Greek Prepositions Adam Uoft

7/30/2019 Greek Prepositions Adam Uoft

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Presented to theLIBRARY of the

UNIVERSI TV OF TORONTOby

Mrs. H. J. Cody


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THE

GREEK PREPOSITIONS,STUDIED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL MEANINGS

AS DESIGNATIONS OF SPACE.

BYF. A. ADAMS, Ph. D.

It is of more importance to us to learn how the Greeks spoke than toknow what they said. Jelf.

NEW YORK:D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

1, 3, AND 5 BOND BTKEET,1885.


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COPTBIOHT, 1885,By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.


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INTKODUCTION.

Whatevek theory we adopt of tlie origin of lan-guage, it is agreed by all scholars that its words arederived lai-gely from notions of things in space. Thisbook presents the results of a study of the GreekPrepositions from the stand-point of that admission.

No class of words in the Greek is more importantthan the Prepositions ; and none are more imper-fectly undei-stood ; yet these are the words that, be-yond all others, bear on their face the suggestions ofspace. But the clew is soon lost that conducts fromthese primary uses into the wide realm of thought,of reasoning, of will, of passion, and Hfe. And yetsuch a clew there must be, connecting by real, thoughsubtle analogies, the primary meanings with all themeanings which foUow.

But learners of the Greek find no harder thing,after passing the rudiments, than to fix in mind themeanings of verbs compounded with prepositions.The difliculty is natural, and on the whole creditableto the intellect of the embarrassed student. He hasnothing but his memory to aid him ; neither the Die-


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iv Introduction.

tionary iior the Grammar give instniction heretheygive only authority. The learner is left with few in-citements to his power of discrimination and logicaldeduction. The definitions in the Lexicons burdenhis memory ; they do not instruct him to find hisway. Even Treatises on the Greek Prepositions donot evince any systematic endeavor to interpret theprepositions through a logical deduction from theirprimary meanings as designations of space. Thelearner under these conditions naturally becomes in-different ; for what he cannot do intelligently, hebecomes, after a time, willing not to do at all ; and,perhaps, in the end, he adds one to the number ofthose who complain that they have spent much timeon the Greek with little profit.

To show that the picture here outlined is not toohighly colored, let a college graduate, who has donewell in his Greek, take, for example, the verb Xeiiretv ;and, prefixing to it successively the prepositions airo,Blo,, ck, iv, iirl, Kara, rrrapa, vtto, let him form Englishsentences that, if written in Greek, would require theuse of these prepositions respectively compoundedwith the verb. His certain failure is the result ofmany former defeats, where his natural inquisitive-ness has not been encouraged and rewarded.When he finds the verb fieveiv compounded withava, with Sia, iv and Kara, with irepl and vtto, hefinds himself in a like difficulty. The adjectives8?}Xo9, kBt]\o


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Introduction. v

notion clear^ with differences which forbid the useof one for another. What are these differences?And through what lines of thought does the learnercome to see these differences, so that the knowledgeof them shall no longer depend on a burdened mem-ory, but shall be a natural possession of his instructedintelligence? The present work is an endeavor toclear somewhat this seeming jungle of the GreekPrepositionsto show that it is not a jungle, but agarden, whose alleys and paths have become over-grown through neglect, and lost to view. Ortospeak without a figurethe object of this work iscontained by implication in the following Thesis

The Greek Prepositions, suggestive primarily ofnotions of space, show through all their uses suchanalogy to the primary meanings as affords aids in-dispensable to a satisfactory understanding of the lan-guage.

The motive and object of the work, thus stated,naturally lead to the question of its method. It be-gins by analyzing the notions of space^ and the notionsthat accompany these in nature ; it then seeks for theanalogues of these in human experience. Thus thewhole field of human life, of thought, passion, andpurpose, is laid open, and the Prepositions enter it intheir own right.

The store-house of facts used in the present studyis the language of the Greek Literaturethe GreekLanguage at its best. As the work is Psychological,


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vi Introduction.

not Etymological, it does not discuss the origins ofwords. It is not the forms of the words, hut the thoughtthat underlies them, that is here the object of searchnot the changing fortunes through which a writtenword has passed till it comes to the form in which wehave it in our hands ; but what the word means nowthat is in our hands, and how it comes to mean whatwe know it does mean. As the prepositions primarilydenote relations of space, we have in these notions,and others which these carry with them, a point ofdeparturenot a working hypothesis awaiting itsjustification, but a basis of facts settled by commonconsent; ava primarily means ^^, and KaTa downiirl means primarily on or iipon, and vtto meanstender y' and so of the rest. In beginning at this pointwe begin where the learner must begin ; and wherehe must stay till he learns to love the Greek, if heever comes to love it at all.

As the ideas of space and the notions these carrywith them were always present, it is reasonable tobeheve that they were operative in the formation oflanguage from the first; that they served as laud-marks pointing out the paths along which humanspeech should move. For reasons already suggested,the present work does not enter this wide and at-tractive field. It is written with the humbler aim ofaiding the students who are learning to read Greek,and tlie teachers whose work is to instruct them.

This work makes no claim to be a complete


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Introduction. vii

treatise on the Greek Preposition. The author hasrestricted himseK to the presentation of the subjectin a single line of observationomitting whateverwas not pertinent to his special object.

In this view he trustfully commends it to thehospitable reception that will be readily accorded toa thoughtful endeavor on new ground.


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CO^TElN"TS.

CHAPTER I.OF SPACE, AND ITS SILENT TEACHINGS.

Words of space applied to ideas of timeApplied to description, and to moral conductThis extension springs from an instinct in humanityLanguage limited and poor ; imagination must supply its defectsThe proper starting-point in treating the PrepositionsThe mode of study ; deductive and inductive

SECTION123466

CHAPTER II.aya AND KOTa. UP AND DOWN.

The notion up; its attendant notions, First, Second, Third,Fourth 7

The notion down; its attendant notions, First, Second, Tldrd,Fourth 7

These attendant notions not the result of study, but given innature 8

CHAPTER III.ava AND Karh, PRIMAKILT ADVERBIAL.

Preposition and Adverbtheir difference 9'Aro, up, and Karh, down, primarily Adverbial . . . .10Kora with the Genitive and with the Accusative, illustrated . .11Language limited compared with thought 12


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Contents.

CHAPTER IV.wh. AND Ka.T6.. MEANINGS DKRITED FROM ANALOGY.

SECTIONin speech; innalogue of Kara in motion along the ground

judgment'hvh. ras irdKets, Kara tos ir6\eis'Aj/o and Kara with numerals'Ava Kparos, Kara Kparos

IS-IY. 18. 1920, 2122,23

CHAPTER V.ava AND Kara IN COMPOSITION.

'Av6,ye(TBai^ Kurdyecrdai.....'Afd^acris, Karafiaffis ; avUvai, Ka6ievai .'AvoKalfiv, KaroKaliiv .....Aj/e'xej^, KOTx'; avavavnv, Karavdveiv'Aya/jLeyeiv, Karafieytiv .....'AvaSexeo'Oai, KOTaSe'xecrSat, KaraytyvuxTKeiy .'Avayvd/xTTTfiVy avairelBeiy, avax'^p^'^v., dvaTidivai, marks

motion in each (Sec. 1) .^Avaviviiv, Karavevftv ; avaa-irav, to pull down'AvaSelv, third mark of upward motion (7) .Kardpxety, apparent contradiction reconciledAitf, to lack, KaraSeiv .AfiKvvuat, avaSfiKvvvaty KaTa^fiKvwaiMavddveiy, avafxavOdvuv, KaTa/xavddyeiv'Ava^rirtiv, a.ya\veivKadopau .....KaTa


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Contents. xiCHAPTER VI.7rJ, OX, UPON.

SECTIONPrimary suggestion ; gravition 49Transference of direction, change of power 50Two forms of power suggested in iiti ; impact ; pressure . . 51Sphere of eVi enlarged by change of direction . . . 52, 53'Etti with the Genitive ; with the Dative . . . . 54, 55'EttI with expressions of time 56General suggestion of power in eirl 57Object of iv\ pictured as lifeless, not necessarily lifeless in fact . 58

CHAPTER VII,^J), rXDER; ACCESSORY NOTIONS.

Correlatives of imh in space 59Implications through gravitation 60, 61Correlative of gravitation ........ 62Cases following xmh 63Position \mder xrno . 64Motion toward, ending in position under 65Motion from, beginning with position under 66Dynamic suggestions 6*7Applications of the correlatives tnrh and ini . . . . 68, 69'Eiraydv, inrdyeii', inrfXavveiy. ...... 70, 71Mei/fiy, inronevetv, iTZifXfVSiv ........ 72'ETTjTifleVaj, fTrepxfcrdai, iiviivai, (irnriimiv, inrocpepeiy, iiro5e;ite?r0a4,

inro


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Xll Contents.

'Eff' aperriv, trphs dperVj comparedThe object of irpbs becomes to the imagination active'Eirl rriv 'EWaSa, irphs rovs iratSas .II. 18:317'H dShs iir' euSai/jLoviav ; irphs ev5aifxovlavTlphs rh aWo (TcofMa, iirl rb aXKo awfia .'Eir\ robs iroXefi-lovs, irpbs robs TroXefJ-iovsDiscriminations of inl and irphs further illustrated

SECTION. 8182-88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93

94-103

CHAPTER IX.eVi AND irphs IN COMPOSITION.

'Eirexetv, irpoffixeiv, illustrated, and tested ....Applications of the above'EirepuTCLV, irpoffeparrav, jxifi.vi](TKeiv^ iirifi- ....'Eirl looking forward to what is yet to come....'Eirl sometimes doing for the Greek mind what the pronoun

does for the English mindAavddveaOat, iiriXavOdvecrOat . . . . . .110,Neveiy, iirtvevfiv, KaTaveveiv.......'Atrelv, eTratreTv, irpoffaiTilv.......A/coui', iiraHOvetv, irpocraKoieiv ......XleTO/uaj, iiriirfTOnai, jaxei;/, firiax^^v .....Aeir, to bind, tViSetj', irpoaZiiv ......'Ewprjfiiiv^ iireu(prifiiiv ; \4yetv, eirtXeyfiu ....^KiirreffOai, iTriffKiTrnffQai .......TliiQeaQai, iiriirddecrdai ; 5i56fat, ^irtSiScJvai ....rvafx-imiy, iiriyvafximiv, avayvdjximiv ; tpeaOai, eTrepetrOat .'Srpecpttv, iiri(rTpe(peiu ; Sipe7y, iirtSiyeTy.....'E7riTU7X'^''*"') KaraTvyxdvav, irpoa-rvyxdyetvAfiKvvvai, iiriSetKvvi/at ........'E


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Contents. xiii

CHAPTER X.TTopa. SECTION

With Genitive, Dative, Accusative 128Implied superiority in its object 129Ilapa, meaning against, explained in contrast with Kara . .130

CHAPTER XI.iraph. IN COMPOSITION.

Literal application 131, 132"ZKivTi, (TKevdCeiu, irapcuTK-, KaraffK- . . . . . .133Used in morals 134Hapareiveiu.......... 135, 136TlapayiyviicrKeiv .......... 137'Aiviiy, iiraiVii', icapaiveiu ........ 138

CHAPTER Xn.dwb AND e'/C. OFF FROM, OUT FROM.

The notions offfrom and out from, compared and illustrated fromthe Greek 139, 140

Continued illustrations . . . . . . . . 141-143'hvh and e/c discriminated in tracing descent .... 144CHAPTER Xin.

Imh AND 6K IN COMPOSITION.'Airoirlirretv, iicirlirreiv ......... 145'Airo5t5


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XIV Contents.SECTION

'AiroKreivetv, KaraKrelvetv 162TtKeTf, airoTe\e7v, iKreKeiv 153, 154'I.K(()evyetv, uiro(pei>yeiv . . .155'E^Tiyi7(rdai, ar]ye7a6ai

.

156, 157'Airocpaluftv, iK(palveiv . . . . . . .158"Airodi56vai, iiriMSvai 159, 160, 161'AiroTeXttj', 7riT6A.eri/ . 162'AiraiTi7v, iiraiTelv . . . . .163Neither the Greek, nor the English, is a standard for the other . 164'Airb and imh ^65

CHAPTER XIV.eis AND il>.

'Ets, ip ; these two prepositions linked with e by law of contrast . 1 66'Ejj, into ; its primitive and secondary uses.... 167, 168'Eis and eV ; discrimination'EicrfioK-fj, >j3oA.6vs, eV Ty evufvixaj, eVi tou ivwvvfiov'EnfidWetv, iiafiaWfiv, iixôXr), irpoaPoXrj .'Eicr$d\\ftv, iuPdWetv, continued'EnPt^dCfiv, eiVjSf/SaC*'"! têir difference"EvS-qXos, /c57)\OS....'EKcpavris, ifx(pw{]s ......'EKdeiKvivai, iySuKvvvai'E7x'pe'*' ^^'^ iinxîpuv^ compared deductively .The deduction confirmed by usageTiryx''


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Contents. xvSECTION

nepl followed by the Dative; ikep never; the reason . . 188, 189Discrimination resulting from original suggestion in space . 190, 191Applied to a passage in Homer 192

CHAPTER XVI.irepl AND wrep IN COMPOSITION.

Intensive force 1^3Apparent contradictions IS'^j 195nept/ieVet*', ax'a/iefeij', Kara/Jieveiv ^"^n^piixefeiy, changed to ava/x, used of the same act ; the reason of

the change 197

CHAPTER XVII.ARE PREPOSITIONS INTERCHANGEABLE? 198-201

CHAPTER XVIII.afJKpi, ON BOTH SIDES OF, AROUND, ABOUT.

Its original meaning ; compared with irepl 202

CHAPTER XIX.irpS, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF.

Its original service 203, 204npb and vriptheir high service ethically .... 205

CHAPTER XX.(TVV AND fierd. TVITH, AMONG.

The discrimination illustrated 206-210


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xvi Contents.CHAPTER XXI.

Sia, THROUGH, ACROSS.SECTION

Its primary suggestion ; wide field for the Genitive . . .211Illustration of its use with the Genitive . . . . 212, 213Why 5o is not followed by the Dative 214Ajo with the Accusative 215Criticism of the Lexicon on II. 7 : 247 216Illustrations of ^ih. with the Accusative . . . . 217, 218Aia not always suggestive of the nearer and farther side : 5jo77e-

Aejj', irpo(ra77-, liflTi-t "0^077- . . . . .219AexefOai with Sjo, wa, Kara ....... 220'AvuKpiveiv, StayiyvwaKeiv, Siacpevyeiv ...... 221Atoxe'pe?*', eirjxeipeir, compared 222


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THE GEEEK PREPOSITIONS.CHAPTER I.

OF SPACE, ANB ITS SILEXT TEACHEJGS.1. The preponderance in language of words of

space gives them in usage rights which are not prima-rily their own. As sight is the chief of our senses,the tilings which are seen furnish the chief materialsin the formation of language. The discourse mayhave passed quite away from the sphere of visiblethings, but the speaker, none the less, borrows hiswords from this old, exhaustless storehouse, Wespeak of a space of time, a circle of years, of thestream of time flowing past us, or bearing us along.

2. The language of space lends itself to moralsan upright man, and an upright tower; a straightstory, and a straight stick, are phrases alike intelligi-ble. When a preacher once said : " Laban was acrooked fellow, but, then, Jacob was not square in hisdealings with him," he chose his words, not for theirbeauty, but for their special fitness to his thought.

3. By these frequent references in language to


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2 The Greek Prepositions.space, and to objects in space, we need not think ofspace tlirougli any definition by a physicist, or a meta-physician, or in any labored way at all ; but as feltand realized, everywhere and always, by the nnin-structed and the unthinking. Every person whogrows from infancy to maturity comes silently intopossession of "feelings about space and its objects towhich he may never give utteranceof which he mayeven be unconscious. These feelings seem to haveno recognition, or very little, in the completed lan-guage. But, in the formation of that language theyhave a work to do ; they shaped the speech, and, ifby wise and patient questioning we can find whatthese feelings were, we make a gain in the study ofthe language. It is not in poetry alone that " moreis meant than meets the ear." As sometimes we mayread between the lines of the printed page somethingthat does not meet the eye, so we may find under aword meanings that seem alien, and sometimes con-trary to its original importas refracted light ischanged by the medium through which it passes, andthe ends it is made to serve.

4. Language does not, in strictness of speech, ex-press thought, it only suggests. It is helpful, neveradequateexcept in the names of abstract numbers,and the terms of pure science. It requires in itssingle words that the student use imagination andreflection. "Without these he may learn the Diction-ary and the Grammar, but he will not understand.


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Of space, ajid its Silent Teachings. 3As we have not the Greek feeling and instinct, wemust endeavor by reflection, by questioning our re-sults, and by repeated trials, to gain for ourselvessomething of the feeling which the Greeks had bybirthright.

5. In studying the Prepositions in this spirit, weshall have no regard to alphabetical arrangement, norto the number of cases which the prepositions respect-ively may govern. Nothing of this chance andsecondary sort will furnish the opening by which toenter the field before us. "We shall begin with thesimplest and broadest notion in Space which l^aturepresents to human experiencethe notion of up anddoion.

6. A note of explanation, as between the authorand the student or the critic, may be due here to aidin a mutual understanding. In the derived meaningsof prepositions they are not allowed to dictate by vir-tue of their suggestions in space. They point theway, and raise the questionthe forecasting question,that is all. The answer in all cases comes from ex-amining the usage as found in the authors.

Illustrative examples from Greek authors are oftenabridged, or altered, for economy; preserving, how-ever, unimpared, whatever is necessary to elucidatethe case in hand.


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4 The Greek Prepositions.

CHAPTEE II.avh AND KaTa. UP AND DOWN.

7. The notion of simple motion upward gathersto itseK in human experience otlier notions, whichaccompany it by a necessity of nature. First^ suchmotion has a fixed place of departure, namely, thesurface of the earth. Secondly, the line of such mo-tion is into the pathless air, following no prescribedtrack, and leaving no trace behind it. Thirdly, suchmotion is against a constant power in nature, there-fore it requires force to produce it. Fourthly, it willstop of itself, at some undetermined point, and willreturn.

In like manner, simple motion downward sug-gests notions that go along with it. First, such mo-tion has no fixed, or definite, point of beginning.Secondly, it is natural, requiring no force to effect it.Thirdly, it has a fixed place of ending. Fourthly,the downward moving body remains where it stops.

8. These notions are not fanciful, or theoretic.They do not come from the reading of books, orthrough study of any sort. They are given in thecommon experience of human life; and every boybig enough to throw a stone knows them as well asa philosopher. In many minds they may never havecome into distinct consciousness ; but they are, nonethe less, there, doing their work ; and, beyond a


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Avci and Kara. Primarily Adverbial. 5

doubt, they have had a share in the formation ofevery language in the world.Our present study is to see what share they have

had in the formation of one small part of the Greeklanguage.

CHAPTER III.ava AND KaTa. primakily adveebial.

9. The grammatical term Adverb, when appliedto notions of space, is best explained by comparing itwith the term Preposition. This last wordfrom prcE2)onocarries the suggestion that it is placed beforeanother wordthat other word being a substantive orpronoun. This phrase, preposition and noun, are at-tached to the verb, the leading word in the sentence,to complete its meaning in that place. But there isanother term. Adverb, that by its form shows that itis the complement of the verb. What then is thedifference ? On what ground may the same word bein one place a Preposition, and in another place anAdverb % It is an Adverb when the noun needed tocomplete the sense is understood from the nature ofthe case without being spoken. When we say, to driveon, meaning to drive forward, we call on an adverb ;but it may be made a preposition by pressing for itscovert meaning; it means, to drive on the ground


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hefore you. lu tlie plirase to looTc around^ we callaround an adverb ; but if we say loolc around you,it means the same, but we call around a preposition.These examples show how these two parts of speechtrench on each other's ground, and by what an easydevice one may sometimes be changed into the other.The naming in these cases is less important than theinterpretation, for the last, if correct, will be sure tolead to the first.

10. As designations of motion simply up anddow7i, ava and Kara have only an adverbial force;and they are no more than this in many expressionsof space where they are followed by a noun, and arecalled prepositions. In the phrase, Holding a wreathup on a golden staff, ava (TK-rjirrpa (II. 1 : 15), thepreposition is adverbial, the Dative case being theusual case to denote definite or fixed position. Inthe phrases, ava poov, up stream ; Kara poov, downstream; ava KkifiaKa, up stairs; Kara Kklf^aKa, downstairs, the nouns appear as objects respectively of avhand Kara ; but these words are still adverbial in forcethe accusative case being the natural case to expressthe distance passed over.

11. In the expression, He sent the shaft, KaraaTrj6o


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Am and Kara. Primarily Adverbial. 7minates. So, to shoot an arrow, Kara o-kottov, is tosend it straight against the mark ; it can not fail tohit, and a machine might do this. The fact of straightmotion, terminated by the ma?'k, exhausts all there isin the expression. But the phrase, to shoot an arrow,Kara o-kottov, does not mean straight against the mark ;it means to shoot at it with the design to hit it. Itmay hit, or it may miss, and still be sent, Kara gkottov.An engine can not do this, for it has no brains. Hewho shoots, Kara aKoirov, will make allowance for thefall of the arrow, that is, its deflexion by gravitation ;and, for a side wind, if there be one. The Genitivehere is causative, showing the action of the mark onthe shooter, inciting to his endeavor. This makes thephrase perfectly clear. It is not, as the Lexicon saysTo^eveLv Kara (tkottov, " to shoot at, because the arrowfalls doitm uj^on its mark." This is misleading. Itwould imply that the end of the arrow's motion wasthe mark. This is not asserted. The end of thearrow's motion was the mark, if it was lucky enoughto hit it ; if not, it was something else which it did hit.The phrase suggests not the end of the arrow's motion,but the end of the shooter's shooting, namely, to hitthe mark. So, in the words to pour water, Kara xetpo?,upon the hands, the pith of the phrase is not to showthe way the water runs on the hands, but to show howthe careful servant that had the water behaved to theguest. If the water had been running on the handsfrom a spout, Kara %ei/309 would not have been used.


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8 The Greek Prepositions.We have been led unawares into positive state-

ments about cases, and tliese statements may seemdogmatic. They are not dogmatic at all. We havesimply accepted the hint of Nature, and following thathint we find we have in hand just the phrase thatmeets the case. The shaft sent Kara (TTi]6o


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Kva and Kara. Meanings derived from Analogy. 912. If the students asks, Why dwell on discrimina-tions in the thought that can not be expressed in

translation ? It would be a suflScient answer, if therewere no other, to say : It is for this very reason theyare presented and pressed on the attention. This isthe way to escape from bondage to words ; to learnhow to treat them as our servants and helpers, notour masters. Thought is nimble, words are clumsyand slow ; the student should patiently learn the bestthat these last can do as interpreters of the first.

CHAPTER ly.13. ava AND KWra. MEANINGS DEEIVED FEOM ANALOGY.

As objects naturally fall by the law of gravitation,the actions of men, when performed according to theirproper law^, have an analogy to motion downward,and are often designated by the aid of the prepositionKara. The proper law for a judge is to decideyws%,Kara ZUaiov. The proper law for a witness is totestify truly, that is, Kar a\y]6eiav. Cyrus saw thatthe Greeks were conquering all hefore them, ro Kad'avrov


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10 The Greek Prepositions.words, KaTo, is called on to do its part. Do not failto see the picturemore than a picturea picture inmotion. Do not encumber your memory with theformula that KaTa sometimes means hefore. Thiswould hinder more than it would help. Take intoyour thought the whole phrase, in this and in all likecases ; seize the picture it presents to the imagination ;express this in the best English you can command,and your work is done.A high authority translates to KaB" avrov^, the jpartover against them / this has a show of careful literal-ness, but the life and motion are all gone, good forthe posts of a gate-way, over against each other, butpoor for a battle. So much comes from misdirectednicety, from looking at each word by itself, and try-ing to make it do duty all alone.

Demosthenes says : ^(ofxev to kuO^ ;yu,a9 avTovi^ letus live in our own proper way ; the way of Mara-thon, and Salamis, and the noble times of the past,when each man did his duty. Here is a picture ofmotion along the path of a nation's life and history.

14. Do not be startled if you find yourself usingup where the Greek has Kara., as in this: there isno way over the mountain but Kara TavTr}v rijv oBov,hy that road., along that road, or up that road, forthe road was up hill over the mountain. But becausethat was the natural way, the Greeks made Kara servethe turn, drawing it over from its original meaningdoionwardy to serve a sense quite its opposite. See


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''Kva and Kara. Meatiings derived from Analogy. 11

Anab. 4 : 2, 8, Hearing the trumpet evQm levro avcoKara rrjv ^avepav 686v, they moved swiftly up alo?ig theojpen road ; the road led up hill, Kara points to thefact that that was the natural road for travel. See also4:6, 11, where Kara points to a road that led up-ward. So, ro^eveiv Kara riv6


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318). This cleansing was the predetermined end ofthe command ; tliere was no spot in the army thatwas not embraced in the command. It has an analogyto downward motion, as the shooting has an analogyto upward motion. To exchange the prepositionswould destroy the picture in either case.

Hounds pursued the game through the woods,'Xwpov av v\r)VTa ; they do not know their path, butfind or make it as they golike a body thrown upward.

The horse-tamer compels the wild horses to goalmig the road, Kad' 6h6v. The road is the knownway ;the path of a body freely falling is known : itis straight downward.

To stand up to a fight, "crraaOaL ava fxd-xrjv,avdis here doing its proper work ; nothing is more un-certain in its end than a fight, or more sure to callforth at each moment of its progress the whole powerof the actor.When Darius first made Avar against the Greeks(Hdt. 6 : 48), he sent messengers into Greece, ava rrjv'KSXdBa, to demand earth and water. It was a newcountry ; they explored it as they went, and did notknow the end of their journey till they came to itlike motion upward, tending to some undeterminedpoint of stopping ; hence the preposition dva. Butwhen Xerxes, at a later day (Hdt. 7 : 1), was preparingfor his great invasion, he sent to his subject cities,Kara TroXetV, for their contribution of men and sup-plies. These cities were known, and the demand was


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^hva and KaTOL. Meanings derived from Analogy. 13

in accordance with former usage. Tlie same fatherof history tells us that, when a King of Sparta dies,the magistrates send messengers through Laconiatlieir own country, well known, the journey com-pletely determined beforehand, like the path of afalling stone ; therefore Kara KaKovLKrjv.

17. From the above cases we may discriminatebetween the phrases ava ra.'; iroXea and Kara ra?TToXet?. The first suits the action of a traveler orexplorer, to whom the cities are not known before-hand, and who does not hnd the end of his journeytill he comes to it. Such action is like upward mo-tionthe end is not known beforehand. The second,Kara raa- TroXec^, implies a knowledge of the citiesbefore they are visited ; this is analogous to downwardmotion, having its end predetermined. A strangertraveling through all the rest of Greece^ ava iraaavrrjv 'EXkdSa (Hdt. 6 : 86, 1). Here are three things,in this stranger's journey, like upward motion ; hedid not know his road, but found it as he went ; hedid not know how far he should go, nor where heshould stop. Again (Hdt. 5 : 102), the fugitives werescattered, dva ra? TroXet?, each one going where hepleased ; like immigrants coming into a new countryto seek new homes, each for himself. But

" When wild war's deadly blast is blown,And gentle peace returning,"

then the soldiers return to their homes, Kar 61kov


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18. If we have taken our steps wisely tlius far,we can now walk a little by our o^vn light ; and saythat, when William the Conquerer sent his officersamong the cities of England to find out their re-sources, and so make up the Doomsday book, theywent ava ra? 'iro>\j^L


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''kva and Kwra. Meanings derived from Analogy. 1519. Both ava and KaTa are used witli numerals,but with a difference. 'Kva is used when the nu-

meral denotes a group made up for that occasion onljKara, when the numeral denotes a well-known group,as a dozen, a scorethe group being thought of as alarge unit. Luke 9 : 14, m.ake them sit down hyfifties, ava TrevTTjxovTa, because the number liftj wasa group made up for that occasion only ; the limit ofthe group was realized by countingno one knewwhere he belonged till he had been counted. Butin the Anab. we find groups of fifty formed underdifferent circumstances, and for a different end.They were wanted for daily service, were oiBceredand named, and were handled like large units. Theseacted Kara 7revr7]Kocrrv


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16 The Greek Prepositions.object is exhausted, and the motion ceases. Pre-cisely analogous to this is motion along the ground,as running, when the utmost effort is put forth ateach moment, without regard to the future. Thenatural end of such running is the exhaustion of therunner, as the natural end of a stone's motion thrownupward is the exhaustion of the force that sent it.This is not properly using the strength, but wastingit. To run Kara Kpdro


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'Am and Kara. Meanings derived from Analogy. 17

ivrdvOathey began to pursue Kara Kpdro


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18 The Greek Prepositions,

KaO" ojxlXov, aud of another man who, on the sameday, and into the same crowd, went dv ofiikov ; andwe are to examine, and see if the actions diifered, soas to invite and require the use of these prepositionsrespectively (II. III). The Trojans and tlie Greeksmade a truce, with the condition that Menelaus andParis should fight as champions for the two sidesrespectively; and thus decide the whole war.

Before the truce, however, on the same day, Parishad come forward alone and challenged the bravestof the Greeks to fight with him. Menelaus cameforth to meet him ; this took away his courage, andhe slunk back again into the crowd of Trojans, avTi


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'Ai/a and Kara in Composition. 19a stone falls ; thirdly ., he went to stay, and wouldhave stayed if he could, as a stone lies where it falls.We have then, in Paris's action, three marks of down-ward motion ; and the Greek mind by instinct tookthe preposition whose primary meaning was down.Let us now look at the action of Menelaus. First^he went away from his natural placehe went fromthe Grecian army, where he belonged, to the Trojansecondly, he did not know how far he should gohewas to go till he could find Paris ; thirdly, he wasgoing to return. All these are characteristics of up-ward motion (see 7, 8).

CHAPTER Y.ava AND Kara m COMPOSITION.

24. A ship sailing from a fixed place, the coast,forth into the pathless sea, has an analogy to an ob-ject sent up from the fixed surface of the earth intothe pathless air ; this invites the employment of thepreposition avd, and the action of the ship is denotedby the word dvayeaOai.

By a like analogy, to sail from the pathless sea tothe fixed land is expressed by KaropfeadaL. The Gre-cian reader or hearer may never have seen a ship, orstood by the sea-side ; but he has a model of thought,


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'Am and Kara in Composition. 21avriKe. ^ol^o


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a thing, or a creature, is quite at rest, its natural stateis down, Kara (men and stones are here alike) ; andto keep it from acting is to Jceep it where it isthatis, down, Kareêtv. But when a creature acts, whetherman or heast, his acting becomes, for the time, hisnatural state, and anything contrary or opposed tothis finds expression in ava, the opposite of Kara.

28. UaveaOai, to pause ^ avairaveadaL implies thatthe suspended action will be resumed when the causethat interrupted it shall be removed ; as a fallingstone, if stopped, will fall again if the power thatstopped it is withdrawn. Homer says (II. 17 : 550),winter suspends the works of men, avkiravae ; theworks will go on again when spring returns. If thestopping is final the verb is KarairaveLv.

29. Meiêty, to remain, dvafjueveiv, to re7nain for atime, that is, till some transient ground for remainingis taken away to await, wait for, as to wait for theday, avafxeveLv ^w ; ava suggests transiency, becausethe power that holds up a thing from falling is nat-urally thought of as transient ; Kara/jueveiv, to remainpermanently (Cyri. Insit. 1 : 4). His mother wentaway, but Cyrus remained {Karifieve) and was edu-cated there.

30. Aeêcrâi, to receive, avaSexâdai,, to catch,arrest something on its flightas arrows upon a shield,blows upon the body : Karahe-xeaOat, to receive per-manently, as principles in the soul ; banished citizensto their homes ;these are received to remain, as


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'Ava and Kara in Composition. 23stones are received on the ground to remainbutblows received on the shield, or on the body, do notstay. II. 5 : 619, the shield caught many a javelin,avelk^aro. We may say, then, that when a companyof ball-players adojpt rules for their playing, the verbis Karalk')(e.(jQaLthese rules are to be permanent;but when in practice one of them catches the ball inits flight, the verb is avalkx^aQai ;the ball does notremain up.

31. To know, yiyvcocrKeiv ', KarayLyvcoa-Keiv, to knowwhat one has a special interest in knowing. The actKUTor/ always implies some standard of judgment al-ready in the mind ; and the resnlt of the act is alwaysto place the object in a class. This is like downwardmotion, tending to a preappointed end. 'Avayiyvcoa-Keiv (1) does not mean, as the Lexicon says, to knowwell, know certainly ; (2) it does not denote a moraljudgment, which Kararf often does ; (3) it suggestsdifllculty of knowing, and in this fact it has an anologywith upward motion ; (4) the knowledge it predicatesis pictured as springing from the shrewdness and witof the knower. The student who faithfully studiesthe famous 47th Prop, in Euclid, and so knows it, hasnot a knowledge expressed by avay.

32. As motion up, ava, is contrary to nature, thatis, to the natural power of gravitation, and requiresforce to effect it, actions which compel things, or per-sons, contrary to their natural state, or bent, are de-scribed by aid of this preposition. The spear's point


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'Am and Kara in Composition. 25you will observe, amounts to the same tiling, for re-laxing the will lets the head fall forwardarousingit in opposition throws the head back (see Sec. 7, 3).In this way we may understand the phrase in Xen.Convin., ch. 3, yucCh/i ae^vo)


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it is begun in act ; as to begin a battle that has beenplanned beforehand ; to begin a public sacrifice, orcelebration, that is to proceed by a prescribed order.The beginning of an action that has not been thoughtout before is not expressed by Karapx^Lv. Cyri. Inst.1 : 4, 4, Cyrus, when a youth, would select out, i^îpx^^jthose exercises in which he knew himself to be defi-cient, and lead, Karijpxev, his associates through theexercisesleaping on the horse, throwing the dart,etc. The course of exercises was all in his mindwhen he beganhence Kara.

Mem. 2 : 3, 11, If you wîshed to win over one of themen of mark, so that, when he had an entertainment,he should invite you, how would you act ? / icouldbegin, KardpxotP'i, by inviting him, when I had anentertainment. The end was in view from the be-ginninghence KUTa. Socrates began a song, rjpx^v&)8^9, there was no forethought called for, onlymemory ; therefore the simple verb is used. After-wards he began his argument anew, Karfjpxe ; hisargument was directed at every step to reach theforethought conclusion.

36. Whenever the end is mentally seen from thebeginning, then the beginning is naturally expressedby Kardpxî-v, whether it be beginning of a campaignin war, or of a dinner with its prescribed coursesor of a public celebration, or a school examination, ora day's work planned by the master, on the farm, orin the shop.


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'Am and Kara in Composition. 2737. Aeti', to -want, to lack ; KaraSecv, to come short

of a fixed standard (Hdt. 2 : 13i). He left a pyramidmuch smaller than his father's, it lacked twenty feet,eXKOCTi irohwv KaraSeovaavKara points to the pyra-mid of Cheopsthe greatest ; and, hence, the ac-cepted standard, to which other pyramids were to becompared.38. ÂvaSei/cvvvac, to show hy lifting up, or bysome equivalent token, as the opening of gates ordoors, that all may seeraising a concerted signal,making proclamation : KaTdBeiKvvvat, to discover andmaJce known some important truth or art, prized byall as a possession (Hdt. 4 : 42). " JSTecos was the firstwho made known, KaTaSelâ^, that Libya, Africa,was surrounded by wâter, except . . ." So Columbuswas the first who shotced, KaTaSeiâ


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28 The Greek Prepositions.with the belief or hope that the ore contains gold, hesearches and finds that, his finding is expressed byKoraiiavQavuv.

Cyrus, fond of learning, was ever inqidring ofthose about him how things were, ael tou? 'rrap6vTa


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'Am and Kara in Composition. 2940, To search., ^T/reti/ ; ava^rjTeiv, to examine athing to see what one can find in it. Socrates (Apol.

ch. 2) says that his accusers charged him with search-ing into evei'ything under the earth, ra viro 77)9 airav-ra dve^7]T'r]K(i)


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30 The Greek Prepositions.body into its unknown elements, and so find whatthose elements are ; orto take a live exampletoanalyze dynamite, and find what it is made of.KaraXveiv, to separate the known parts of a thing,and so destroy the thing, as a bridge, the frame of ahouse, a government.

42. The verb Kadopav is sometimes said to meanthe same as the simple verb opav, and it is said some-times to mean to see cleai'ly / these statements aremisleading. It means to see what you are lookingforwhat you have a special interest in seeing. Ifone loses a jewel, and searches for it, he may see ahundred other things, and ever so clearly ; thus farhis seeing is expressed by the simple verb opav ;but, when he sees what he was looking for, it isKaQopav}

Xerxes, looking towards the shore, surveyed hisland forces and his ships (Hdt. 8 : 44). Looldng to-wards., Kadopavit was in order to see, and therebydetermine the great question before him, that he or-dered the survey.

The looking was indeed down, from the tower,but this is not the emphatic thing in the action.

KOpo? Kadopa Tov ^acrCkea, koX Xero iir avrov,' Even where the seeing is clear, the indispensable condition justi-

fying the use of kutci, is that the seeing answers an important ques-tion. In Romans 1 : 20, KaOopuTai, the invisible things of Him areclearhj seen, the seeing answers the most important of all possiblequestions.


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'Ai/a and Kara in Coinposition. 31

Cyrus sees the king and rushed upon him (Anab.1 : 9). He was looking for the king ; the moment hesaw him, the action of looking for him ceased andgave place to another. Here the looking or seeingwas not down, but Kara is called for none the lessthe seeing ended a question already in the seer'smind.When those in front came upon the height andsaw the sea, a great shout arose ; Karhhov rr]v 6d\array (Anab. 4 : 7, 21). Well might a shout arise atthis lonor-wished sio-ht. Observe that a little before,when the guide promises to lead them to a placewhere they would see the sea, he uses the simple verb,o-yfrovrat ry-jv duXarravhe had no longing for thesightand so he did not need Kadopdv to express histhought.

They sent out scouts, to the right and left, and onthe hills, that, if anywhere they should see anything,in any direction, they should signal it', ei irov riiroOev KaOopwev arifidivoiev ; they went for the solepurpose of seeing, therefore Kara.

It may be said that the looking in this case wouldbe a looking down, and that this is all that Kara means.This is quite a mistake. Even if the looking weredown, that is not an essential point in the act ; it waswhat they should see and not how they should belooking when they saw it, that was to determine theirfuture action. But it was by no means certain thattheir looking would be down. If, when half way up


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32 TJie Greek Prepositions.the heights, they had seen the enemy on ground abovethem, the action would be KaOopav, just as much as ifthey had climbed to ground above the enemy, andfrom there looked down upon them. See (14) KararavTTjv 686v.

43. The Adjective Kara


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'Ai/a and Kara in Composition. 33mixture, fulfilling no predetermined end, a little moreor less of either ingredient does not matterthereforeavd. Anab. 7 : 2, 3, After a time they mixed withthe people in the cities, and made their home thereKarefiir/vvvTo. The mixing was final, securing the endof peaceful living together.

Horses mingling in a race, dvafxiyvv/Mevoi (Soph.El. 715). Not a purposed mingling, but comingabout by chance, each horse doing his besthencedvd.

II. 24 : 529, To ivhomsoever Zens giveth a m.in-gled lot, a> jiev k diJb^l^a


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34 The Greek Prepositions.In Anab. 4 : 85, 25, iraiha aKwv KaraKxavcov, thenatural suggestion that the death was designed isforestalled by the word d/cwv. When death comesby sentence of the law, the end sought is not thedeath but the vindication of the law and theverb is Krelveiv, sometimes airoKTelveLv ; but thislast carries a special suggestion, which will betreated of in its place. 11. 6 : 409, Soon theAchaians will slay thee, KaraKraveovatv. The kill-ing would be in deadly conflictit would be theend sought.

But see II. 15 : 587, Like a wild beast that hathdone some evil thing, having slain a dog or a herds-man, Kvva KTiva


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'Am and Kara in Composition. 35purposea purpose limited and complete in thoughtbefore it is begun in act/A single passage (Herod. 2 : 75) seems at first view-to conflict with this position ; but it is, in fact, con-firmatory of it. The story is that the Ibises do notlet the winged serpents pass by them and come intothe land, but kill them, KaraKTeiveLv. The Ibis wasregarded as divine ; it was therefore raised above thebrute condition, and made capable of forming an in-telligent purposetherefore, of doing the act, Kara-KTelvGLv here is attributed to it.

47. v^aK6ip, to die I KaraOvrjaKeiv, to die at thehands of one who purposes to killthe outward actfulfilling a purpose formed beforehand; to die notby disease, nor by accident, nor by old age, nor bysentence of the law. II. 22 : 355, Hector dying, Kara-Ov^^cTKwv, by the hands of Achilles, who meant to killhim.

II. 21 : 106, Achilles to Lykaon, a suppliant, diethou also, Odve koI av ; KarOave koI UdrpoKXo'i,

' Such, at least, seems to have been the Greek opinion, so far as Ihave been able to gather it in reading. Perhaps the reading has beendefective ; but I have preferred not to wait for an impossible leisure,but note the point as possibly marking one of the hiding-places ofGreek thought.

In any case, the opinion here ventured invites no reference tomodern Biology ; nor does it impair the honors of those rare creaturesof ancient storycompanions of maninspired or trained

" Who bear a memory and a mind,Raised far above the law of kind."


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36 TJie Greek Prepositions.

Patroklos also died. Observe how vapid would bethe phrase if Kara were omitted here. It wouldmean only that Patroklos died, as all men die, per-haps in his bed. Note also how the imperative, 6dve,asks no help from Kara ; the lifted arm told the pur-pose (II. 21 : 106, 107).

II. 7 : 89, There is the tomb of a champion whodied in the days of old, whom glorious Hector slew /died, KaTaredvriwTO^ ; slew, KareKrave ; Kara pointsto the deadly conflict which made the fallen heroworthy of a monumental tomb.

48. *Aya and Kara may serve to express the samegeneral idea through different pictures to the imagi-nation. Xen. Cyr. 1 : 1, Arj/jLOKparlai KarekvOiqa-av,democracies have heen overthrowti ; oXijapxtai, dv^-p-qvrai, oligarchies have heen overthrown;the firstsuggests the idea of a structure demolished ; the sec-ond, of a thing taken up and borne away ; the ideaof destruction is virtually in both.

CHAPTER YI.eiii, ON, UPON.

49. EvEKYTTiTNO is 011, OT yj)on., something by forceof gravitation. When the object njyon which a thingcomes, or on which it rests, is named, we have a nounin hand, which requires a preposition to introduce it,


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'EttI, on, upon. 37

and show its relation to the words before it. Thispreposition is enri The object on^ or n/pon whichmotion is arrested, is put in the Accusative. To fall071 the ground, iirl to BaTreSov, to seat one's seK upona throne, iirl dpovov The picture to the thought isthat of power passing from the subject of the verb tothe object of the preposition. The primary power inspace is that of gravitation ; its direction is perpen-dicular ; and impact, or pressure is its unvarying con-comitant.

50. But not much of human power is spent in aperpendicular direction. Men usually employ theirstrength in movements along the surface of the earth,and not in motions icp and down. We must there-fore be ready to shift this path of power, if we wouldfind eVt fruitful with human uses, and from perpen-dicular make it horizontal, whenever we find the linesof action run in that direction.

51. Before doing this, however, we will note theaccompanying notions which eirl always carries withit. First, the object which falls upon another exertspower upon it by impactthat is, by the accumulatedforce of gravitation suddenly arrested. Secondly, theobject that rests upon another continues to exertpower upon it by the continued force of gravitationin other words, by its own weight.These are not ingenious statements, thought outto help a theory ; they simply state the facts. Noeffort is put forth, no step is taken in the physical


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38 The Greek Prepositions.world where tlie power of gravitation does not ^oalong with it, aiding, guiding, or obstructing and de-feating :and eVt is one of the witnesses in the Greeklanguage of this constant, inevitable power. Ourstudy is, first, to note the facts ; and, then, to drawall fair deductions from them.

52. If now we shift the direction of power, as weproposed to do, and, instead of up and doion, make ithorizontalalong the level earth where living creat-ures with man have their homewe do not therebydismiss eVt, the old witness of gravitation, but wetake it with us into this new field, and allot to it awider, and more varied service.

53. The power, ever at work or ready for work,is not here the power of gravitation ; but, in thedumb creatures, it is the animal instincts and habitsin man it is the whole range of the passions and as-pirations, the hopes and fears that rule his life. Butin both spheres, brute and rational, eVt carries thesuggestion of power of some sort, physical or mentaland the object of the preposition is in the Accusative.They came to the river^ cttI tov irorafiov, to cross itthey came to the clt>/, eVt rrjv ttoXlv, to take it, orenter it.

54. If the movement be a journey from a distantplace, carrying the suggestion of the purpose andhope to reach, rather than of the realization, thenthat distant object is in the Genitive: to sail forGreece, eV 'EXTuiSo^ ; for home, eV oUov ; he legem


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'Em, on, upon. 39to lead them into line of lattle, v^-q^eno eVl ^aXar/yo


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40 The Greek Prepositions.as, he was sent eVt ttjv ap^nv, to his jprovince, to ruleit ; to go eVl to, oifka^ to their arms, to take themhe went eVt r^y 6vpav, to the door, to open, or shutit ; they went iirl rb hehrvov, to their dinner, to eatit ; thej went eVt tou? iroXe/jitovi, against the enemy,to assault them.

58. The object of eVt, commonly pictured as life-less, may be in fact not lifeless, or passive ; but anyactivity it may have will be derived from the natureof the case, and will not be suggested by the phrasewhere it is introduced by eirl.

The treatment of eirl is here suspended, to be re-sumed in a comparison of it with prepositions whichfollow.

CHAPTER YII.v'jro, under; accessoky notions.

59. The notion expressed by under, vtto, takesalong with it other notions which accompany it by anecessity of nature and experience. First, of all itcarries the suggestion of its correlative on, or over,iirl, or virep. Nothing can be under which has notsomething on, upon, or over it.

60. Secondly, this correlation of under with on,or over, naturally suggests a comparison ; that whichis under is thought of as inferior to that which is on.


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'Ttto, Under ; Accessory Notions. 41or over it. Thirdly, that whicli is under is in a de-gree withdrawn from the light. As light comes fromabove, that which is under something must of .neces-sity receive a less degree of light than that which ismer or ujpon it. It follows from this that viro readilylends itself to express the notions of retirement, con-cealment, deceit.61. That which is under is naturally thought ofas passive to the pressure of that which is upon itsometimes subdued, crushed, destroyed by it ; as, forexample: the blossom under the stone that is laidujpon it ; the snail trodden under the foot of the ox.

62. But that which is under has some power ofresistanceand this may become to the imaginationthe leading feature of the picture ; as, Milo the athletestood under the weight of the full-grown ox. Herethe power of life countervails the downward pressureof gravitation. But lifeless things may give the samesuggestionas, for example : the post under the cor-ner of the house sujDported the wall above it.

63. We will next look at the cases which xtkogoverns ; these are just as many as the ways in whichthe position under can be presented to our thoughtand these are three.

64. Firsts the position under, vTrb, may be sug-gested without regard to the coming into that posi-tion, or the leaving of it. II. 2 : 307, We were offeringhecatombs beneath a pla7ie tree, irrrb ifkaravCarm ;under the wall, i. e., near the wall, v'tto Teixei (H.


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42 The Greek Prepositmts.

21 : 27Y). These pictures, and those like them, nat-urally take the dative case after viro, as the case ex-pressive of position. Sometimes the verb impliesmotion, but the act looks forward to the position andrest that shall follow ; II. 14 : 24, He shall place afootstool for the feetliterally, under the feet, viroTToaiv.

The dative after vtto sometimes expresses the au-thor, instrument, or agent ; Od. 3 : 304, BeBfiTjro 8eXao9 VTTO avTM, and the people loere snhdued underhim. II. 15 : 637, icpS^rjdev vcj) "EKTopi, they wereput in fear hy Hector. II. 11 : 121, Themselves alsowere filled with fear hefore the At'gives, xnr ^Apyetoiai.

65. Secondly, the position tender, vtto, may be theend of a motion in space ; as, vtto aireo'i rfkaae p/qka,he drove his flocTcs into the cave. This form of ex-pression takes the accusative case after virb.

As the dative after viro is sometimes used withverbs of motion, so the accusative after utto sometimesdenotes position merely. 11. 2 : 603, ^ApKahlav vttoKvX\,}]vr)


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'Ttto, Under ; Accessory Notions. 43rescue tlie sons of the Achaians from the war-dinof the Trojans^ viro Tpcocov opvfjLcuySov ; virb, fromunder.

Motion into or under is followed by the genitivein the phrase e7(w lov [loyXov vnb airohov rp^jdca7roWrj


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44 TJie Greek Prepositions.(Od. 14 : 464). To each dam he put its young to suck,VTT efi/3pvov r)Kv kKaary (Od. 9 : 309). He hath sentwoes upon the Ai'gives, ir]Kev (11. 1 : 445). Sub-mitting the body to pains, v^elaa (Eur. Med. 24).Observe in the above example the suggestion ofpower in eVl, and of subordination in vtto.

69. ^'Apx^i'Vy to be first in doing a thing / as tolead is chai'acteristic of a ruler, the word comes nat-urally to mean to rule j iirdp-xeiv, to ride overexercise authority upon a particular district ; %6opa9eVap^ct) 7ro\Xr]


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'Ttto, Under ; Accessory Notions. 45

But evil for evil is more common in history. Hdt.1 : 5, I sliall point out the one who legan aggressionsagainst the Greeks, top vTrdp^avra uBlkcov epytov e? roix;"EWrjva^. Hdt. 4:1, Darius wished to be revengedon the Scythians, who, in days gone by, had invadedMedia and so began the guarrel, vTnjp^av a8iKLr}


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46 The Greek Prepositions.me ! literally, away from binder me ! For, to a livingcreature, motion forward against what is before himis as natural as striking on what is under it is to a fall-ing stone. 'Ett* and vrro play their parts in thishorizontal direction, as they did primarily in the per-pendicular ; motion against something is eVt, andthat which obstructs it is utto. 11. 5 : 885, He assailedme with the might of a god, but my swift feet boreme out of his reach^ virrjveLKav, literally, hare fromunder. Anab. 3 : 4, 48, Toi


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would give any orders ; riding up^ v7reKda-a


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48 TJie Greek Prepositions.

go, while I am left behind ; or do thou remain^eTrlixeuvov, and I will go ; eVt points to the pui-pose ofthe action, which was in the minds of both.

Od. 11 : 351, Let the stranger be patient, much ashe desires to return, and wait, iirlfietvov, until themorrow, till I shall have filled the full measure of thegift. The waiting is for an object in the mind ofthe speakernamely, to make up the full measure ofthe gift. Had the waiting been a halt upon a marchto be resumed as a matter of course on the morrow,the verb would not be eVt/i., but dvafi (see Sec. 7).

So, II. 6 : 340, Wait, iTrlfievov, till I put on myarmor ; iirl looks forward to the object to be gainedby waitingnamely, the putting on of the armor ; itis a note beforehand showing that there is an objectto be gained by waiting. It is therefore in thethought a connective, and would have no right to be,but for the phrase that follows. The preposition andthe following phrase are in fact correlatives. Thatwe cannot suggest this play of thought in a neatEnglish phrase is true here, as in countless other ex-amples. But let us not refuse to learn the Greekbecause we cannot always translate it exactly intoEnglish.

73. If the conqueror jnits the yoke iipon the con-quered, iiriTLOevai, the conquered bea/r it, inro^epetv ;if in battle one side moves upon the other, iTrcevai,eTrepxeo-Oai, e-rrLTriiTTeiv, the other side hold the rela-tion uTTo, under. If they accept the assault, we say


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virohexovrai ; if thej flee from under it, v'iTO(pevyov-cnv.

The study of eVt is suspended here to be resumedin a comparison of it with the preposition irpo'i.

14:. The compound i^rjjeladai (see by anticipationPrep, e/c) suggests that the leading has its source in thesubject of the verb; vcfjrjyeladaL presents the leaderas subordinate to some other person, or power, or tosome ulterior object of his own ; he leads as thecolonel under instructions leads his regiment intobattle ; he leads as the hare leads the hounds ; as thefugitive leads his pursuer ; as the pioneers, markingout and clearing the road, lead the army.

Thuc. 1 : 78, If you are determined to have war,we will do our best to avenge ourselves on you, inthe way in which you set us an example, vc^rjyrjaOe :the threat of retaliation places the leading of theenemy under a law, or conditionnamely, that asthey did so it would be done to them. Their leadingis no longer freeit is not i^yeiadai, but is underthe shadow of this threat, which would tend to tem-per and restrain it ; it is v(f>'r)


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way they sJiould lead, i^rjyecovrat ; liere tLe loniansact from their own arbitrary choice ; the other partyaccept their action and conform their o^vn to it.

Anab. 2 : 1, 18, o Be K\eapxo


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11/309, To, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 51reason, and the free will, whicli must at last, assovereign, decide the question of life and death. Itis just because that Socrates in this stress made thesovereign choice to die that he is a monument forremembrance and cheer, through the ages, for alltried and tempted souls.

CHAPTER yill.7rpo9, TO, TOWAEDS, NEAE TO, FACE TO FACE.Y7. Few things are more wearisome than to read

about 7r/?o9 in the Lexicon, There are endless exam-ples, but no interpretation^no clew to guide the in-quirer. It is said to mean motion to or motion from,or rest in a place^ and many things besides. The onlyresource is in guessing, and trying, till one's commonsense tells him he has guessed right.

78. We shall prosper best in this study, if weregard irpo^ as introducing us at once into human re-lations. The prepositions ava, Kara, viro, and eVt, intheir primary meanings, may have a pretty wide rangeof use without any reference to human beings. Notso 7r/309, if our view is right. It presents, primarily,the picture of one person facing another. It is theservitor of communion between man and mantheusher that introduces one soul to another ; whence is


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52 The Greek Prepositions.rendered possible tlie family, society, the state.^ Fromthis first meaning 7rj0O9 comes naturally to mean nearto, this being the relation in space of persons whomeet face to face.

79. When man meets his fellow man it is prima-rily for converse, and implies a reciprocal action onthe part of the person met ; irpo't is the prepositionthat connects the action with its personal object inthis form of human intercourse. 'EttI presents itsliving object as if it were lifeless ; tt/jo?, neverandoften it makes alive to the imagination what is, in it-self, lifeless ; this eVt never does. To say Trpo? Tpwa?lidx^aOai implies that the Trojans fight back ; toshoot 7r/)09 Tei^o? implies that the wall has somethingto donamely, to repulse the shafts thrown againstit ; the wall is in fact the defensive armor of the cityit was built to do the work of defense.

80. IT/JO? (TTf]Oo


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11/309, To, Towards, Near to, Face to Face. 53lie were pretty dulljust as a painter, if dull, mayput two objects into a picture and not harmonizethem. 11/309 harmonizes the picture, it is a note be-forehand, showing that the act is to have its issue insome quality residing in the object of the preposi-tion ; or, to put it briefly, hit aTy]Qo


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54 TJie Greek Prepositions.tion and reaction are equal, but in the realm of feelingthey may be very different.

83. In the story of Ulysses in the cave (Od. IX),the Cyclops, grasping two of the visitors, swung themhigh and dashed them on the ground^ ttotI (7rpo9) jair}KOTrre. Here the action, to the imagination, passesquite over from the subject of the verb to the objectof irpo


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n/)09, To, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 55to its owii liurt, therefore 77/369. They leaned theirchariots against the walls, irpo^ ivcoirtaleaned themthat they might be supportedthe walls reacted andheld what was leaned against them.

86. They fight against each other, 7rp6


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56 The Greek Prepositions.89. But, it may be asked, did the Greeks tliink

of all this ? Probably they thought nothing about it,but spoke from habitjust as a well educated personuses, in English, the words sTiall and will., correctlyfrom habit, while a foreigner learning English mustreflect. Just as little did Xenophon need to bethinkhim of the distinction between eVt and 77/309, whenhe used them both, each in its place (Anab. 3 : 4).Think, soldiers, you are on your way nowfor Greece.,to your children and your wives, eVl rrjv 'EWaSa,7r/309 TOL"? 7ralSa


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11/909, To, Totvards, Near To, Face to Face. 57looked and examined. If Xenophon had been in-structing the groom in his duties, and had told him,when he had finished one part to go to the rest of theiody, he would have said eVt to aXko o-w/xa. Ob-serve, in every case, iirl denotes some form of powerif only the power involved in a steadfast gazepassing from the agent to the object ; tt/jo? suggestssome form of reciprocal action, or a susceptibility forit, passing from the object to the agent.

93. To go against the enemy^ lirX tou9 irdkejjilov'i ;also 7r/909 Tov


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58 The Greek Prepositions.Great stones which were rolled off the precipice,

fell upon the rocks, and were dashed in fragments.Upon the rocTcs, is it eTri ra^ irerpa^, or 7rpo9 ra


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11/309, To, Towards, Near To, Face to Face. 59are direct deductions, and are confirmed by all theusage.

Anab. 1 : 8, Thexj struck with the shields upon thesjoeai'S, Tdt


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60 The Greek Prepositions.harbor^ eVl rov au^iakhv irpo'i tm Xi^evi ; iifl with gen.indefinitely uj)onsomewhere on, irpo^ with dat. near.Note here how each of the prepositions has itsown special meaning, which cannot be expressed bythe other. 'EttI is primarily the servitor of gravita-tion ;it pictures downward motion arrested. Sec-ondarily, therefore, it serves all motions that arenatural in their place, and thus have an analogy todownward motion. ISTow, an army marching towardthe sea is stopped at the shore as surely as a fallingstone is stopped by the earth on which it strikes.11/009 could not carry this suggestion ; nor could eVlserve the turn of 7r/)09. The thing w'hich moves 07i,eirl, does not stop till it strikes ; it cannot denotemerely near to. In the expression : " Behold I standat the door, iirl ttjv 6upav, and knock," the prepositionand noun, along with the verb, does not of itself givethe picture of impact, but it is pregnant with thatnotion, and the notion is made explicit by the addedwords Kol Kpouo).

102. In the implied converse of two persons, sug-gested by 7rpo9, we observe that there is no impact,nor contact ;the parties introduced by 7r/)09 are onlynear to each other; hence this preposition comes toexpress the idea of nearness ; Trpb^ rfj yfj vavfiaxetv,the ships fought near the land (Thuc. 7 : 34). When,however, Xenophon says (Hell. 4 : 8, 1), at 7rpo


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'EttI and 7rpo


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62 The Greek Prepositions.tive, hreêiv rov Bpo/xov, to cease froin running^ lit-erally, to hold on, that is, on the ground where youare. Let us now pass to nrpoaex^w.

The Persians beseiged Barca nine months, miningunderground, as well as fighting above. A wise mandiscovered their secret work in this way : He laid ahrazen shield on the ground, irpo(Tea')(e aairiha irpo'iTO MireBov (Hdt. 4: : 200), and applied his ear ; whereverthere was digging going on underneath, he would per-ceive it by the murmur of the shield. Here is nosuggestion of power from the man to the ground, butrather the other wayhe waited for something tocome from the ground through the shield to himtherefore 'irpo(7e')(eiv, not eTri-xêLv.105. We can apply the hand to the door to openit, we can apply the ear to the door to listen / in theone case the verb is eVe^êty, in the other, it is Trpoa--e'xjeiv. The physician puts his hand upon an arteryto stop the circulation, e7re;êt rrjv %ei/ja ; or, tofeel thepidse, 7rpoa6-)êt rrjv êtpo..

106. Hdt. 1 : 53, Croesus sent gifts to the shrine,and thereupon aslced for a response, eTretpdoraiirlpoints to the ground on which he askednamely, thegifts he had sent.

107. Socrates being asked, epwrco/iew?, said, etc.,and heijig asked further, '7rpoaepcop,6po


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'ETTt and Trpof in Composition. 63

need, as the basis or ground of having more instruc-tion.Zeus hethought him, fivy^aaro, of Aegisthus, whom

Orestes slew ; and thinking of him, eiri^ivqadek, hesaid . . . : when the verb is used the second time, ittakes on eVl; this shows what it was in Aegisthusthat Zeus was thinking ofnamely, how he had beenslain. When the verb was used the first time, thatfact had not been mentioned, therefore eVl wouldhave been unintelligible ; to omit it in the second in-stance would render the phrase vapidit would showthat the poet had lost himself, and could not followup his own thought.

108. 'E-TTt sometimes looks forward to a phraseimmediately following that justifies and requires itsuse. Xen. Conviv. 4 : 4, All states inquire of thegods what they must do, eireparoiav rov'i 6eov


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64: The Greek Prepositions.hrX points forward to the matter they were to con-sider.

109. Again (Xen. Mem. 2 : 1, t), Since you knowthe proper rank of each of these classes, ham you everconsidered this, r)h7] iror eVecr/ceilrco, et? irorepav, etc.,into which of these chisses you might fitly place your-self ? 'Etti points forward to the thought in the fol-lowing phrase ; just as the word this in the translationlooks forward to the j)hrase which follows, and serves,therefore, in thought, to connect the two parts of thesentence ; eVl does for the Greek mind just what thisdoes less neatly for the English mind. Does any onethink that this is forced and fancifula queer sort ofequationto make a preposition just equal to a pro-noun, so that sometimes one may be substituted forthe other? If one thinks so, he is more particularthan the Greeks themselves, for they did this verything. Eead again (Mem. 1 : 2, 10), BovXei ovv koLTovro a-Ke-^cajxeOa, iroTepot. Then, if you will, let usconsider this, whether, etc. Here we have the equa-tion before us, drawn from the same page : a-Ke^fraaOai,rovTo ; TTorepoL = einaKk^^acrdai eU Trorepav.

Ileb. 12 : 15, eTrtcr/coTroOz^re? yu,?; rt? varrepCov . . . ,looking (eVi) to it. This is the exact form of thethought in the Greek, eVt looks forward to what is inthe next phrase.'

' It does not follow that " looking to it " is the best possible trans-lation, for the bit of phrase to it has lost cast a littlehas become toocolloquial for the seriousness and dignity of this place. Not every


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'EttI and irpo^ in Composition. 65

So in II. 2 : 198, ov k^lvpoi ôwvra, eiri looks tothe action expressed bj ôwvTa as its basis. He didnot go about aimless till by chance he met some onebrawling; but he heard a brawling first, and thenwent for it ; eVt fixes the perspective of the picture.

Cyri. Inst. 1 : 3, ^FiTreXeXrja-de TravraTraat, au re otIâaL\ev


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66 The Greek Prepositio7is.minds, and that made the forgetfulness of it note-worthy. To say in translating, almost forgot myselfis inadequate ; * to say scarcely recognized myself isworse, for it amounts only to saying, " they did notdraw a true picture of me " ;and it misses entirelythe characteristic humor and pathos.

111, Cyri. Inst. 1 : 4, And Cyrus learned readilyall that had been taught him (about rough ground)but when he saw the deer he rushed forward, einXa-66/j,vo


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'Etti and irpcx; in Composition. 67

Lucian's Dial.,'' Aphrodite and Eros," Helios is com-

plained of as eTTiXekr^a-ixevov t^)? I'mraaiu'i,forgettinghis duty as charioteer ; it was a forgetting of some-thing he was bound to rememberhence eirl point-ing to the particular thing in which he forgot him-self.

113. 'Etti may suggest what is gracious and assur-ing. II. 1 : 528, The son of Kronos spake, and noddedhis dark brow, iTrevevae ; he nodded in confirmationof his word that had just been given. Observe, thatthis was the famous nod where all Olympus wasshakentoken of irreversible decree, whose properword is KuraveueLv. Why then not Karaveveiv here ?Because that went without saying ; it had been saidand settled that the nod, when given, should be ofthat sort. If then we may throw off Kara, why notthrow off eVt, using the simple evevae ? Because thatwould leave the word afloat, and all it signified. 'EttIknits the act into the web of the story, showing itsrelation with what goes before. An ancient critichas said that Homer was sometimes drowsy, andnodded. However that may be, he certainly was notdrowsy here ; he said just what he meant.

The gay woman who came to Hercules in hisdoubts (Mem. 2 : 1, 22), as she approached him, kutota-KoireLcrdai Oafjua eavTrjv, often surveyed herselfKwradenoting the perfect repose she felt when looking atherself ; eTna-KOTrelv 8e zeal eX tl


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68 The Greek Prepositions.serving her ; eVl looks forward to the followingphrase, as expressing the thing she was looking for.

114. To ask, heg, ahelv ; to demand, that is, toask on the basis of some ground or reason that justi-fies the asking, eiranelv. Oed. Tjr. 14 : 16, wv eirav-Tet9, eVl refers to the ground of the demandtheking's extreme need. II. 23 : 593, el' Kev aXko fxel^oviTTanrjaeLaf;. If you should even ask another, greaterthingeVi, to satisfy your just claims. Jlpoaairetv,to ask in addition (Anab. 1 : 3, 21). The soldiersaskedfor an increase of jpay.^

115. ^FivaKoveLv, to hear, not al)Out something,which would be aKoveiv irepi rivo


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*E7rfc and Trpb^ m Composition. 69k'KaKov(xa


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70 TJie Greek Prepositions.of some fact that invites the saying. Cyrus wouldsend a gift to a friend, instructing the bearer to sayin explanation, iirikeyetv (Anab. 1 : 9). Also (Cyri.Instit. 1 : 3), eTrikeyoiv ra eKaarM, sayincj to each one7rt, in explanation.

120. Socrates says to Glaucon (Mem. 3 : G, 5)" You have doubtless examined, e


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'EttI and irpb'; in Compositioti. 71this is not tlie tlioiiglittlie thought is that the sec-ond question is made on the basis of the answer tothe first. 'ETTt never suggests the addition of thingswhich are co-ordinatethat is the oflice of Trpo?. Itmay be excusable to translate eTnjpero by askedfurther,but that is not strict ; it is a concession for the sakeof a smoother phrase.

123. Menelaus in fight with Paris (II. 3:369),springing upon him (eVai'fa?), caught him by hishorse-hair crest, and turning around {eiriaTpe-y^ra^)^ be-gan to drag him in among the well-greaved Achaians.In the first participle iirl looks to the object of theaction (Eng. upon) ; in the second it means more dis-tantly the same ; we translate it turning round /literally it means turning up>on, i. e., turning toward,so as to face those to whom he was about to drag hisvictim. Farther on in the same story, when the hel-met strap had broken and the helmet was free in hishand, Menelaus, eVi8ti/r;cra


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72 TJie Greek Prepositions.124. We read in Herodotus that a smith, in dig-

ging a well many feet below the ground, came upona coffin, eVeVy^e aopw. Had he found water, thatwould have called for the verb Karirvxev, for else-where Herodotus tells us of a physician, who, aftertrying many medicines on his patient, at last hit onthe right thing, and effected a cure, Karervxev. 1came ujpon hy chance, hrkTv^pv ; something happenedto Tne, Trpoairvx^ev.

125. AeiKvvvat, to show, point out an object ; eVt-SeiKvvvat, to exhibit, i. e., having the object already inview, to i^roceed and point out its qualitiesas toexplain a machine, an invention. Such a showing isan 7r/8et|i9. It shows what there is m or belongingto a thing.

126. 'E(f)ivai,, to send upon, or against, or on thebasis of some fact that justifies the sending. Thesimple verb levai takes two objectsan accusativeand a dative. II. 18 : 182, t/9 'yap ae Oeoiv e/xot dyye-Xov r}K6v, Who of the gods sent you as messenger tome? Therefore eVt, compounded with levai,, hassomething else to do than govern the dative case ofa person. Let us see (II. 24 ; 117), iyui Upid/Ko i,I will sent Iris to Priam, hit, on this matterthematter being the condition of the slain Hector's body,and the restoration of it to his friends. The matterto which eV^ refers is found in what precedes it ; andconnects the actor in his precedent state with theaction which follows.


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'ETTt and 7rpo


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74 The Greek Prepositions.discrimination will be best made in the light of theoriginal suggestions of the two prepositions respect-ively. 'EttI presents its object as passive, makingno response to the action (Sec. 45) ; if the action,therefore, be that of giving a command, eTrirdaaeLvwill imply that the person receiving the commanddoes not pause to consider whether he shall obey ornothe obeys, of course ; TrpoaTaa-creiv, on the con-trary, implies that the person receiving the commandresponds by a free choice whether to obey or dis-obey. If a command is disobeyed, the word to ex-press the giving of it is naturally irpoaTaaa-eiv, inorder to harmonize by anticipation the word with thecompleted thought. See this distinction illustratedin Hdt. 1 : 11-i, 115, where both compounds are usedin describing how the boys played at choosing a kingwhere in the little mimic kingdom to give a com-mand in the faith that it will be readily acceptedand obeyed is irpoa-rdcraeLv ; but if one is recusantthe command takes towards him a sharper toneit isiirirdcraeLv. See also Xen. Occ. T : Y, When God hasenjoined, iireTa^ev, the harder, out-door life on men,and has allotted, Trpoaera^ev, the easier, in-door lifeto women ; as if the formerthe hard servicewouldbe avoided, if it might be ; while the latter, from itsmilder conditions, invites and obtains the response ofa willing acceptance.


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Hapd. 75

CHAPTER X.irapd.

128. Hapd, hy, beside, is used witli the Gen., theDat., or the Ace. With the Genitive, meaning frombeside, drawing his sword, irapa ;jir]pov,J^rom his side,literally, from beside his thigh ; with the Dat., denot-ing situation besidethey-were playing, jrapd pTjyfuvc6a\dcrar]


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76 The Greek Prepositions.for it is fitting that tlie superior should abide in hisplace, and the inferior should go and come ; evenSophroniscus, the householder, has in that fact a markof superiority over him who transiently is found at hishouse. The suggestion of sujDeriority does not comefrom the preposition, but resides in the nature of thethings or persons introduced. Sometimes the objectof irapa is the inferior of the two things introduced.Men compared loith other creatures, irapa aXXa ^wa,are as gods compared with men. The primitive wayof comparing things with each other is by placingthem side by side. This mode of comparison is sug-gested in Ildt. 3 : 100. No one surpassed Zopyrusi7i the estimation of Darius, irapa AapeiM Kpirfj, i. e.,standing beside Darius as judge. This does not mean,as the Lexicon implies, that the judge is acting offi-cially ; but only as every man is a judge of his fellowman when he forms and holds an opinion about him.This essential relation of the parties or things under-lies all the uses ; and shows with what modificationsthe so-called English equivalents must be taken.

130. The word against, admitted in the Lexiconas a translation of irapa, should be strictly guardedirapa does not mean against in the sense of hostility,but as aside from the normal rule of actionthe op-posite of Kara '. according to the truce, Kara Ta


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78 The Greek Prepositions.is to take the field, more is necessary ; stores of pro-visions, wagons, and beasts of burden, guides, scouts,foragers, etc. These are to go along, irapd, as thearmy moves. This all forms the TrapaaKeurj ; and anarmy thus furnished is Trapaa-Kevaa-ro'i. The Kara-cTKevrj is essential to the complete army, ship, house,or shop, and is permanent ; the irapaaKevrj is change-able and temporary.

ITow, when all the work of the bridges had leencomjpleted^ KareaKevaa-TO, the army eq^uipped for itsmarch, rrrapaKevaa-fievo


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Ilapa in Composition. 79

doors ; for lie has constituted her {KaTeaKevaa-ev) lessable to endure cold and heat. That woman shouldwork within doors is not a necessity, but a conven-ience ; that she is less strong to bear hard labor, andcold, and heat, belongs to her nature, and cannot bechanged.A wall extends along either hank of the rii^er^Trapa 'X^elXo'i e/cdrepov rov 7roTap,ov alfMuair) Trapareivec(Hdt. 1 : 180). Here the preposition is repeated.'Along near the western shore of this sea the Caucasusruns J ra vrpo? rrjv eaTriprjv cf)epovTa t?}


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80 The Greek Prepositions.prove a proposed course of action (Xen. Anab. 5 : 7)irapa places the one who approves by the side ofthe actor. Thus the discrimination in the meaningof these two verbs has its root in the prepositionsrespectively, as designations of space.

CHAPTER XII.CUTTO AND e'/C.

139. ''KiTo^ offfrom ; Ik, out from.These words alike denote separation ; they aretherefore followed by one case invariablythe Geni-

tive. Where airo is used, the things separated are intheir nature independent of each other ; the contiguityor nearness before the separation is merely temporary,or accidental, and, consequently, the thing separatedloses nothing by the separation; it remains whole,and as good as before. 'Atto takes good care that itssubjects receive no detrimentthey are still kept inmind. The book, the apple, the flower, taken offfrom {airo) the table, is the same as before ; not sowith Ik ; water poured from a bowl, eV ^id\7)


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'Atto and 'E/c. 81implied by cmo as we might well suppose from theLints of space, since that which is in is more in-timately connected than that which is merely nea/ror hy. The relation suggested by e/c with livingthings is often dynamic, or vital. To lead hy thehand, Ik %etpo9the guiding power proceding con-tinually from the hand. H. 16 : 365, As when a cloudcomes from out the sacred air, didipo


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82 The Greek Prepositmts.is a lack of people to rent them; the earth bringsforth of herself, therefore e/c, the houses do not.'

Leading from the arm, e'/c tov ^pax^ovo


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84 The Greek Prepositions.Homer down ; but they all lie in the line of thoughthere drawn. A single one is introduced here; as itbespeaks kindness to animals, is homely, and is againsta fashion. Xenophon tells us (De Equest., eh. 5)," The colt's tail should be let grow, that it may reachas far as possible, ottw^ iirl ifkelarov e^tKvov/xevo


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86 The Greek Prepositions.show a tiling, or point out a person, to another ; butif what is pointed out is known to no one else, theverb is naturally e/c8- ; as to show feelings concealedbefore, to reveal hidden treasures. Oed. Col. 1021, Ifyou have his children here, show them to me, eVS-. Butif the children were in sight along with others, but notdistinguished from the rest, and the command were :point out his children to me, the verb would be airoh-.

So, if the thing or person pointed out stands apartas something notable, and important, the verb isaTToSetKvvvat. They show an ancient temple, ottoS-(Hdt. 1 : 171). Pointing orit the sepulchres, diroB-iKvvvT


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'Atto and 'E/c in Composition. 87152. ''A-TTOKTeLveivof which uTroOvr^aKeiv is oftenused as the passivemay mean the separation of foes,

the bereavement of sm-vivors in the loss of friends,or the solution of the conflict between the guilty andthe law which condemns them. In the words ofAndromache (II. 6 : 411), "I have no father, no dearmother," tjtoi jap ira-rkp d/xov direKTave 8t09 A')(iXkev


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88 The Greek Prepositions.to things bad as well as good ; to the ruin of a city,or its deliverance, where the end was proposed before-hand ; to small acts as well as great, if ending in some-thing that may stand by itselfas the payment ofvows, the building of a house, the plowing of a field.Hdt. 5 : 92, 7, Whatever Cypselus had left incomplete,Periander completed^ aireTekee. Hdt. 2 : 65, Whenthey have made vows, they fulfill them, airoTeXeovai.The distinction of a thing suggested by airoas ifit were set apart from other thingsmay spring fromits very nature ; its greatness may define it, as thebuilding of a city wall, the liberation of a people.The discovery of America is, for the imagination,taken quite out from the series that make up thebiography of Columbus, and set by itself, defined byits own greatnessan epoch in the world's historyand we predicate airorekeiv of the man who achievedit. Kind handling makes colts gentle, airorekeiv ;puts them in a class (Xen. Equcst.). Wise adminis-tration makes a city prosperous, airorekeiv (Plato).^

' In Liddell and Scott's Lexicon the phrase t^i* k6\iv airoreXiiv(iiSalixova is translated " to tnake the state quite happi/." This is meregroping. The preposition awh here simply recognizes that happy statesare set ofif in thought in a class by themselves, A substantive, limitedby an adjective, is, to thought, just as valid a designation of class asthe substantive aloneonly the class is a narrower one. To regardiirh as giving intensive force to evSalfiova in this phrase, is to miss aplain and important point, and to confuse the student ; it disregardsthe obvious meaning of the preposition, and attributes to it a meaningnot found elsewhere.


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'Atto and 'E/c in Compositioji. 89154. Kow, what is eKrekeiv'i It is to achiere athing out of the spontaneous promptings of the actor's

own spirit or life ; not by command, nor bj promise?or outward obhgation. II. 9 : 493, The Gods weregranting {iêriXetov) to me no son, e'/c suggests thattheir will was sovereign. Od. 3 : 275, Aegisthus, see-ing that he had acco7npHshed, iKreXeaa';, a great deed,that is, his great crime, from his own wicked mind.Why not say aTroreXeo-a? ? Because the act was infulfillment of no law, or obligation, or acknowledgedend. It had its form and measure solely in the spiritof the doer.

II. 2 : 286, The Achaians atê 7iot fulfilling^ ovkifcreXeovacv, the promise which they made. Thewords are a taunt^âgainst them for not making goodtheir boastful promise

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