Research ArticleReceived: 30 July 2011 Revised: 21 December 2011 Accepted: 20 February 2012 Published online in Wiley Online Library:

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.5665

Healthy food from organic wheat: choiceof genotypes for production and breedingAbrar Hussain,∗ Hans Larsson, Ramune Kuktaite and Eva Johansson

Abstract

BACKGROUND: In the present study, 40 wheat genotypes were grown in the same soil in organic farming system trials in Alnarp,Sweden. The purpose was to evaluate opportunities for production and breeding of organic wheat of high nutritious value.

RESULTS: The results showed a large variation in content of minerals, total tocochromanols and heavy metals in the grain of40 organically produced wheat genotypes. Principal component and cluster analysis were used as tools for selection of themost suitable genotypes for production and breeding of organic wheat of high nutritious value. No single genotype group wasfound particularly superior from the studied material to produce this specific type of wheat. However, certain genotypes fromdifferent groups were found with promising nutritional characters. The most promising genotypes as related to nutritionallyrelevant compounds were 6356 spelt, Triticum monococcum, Olands 17 borst spelt, Lv Dal 16 brun borst and Fylgia.

CONCLUSION: By choosing these genotypes for organic production and future wheat breeding, nutritionally improved organicwheat products might be developed. However, for future breeding, nutritional components such as protein, fibre, glycaemicindex and B-group vitamins should also be considered.c© 2012 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: nutritionally relevant compounds; organic wheat genotypes; minerals; heavy metals; tocochromanols; multivariate analysis

INTRODUCTIONOrganic agriculture is increasing in importance. Organicallyproduced products are considered, by many consumers, to beboth healthier and more ecologically friendly as compared toconventionally produced ones. This consideration is based onthe principle that no chemical inputs such as synthetic fertilizersor pesticides are used in organic agriculture.1 In the EuropeanUnion (EU 27), the area under organic agriculture has increasedand in 2009 constituted 7.5 million ha, cultivated by 200 000producers.2 This means a 4.3% increase as compared to the areaunder organic agriculture in 2007.2 About 18% of the total organicarable land is under organic wheat production in the EU 27. Thuswheat is an important crop in organic farming. Wheat is alsoan important source of nutrients such as protein, carbohydrate,minerals, vitamins, fibre and phytocompounds in the daily foodof humans.3 Further, the demand of organically produced wheatgrain products in the organic food market is increasing.4

The possible use of wheat as a health-promoting food isdetermined by the nutrients found in the grain such as minerals, an-tioxidants, proteins, fibre, phytocompounds and quality-impairingsubstances like heavy metals. In organic agriculture application ofbiosolids and composts might be a source of heavy metals in thewheat grain.5 Among the wheat antioxidants, tocochromanols,contributing vitamin E activity, are important.6

The concentration of minerals, tocochromanols and heavymetals in the wheat grain depend on the cultivated genotype, theenvironment and the farming conditions used.7,8 Significant vari-ation among genotypes has been found to be related to contentof minerals, antioxidants, i.e. tocochromanols, and heavy metalsin the wheat grain.5,9 – 11 The use of organic versus conventional

farming systems has been found to affect the nutritional quality ofthe food produced within these systems.12 Organically producedwheat was shown to generally contain high amounts of nutritiousminerals.13 Further, concentration of heavy metals was found tobe lower in wheat produced under organic as compared to con-ventional management.14 Many studies have been conducted oncontent of heavy metals and tocochromanols in wheat producedunder conventional systems.5,10,15,16 To our knowledge, there isstill a lack of information as to if and how organically producedfood can contribute to health. Further, more knowledge is neededas to what wheat is optional in breeding for organic wheat of highnutritious value. Thus the objective of the present study was toevaluate opportunities to produce organic wheat with high nutri-tious value for human consumption. Also, the aim was to evaluatesuitability of wheat from genetically diversified wheat groups inbreeding for organic wheat with high nutritional properties.

EXPERIMENTALPlant materialsGrain samples of 40 organically produced wheat genotypes(Table 1) from six diverse genotype groups, i.e. landrace, primitive

∗ Correspondence to: Abrar Hussain, Department of Agrosystems, Faculty ofLandscape Planning, Horticulture and Agricultural Sciences, Swedish Universityof Agricultural Sciences, Box 104, SE-23053, Alnarp, Sweden.E-mail: Abrar.Hussain@slu.se

Department of Agrosystems, Faculty of Landscape Planning, Horticultureand Agricultural Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp,Sweden

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Table 1. Sample number, names, type and group of organicallyproduced wheat genotypes used in the present study

Sample No. Genotype name Type Genotype group

1 6356 spelt Winter Spelt

2 Aros Winter Old cultivar

3 Hansa Winter Old cultivar

4 Inntaler Winter Old cultivar

5 Jacoby 59 utan borst Winter Landrace

6 Lysh vete brun borst Winter Old cultivar

7 Odin Winter Old cultivar

8 Olympia Winter Landrace

9 Rauweizen Winter Primitive wheat

10 Robur Winter Old cultivar

11 Svale Winter Old cultivar

12 Aurore 2 Spring Old cultivar

13 Olands 17 borst spelt Spring Spelt

14 Lv. Dal 16 vit Spring Landrace

15 Rival 1 Spring Old cultivar

16 Lv. Halland I Spring Landrace

17 Fylgia I Spring Old cultivar

18 Oland 5 Spring Landrace

19 Lv. Dal 16 brun borst Spring Landrace

20 Ostby 2 Spring Old cultivar

21 Lv. Gotland 2 Spring Spelt

22 Kolben Spring Old cultivar

23 Spelt vete gotland Winter Spelt

24 Svart emmer Winter Primitive wheat

25 Rod Emmer Winter Primitive wheat

26 Folke Winter Cultivar

27 T. Monoccocum Winter Primitive wheat

28 Vit Emmer Winter Primitive wheat

29 Holme Winter Cultivar

30 Schweiz Winter Spelt

31 Brun spelt Winter Spelt

32 Oster burgsdorfer Winter Spelt

33 Oberkulmer Winter Spelt

34 Spelt Ustakket Winter Spelt

35 Schwaben korn Winter Spelt

36 Lv. Gotland 6 Spring Spelt

37 Oland 8 Spring Landrace

38 Aura Winter Old cultivar

39 Mumie vete Winter Primitive wheat

40 Lv Dal Spring Landrace

wheat, spelt, old cultivar and cultivar (as described by Hussainet al.13), were selected for the present investigation. Thesegenotypes were selected as being suitable for organic productionbased of adaptability and other agronomic characters such as yieldand growth within a breeding programme of organic wheat. Thesamples were grown on the same soil in organic farming systemtrials in Alnarp (55◦ 39.4′ N, 13◦ 5.2′ E), Sweden. The generalsoil characteristics of the site were as follows: pH 7–7.8, organicmatter 3%, clay content 25%; and the farm has been under organiccultivation since 1992.

At maturity, the spikes were threshed manually and freezedried before milling. About 20 g of each freeze-dried grain samplewas milled into flour using a laboratory mill (Yellow line, A10,IKA-Werke, Staufen, Germany).

Minerals and heavy metal determinationDetermination of minerals and heavy metals was carried outaccording to the method described by Hussain et al.13 Briefly,0.5 g flour sample was digested with 10 mL nitric acid in amicrowave digestor and the sample was then diluted to 100 mLbefore analysis. Minerals and heavy metals in the flour sampleswere analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry(ICP-MS; ELAN-6000, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA) and byinductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-OES; OPTIMA 3000 DV, PerkinElmer). Minerals such as Cu, Fe, K,Mg, Na, P, and Zn were determined by ICP-OES. The calibrationof ICP-MS was carried out by four mixed standards. Heavy metalswere measured by ICP-MS using the isotopes 114Cd, 59Co, 52Cr,208Pb, and 58Ni. All the analyses of minerals and heavy metals weredone at the ICP laboratory of the Department of Ecology, LundUniversity.

Total tocochromanol (TT) determinationAn efficient extraction of tocochromanols was done by thesaponification method described in Fratianni et al.,17 with somemodifications. Briefly, alkaline hydrolysis was carried out onaccurately weighed 1 g wheat flour placed in a Teflon tube alongwith 2.5 mL ethanol pyrogallol (60 g L−1), 1 mL sodium chloride(10 g mL−1), 1 mL ethanol (95%) and 1 mL potassium hydroxide(600 g L−1). After mixing, the samples were placed in a water bathfor 30 min at 70 ◦C. The tubes were shaken at 10 min intervalsduring saponification. After saponification, tubes were transferredinto an ice-water bath and sodium chloride and n-hexane wasadded to each tube in ratio of 9 : 1 to separate the organic layerfrom the inorganic one. The same procedure was used for a secondand third extraction and the organic layer was evaporated with thehelp of nitrogen. Finally, the dry residue obtained was dissolvedin 2 mL n-hexane for further analysis. Each sample was replicatedthree times.

After extraction the analysis was carried out by normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography according to themethod described by Panfili et al.,18 with some modifications.The standards for α-, β-, γ - and δ-tocopherol were from Merk(Darmstadt, Germany) and β-tocotrienol was from Sigma-Aldrich(Buchs, Switzerland). The fluorescence detection was made withwavelengths of 290 nm and 330 nm. Total tocochromanols (TT)were calculated by summing the total tocopherols and totaltocotrienols content in the wheat grain.

Statistical analysisPrincipal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) werecarried out using Minitab statistical software (multivariate, v. 16,Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA). The principal componentswere used to point out the most important traits determiningthe respective principal component.19 CA was applied to the datausing Ward’s method,20 with Euclidean distances to calculate thedistances among organically produced wheat genotypes. Meansof each variable were standardized before analysis to preventdifferences in the scale.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONContent of nutritionally relevant compounds in the investi-gated organically grown wheat genotypesThe mean contents of evaluated nutritionally relevant com-pounds in the grain of 40 organically grown wheat geno-types are presented in Table 2. The ranges of mean contents

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Table 2. Mean content of different variables (mg kg−1) among 40 organically produced wheat genotypes

Sample No. Genotype Cd Co Cr Cu Fe K Mg Na Ni P Pb Zn TT

1 6356 spelt 0.05 0.00 0.19 5.28 36 3624 1440 542 0.29 5165 0.01 53 31

2 Aros 0.04 0.01 0.13 3.93 20 4241 1079 559 0.27 4194 0.01 30 32

3 Hansa 0.03 0.05 0.18 4.42 24 3951 1100 560 2.42 4098 0.04 48 29

4 Inntaler 0.04 0.01 0.18 4.10 28 3882 1195 568 0.42 4542 0.10 34 29

5 Jacoby 59 utan borst 0.06 0.01 0.19 4.82 27 5025 1251 580 0.65 4763 0.01 30 36

6 Lysh vede brun borst 0.04 0.05 0.34 4.48 24 3841 1134 564 2.44 4163 0.04 57 33

7 Odin 0.04 0.01 0.13 4.46 22 4184 1171 583 0.63 4562 0.02 32 37

8 Olympia 0.03 0.01 0.17 3.42 19 3826 1113 636 0.47 4054 0.00 28 36

9 Rauweizen 0.06 0.06 0.36 5.34 29 5672 1349 682 5.40 4966 0.01 36 31

10 Robur 0.06 0.01 1.05 3.56 22 3713 1170 558 4.34 4130 0.01 34 32

11 Svale 0.05 0.01 0.17 3.85 22 4730 1064 567 0.62 4210 0.00 29 31

12 Aurore 2 0.05 0.02 0.33 4.90 37 4067 1301 282 1.34 4152 0.01 39 25

13 Olands 17 borst spelt 0.07 0.02 0.90 5.32 51 3845 1353 298 0.80 4289 0.01 51 34

14 Lv. Dal 16 vit 0.05 0.04 3.86 4.96 57 4072 1257 267 11.46 4696 0.02 54 31

15 Rival 1 0.08 0.01 0.38 5.60 39 3627 1300 254 1.33 4104 0.02 43 32

16 Lv. Halland I 0.06 0.02 0.73 6.58 40 4480 1245 252 1.65 4272 0.00 48 30

17 Fylgia I 0.06 0.03 1.56 5.46 49 4153 1209 263 1.90 4064 0.00 50 24

18 Oland 5 0.07 0.02 0.55 5.72 43 3946 1422 261 1.33 4371 0.00 48 27

19 Lv. Dal 16 brun borst 0.07 0.02 1.00 4.92 48 3833 1316 297 1.89 4032 0.01 45 34

20 Ostby 2 0.09 0.01 0.53 6.06 43 3948 1287 255 1.43 4414 0.00 47 28

21 Lv. Gotland 2 0.07 0.02 0.89 6.02 63 4481 1244 300 0.91 4230 0.00 39 29

22 Kolben 0.06 0.01 0.31 5.08 39 3763 1285 255 0.83 4188 0.00 46 25

23 Spelt vete gotland 0.01 0.00 0.29 5.80 27 3537 990 275 0.99 3239 0.02 35 28

24 Svart emmer 0.01 0.00 0.22 5.76 17 3571 985 279 0.64 3050 0.03 35 22

25 Rod Emmer 0.02 0.00 0.21 5.96 23 3729 1193 271 0.34 3760 0.05 42 22

26 Folke 0.03 0.02 0.33 5.32 34 4298 1226 282 1.47 4285 0.01 39 33

27 T. Monoccocum 0.01 0.01 0.50 6.70 36 4625 1339 559 1.81 5546 0.03 46 35

28 Vit Emmer 0.02 0.01 0.35 4.64 31 4860 1196 278 0.47 4253 0.03 37 24

29 Holme 0.05 0.02 0.14 4.16 22 4412 1240 567 0.94 4482 0.01 35 32

30 Schweiz 0.03 0.01 0.76 5.92 45 3765 1256 273 1.32 4009 0.02 38 25

31 Brun spelt 0.04 0.01 0.28 5.72 41 3510 1221 291 1.02 3735 0.01 44 27

32 Oster burgsdorfer 0.04 0.02 0.20 4.04 28 4471 1255 655 1.61 4488 0.02 33 30

33 Oberkulmer 0.03 0.01 0.52 4.84 35 3598 1110 277 1.45 3700 0.00 36 27

34 Spelt Ustakket 0.09 0.01 0.16 5.00 32 4376 1105 547 0.47 4139 0.00 29 23

35 Schwaben korn 0.06 0.03 0.53 6.28 48 4725 1372 680 2.14 5212 0.01 49 27

36 Lv. Gotland 6 0.07 0.02 0.89 6.02 63 4481 1244 300 0.91 4230 0.00 39 33

37 Oland 8 0.02 0.01 0.42 4.42 42 3511 1220 242 0.87 3209 0.00 32 34

38 Aura 0.05 0.01 0.15 3.88 25 4445 1194 528 0.22 4459 0.00 27 34

39 Mumie vete 0.02 0.00 0.13 3.80 25 4894 1066 593 0.26 3974 0.01 28 32

40 Lv Dal 0.06 0.01 0.29 5.64 47 4014 1215 266 0.85 3622 0.01 42 31

for wheat genotypes were as follows: Fe, 17–63 mg kg−1; Cd, 0.01–0.09 mg kg−1; Co, 0.001–0.06 mg kg−1; Cr, 0.13–3.86 mg kg−1; Cu,3.42–6.70 mg kg−1; K, 3510–5672 mg kg−1; Mg, 985–1440 mgkg−1; Na, 242–682 mg kg−1; Ni, 0.22–11.46 mg kg−1; P, 3050–5546 mg kg−1; Pb, 0.00–0.10 mg kg−1; Zn, 27–57 mg kg−1; andTT, 22–37 mg kg−1. It should be stressed that in some of thesamples contents of Co (sample numbers 3, 6, 9, 14, 17 and 35)and Cr (sample numbers 14 and 17) were higher than those set bythe United States Environmental Protection Agency.21 However,the content of Cd and Pb in wheat grain of all the investigatedorganically grown wheat genotypes did not exceed the maxi-mum permitted value set by the European Union.22 The presentstudy showed a large variation among the investigated genotypesfor different nutritional compounds, e.g. minerals, TT, and non-nutritious substances, e.g. heavy metals. This is not unexpectedbecause of the diversity in the investigated material. A significant

difference among different genotypes of wheat for minerals, heavymetals and TT content has been found in some of the earlierinvestigations.5,10,13,15,16,23 As reported previously, the content ofnutritionally important minerals and non-nutritious substanceswas found to be higher11,16,24 in some of the wheat genotypesalso used in the present study, as compared to wheat genotypesnormally grown in conventional farming systems.24 However, theamount of TT in the present study was in a similar range to thatfound in conventionally grown wheat under the ‘HEALTHGRAIN’project,10,25 as was also reported for individual tocopherols andtocotrienols by Hussain et al.23 The large variation in nutritionallyrelevant compounds in the investigated wheat material createsextensive opportunities both for (i) choosing suitable wheat forproduction of food products with high nutritional value, and (ii)breeding of wheat lines with even higher nutritional charactersthan are present today. However, to really be able to characterize

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and produce organic food and breeding lines holding increasednutritional value, a number of compounds have to be taken intoconsideration. Many previous investigations dealing with nutri-tionally relevant compounds in wheat have mainly taken a smallnumber of compounds into consideration.5,10,26 In the presentinvestigation, both nutritive minerals, tocochromanols and thenegative heavy metals have been investigated in the wheat ma-terial. In order to compare suitability of the wheat lines with thenumber of compounds investigated, multivariate analyses werenecessary.

Groupings of the investigated wheat in relation to contentof nutritionally relevant compoundsPCA was carried out on the contents of all investigated variables toassess the pattern of variation in nutritionally relevant compoundsamong different organically produced wheat genotypes. The firstfour principal components showed 74.5% of the total variabilityamong all the investigated genotypes (Table 3). The first principalcomponent (PC1) accounted for 30% of the total variation, and themost important compounds contributing to the variation were Fe,Cr, Mg, Ni and Zn. PC2 described about 20.8% of the total variabilityamong the genotypes, and the most important compounds of thisvariation were K, Na, P and TT. PC3 contributed 13% to the totalvariation, and the most important compounds here were Co,Cr, Ni and Pb (Table 3). The pattern of variation among all 40investigated genotypes for the first two principal components isshown in Fig. 1. The figure is divided into four sections (I–IV) foreasier understanding. It can be seen in Fig. 1 that the variationin the nutritionally relevant compounds was large. In section I,12 genotypes are placed having a positive value for PC2 and anegative value for PC1. Section II contains six genotypes that havepositive values for both PC1 and PC2 (sample numbers 1, 6, 9, 14,27, 35). Eight genotypes had negative coefficients for both PC1and PC2 and were thereby placed in section III (Fig. 1). Section IVhad 14 wheat genotypes that showed a positive value for PC1 andnegative for PC2 (Fig. 1). Genotypes assembled in section II weregenerally those with the highest amount of nutritionally relevant

Table 3. Proportion of variability and different variables that con-tributed to first four PCs of organically produced wheat genotypes

Variable PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4

Variance explained (%) 30.01 20.79 13.10 10.60

Cumulative variance (%) 29.90 50.80 63.90 74.50

Fe 0.415 −0.160 −0.179 0.114

Cd 0.276 0.074 −0.345 0.204

Co 0.254 0.294 0.356 −0.077

Cr 0.364 −0.022 0.348 0.336

Cu 0.298 −0.245 −0.179 −0.344

K 0.022 0.428 −0.170 −0.003

Mg 0.360 0.127 −0.320 −0.231

Na −0.190 0.513 0.020 −0.110

Ni 0.306 0.167 0.481 0.244

P 0.200 0.455 −0.163 −0.276

Pb −0.110 0.008 0.386 −0.580

Zn 0.391 −0.103 0.130 −0.306

TT −0.019 0.338 0.105 0.277

compounds, i.e. high content of Fe, Zn and TT. The content ofheavy metals in the genotypes could not be depicted in Fig. 1.

Among all the investigated wheat genotype groups, in thepresent study no specific genotype group was shown to besuperior by multivariate analyses as related to content ofnutritionally relevant compounds in the grain. Instead, certaingenotypes from each genotype group showed high contentsof nutritionally important minerals and tocochromanols. Thesefindings are contradictory to previous results showing primitivewheat to contain the highest content of nutritive minerals9 andthe lowest content of heavy metals13 among the investigatedgenotype groups. Some examples of genotypes from the differentgenotype groups which showed high contents of nutritionallyimportant compounds, i.e. Fe, Zn, Mg, Na, P and TT, as comparedto other investigated wheat genotypes were: landrace group;

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Figure 1. Plot of first and second component scores of 40 organically produced wheat genotypes based on minerals, total tocochromanol and heavymetals content.

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Lysh vete brun borst and Lv. Dal 16 vit; primitive wheat group:Triticum monococcum and Rauweizen; spelt group: 6356 speltand Schwaben korn. None of these genotypes were exceptionallylow in heavy metals content (Table 1). Actually, several of thementioned genotypes, e.g. Lysh vete brun borst, Lv. Dal 16 vit,Rauweizen and Schwaben korn, belonged to those genotypes withCo content above the limit set by the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency.21

Opportunities to produce organic wheat of high nutritionalvalue from knowledge of this studyHumans require minerals and vitamins to meet their metabolicneeds. Inadequate consumption of certain nutrients could leadto malnutrition. Among the investigated compounds, the amountof Fe, Zn and tocochromanols can be seen as the compoundswith the highest impact in relation to health.10,27 Further, lowamounts of heavy metals, especially of Cd and Pb, are regarded asof considerable importance.13 None of the genotypes investigatedin this study reached the maximum permitted value for Pb andCd.22 Today, microelement malnutrition is considered a worldwideproblem and about a half of the world’s population is sufferingfrom microelement malnutrition.27 Minerals and vitamins suchas Fe, Zn and tocochromanols (vitamin E) are among the mostdeficient nutrients. In particular, Fe and Zn deficiency commonlyoccur among women and children in developing countries.28

Even children and adults from developed countries may displayvitamin and mineral deficiency due to certain factors such asgeographical, i.e. from which part of the world one originates,cultural and social factors, e.g. attitude, beliefs, meal patternsand knowledge concerning food.29 Minerals and vitamins play animportant role in our body by participating in various metabolicprocesses, and deficiency causes various diseases such as anaemiaand stunting syndrome.30,31 The main source of minerals andvitamins in most countries are foods of plant origin, e.g. maize, riceand wheat grain. Wheat grain has long been recognized as the mostimportant source of nutrients for normal growth and a healthylife.27 Thus, to produce wheat genotypes with increased contentsof minerals, tocochromanols, protein and other vitamins can be a

strategy to combat microelement malnutrition. The present studyshowed that some genotypes – Rauweizen, Lv. Dal 16 vit, Lyshvete brun borst, Triticum monococcum, 6356 spelt and Schwabenkorn – had higher contents of nutritionally important minerals andtocochromanols, although with similar content of heavy metalsor Co content as high as the other investigated wheat genotypes.In particular, Triticum monococcum and 6356 spelt might be ofinterest for direct health food production or breeding of organicwheat for health food production. Such genotypes might be ofrelevance, not least to avoid malnutrition due to lack of Fe and Zn.

Clustering of wheat genotypes in the present study as relatedto content of nutritionally relevant compoundsThe clustering pattern of organically grown wheat genotypesshows that the wheat in the present study is more or less closelyrelated on the basis of nutritionally relevant compounds. All 40investigated wheat genotypes were broadly grouped into fiveclusters, and two of the investigated wheat genotypes remainedsolitary, with less grouping (Fig. 2). The genotypes which groupedless were Rauweizen and Lv. Dal 16 vit (Fig. 2). Of the two genotypesnot clustering, Lv Dal 16 vit borst was of particular interest, showinghigh Zn and Fe levels (Fig. 2). Cluster I contained wheat genotypeswith high content of Cu, Mg, Na, P and Zn (Table 4). The wheatgenotypes in cluster II were shown to have high content of Kand TT (Table 4). Cluster III was mainly occupied by spring wheatgenotypes and had high content of Fe and low content of Pb,while the content of Cd and Cr was high. Cluster V containedgenotypes with high content of some heavy metals, i.e. Co, Niand Pb (Table 4). Thus genotypes of interest for production orbreeding of health wheat did not cluster clearly into groups ofhealthy wheat. High Fe, Zn and tocochromanols and low Cd andPb are desired, but genotypes with all these characters were notfound in any specific cluster. Instead they were spread, with highZn in cluster I, high TT in cluster II, high Fe and low Pb in cluster III,and low Cd in cluster IV.

When performing an individual screening of the genotypes,scoring genotypes with Fe and Zn content above 45, tocochro-manol content above 33, and Cd and Pb contents below 0.01 as

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Figure 2. Dendrogram of 40 organically produced wheat genotypes based on mineral, total tocochromanol and heavy metal content.

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Table 4. Mean values in wheat grain (mg kg−1) for five clusters basedon minerals, total tocochromanols and heavy metals content

Variable Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Cluster 5

Fe 39.79 24.08 44.67 24.35 25.45

Cd 0.039 0.047 0.056 0.014 0.037

Co 0.016 0.011 0.015 0.005 0.036

Cr 0.40 0.23 0.62 0.26 0.23

Cu 6.08 4.08 5.50 5.54 4.33

K 4324.88 4392.41 3959.91 3924.32 3891.01

Mg 1383.58 1155.38 1261.89 1090.95 1143.20

Na 593.86 579.46 273.38 275.90 564.13

Ni 1.411 0.953 1.252 0.612 1.760

P 5307.43 4314.12 4053.33 3575.76 4267.93

Pb 0.018 0.008 0.006 0.033 0.061

Zn 49.20 30.36 42.70 37.25 46.40

TT 31.20 32.27 29.37 24.03 30.36

desired, three genotypes turned out to be of particular interest.These genotypes were Olands 17 borst spelt, Lv Dal 16 brun borst,and Fylgia I, all having high content of Fe and Zn, relatively highcontent of tocochromanols and low content of Pb.

Options for breeding of organic wheat with high nutritionalpropertiesThe present study showed a large variation among organicallygrown wheat genotypes for nutritional properties. Wheat geno-types grouping by multivariate methods might be of practicalvalue for wheat breeders as the wheat genotypes with higheramounts of nutritionally relevant compounds from different groupor clusters may be chosen for further breeding. Some genotypes,i.e. 6356 spelt, Triticum monococcum and Schwaben korn, alsogrouped similarly in both the PCA and CA. These genotypes arecharacterized by higher amount of nutritionally relevant com-pounds in the grain and can be used in breeding programmes,although one of the genotypes was found to have high content ofCo. Individual scoring, as was also performed in the present study,indicated additional genotypes of interest.

From the present study, it can be concluded that selectedgenotypes with high content of nutritionally important mineralsand TT and low content of heavy metals from the investigatedwheat material can be used in human food to solve the globalproblem of ‘hidden hunger’. These genotypes can also be usedin future wheat breeding programmes; however, other nutritionalelements such as protein, fibre, glycaemic index and B vitamincontent and quality should be included in order to breed organicwheat genotypes of high nutritive value.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors are grateful to the Swedish Farmers Foundation(SLF) and Eko-forsk for project funding. The Higher EducationCommission (HEC), Pakistan, is also acknowledged for financialsupport to Abrar Hussain during his stay at the Swedish Universityof Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Sweden.

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