AS/NZS 3733:1995) by Standards Australia.

Chemical databases

Web http://dino.wiz.uni-kassel.de/dain/index.html

Web http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/

Environmental tobacco smoke

Web http://www.health.usyd.edu.au/tobacco/

Web http://www.health.gov.au/nhmrc/advice/nhmrc/execsum.htm

Web http://www.quit.org.au

35

Fungi

Web Guidelines on assessment and remediation of fungi in indoor environments by theNew York City Department of Health, 2000.www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/doh/html/epi/moldrpt1.html

Gases of combustion

Web http://www.lungusa.org/air/envcombusti.html

Web http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/combust.html

Web http://www.epa.gov/iedweb00/asthma/triggers/combust.html

Web http://www.jlconline.com/jlc/archive/energy/vent/

Health in context

Booklet Australia’s Health 2000 by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. ISBN 1 7402 4054 5.

Web above text available at http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/health

Health — psychology

Book Learned Optimism by M. Seligman. Random House, Australia, 1992. ISBN 0 0918 2568 7.

Health — risk assessment

Web Environmental Health Risk Assessment by Department of Health and Aged Care andenHealth, 2000. http://enhealth.nphp.gov.au/council/pubs/pdf/envhazards.pdf

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Home design

Book Australian Model Code of Residential Development (AMCORD) by CommonwealthGovernment. AGPS, 1995. ISBN 0 6444 5276 5.

Folder BDP Environment Design Guide by the Australian Council of Building DesignProfessions Ltd, regularly updated 1995 to 2000.

Book Building Materials, Energy and the Environment by B. Lawson. Royal AustralianInstitute of Architects, 1996. ISBN 1 8631 8023 0.

CD Breath-Easy Home Design CD $15 from Asthma Foundation Victoriahttp://www.asthma.org.au/

Web CSIRO Manufacturing & Infrastructure Technology http://www.cmit.csiro.au

Web EA Your Homehttp://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/home.htm

Lead

Booklet Lead Alert: the six step guide to painting your home by Environment Australia, 1999.ISBN 0 6425 4627 4.

Web above text available at http://www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airquality/lead/pubs/leadpaint.pdf

Material safety data sheets

Web http://www.msds.com.au/

Web http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/

Ozone

Web Ozone generators that are sold as air cleaners by the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 1998. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/ozonegen.html

37

Particles

Book Particles in our air: concentrations and health effects by R. Wilson and J. Spengler(Eds). Harvard University Press, 1996. ISBN 0 6742 4077 4.

Pets

Web Animals and Public Health, 2000.http://www.health.usyd.edu.au/achp/pets/index.html

Radon

Web Radon in Homes. An information sheet from the Australian Radiation Protection andNuclear Safety Agency. http://www.health.gov.au/arpansa/is_radon.htm

Safety

Book Designing Out Crime: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design by S. Geasonand P. Wilson. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra. 1989. ISBN 0 6421 4307 2.

Standards

Web Main page for Standards Australia. http://www.standards.com.au/

Wood heaters

Web Breathe the benefits by Environment Australia.http://www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airquality/woodsmoke/breath-the-benefits.htm

38

Allergen: Almost any substance (for example, pollen, house dust mites and some food) whichstimulates the immune system into producing antibodies.

Allergy(ies): A general term describing an immune system’s excessive (hypersensitive) reaction tospecific substances called ‘allergens’.

Alveoli: Millions of microscopic thin-walled cells located at the end of the airways within the lungswhere gases from the atmosphere are exchanged with gases carried by the blood stream.

Antibodies: Proteins produced by specialist cells in the body which are designed to bind tosubstances recognised as foreign agents (allergens).

Analytical laboratory: A laboratory, which contains specialist staff and equipment, devoted toanalysing chemicals. Laboratories vary greatly in the scope of the work they undertake. Commerciallabs work to special rules to ensure the quality of their work — they are accredited by the NationalAssociation of Testing Authorities (NATA).

Asthma: Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells play a role.In susceptible individuals this inflammation causes symptoms which are usually associated withwidespread but variable airflow obstruction that is often reversible either spontaneously or withtreatment, and also causes an associated increase in airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli.

Australian Standards: A large number of published documents which set out specifications andprocedures designed to ensure that a material, product, method or service is fit for its purpose andconsistently performs in the way it was intended (see Further information — Standards).

CCA: Chromated copper arsenate preservative used to treat some timber products – particularlythose to be used outdoors. Treated timber often has a green hue.

Damp-proof course: (or dampcourse) A horizontal layer of impervious material laid in a wall to stopmoisture rising into the wall.

Dander: Minute scales that fall from the hair, feather and skin of all warm blooded animals.

Eczema: An itchy inflammation of the upper layers of the skin, occurring on the face or bodyespecially where the skin creases.

glossary of terms

39

ETS: Environmental tobacco smoke

Faeces: Waste matter discharged from the intestines, excrement, droppings.

Flashing: A protective sheet of metal (often lead or copper) covering a joint or surface on a roof orwall that may be exposed to rain.

Formaldehyde: A component of many glues and resins, produced and used in the chemical andplastics industries and used in manufacture of pressed wood products such as particleboard orchipboard.

Fungi: A group of related organisms that are neither plant nor animal, for example mushrooms area type of fungi, as are yeasts, moulds and mildews.

Genetic predisposition: The inherited information that determines physical characteristics of eachindividual that is encoded in the genes at conception (heredity).

Hazard: When doctors, building designers, engineers, chemists and researchers talk about ‘hazard’they are referring to something that has a potential to cause harm. Fire, for example, is a hazard —everyone knows fire has the potential to cause harm.

HEPA: High efficiency particulate arresting is a term used in association with filters, being areference to a specific type of filter capable of preventing 99.97 per cent of particles from passingthrough it.

Igneous: One of three broad terms (sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic) used to categoriserock types.

Lethargy: A perceived/subjective symptom — a feeling of fatigue, drowsiness or laziness.

Low-NOx: A shorthand technical term used to describe the output of a combustion processcontaining comparatively low levels of the gases nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Lung cancer: A non-specific term for various conditions characterised by abnormal growth of cellsin or around the lungs, leading to the formation of tumours.

40

Macrophages: Large, white blood cells, capable of ingesting and or destroying substances foreignto the human body. There are many different types of macrophage, each performing specific tasks,often in close association with particular tissues or organs.

MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheet. Australian manufacturers are required to provide specificdetails about the composition and use of their products. You are entitled to ask the product’sretailer for a copy of the any product’s MSDS.

Mycotoxins: A range of chemical compounds, variously produced by different fungi, which aretoxic to humans.

Organochlorine: A large group of organic compounds containing chlorine which in the past werewidely used as insecticides, such as DDT, lindane and chlordane.

Passive smoke: The mixture of gases and fine particles that comes from the ends of burningcigarettes and the smoke that smokers breathe out.

PVC: Polyvinyl chloride, a light, durable and widely used form of plastic.

Pollutant: That which pollutes, a polluting agent.

Radium: A naturally-occurring radioactive metallic element.

Radon: A naturally occurring radioactive gas produced from radioactive decay of radium.

Relative humidity: A ratio, usually expressed as a percentage, of the amount of water present inthe air relative to the amount that would be present if the air were saturated. Since the latterdepends on temperature, relative humidity is a function of both moisture content and temperature.

Risk: When doctors, building designers, engineers, chemists and researchers talk about ‘risk’ theymean the likelihood of harm occurring from exposure to a hazardous agent.

Solvent: A liquid capable of dissolving a substance and holding it in solution.

VOCs: Volatile organic compounds are chemicals (containing carbon) that evaporate into theatmosphere at room temperature.

41

enHealth Council The enHealth Council, asubcommittee of the NationalPublic Health Partnership, bringstogether top EnvironmentalHealth officials at the Federaland State/Territory level alongwith representation from theAustralian Institute of EnvironmentalHealth, the environment andpublic health sectors, theIndigenous community and thewider community. The Councilhas responsibility for providingnational leadership, implementationof the National EnvironmentalHealth Strategy, forgingpartnerships with key players,and the development and coordi-nation of advice on environ-mental health matters at anational level. The advicedevelopment process is stronglybased on collaboration andconsultation.

Membership

Chair

Members

State and Territory Health Department representatives:

New South Wales Director Environmental Health

Victoria Manager Environmental Health

Queensland Manager Environmental Health Unit

Western Australia Acting Director Environmental Health Service

South Australia Director Environmental Health

Tasmania Senior Medical Officer Occupational Health

Northern Territory Program Director Environmental Health

Australian Capital Territory Manager Health Protection Service

New Zealand New Zealand Health Ministry

Commonwealth Department of Director, Environmental HealthHealth and Ageing

Australian Institute of National PresidentEnvironmental Health

Environment Australia

Public Health Association of Australia

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission

Australian Consumers’ Association

National Indigenous Environmental Health Forum Chair

Secretariat services are provided by the Environmental Health Section,Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing.

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Terms of reference

1. Provide national leadership onenvironmental health issues by:

i) coordinating and facilitatingenvironmental health policiesand programs

ii) establishing strategicpartnerships betweenenvironmental healthstakeholders

iii) setting priorities for nationalenvironmental health policiesand programs

iv) providing an open consul-tative system for policydevelopment

v) facilitating cost effective useof environmental healthresources.

2. Drive the implementation ofNational Environmental HealthStrategy.

3. Advise the Commonwealth,States and Territories, Localgovernment and otherstakeholders on nationalenvironmental health issues.

4. Coordinate the development ofenvironmental health actionplans at local, state and nationallevels.

5. Promote and develop modelenvironmental health legislation,standards, codes of practice,guidelines and publications.

6. Strengthen the national capacityto meet current and emergingenvironmental healthchallenges.

7. Provide a pivotal link betweeninternational fora and environ-mental health stakeholders inAustralia and strengtheningAustralia’s collaboration withcountries in the Asia–Pacificregion.

Publications

(This list includes monographsproduced by the NationalEnvironmental Health Forum whichthe enHealth Council has replaced).

Foundation documentsThe National Environmental HealthStrategy

The National Environmental HealthStrategy Implementation Plan 2000

Human environment interfaceWater series

1. Guidance for the control ofLegionella (1996)

2. Guidance on water quality forheated spas (1996)

3. Guidance on the use ofrainwater tanks (1998)

Soil series

1. Health-based soil investigationlevels, 3rd edition (2001)

2. Exposure scenarios andexposure settings, 3rd edition(2001)

3. Composite sampling (1996)

Metal series

1. Aluminium, 2nd edition (1998)

2. Zinc (1997)

3. Copper (1997)

Air series

1. Ozone (1997)

2. Benzene (1997)

3. Nitrogen Dioxide (1997)

4. Sulfur dioxide (1999)

General series

1. Pesticide use in schools andschool grounds (1997)

2. Paint film components (1998)

3. Guidelines for the control ofpublic health pests – Lice, fleas,scabies, bird mites, bedbugsand ticks (1999)

Exposure series

1. Child activity patterns forenvironmental exposureassessment in the home (1999)

Counter disaster series

1. Floods: An environmental healthpractitioner’s emergencymanagement guide (1999)

Environmental health justiceIndigenous environmental healthseries

1. Indigenous EnvironmentalHealth No. 1 (1999)

2. Indigenous EnvironmentalHealth No. 2 (2000)

3. Indigenous EnvironmentalHealth No. 3 (2001)

Environmental health systems1. National standard for licensing

pest management technicians(1999)

2. Environmental Health RiskPerception in Australia (2000)

3. Health Impact AssessmentGuidelines (2001)

4. Environmental Health RiskAssessment Guidelines ForAssessing Human Health RisksFrom Envirnmental Hazards