Greek and romans chapter 5
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Transcript of Greek and romans chapter 5
Chapter 5
The Classical Style
(ca. 700–30 B.C.E.)
The quest for harmonious order was the driving force behind the evolution of the
classical style.
The Classical Style
clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmonious proportion
2
Humanism, realism, and idealism Humanism, realism, and idealism
Humanism - Focuses so consistently on the actions of human beings.
Realism – faithful to nature
Idealism –the effort to achieve a perfection that surpasses nature.
3
Greek PaintingGreek Painting
• Geometric period Geometric period - (ca. 1200-700 B.C.E.)
• Archaic period – (cArchaic period – (ca.700-480 B.C.E.)
• Classical period Classical period – (ca. 480-323 B.C.E)
• Hellenistic period Hellenistic period – (ca. 323 - 30 B.C.E.)
4
Greek Painting Greek Painting GeometricGeometric periodperiod
•Geometric painting (ca. 1200-700 B.C.E.)
•Flat, angular figures and complex patterns
•Figures painted in black or brown
Funerary Krater ca. 750 B.C.E., terra-cotta
6
funerary amphora, almost 6 feet tall
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Greek Painting Archaic periodGreek Painting Archaic period
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Ca.700-480 b.c.e.
Startling clarity of design is produced by the dark and light areas
More realism replace geometric shapes
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fully-developed techniqueearly examples, rough and sketchy
10
Panathenaic prize amphora showing footrace, from Vulci, ca. 530 b.c.e.
Terracotta, height 24 ½ “, Euphiletos
Contest of two warriors, ca. 540-530 b.c.e. amphora,
ceramic by the “Botkin Class”
© 11
Achilles and Ajax playing dice ca. 530 b.c.e. height 24 “, Exekias,
12
Greek art was influenced by art from other areas of the world.
(Persia?)
Niobid Krater
Greek Painting Classical period
•480-323 B.C.E
•human body the color of the clay and the ground was painted black
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Euphronios, Death of Sarpedon, ca. 515 B. C. E.
Euphronios krater
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red-figure vase-painting, Kleophrades Painter
Andokides Painter
Euphronios (Greek painter), Red-Figure Psykter with Feasting Hetaerae, 505-500 BCE, clay, height
Greek Stamnos (Wine Jar) High
Classical Period, c 450 BC Painting.
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Dionysus and Eros in Procession.mid-4th century B.C.E.Wine jug, red-figured,
Kerch style.
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Interior (tondo) of a red figure kylix, depicting Herakles and Athena, by Phoinix (potter) and Douris (painter), circa 480-470 BC
Art Philosophy
Socrates - select and combine the most beautiful details of many different models.
Plato's Ideal Forms - the artist's imitations of reality improve upon sensory reality to achieve absolute perfection.
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Greek Painting Hellenistic period
• 323 - 30 B.C.E.• New emphasis on
personal emotion & individuality
Hoplite Warrior
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Tomb fresco from near Thessalonika Greek, Hellenistic period
Battle of Alexander and the Persians, Mosaic copy from Pompeii of a Hellenistic painting of ca. 315 BCE, ca. 100 BCE, Naples, Mosaic
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Hellenistic painting Pottery25
Sculpture
Classical: Head of Blond Youth
Archaic: 700 - 480 B.C.E.
Classical: 480 - 323 B.C.E.
Hellenistic: 323 - 30 B.C.E
Archaic: Kouros c. 650 B.C.E.
The Archaic Period(700 B.C.E. - 480 B.C.E.)
•Egyptian and
Mesopotamian influence
•Freestanding, rigid
and block like
•Perpetual homage
to the gods
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Greek Statue Egyptian Statue
1. technical, proportional and obvious formal similarities
2. Greek: unclothed Egyptian: wear a kilt
3. Greek: freestanding Egyptian: a support
lean against a back support
Archaic Period Influence: Ancient Egypt c. 2600 B.C.E.
•Kouros – male youth
•Kore – female youth
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Archaic: Kore from Acropolis and Painted Kore
Archaic: Kore
mother-of-pearl gray agates
lapis lazuli
Early Classical Kritios Boy, c. 480 B.C.E. and Blond Boy, c. 480 B.C.E.
dig site on Acropolis in 1865
Classical: Polycleitus, Doryphorus (spear-bearer)
The Classical Period(480 B.C.E. - 323 B.C.E.)
•More natural positioning
•Greater weight on the left leg
•Balanced opposition that is natural and
graceful
•Doryphorus is considered the canon of
ideal proportions.
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 40
Praxiteles – Aphrodite of Knidos ac. 350 B.C.E. (Roman Copy)
•Established a model for the ideal
female nude.
•Regarded by the Romans as the
finest statue in the world.
•What do you think?
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 42
Classical: Zeus 440 B.C.E.
High Classical Period
Prominent feature:
capture the “idea moment”
before action
Depiction of more vigorous
action
Dynamically posed of the
figures(Discus Thrower) (Zeus/ Poseidon)
Phidias, Man with Helmet
Belvedere Apollo (Roman copy) Vatican Museum- late fourth century B.C.E.
Hellenistic Art
• 323 - 30 B.C.E
•New emphasis on personal emotion &
individuality
•Notable for its sensuous male/female
nudes.
•Apollo Belvedere, A landmark example
of the new sensuousness.
Laocoon and his sons c. 175-150 B.C.E. Vatican Museum
Hellenistic: Venus of Melos (Milo) c. 100 B.C.E.
Winged Victory, Pythocritos of Rhodes, Nike of Samothrace, ca. 190 b.c.e. Marble, height 8 ft.. 50
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Reconstruction - Nike of Samothrace
. 53
A maenad leaning on a thyrsos, Roman copy of Greek original, ca. 420-410 b.c.e. Marble relief
Athena battling with Acyoneus, f rom the frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, ca. 180 b.c.e. Marble, height 7” 6’ 54
. 55
Suicidal Gaul 230-220 BCE
Dying Gaul 230-220 BCE
celebrate his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia
Hellenistic art
Gold pendant disk
Gained international acclaim for their gold working
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Gold in Greece
Gold pendant disk with the head of Athena (one of a pair), from Kul Oba, ca. 400-350 b.c.e. Height
Ancient Greek Jewelry, 300 BCE
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An ancient Greek art necklacewith rams head gold decoration
Classical style in Music and Dance
Music played a major role in Greek life
Epictetus, cup detail, ca. 510 b.c.e., terracotta, 13”
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The graceful solo dance by a cult follower of Dionysus is accompanied
by the
music of a double autos (a set of reed pipes) held in place by leather straps.
Classical style in Music and Dance
Dance was prized for its moral value
Gives pleasure
Induces good health
. 60
The Berlin painter, red-figure amphora, ca. 490 B.C.E. Terra-cotta,
Iliad and Odyssey
Achilles- greatest hero. Proud and headstrong.
Patroclus - Achilles’ beloved friend, companion, and advisor.
Hector - mightiest Trojan warrior. Resents his brother Paris for bringing war upon their family and city.
.
61
The Odyssey, HomerT EN YEARS HAVE PASSED since the fall of Troy, and the Greek hero Odysseus still has not returned to his kingdom in Ithaca.
Odysseus, Penelope, Prince Telemachus
Zeus, Athena
Calypso
Suitors
Poseidon
Penelope organizes an archery contest the following day and promises to marry any man who can string Odysseus’s great bow and fire an arrow through a row of twelve axes
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Classical style in PoetryClassical style in Poetry
Pindar (ca. 522-438 b.c.e.)
Odes (seems to love Wrestling)
Make the claim that prowess, not chance, leads to victory, which in turn renders the victor immortal.
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Sappho Sappho ca. 610-580 B.C.E.ca. 610-580 B.C.E.
(The female Homer)(The female Homer)
Great Greek lyrists
One of a few known female poets of the ancient world.
Settled on The island of Lesbos, where she led a group of young women dedicated to the cult of Aphrodite.
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 65
The End.
Parthenon
? ?
Greek Architecture
Acropolis Architecture
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Parthenon replica - NashvilleI
Greek ArchitectureGreek Architecture: The Parthenon: The Parthenon(448 to 432 B.C.E.)
•Temple dedicated to Athena (the goddess of war and of wisdom, and the patron
of the arts and crafts.)
Greek word parthenos (“maiden” or “virgin”)
Built with glitterling pentelic marble
•Commissioned by Pericles
Pheidas’ Athena Parthenos 2002 – Nashville Replica
Pheidas’ Athena Parthenos
The statue stood approximately around 40 ft. tall.
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Several marble copies and drawings have survived
Statue of Athena
Greek influence
The Greek order
1.Doric 2.Ionic 3.CorinthianSimple&Severe Delicate----- the most ornate &Ornamental
The Orders
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 73
. 74
Temples of the Doric order also have a certain structure at the upper levels.
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The Sculpture of the Parthenon
Location
1.pediment
2.metopes
3.frieze
(outer wall of cella)
High Relief
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 77
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Sculpture of the Parthenon
•Phidias and his members of his workshop
•448 and 432 B.C.E.
•Homage to the patron
deity of Athens: Athena
East pediment of the Parthenon
The Metopes of the Parthenon
all represented various instances of the struggle between the forces of order and justice
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"Lapith and Centaur" Metope
Lapith overcomimg a centaur, south metope
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The Pedimental Sculptures
the contest between Poseidon and Athena for the right to be the patron deity of Athens (Athena's gift of the olive tree was preferred over Poseidon's spring).
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The Frieze
depicts a procession of horsemen, musicians, sacrificial animals, and other figures with various ritual functions.
. 85
West pediment of the Parthenon
“A Group of Young Horsemen”from the north frieze
Propylaia
. 90
built as a monument
entrance to the Acropolis
Temple of Athena Nike
a sanctuary dating back to the Mycenaean era.
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Erechtheion
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built to accommodate the religious rituals that the old temple used to housed
Caryatids
Old Temple Charioteer Relief
Shallow relief of charioteer mounting the chariot.
Old Temple frieze
Marble, c. 510-500 BCE (Acropolis Museum)
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Three-Bodied Snake
Sculpture from the corner of a large temple (Old Temple).
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Herakles Fights Sea Monster
Limestone, c. 550-540 BCE (Acropolis Museum)
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Two Lions killing a Bull
, 96
Gigantomachy Pediment
Marble, c. 525-520 BCE
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Temple of Apollo at Delphi
4th c. B.C
several Doric columns
porous stone and limestone.
oracle gave answers to questions
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Delphi Tholos
380 and 360 B.CE.
20 Doric columns
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The Great Library: Temple of Muses at Alexandria
half a million documents from Assyria, Greece, Persia, Egypt, India.
Doric: Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Architecture
Pheidas Zeus 5th c. BC (40 ft)
Lincoln Memorial
Greek influence
Lincoln Statue
the Alter of Zeus• At Pergamon (180 B.C.E)
• To celebrate the victory of minor kingdom of Pergamon over Gauls
•20-foot high, 300-foot based platform
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 106
•Massive Ionic Colonnade
•Mythological battle •Olympic gods vs. giants
•Symbolize the Victory of Intellect
•Over Barbarians
•More theatrical in style•誇張的
Athena Battling with Acyoneus
•Strong light and
dark contrast
•Classical restraint → violent passion
A New League338BC – Philip of Macedon defeats the Greeks
•Promises Greek city-states autonomy (self rule)•Assassinated by captain of his bodyguard •Alexander (20 yrs. old) left to finish the job
A Promising Future King
•13 years old: Tutored by Aristotle•16 years old: Regent of kingdom when Philip was away•Crushed revolts, saved father’s life
The Hellenistic Age The Hellenistic Age (323-30 B.C.E.)(323-30 B.C.E.)
•He was a military genius: Within 12 years, he created an empire that stretched Greece to borders of modern India.
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 112
The Invasion of Persia
•Reliving father’s dreams•Found out that he was very good at warfare
Small, mobile cavalry units (250) formed main striking force
Military features:
The Invasion of Persia
Deeper Phalanx
13 ft. spears
The Invasion of PersiaWar Machines
Siege towers, catapults used effectively for first
time
Could hurl huge arrows, boulders 590 ft.(180
meters)
Four BattlesAlexander conquered the world in four decisive
battles, in less than 10 years
1.Granicus
2.Issus
3.Gaugamela
4.Hydaspes
The End of AlexanderAlexander’s conquests took a
toll on him
Died of Malaria at age 32
Legacy• Incredible military genius•Never lost a battle•Huge cultural impact•Ensured Greek dominance by spreading Greek culture all over world•Contributed to the Greek science, made Athens center of world
AftermathAfter his death, the Empire quickly fell apart and was
divided among three powerful generals:
Egypt and fringe lands went to
PtolemyAsia Minor and old
Persian Empire went to Seleucus
Macedon and Greece went to
Antigonus
Archimedes of Syracuse
Calculated the value of pi (the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter)
Compound pulley
Windlass for moving heavy weights
. 119
Classical style in PoetryClassical style in Poetry
Pindar (ca. 522-438 b.c.e.)
Odes (seems
to love Sports)
120
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
. 121
1) Khufu's Great Pyramid (ca.2560 B.C.E.)
Height 480 ft.
Limestone
2) The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
. 122
City State of Babylon (Modern Iraq)
Ca. 600 B.C.E.
80 ft., Mud brick waterproofed with lead.
3) The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Peloponnesus (Modern Greece)
Ca. 432 B.C.E.
40 ft., Ivory and
gold-plated
on wooden frame.
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4) The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
. 124
Ephesus (Present day Turkey)
ca. 323 B.C.E.
262 C.E. by Goths
425 ft
Mostly marble
5) The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
353 B.C.
King Mausolus Mausoleum
Queen Artemisia builds as a tribute.
125
6) The Colossus of Rhodes
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Island of Rhodes (Modern Greece)
Ca. 292 - 280 B.C.E.
Commemorate War Victory
Height without 50 foot pedestal was 110 ft.
Bronze plates attached to iron framework
7)The Great Lighthouse at Alexandria
Alexandria, Egypt.
Ca. 290 - 270 B.C.E.
Height 450 ft.
Stone faced with white marble blocks with lead mortar.
•
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Oedipus the King by Sophocles430 b.c.e. (Greek Tragedy)
The prophesy: Tiresias answers only in riddles, saying that the murderer of Laius will turn out to be both brother and father to his children, both son and husband to his mother.
This Play returns to the fact that prophecies do come true and that the words of the gods must be obeyed.
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Oedipus the King Essay
Explain the concepts of free will versus fate. Explore how each is depicted in Oedipus the King.
How do you feel about Oedipus’ and Jocasta reaction to the truth?
129
Oedipus the King by Sophocles
Fear? What should a man fear? It’s all chance, chance rules our lives. Not a man on earth can see a day ahead, groping through the dark. Better to live at random, best we can. And as for this marriage with your mother—have no fear. Many a man before you, in his dreams, has shared his mother’s bed. Take such things for shadows, nothing at all— Live, Oedipus, as if there’s no tomorrow! (Oedipus the King, 1068–1078)
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Case Study: Oedipus the King by Sophocles
Oedipus is the son of Laius, the king of Thebes, and of Jocasta. When born, he receives a prophesy that he will slay his father and marry his mother.The father has his boy’s feet pierced, and orders a shepherd to leave him on a hillside to die. Polybus, the shepherd, instead rears the child as his own. When, as a man, he receives this prophecy, he leaves the shepherd out of fear it might come true.He travels to Thebes, the most distant place from the siteThe theme underlying this effort is that it is folly to outwit the Fates.
Oedipus: The Patricide
While traveling, Oedipus meets a party of men who are blocking his wayThey argue over the right of way on a narrow roadThe dispute gets out of handOedipus kills several men in the entourageLaius, Oedipus’s father, is one of the men he murders
The Sphinx and Her RiddleAt the gates of Thebes, he encounters the Sphinx, who has been terrorizing Thebes for yearsThe Sphinx has waylaid people, ask a riddle, and murdered them all for their failure to give the right answerThe riddle: what walks on four in the morningOn two at noon, andOn three at night?Your turn: got a good answer?A man in the phases of infancy, adulthood, and old age
Oedipus’s Answer
His answer: “man”
He crawls on all fours in the morning (of life as a toddler)
Walks on two at noon (maturity)
Walks on three in the evening (a cane, at old age)
She screams, falls to the ground with a thud, and rots away with decay and vultures
Oedipus Become King and Marries his Mother
The grateful Thebans award him with the kinshipAnd with the hand of Jocasta to be his wifeIn so doing, he fulfils the prophecy that he will marry his mother. The Gods, angered by his incest, send a plague to the cityAfter siring and bearing four children, Oedipus is told by the blind prophet Tiresias that he is the cause of the plague. In his pride, he refuses to believe the prophet, thinking his rival Creon, Jocasta’s brother, has set him up to this.
Curse of Oedipus Rex
The chorus fills the audience in on the details of the eventsA messenger conveys the news of the shepherd Polybus’s death and adds that he was only Oedipus’s adopted father. Jocasta discovers the truth in the conversation, runs off the stage and hangs herselfThe truth come slowly to Oedipus; he takes the brooch from his dead wife and blinds himself
The End.
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 137
Departure of Oedipus Rex; Fate of Antigone
He leaves Thebes with his daughter Antigone
Another play portrays Antigone herself, his daughter/sister
After Oedipus’s death, she returns to Thebes
When Creon, now king, decrees she cannot give her brother Polynices the rites of burial at his death, she does so anyway
For her defiance, she is sealed in a cave to slowly suffocate.
She commits suicide rather than suffer this fate
Incest: A Universal Taboo
Definition: A rule that forbids copulation between two persons of defined relationships
Primary kin: parent-child, siblings
Father-daughter
Mother-son
Brother sister
Exception: Egyptian, Inca, Hawaiian
Allowed only in royal line: “purity”
Antigone, Sophocles
Explain the conflict between the individual and the community in Sophocles’ Antigone.
Whom do you consider the “tragic figure” in Sophocles’ Antigone: Antigone or Creon? Why?
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Delphi: Site of the OracleFounding Myth: A sanctuary for the Titan earth goddess GaiaSun God (Apollo) slays the Python, the dragon who guarded the gateFounded the Temple of Apollo, henceforth the oracle of prophesyThis is where King Laius receives the prophecy that his son will kill him and marry his wife
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 142
Evolution of the Classical Style
Sculpture Archaic
Classical
Architecture: the Parthenon Post-and-lintel
Pediments: sculpture
Frieze: Panathenaic Festival
The Greek orders
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The Gold of Grecian Art
The Classical style in poetry Sappho
Pindar
The Classical style in music and dance
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Diffusion of the Classical Style
Alexander and the Hellenistic world
Hellenistic schools of thought
Hellenistic art Altar of Zeus
Apollo Belvedere
Nike of Samothrace
Laocoön and His Sons
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Four Battles1. Granicus (334 BC)
• Army of 35 000 invades Asia minor
at River Granicus
• Persians make their first stand
• Demolished by cavalry
• Near-death experience for Alexander
Four Battles2. Issus (333 BC)
•Massive battle – Alexander faces King Darius for 1st time
•Equal forces but cavalry defeats Persians again
•Darius flees – Alexander realizes he can conquer whole empire
Four Battles4. Hydspes (327BC)
•Wanted to conquer India!
•Greek army travels across Asia and fightsKing Porus at Hydspes
•Alexander’s superior strategy stillvictorious
•Wants to continue East, but men refuse – have already travelled over 17 000 km!
Four Battles3. Gaugamela (331 BC)
•Instead of chasing Darius, Alexander crushes Persian fleet
•Conquers:• Phoenicia ,Damascus andEgypt
•Darius tries to bribe Alexander to stop, no deal
Final showdown at Gaugamela: •Alexander commands 45 000 against larger Persian army
•Cavalry wins again, Darius flees, is murdered
Etruscans (950 and 300 B.C.E.)
150
northwestern Italy
These people rose to prosperity and power, then disappeared
Etruscan aristocracy
rich families of noble descent together with rich merchants and land owners
151
Etruscan tombs
the banquet was also a part of the religious ceremony at funerals
. 152
Etruscan religion
the destiny of man was completely determined by the unpredictability of the many deities
153
predestination
Although a postponement is sometimes possible by means of prayer and sacrifice, the end is certain.
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Etruscan, Lion's Head, first half of the 5th century BCE, bronze, height 26 cm, State Hermitage
Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
. 157
Warrior with Villanovan Helmet, 700 B.C.
Statuettes from Brolio, 590 B.C.
Statuettes of Spear-Throwers, 5th B.C.
. 158
Statuette of a Striding Hoplite, 450 B.C.
Mars of Todi, 4th B.C.
159Statuette of Haruspex, 4th B.C..
160
Statuette of a Ploughman from Arezzo, 4th B.C.
161
Boy Playing with a Bird, 2nd B.C.
162
Statuette of a Woman, 2nd B.C.
163
She-Wolf, 5th B.C.
Romulus and Remus, added in the 15th century, probably by Antonio Pollaiuolo.
164
Goat, 5th B.C.
165
Chimera of Arezzo, 4th B.C.
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Etruscan, early 4th century BCE, Reclining Youth, Cinerary Urn, bronze, length of base 69 cm, height of figure 42 cm, State Hermitage Museum, St.
Petersburg, Russia. See cinerary urn.
167
Banqueter and Vanth, Limestone Cinerary Urn, 400 B.C.
168
Cinerary Urn of a Woman, Alabaster, 2nd B.C.
169
Statue of a Young Girl, 1st A.D.
170
Funerary Stele from Bologna, Sandstone, 350 B.C.
171
Cinerary Urn of a Woman, Alabaster, 2nd B.C.
172
Sarcophagus of Velthur Partunus, So-called Magnate, Painted Marble
and Limestone, 4th B.C.
173
Mother and Child from Chianciano, Limestone Cinerary Urn, 400 B.C.
174
Relief Urn from Chiusi, 520-500 B.C.
Relief Base of Cippus from Chiusi, with Scene of Women at
Home, 475 B.C
175
Cenatur from Vulci, Nenfro, 550 B.C.
. 176
Statue of a Boy on a Hippocamp from Vulci, Nenfro, 520 B.C.
PERFUME BOTTLES IN THE FORM OF ANIMALS 7th - 4th B.C.
177
178
179
pottery
180
Etruscan - Corinthian Amphora, Decorated With Friezes of Animals
by the so-called Painter of the Bearded Sphynx, 7th B.C.
Amphora, 600 B.C.
181
Etruscan Kalpis, 6th B.C.
182
Hydria with Europa Riding the Bull, 6th B.C.
183
Amphora by the so-called Paris Painter, 6th B.C.
184
Hydria from Cerveteri, 550-525 B.C.
Etruscan Bell-Shaped Cup from Spina, 4th B.C.
. 185
Askos, 4th B.C.
Crater by the so-called Painter of Dawn (from Falerii), 375-350 B.C.
186
The Charinos Female Head-Shaped Rhython, 490 B.C.
Canopic Urn
187
Canopic Urn, Terracotta Ossuary, 7th B.C.
Canopic Urn, Bronze Ossuary, 7th B.C. Terracotta Head, 6th B.C. and
a Terracotta Throne.
188
Canopic Urn, Impasto, 7th B.C. Side view.
Canopic Urn, Impasto, 7th B.C.
Front view.
Head from a Canopic Urn, Terracotta, 6th B.C.
189
Sarcophagus of the Married Couple from The Bandataccia Necropolis, Cerveteri, 6th B.C.
190
Sarcophagus of the Married Couple from The Bandataccia Necropolis, Cerveteri, 6th B.C. (Detail)
191
Sarcophagus of a Couple, 6th B.C.
The Girl from Monte Abatone, 6th B.C. (Detail)
. 192
Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti from Chiuisi, 2nd B.C
193
Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti from Chiuisi, 2nd B.C
194
Death Leaning into the Face of an Old Man, 2nd
B.C.
Votive Statuette of Dionysos
Enthroned, 2nd B.C.
Votive Figures of Swaddled Babies with Bullae, 4th-1st B.C.
195
Head of a Man from the Votive Deposit of Manganello, Cerveteri, 100 B.C.
Rome
The Etruscans went on to lay the foundation of the city of Rome
196
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Alexander the Great (290-323 B.C.E.)
King of Macedonia (Hellenistic period)
carried the ideas of the Greeks and their love of learning throughout his empire.
He founded the great city of Alexandria, which became a center of learning and culture in Egypt.
. 198