GOOD PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY …legacy.iica.int/Esp/regiones/sur/uruguay/Documentos de la...

GOOD PRACTICESIN SMALL SCALE

POULTRY PRODUCTION:A manual for trainers and producers in East Africa

FAO ECTAD REGIONAL UNITEASTERN AFRICA, NAIROBI, KENYA

GOOD PRACTICESIN SMALL SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION:

A manual for trainers and producers in East Africa

3

Good practices in small scale poultry production

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents 3Acknowledgements 7Introduction 81. The different production systems 101.1 The traditional free-range system 111.2 The improved free-range system 131.3 Thesmallscaleconfinedsystem(Broilers) 131.4 Thesmallscaleconfinedsystem(Layer) 142. Themanagementoffree-rangeandsmallscaleconfinedpoultryunits 152.1 Whatyouwillfindinthischapter 152.2 Biosecurityissues 152.3 Howtoimprovemanagement(free-rangesystems) 152.3.1 Flock management 162.3.2 Housing and hygiene 162.3.3 Feed and water 162.3.4 Health 192.3.5 Understandingpoultrybehaviour 202.3.6 Dailyrhythmandcarefulobservation 222.3.7 Controlledbrooding 222.3.8 Naturalincubationandhatching 232.3.9 Managementofyoungchickensusingabasketsystem 252.4 Simplerulesforbettermanagementinfree-rangesystems 272.5 Howtoimprovemanagement(small-scaleconfinedsystems) 282.5.1 FlockManagement 282.5.2 Housingandhygiene 282.5.3 Feedandwater 282.5.4 Health 292.5.5 Behaviour 292.6 Simplerulesforbettermanagementinsmallscaleconfinedsystems 293. Selection and breeds 303.1. Whatyouwillfindinthischapter 303.2. Backgroundinformation 303.3. Howtoimproveselection 303.3.1 Animal Selection 313.3.2 Breedselection 333.3.3 Cross-breeding 353.3.4 Challengesofcockerelexchangeprograms 353.4. Simplerulestochoosetherightbreedandimproveselection 363.5.Recommendationsforimprovementofbiosecurity–Breedingstockandtheirproducts364 Housing 374.1. Whatyouwillfindinthischapter 374.2. Common practices in free-range systems 374.2.1 Biosecurityissuesrelatedtohousinginfree-rangesystems 374.3. How to improve sheltering in free-range systems 374.4. Simplerulestomakeabettershelterinfreerangesystems 454.5. Commonpracticesinsmallscaleconfinedsystems 464.5.1. Broilers 464.5.2. Biosecurityissuesinbroilerhouses 464.5.3. Layers 46

4


4.5.4. Biosecurityissuesinlayerhouses 464.6. Howtoimprovehousinginsmall-scaleconfinedsystems 474.7. Simplerulesforbetterhousinginsmall-scaleconfinedsystems 475. FeedsandFeeding 485.1. Whatyouwillfindinthischapter 485.2. Scavenging 485.3. Supplementaryfeeding 495.3.1. Whatfeed? 495.3.2. Howmuch? 525.3.3. How? 535.4. Mixingandformulatingfeeds 555.5. Simpletechniquesforgrowingmaggotsandtermites 575.6. Feedsandfeedingforsmallscaleconfinedchickens 595.7. Feedersanddrinkers 595.8. Feedsandriskofdiseasetransmission 615.9. Simplerulesforbetterfeeding 615.10. Requirementsforimprovedbiosecurity-Feedsandwater 626. Health and Disease Management 636.1. Whatyouwillfindinthischapter 636.2. Backgroundinformation 636.3. Biosecurityissues 646.4. How to improve disease control 646.5. Briefdescriptionofthemaindiseasesaffectingpoultry 686.5.1 Viraldiseases 686.5.2 Bacterialdiseases 706.5.3 Parasites 706.5.4 Fungaldiseases 736.5.5 Nutritionaldiseases 736.6. Aboutvaccination 746.6.1 Vaccinationmethods 746.6.2 Vaccinationanddiseasepreventioncalendar 786.7. Simplerulesforbetterhealthofchickens 807. Profitabilityandmarketingofproducts 817.1 Whatyouwillfindinthischapter 817.2 Background 817.3 Biosecurityissues 817.4 How to improve marketing of poultry and poultry products 817.4.1 Marketingoffree-rangebirds: 827.4.2 Marketing of eggs 847.4.3 Keeping records 847.4.4 Materialsandfeed 857.5 Economicanalysisandsimpleriskassessment 887.5.1 Cost-benefitcalculation 897.5.2 Riskassessment 907.6 Simplerulestoachievehigherprofitability 927.7 Recommendationsforimprovementofbiosecurity-Marketingofproducts 948. Glossary 95

5


Illustration1:Apoorlymanagedunit 13Illustration2:Exampleofsimplehousingforuptofivehens(nightbasket) 17Illustration3:Exampleofasinglehousefor10-20birds(FromSenegal) 17Illustration4:Thehouse,feedersanddrinkersshouldbecleanedregularly. 17Illustration5:Lime-washingtheinsideofthehousefordisinfection 18Illustration6:Drinkersandfeedersshouldbekeptcleantoavoidspreadofdiseases 19Illustration7:Aseparateshedorcagemaybenecessarytoisolateillornewlypurchasedbirds 20Illustration8:Dustbathingisimportantforpoultrytokeepclean 21Illustration9:Carefulobservationoftheflockonadailybasisisimportant 22Illustration10:Peckingoftenoccursifbirdsarekeptinsidefordays 22Illustration11:Home-madeeggcandlersusingeitheryourhandorawoodenboxandatorch 23Illustration12:a)infertileegg;b)eggwithadeadembryoc)eggafter7daysofincubation 24Illustration13:Inadequatemanagementforbroodinghens 24Illustration14:Goodmanagementforbroodinghens 25Illustration15:Daybasketwithajutemat,afeederandadrinkerinside 26Illustration16:Managementofyoungchickensusingthedaybasketsystem 27Illustration17:Physiognomyofhealthyandstrongcockandegg-layer 31Illustration18:Ahealthychick 31Illustration19:a)Heninlay;b)henoutsidelay 32Illustration20:Differentecotypes:Frizzledfeathers,nakedneckanddwarf 34Illustration21:Classicalshapeofbreedsproducinga)eggs,b)meatandc)both 34Illustration22:Housingshouldfirstofallprotectagainstpredatorsandbadweatheratnight 38Illustration23:Abadlyconstructedchickenhouse 40Illustration24:Awellconstructedchickenhouse 40Illustration25:Perchesshouldhaveanappropriatediameter 41Illustration26:Sticksshouldmatchthesizeofthebirds’feet 41Illustration27:Batteryofnestsforlayinghens 42Illustration28:Nestsforbroodyhensshouldbeplacedinaquietplace 42Illustration29:Simplenestsforbroodyhensareeasilymadeandcaneasilybemoved 43Illustration30:Preparinganestinthreesteps 43Illustration31:Shelterforchicksafterhatching 44Illustration32:Chickenrunsmaybeusedforfeeding,watering,andobservationoftheflock 45Illustration33:Correctfeedandwaterisessentialtoincreaseproduction 49Illustration34:Feedtypessplitintosourcesofa)energy,b)proteins,c)minerals,d)vitamins 50Illustration35:Scorchingbonesoreggshellstoproducecalcium-richbonemeal 51Illustration36:Bonemealandsaltaremixedinmatchboxesina13:1ratio 54Illustration37:Thecafeteriasystem. 54Illustration38:Growingmaggots 58Illustration39:Growingtermites 58Illustration40:Simpledrinkermadeofanoldtincanandaplate 60Illustrations41,42:Feedersanddrinkersmayalsobemadelocallyfromwood,clay,ormetal 60Illustration43:Commercialdrinker/feederinplasticormetal 60Illustration44:Characteristicsofhealthyandunhealthybirds 65Illustration45:Themostcommonmethodsforvaccination 66Illustration46:Apoorlymanagedflock 67Illustration47:A)Newcastlediseaseinadvancedstage;B)Fowlpox;C)Gumborodisease 69Illustration47:A)Marek´sDisease;B)Chronicrespiratorydisease;C)Diarrhoea 71Illustration48:Internalparasitesasfoundinthefaeces 72Illustration49:Behaviourofpoultryinfestedwithexternalparasitesplusflea,miteandtick 72Illustration50:Scalylegsatthreestagescausedbyscalylegmites 73Illustration51:Symptomsofnutritionaldiseases:a)Featherloss;b)Legdeformation 73Illustration52:Goodmanagementequalshealthybirds 74Illustration53:Nevervaccinateasickbird 75

6


Illustration54:Importantvaccinationtools 74Illustration55:Boilingwatertodisinfectneedlesandsyringesbeforevaccination 76Illustration56:Itisimportanttohandlethesyringeandneedlecorrectly 77Illustration57:Onefull1mlsyringeisusuallyenoughfortenadultbirds 77Illustration58:Themostcommonmethodsforvaccinatingadultpoultry 77Illustration59:Twopersonsvaccinatingadultpoultrybyinjectioninthebreastmuscle 77Illustration60:Exampleofvaccinationanddiseasepreventioncalendar 79Illustration61:Transportationofchickensshouldbeincagesasillustratedontheright. 82Illustration62:Birdsforsale 83Illustration63:Eggsforsale 84Illustration64:Keeprecordsoftheproductionandsales 85Illustration65:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(forilliteratefarmers). 87Illustration66:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(fortheilliteratefarmer) 88Illustration67:Revenuefrompoultryisexpressedinmoneyaswellasmeat,eggs,manure 89Illustration68:Incomeisoftenspentonavarietyofitemsincludingfood,schooling,housing 93

Table1:Characteristicsofsmall-scalepoultryproductionsystems 11Table2:Supplementrequirementandtotalfeedrequirementatdifferentages 52Table3:Simplecalculationforsupplementrequirementperday 53Table4:Simplerationsforsupplementinglocalchicksof0-6weeks(total930g) 54Table5:Examplesofproteinandenergysources 55Table6:Examplesofcompositionof1kgfeedmixtureforlocalchickensatdifferentages 56Table7:Examplesofdietsforchickens(contentsof1kgfeed). 56Table8:Problemsrelatedtosomefeeds 57Table9:ExamplesofpoultryfeedpricesandquantitymeasuresinBenin(January2002) 57Table10:Simplefeedpricecalculation(basedon 57Table11:Typesofdiseasesandpossibletreatments 65Table12:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction 86Table13:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(investmentandrunningcosts) 86Table14:Exampleofsmall-scalefree-rangesystem,52weeksplan(Tanzania2008) 90Table15:Cost-benefitanalysisbasedonexampleinTable14 91Table16:Supplementaryfeedneededforaflockof30free-rangebirdsinoneyear 92

Figure1:Sourcesofintroductionofdiseasesintoaflock 64

7


Acknowledgements

ThisManualisbasedonthemanualwhichwasfirstdevelopedbytheDanishPoultryNetwork.IthasbeenadaptedtotheEastAfricanlocalconditions,basedonananalysisonbiosecurityinKenyamadebyProf.PhilipNyagainSeptember,2007andasimilaranalysisinTanzaniamadebyDr.HalifaMsamialsoinSeptember,2007.Iammostgratefultobothfortheirreports.

AdaptedversionsofthefirstmanualhavebeenusedinseveralcountriessupportedbyDanida through theAgriculturalSectorProgrammeSupport orNGOsupportedagriculturaldevelopmentactivities.InVietnam,Dr.JensPeterTangDalsgaard,ASPSlivestock advisor, his colleagues, and local technical advisors have given fruitfulfeedbackontechniquesandtrainingissues.InBenin,Dr.ChristopheChrysostome,FSA-UABandhiscolleagueshavetestedseveral techniquesandapproachesandgivenvaluablefeedback.InBangladesh,BurkinaFaso,andSenegalruraldevelopmenteffortssupportedbyDanidaunderdifferentdevelopmentprogrammesandprojectshaveprovidedusefulinformationontechnicalaswellastrainingissues.Likewise,Dr.BabaFunsoSonaiya fromNigeriahasofferedvaluablecontributions. InDenmark,theDanishPoultryNetworkhasreceivedimportantcritiquefrompoultrydevelopmentexpertsMr.HansAskovJensen,Mr.PederLund,Mr.PeterWollesen,andDr.HansRanvig.IwishtothankDr.EmmanuelleGuerneBleich,Prof.UswegeMingaandDrPhilippeAnkersfromFAO/AGAPfortheirvaluablecontributionincriticallyeditingtheManual.IamgratefultoDr.ManuelSanchez,andDr.SimonMackfromFAO/AGAPwhogave important feedbackandadviceon thefirstdraftand for theirsupport intermsofaccesstoprevioustrainingmaterialanddrawingspublishedthroughtheUNsystem.

IamgratefultoFAOforofferingmetheInternationalconsultancypositionwhichmadethepreparationofthisManualpossible.

AndersPerminFAOConsultant

8


Introduction

Nearlyallruralandperi-urban/urbanfamiliesinthedevelopingworldkeepaflockofpoultry,eitherinafree-rangesystemorinasmallscaleconfinedsystem.Thebirdsare mainly chickens.

Infree-rangesystems,birdsaretraditionallyownedandmanagedmostlybywomenand children. The poultry and their products are used for home consumption, asgifts,orforreligiouspurposes.Additionallytheyaresoldtoearnsomeincometobuyhouseholdfooditems,suchassugarandsaltaswellasschoolprovisionsfortheirchildren.

Insmallscaleconfinedsystems thechickensarekept forcommercialpurposes inorder to support family income.

Small-scale poultry production is an obvious andwell-documented opportunity forpoorfarmerstostartanincomegeneratingactivity.Poultryarecheap,easytorear,andeasytomanage.Consequently,therehasbeenandthereisagrowingattentionandinterestinpoultryproductioninvillagesaswellasinperi-urbanandurbanareasthroughoutthedevelopingworld.However,existingmanualsandbookseithergiveadvice on industrial production systems using improved (imported) breeds underhighlycontrolledconditions,orverysimplefieldguidesgivinglittleusefuladviceonhowtorearpoultrywithprofitinmindatvillagelevel.Thismanualisbasedonexistingknowledge on how to improve village poultry production systems with relatively few inputs.

Thismanualwillexclusivelydealwithfree-rangesystemsconsistingofsmallflocksofindigenouschickensortheircrossesandsmallholderflocksofimprovedorhybridcommercial chickens.

In the light of the spread ofAvian Influenza (AI) and the increased attention paidto thisdiseaseworldwide,protectionagainstdiseases isan important focus in thismanual.Althoughnotmentionedinwordsallthetime,AIisthemainreasonforthesuggested improvements in biosecurity and husbandry in general. For instance acommonpracticeforsmallholderfarmers,inthevillageaswellasinurbanorperi-urbanareashasbeen toeat or sell sickbirds.This practice is not recommendedwiththepresenceofAvianInfluenzaandshouldinthefuturebeavoided,duetothehighriskofinfectionfromthesickbird.Alsothecommonpracticeofkeepingpoultryinthefamilyhouseistobediscouraged.Themanualisbasedontheauthor’sownexperienceandresearch,internationalliteratureandonrecentcountryspecificcountryreportsonpoultryproductionandbiosecurityinKenyaandTanzania.Alsothemanualisbasedontheoutcomeofworkshopsheldinthetwocountriestodiscussbiosecurityinpoultryproduction.Itwillbefoundusefulinmostdevelopingcountries. The primary target groups of this manual are veterinarians, para-veterinariansandanimalproductionexperts in thegovernmentandprivatesector, involvedwith

9


smallholderpoultrydevelopmentatvillage,peri-urbanandurbanlevel.Asecondarytarget group is literate small-scale poultry farmers and local poultry workers. Safe poultryproductionincludesseveralpossibleinterventions-overalltermedasbiosecureproduction. The most important interventions are reflected in the titles of the sixfollowingchaptersofthemanual:

1.GeneralManagement2.Animalselectionandbreeds3. Housing4. Feeds and feeding5.HealthandDiseasemanagement6.ProfitabilityandMarketingofproducts

Each chapter gives background information and possible solutions to practicalproblems ineverydaymanagementofasmall-scale indigenousandhybridpoultryproductionundervillage,peri-urbanandurbanconditionsindevelopingcountries.

Theimprovementofindigenouspoultryatvillage,peri-urbanandurbanlevelhasbeenattempted for many years in terms of e.g. cockerel exchange schemes or vaccination programmes.Unfortunately,very fewof theseprojectshavehadsuccessover theyears.Ouranalysisandresearchhaspointedtowardsanumberofproblems,i.e.lackoftrainingofthefarmers,lackoforganisationandlackoffollow-upandsupportbeingsomeofthemainproblems.

Similarlysmallholderfarmersofthehybridcommercialpoultrydoexperienceproductionconstraintsmainlyduetolackofsuitableextensionpackagesandtraininginpoultryproduction.

Wheninstructingfarmersinimprovingpoultrymanagementandproduction,itisimportantthat the training takes place in a participatory manner. Involvement and learning are enhanced when the participants are part of the training. It is therefore essential that theparticipantsareencouragedtocomeforwardwiththeirownexperiences,andthatthediscussionsarebasedontheirlocalpracticesandproblems.Likewise,practicalinstruction,wheretheparticipantsprepareequipmentoutoflocalmaterials,mixlocalfeedsordiscusstheadvantagesofbuyingequipmentandfeed,highlyincreasestheirabilitytorememberwhattheyhavelearned.Theparticipatoryapproachandlearning-by-doingwillcreateadirectconnectionbetweenthetrainingandthechallengesthefarmersencounterwhenimplementingnewmethods.Furthermore,itisimportanttoacknowledgetheneedforsupportandlongtermcommitment.Unfortunately,poultryproduction is not done overnight by donating a flock or offering a vaccine free ofcharge without the appropriate support.

Boththefreerangeandthesmallholdercommercialpoultryproductionsystemsarecoveredinthismanual.Theemphasisismainlyonchickensbecause,accordingtothecountryreports,itisthemostpredominantpoultryraisedindevelopingcountriesandEastAfricainparticular.Althoughthepreparationofthemanualwasprompted

10


1.The different production systems

Poultryproductionsystemscanbecategorizedintofourtypes(Sectors1-4).

Sector 1 refers to large scale integrated commercial producers, often includingproductionofgreatgrandparentorgrandparentflocks,i.e.,thebreedingflocks.

Sector2referstolargescaleproductionfarms(over10000birds).

Themanagementpracticesdescribedinthismanualfocusonsectors3and4whicharethesmallscalecommercialandbackyardproductionsystems.Forthepurposeofthismanual,thesehavebeendividedinto:• Thescavengingbackyardproductionsystemwithindigenouspoultry(Traditionalfree-range)• Animprovedversionofthisbackyardsystem,sometimesinvolvingimprovedbirds(Improvedfree-range)• The more intensive small scale commercial poultry production system with hybridpoultry(Smallscaleconfined).

Thesetypesofproductionarecurrentlypracticedbysmallholderfarmersinrural,peri-urbanandurbanareas(Table1).

Itiseasiertohaveahigherlevelofbiosecurityiftheflocksarekeptinconfinedareas.Itishoweveramajorchallengetointroducebiosecuritypracticesinflockswithaccesstooutdoorareas.Theseaspectswillbediscussedfurtherlaterinthismanual.

Improvedsmallholderpoultrymanagementimpliesaddressinganumberofpracticesin the traditional free-range systems and to some extent in small scale confinedsystems.Firstofall,itisessentialtoimprovethebiosecurityandprotecttheanimalsagainstdiseasesbyvaccination(whenappropriate)andtotreatsickanimalswiththerightmedicationsorquarantinetoavoidfurtherspread.

Othermanagementissuesarealsolargelyneglected,i.e.housingagainstbadweather,predatorsandtheft;hygiene,feedingandmarketingoftheproducts.Moreover,itisimportant that thepoultrykeepermakessure that theflockhas therightflocksizein relation to feedandspaceavailable,and that thebestanimalsareselected forbreeding.All theseaspectsofpoultryproductionneedtobeconsideredinordertoincreaseproductivity,incomeandimprovepoultryhealthandbiosecurityingeneral.Sincethemainpurposeofpoultryproductionistogenerateincome,thecostsmustbekepttoaminimumsoastoensurethatthesellingpricecoversallcostsplusaprofit.

bytheHPAIoutbreaks,ithascoveredmostoftheimportantpoultryproductionissuesandwillbeusefulevenafterHPAIhasbeencontrolled,sincethebiosecuritymeasuresrecommendedforHPAIarethesameasforotherinfectiouspoultrydiseases.

11


Table 1: Characteristics of small-scale poultry production systems

Traditional free-range Improved free-range Small-scaleconfined

Lowinput/lowoutput Lowinput/mediumoutput Highinput/highoutput

Ownedmostlybywomen Ownedbywomen&family Businessmen,women

Homeconsumption,saleatgate(traders)andat

local market

Home consumption and sale atgate(traders)andatlocal

markets

Soldatgate(traders),livebirdmarkets,restaurants,supermar-

ketsSmall cash income Family income BusinessincomeSocial&culturalimportance(gifts,

religious)

Social importance Littlesocialimportance

Lowinput Micro-credit CreditbasedonassetsIndigenousbreeds Indigenous/improvedbreeds Hybrids(broilersorlayers)Limitedhealthcare Improvedhusbandryandhealth

care,With good health management

No vaccination Newcastle Disease vaccination Several vaccination schemes

Nomedication, Limitedmedication/localrem-edies

Full medication

High mortality Moderate mortality Lowmortality

Nofeeding(scavenging) Localfeeds(semi-scavenging) Balancedfeeds

Simple housing or no housing

Simple housing Houses with cages or deep litter

Eggproduction:30-50eggs/y/hen



Longbroodyperiods Shortbroodyperiods Nobroodiness

Growthrate=5-10g/day Growthrate=10-20g/day Growthrate=50-55g/day

1.1 The traditional free-range system

The present situation in most of the developing world is that village poultry is left withminimal care.Thebirds find their feedby scavenging in compoundsaroundhouseholds. In addition they may get leftovers from the harvest and from the kitchen. Thistypeofproductionisverycheap,butnutritionalneedsofthebirdsaredifficulttomeet.

Itisoftenobservedthat:• Ownersdonotprovidewaterandbirdsdonotgetenoughwater,ortheyget dirty water that can transmit diseases.• Birdsdonothaveaccesstoanenclosureorasheltertoprotectthemfromwindandrain,ortokeepthemsafefrompredatorsandtheftexceptatnight in some communities or during early crop growing season.• Nestsforhensarerarelyprovided,causingthebirdstolaytheireggsontheground.Manyeggsgobadbeforetheyarenothatchedbecauseof

12


disturbances,lackofproperfeedandwater,andannoyingexternalparasiteswhichmakethehenleavetheeggsandresultsinlowhatchability.• Young chicks follow the mother hen immediately after hatching. When young chicksareleftscavengingtogetherwithadultbirds,theyhavetocompeteforfeeds.Asaresultthereisveryhighchickmortalityduringthefirstweeksoflife,mainlyduetoinsufficientnutrition,chilling,diseases,predationbyeaglesandsnakes,drowninginpoolsofwaterandroadaccidents.Consequentlymanybirdsdieveryyoung,oftenfiveoutoftenor50%ofthechicksdiewithinthefirst8-12weeks.Withsimpleinterventionsbeingadvocatedinthismanualhowever,thismortalitycanbebroughtdowntoalossofonly1-2birdsoutof10.

These practices are summarized in Illustration 1. Thefreerangescavengingsystemisbasedonhenswithanabilitytogobroodyandreartheirownchicks.Thishasmanyadvantages,butthelongbroodyperiodsreduceeggproduction.Oftenchickensarethemainproducttobesold,andafeweggsareconsumedinthehousehold,notsold.

In thissystem,birdsareseldomvaccinatedorgivenmedicineagainstdiseasesorparasites, as veterinary treatment is not available or not seen as being importantandprofitable.Differentpoultryspecies,likeforinstance,chickens,ducks,pigeons,turkeysandguineafowlsareoftenkepttogetherandbirdsboughtinthemarketorother villages aremixedwith the household flocks, increasing the risk of diseasetransmissionamongbirdsandbetweenbirdsandhumans.

Ifthereisagenerallackofessentialnutrients,resistanceagainstdiseasesislow,andmanybirdsmaygetill.Theygrowslowlyandunevenly,producingfewereggsandlessmeat.Birdsthatroameverywheremayeasilygetinfectedandspreaddiseases.

Whenonebirdhasacontagiousdisease,thereisaseriousriskthatmanybirdsintheflockorvillagewillbeinfected.Itmightspreadtohumansifitisazoonoticdisease.

Villagepoultryproductionoftenencountersproblemsrelatedtolackoforganisation,whichimpliesthatinputs,suchasfeed,medication,veterinaryservices,andtraining,are rarely available. Without organisation and knowledge about the potentials ofvillagepoultry, thepoultrykeepersreceivevery littlesupportandadvicefromeachotherorfromlivestockextensionworkers.Asaconsequence,thetraditionalpoultryproductionremainsrudimentary,withlowmonetaryprofit.

Anenablingenvironmentincludestraining,theavailabilityofdailysupport,services,feeds,propercareofchicks,veterinaryservicesandmaybeavailabilityofcredits.

13


Illustration1:Apoorlymanagedunit

Notethedeadbirdslyingaround,offals,predators,poorlymaintainedchickenhouseand lack of water.

1.2 The improved free-range system

Chickens in thissystemaresometimesselectedashighyielding indigenousbirds.Crossesbetween indigenouschickensandpurebreedssuchas theRhode IslandRed (RIR) are sometimes encountered.The productivity of such birds is high.Byimprovingsomemanagementprocedureswithregardtohousing,feedingandhealth,smallholderfree-rangepoultryproductioncangenerateaconsiderable income,notnegligible forpoor rural households.Often improvementof thecareof chicksandvaccination (mainly against Newcastle Disease and Fowl pox) can minimize thelosses.

Inthisproductionsystem,afarmermaydecidewhethertoproduceeggsormeatforsale.Thus,ifafarmerwantstoselleggs,itisessentialtopreventthehensfromgoingbroody,whereasthisisdesirablewhenfarmerwantstorearchickensforthemarket.

1.3Thesmallscaleconfinedsystem(Broilers)

This sector comprises small scale production systems with smallholder farms keeping up to2,000broilersper farm forcommercialpurposes.Thisnumber issometimeshigher.

14


Thefarmerssourcedayoldchicksfromahatchery.Theybuycommercialfeedsfromfeed shops and drugs from the nearest supplier. There are normally many small-scale feedmillersand thesupplymeets thedemand.But thequalitymayvary fromonesourcetoanother.Sometimes, farmersadd ingredients intocommercial feedswiththeintentiontoimprovequality.Thisisnotrecommendedunlessthefarmerissureoftheingredientswhicharemissingorinadequateinthefeedspurchased.

Chickenhousesmayhaveearthorcementfloorsbuttheupperhalfofthewallshavewirenettingwhilethebottomhalfismadeofmudwalls,woodenplanks,ironsheetsorbrickwallingdependingonthefinancialabilityofthefarmer.Corrugatedironsheetsarenormallyused for the roofing.Woodshavingsareused for thedeep litterandwaterissuppliedincommercialdrinkersorhomemadedrinkersbothmanuallyfilledwithwater.Feedersareusuallywoodentroughs,plasticormetalcommercialfeedersplaced conveniently in the poultry house.

1.4Thesmallscaleconfinedsystem(Layer)

This sector comprises small scale production systems with smallholder farms keeping hybridlayerflocks.InEastAfrica,farmersobtaindayoldlayerchicksandfeedsfromthesamesourcesasfarmersproducingbroilers.Somefarmerskeepbothcommerciallayersandbroilers.Theflocksizemayvaryfrom200to4000birds,however,mostfarmerskeepinglayershavemediumsizedflockof400-600birds.

Thegeneralstructureofthelayerhousesarethesameasforthebroilersexceptthatlayingboxesareprovidedandthatthereismorespacepersquarefootperbirdforthelayerhousescomparedtothebroilershouses.Feedersanddrinkersaresimilartothosedescribedaboveforbroilers.

Pulletsmatureandstartlayingwhentheyreachtheageoffivetosixmonths(20-24weeks).Vaccinationisnormallydoneasrecommendedbytheveterinarydepartmentorbythemanufacturerdependinguponthediseasechallengeinthearea.Whentheeggproductiondropstobelow45percentthebirdsareculled,whichmaybeat18-24months of age.

InEastAfrica,disposalofculledbirdsandspentlayersentailsarisk.Therearenoorganizedmarketsforsuchbirds.

Birdsaresometimestransportedliveontopofbuses,inopenpickupsoronbicycles,withtheriskofsickbirdssheddingdiseaseagentsalongthetransportroutetothecities or the municipal chicken markets.

15


2.Themanagementoffree-rangeandsmallscaleconfinedpoultryunits

2.1Whatyouwillfindinthischapter

The chapter gives an overall picture of aspects related to management. Some of theseaspectsarefurtherdevelopedinsubsequentchapters.ManagementpracticeswhichareusedinEastAfricaandotherdevelopingcountriesaredescribedandareasofimprovementaredescribed.Thechaptershouldassisttrainerstohelpthefarmeradoptbettermanagementpracticesinorattheirfarms.

Furthermore,thischaptergivesanoverviewofinterventionsthatwillimproveproductionandmakethefarmasaferandmoreprofitableplace.Someoftheseinterventionsimply a move from the traditional free-range system into what is often called a “semi-scavengingsystem”ortheimprovedfree-rangesystem,whichismoreefficientbutrequirescapitalinvestmentandasecuredmarketfortheproduct.Fromthere,afarmerwith the additional skills found in this manual may choose to change to go from a free-rangesystemintoasmall-scaleconfinedsystemwiththeuseofcommerciallayersorbroilersandcompoundedhomemadeorcommercialfeeds.

2.2 Biosecurity issues

Traditional and improved free-range systems

Birdsboughttoreplacebreedingstockmayintroducediseases.Inthetraditionalsector,breedingbirdsarenormallyacquiredfromlivebirdmarkets,boughtfromneighborsorreceivedasgiftsfromfriendsandrelatives.Inexceptionalcasesbreedingbirdsmaybeboughtfromanationalindigenouspoultrybreeding/researchstation.

Diseasemanagement(vaccinationandtreatment)rarelyexistinfree-rangeproductionsystems.Bynotvaccinatingortreatingagainstdiseases,birdsareathighriskofbeinginfectedbydiseases.

Confinementandhousingortheabsenceofthemalsobringriskswiththem.Inmanycases, traditional free-rangepoultrydonothaveaseparateshelterandshare thelivingquartersorkitchenofthefarmer.Thesheltersareusedbypoultryduringthenightonly.Ontheotherhand,farmerswhohaveshelters,buildverysimplestructureswhosefloorsmaybemadeofearthorinrarecases,cement.Thestructuresaremostlygrass thatched and in a few cases roofed with corrugated iron sheets. The shelters are rarely cleanedandhenceun-hygienic.The shelters, husbandry and slaughterpracticesaswellasmarketingfacilitiesinthetraditionalsystemlackthebiosecuritydimension.Likewise,theaccesstooutdoorareaswherethebirdsarescavengingisa risk.

Smallscaleconfinedsystem-Broilers

Entryofdayoldchicksonthefarmentailsrisk.Chicksmightintroducediseasestoafarm.Shelterswherewildbirds,domesticanimalsandvermincanenterposearisk.

16


Unrestrictedhumanmovement,absenceoffootbathsanddisinfectantsposearisk.Poorhygieneof theshelters increase risk. Improperuseofpoultrymanureentailsrisks.

Smallscaleconfined-Layers

Improper cleaning and disinfection of houses and the common practice of farmers of not restricting entry of visitors to the flock house expose the birds to potentialinfection.Otherexamplesofriskfactorsare:poorpersonalhygieneparticularlylackof regularwashingofhands, reuseofegg trayswithoutproperdisinfection lackoffootbaths,homeslaughterofspentchickensanddisposalofchickenmanurewithoutcomposting.

2.3Howtoimprovemanagement(free-rangesystems)

2.3.1 Flock management

Toproducefertile,hatchableeggs,onecockisneededforapproximately10-15hens.Whensurpluscocksreachamarketablesize, theyshouldbesold,slaughtered,orgivenawayaspresents,topreventthecocksfromeatingthescarcefeedresources,aswellasfromfightingandstressingthehens.This maybeavoidedbysellingyoungcocks.

Youngcocks caneasily be recognizedby their tail feathers, their comb,and theirgeneral(aggressive)behaviorandappearanceincomparisontothehens.

Alwaystakeintoconsiderationthatthesizeoftheflockshouldmatchthesizeofthehouse,theamountoffeedonecanproduceoraffordtobuy,andthefeedresourcesintheenvironment(scavengingfeedresourcebase).

2.3.2 Housing and hygiene

Asimplenight-basketorchickenhouse(Illustration2andIllustration3)willdiminishtheriskoflossbecauseofbadweather,predators,andtheft.Insideachickenhousethebirdsneedperches tositonwhen theysleep. Ifoneputs thenests inside thechickenhouseaswell,itiseasytofindtheeggs,andthehenswillnotbedisturbedwhen laying eggs.

17


Illustration3:Exampleofasinglehousefor10-20birds(FromSenegal)

Inordertopreventdiseases,includinginternalandexternalparasites,goodhygieneisamust(Illustration4).Thus,feedersanddrinkersshouldalwaysbekeptclean,andthehouseandthenestsmustbecleanedfordroppings,insectsetc.Freshstraworhayshouldbeputinthenestsweekly.Addingalittleashontopcanpreventparasites(seechapterfouronhousingformoredetails).

Illustration4:Thehouse,feedersanddrinkersshouldbecleanedregularly.

Illustration2:Exampleofsimplehousingforuptofivehens(nightbasket)

18


Thehouse,theperches,andthenestsshouldbethoroughlycleanedandsubsequentlypaintedwithlimeatleasttwiceayear,andalwaysafterseriousoutbreaksofdiseases,(Illustration5).

Ifproblemspersistinsmallwoodencagesorhouses,thebestthingistoburnthemandbuildanewone,asparasitesmayhideineventhesmallestcracks.Additionaladviceonhousingwillbefoundinchapterfour.

Illustration5:Lime-washingtheinsideofthehousefordisinfection

2.3.3 Feed and water

Toproducewellandhavegood resistanceagainstdiseases,birdsneedadequatequantitiesofgoodqualityfeedandcleanwater.Dependingonthetimeoftheyeartheywillbeabletofindpartof their feedbyscavenging inthesurroundingsof thehousehold.Butoftentheyneedanextrasupplyofnutrientsinordertogainweightandtolayagoodquantityofeggs.Supplementaryfeedandcleanwatershouldbegivenatleastearlyinthemorningandagainintheeveningwhenthebirdsarereturningtothehouseforthenight.Itisimportantthatthefeedersanddrinkersarekeptclean,sothatinfectionsdonotspreadthroughdirtyfeedandwater(Illustration6).

Day-old and small chicks need protein-rich feeds or mixtures from simple supplementary sourcessuchasmaggots,snailsandtermites.Youngchickensshouldbefedseparately

19


awayfromtheadultbirds.Itisbestforthemtohaveaspecialdiet,andnottohavetocompete with the adults for feed. It is very important for small chicks always to have accesstocleanwater,astheymayeasilydiefromdehydrationorinfection.Thereismore information on management of young chickens later in this chapter. See chapter fiveformoreadviceonfeedsandfeeding.

Illustration6:Drinkersandfeedersshouldbekeptcleantoavoidspreadofdiseases

2.3.4 Health

Itisrecommendedthatafarmershouldnotbuyanimalsatthelivebirdmarketorfromuncontrolledorunknownsources,especiallynotduringperiodswhenoutbreaksofdiseasesareoccurring,sincecontagiousdiseasesmaybeintroducedintotheflock.

AllbirdsmustbevaccinatedagainstNewcastleDiseaseandotherdiseasesprevailinginaspecificareasuchasFowlPox,topreventmortality.Chicksshouldbevaccinatedagainst thecommoncontagiousdiseasesat theageof2-3weeks.Re-vaccinationshouldalwaysbeperformedaccordingtotheinstructionsoftheveterinariansorhealthworkers.

Ifaseriousdisease issuspected, thefarmershould isolateorkill thebird,call theveterinarian,orusedrugs to treat thebirdwhenadequateand ifone isabsolutelysureofhis/herdiagnosis.Ifthebirdisnotkilledatonce,itmustbeseparatedfromtheothers.Deadbirds(orpartsfromdeadbirds)shouldbeburnedorburieddeepenough(about1m)toavoidandpreventdogsandotheranimalsfromdiggingthemupandspreadthedisease.Iftherearemanysickanimals,thecauseofthediseasemustbeestablishedbeforeintroducingnewbirdsorvaccinating.IfcasesofNewcastlediseaseorAvianInfluenzaaresuspected,thefarmermustalwayscalltheveterinarianinordertohavethissuspicionconfirmedorrejected.

20


Illustration7:Aseparateshedorcagemaybenecessarytoisolateillornewlypurchasedbirds

Beforeintroducingnewbirdsintoaflock,theymustbekeptisolatedfortwoweeksinashedorcage(Illustration7).Thesamestructurecanbeusedfortheisolationofsickbirds.Forfurtheradviceseechaptersixondiseaseandhealthmanagement.

2.3.5Understandingpoultrybehaviour

In the wild, chickens will form small flocks of 1-5 hens with one cock. Normallysmallholderfarmerswillkeepsmallflocksof4-10hensandonecock,butflocksmayvary fromoneup toaround30adultsandyounggrowers,dependingon the feedresourcebaseanddiseaselevelinthearea.Uptothisnumbertheywillstillbeabletorecognizeeachother,whichwillhelpminimizeconflictsamongthebirds.Eachcockorhenintheflockenjoyshisorherspecialstatusinrelationtotheothers,implyingthatsomehavepriorityoverotherswhenchoosingplacesfornesting,forresting,forscavenging,etc.High-rankinganimalswillhavenicefeathersandcombs,andtheirposture will show their dominant position. If a low-ranking hen comes too close to a henofhigherrank,thelattermayindicatethisbystretchingherneckandturningherbilltowardstheintruder.Normallythiswillsufficefortheothertoretire.Therankingmaychangeaccordingtoage,brooding,andotherfactors.Thesystemofmoreorlessstabledominanceisverypractical,sincetheanimalscanbefreetoconcentrateonfindingfoodandwatchoutforenemiesoncethepeckingorderisestablished.

Atpointoflayanindigenoushenoftenweighs1.2–1.5kg.Amaturecocknormallyweighs1.4–2.0kg.Oftenafree-rangehenwilllaythefirsteggattheageof22-32weeks(6to8months)andlayin3-4clutchesof10-15eggseachclutchayearandthatis30to60eggsperyear,dependingonavailabilityoffeeds.Ahenwilloftenfindadark,quietplaceforlayingeggsandforbrooding.After21daysofincubation,fertileeggswillhatch.Inmostcases,outof10eggsaround8willcontainlivechicks.

21


Illustration8:Dustbathingisimportantforpoultrytokeepclean

Toprotectagainstveryhighorlowtemperaturesandtobefittoescapepredators,itisimportantforbirdstohavegoodfeathers.Theythereforespendmuchtimecleaningandpreeningtheirfeatherswiththeirbeaks.Further,atleastonceaday,theywilldustbathe,whichalsoprotectsthemagainstexternalparasites(Illustration8).Thebirdsshouldalwayshaveaccesstoadryplacefordustbathing.Iftheypreferacertainplace,the farmer should add a little dry lime or ash to protect them against parasites.

2.3.6 Daily rhythm and careful observation

Itisveryimportantthefarmerspendssometimeeachdayobservingtheflockcarefully(Illustration9).Inthiswayearlysignsofdisease,malnutrition,orotherproblemsmaybediscovered,andthenecessaryprecautionstaken.Knowingeachhenwillalsohelpyouchooseeggsfromthebesthenforhatching,sothatthechicksmayinherithergoodqualities.

Eggsforsaleshouldbecollectedinthemorningandagainintheevening.Inthiswaytheywillnotbedirtyorcrackedwhenthehenssitonthem,andthehenswillnotbetemptedtobroodaswhentherearemanyeggsinthenests.Eggsshouldbestoredinacool(below20°C)andhumidplaceuntilsaleorbrooding.

Afarmermayencounterproblemswithhenspeckingeachother(Illustration10),butmostlythishappensinflockswithhighdensity,orifthebirdsarekeptinsideduringtheday.Woundsfrompeckingshouldbetreatedimmediatelywithwoundremediestoavoidcannibalism in theflock.Access togreen fodder, rootsor tuberswill limitcannibalism.

Farmers must keep records of their poultry production. This will make it easy for farmer toknowsuccessesandproblemsatanearlystage.Seechaptersevenforadviceonrecord keeping.

Poultryhaveaveryconstantrhythmdayinanddayout.Intheearlymorningandlateafternoontheyscavengeforfood.Laterinthemorningthehenswilloftenlayeggs,andatnoontheywillrest.Whentheysleepatnight,theyprefertosithighinordernottobeeasypreysforpredators.

22


Illustration9:Carefulobservationoftheflockonadailybasisisimportant

Illustration10:Peckingoftenoccursifbirdsarekeptinsidefordays

2.3.7 Controlled brooding

Asstatedabove,hensstart layingeggsat theageof22-32weeks,dependingonthebreed,theirhealth,anddevelopment.Oftenindigenoushenswillstartmuchlaterthanimported(exotic)breeds.Hensaround40-50weeks(10to12months)ofagelaymosteggs,andthentheireggproductiongraduallydecreases.Ifamaturehenlaysveryfeweggs,itshouldbesoldoreaten.Insmallflocks,itisrelativelyeasytocheckwhetherthehensarelayingeggsornot(Illustration19).Layinghensshouldhaveeasyaccesstocalciumrichfeedthatmaybesupplementedbycalciumrichsourcessuchascrushedsnails,sea-shellsorburnedegg-shells.Farmershouldprovidenestsinthehenhouseforlaying.Inthiswayitiseasytofind

23


theeggs,andtheycanbekeptclean.Inordertoteachthehenstolaytheireggsinthenests,farmermayplaceacoupleofeggsorstoneslookinglikeeggsinthenests.Theeggsshouldbemarkedproperlytoknowwhicheggsarenewandshouldbecollected.Whenhensgobroodyandsitontheeggs,theyalwaysstoplaying.Bycollectingeggsseveraltimesaday,thefarmermayavoidthatthehensbecomebroody.Ifahengoesbroody,andthefarmerdoesn’twantherto,thehenshouldbeseparatedimmediatelyfromtherest.Thehenmayforexamplebeisolatedinasmallcageinacoolplace,without access to nest material for a few days.

Othermethodsaresometimesused,butwithnoevidenceofsuccess.Themethodsinclude forexample,dipping thebroodyhen incoldwater twicedailyuntil thehenstopsbrooding,dippingventsofbroodyhensincoldwateronceadayforthreedaysand plucking the tail feathers.

The farmer should not hatch new chicks if one does not have enough feed for them. Iftoomanychicksarehatched,theymaydiefromstarvationormalnutrition,ortheirresistancetodiseaseswillbereduced.

2.3.8Naturalincubationandhatching

An indigenoushen lays15-20eggsbeforeshestarts incubatingandhatching theeggs.Forchickensittakes21daysofincubationforeggstohatch,forducksittakes28days.Eggsshouldbefreshbeforeincubation.Theageofeggsshouldbenomorethan10days,whenstoredattemperaturesbelow20ºCorinacoolhumidplaceunderashelterorinsideahouseinaboxplacedonthefloorofthecoolestpartofthehouse.Ifthetemperatureishigher,theeggsshouldbenomorethan5daysold.Eggsfromdifferenthenscanbecolletedforincubationbyonehen.Toobtainthebestincubationresult,theeggsselectedforincubationshouldbeofaveragesizeandnormalshape.Further,theeggsshouldhaveasmoothshellwithoutcracks.Iftherearecracksintheshell,thelossofmoisturefromtheeggcanbetoohighandthechickmaydie.Thereisalsoariskofbacteriaenteringtheegg,whichmayleadtounhealthyordeadchicks.Eggsforsalemayalsobestoredinthesameplace.Duringincubationoneshouldalwayscheckwhicheggsarefertileandwhicharenotfertile.Fertileeggsveryquicklydevelopbloodvessels,whichmaybeseenagainstasharplightfromatorch.

Illustration11:Home-madeeggcandlersusingeitheryourhandorawoodenboxandatorch

24


Illustration12:a)infertileegg;b)eggwithadeadembryoc)eggafter7daysofincubation

After7-10daysofincubationtheeggscanbecandled,andtheinfertileeggsandeggswithdeadembryoscanberemovedfromthenest.Illustration11showstwosimpleeggcandlesandfigureIllustration12showshowfertileeggs,infertileeggs,andeggswithdeadembryosareidentifiedattheageof7days.Whencandling,afertileegghasvisiblebloodvesselsandadarkspot,iftheembryoisdead.Thebloodvesselscanbemoreorlessdevelopeddependingonhowstrongtheembryois.Ifthechickisdead,aringofbloodcanbeseenaroundtheembryo.Aninfertileegghasanenlargedairspaceandtheyolkcausesavisibledarkareaintheegg.Itisimportantthatinfertileeggsandeggswithdeadembryosareremovedfromthenestastheywilldecomposeandmaybreakandspoilthefresheggsunderincubation.

Abroodinghenshouldbeseparatedfromtheflocktopreventotherhensfromdisturbingher.Thehenshouldbekeptinaseparatenestwithfreeaccesstofreshwaterandfeedwithin a short distance.Thehen shouldbeprovidedwith abroodingnest orbasketbigenoughtocontainallhereggs.Freshhayorstrawshouldbeputinthenest and some ashes added to avoid parasites. More eggs from other nests should beaddeduntilthehenhasenoughaccordingtoitssize.Asaruleofthumpahencansitonanumberofeggsequalto10timesherbodyweight,e.g.ahenof1.5kgcansitonmaximum15eggs.

Illustration13:Inadequatemanagementforbroodinghens

Intheillustrationabove,thehenisdisturbedbyothers.Shedoesnothaveeasyaccesstofeedandwater.Thetemperature istoohigh.Thehenis infestedwithparasites,whichdisturbsher.Theresultisthatfeweggswillbehatched,andthattoofewofthehatched chicks survive as they easily get ill and die.

25


Illustration14:Goodmanagementforbroodinghens

Intheillustrationabove,thehenisnowleftalonewitheasyaccesstofeedandwater.Sheleavesthenestonlyshortlytodrinkandfeed.Thetemperatureisagreeable.Thenest is well managed with clean hay and anti-parasitic remedies. The result is high hatchabilityandhealthyandlivelychicksmostofwhichsurvive.

Inthedryandhotseason,farmeroughttospraythebreastofthehenwithwatertoincrease the humidity around the eggs. The hen will do the work of hatching perfectly if she has the right conditions, for example a clean and suitable nest and quietsurroundings.

Ifonlyasmallnumberofchicksistobehatched,afree-rangehenisabetterbrooderthananartificialincubator,asshewillnormallyhaveahigherrateofhatching(80-100%)thananincubator(60-80%).

Afterhatchinganduntilthechicksareoldenoughtobeontheirown-usuallyaroundsix weeks of age - the hen will protect the chickens from adverse weather conditions andpredatorsbycoveringthemwithherwings.Indirectly,thehenwillhaveprotectedthenewlyhatchedchicksagainstdiseasesforthefirsttwoweeksviaantibodiesintheyolk;andslowlyshewilltransferhernaturalbehaviortothechicks.Naturalbehaviormeansknowinghowtosearchforfoodandwater,whichfeedtotakeandwhichtoavoid,howtoavoidpredatorsbyhidingorseekingshelterinbushesandtrees,howtokeephealthybydustbathing,etc.Thehennormallystartslayingagain6-8weeksafterhatch,butastrongbondbetweenhenandchicksstillexists.

2.3.9Managementofyoungchickensusingabasketsystem

Inhotclimates, thebestandcheapestmethod toguard theyoungnewlyhatchedchicks is the so-called “basket system”.Young chickens should be keptwith theirmotherovernight inanightbasketwhich isa roundconicalcagewithafloor,seeIllustration15.Analternativetothebasketmaybemadeprovideditservesthesamepurposeadequately. Anightbasketmaybemade frombambooor thinpiecesofwood.Drycutstraw,ricehusks,sawdustorwoodshavingsof8-10cmdepthcanbeused as litter.Inthemorning,thechicksshouldberemovedfromthenightbasketandkeptinadaybasket,whichisabottomlessconicalcage,seefigures1.17and1.18.Adryjuteorstrawmatshouldbeplacedinthecageifthesoilisdamporwet.Thedaybasketshouldbemovedtoanewcleanspoteverydaytoavoiddiseases.Thenightbasketisclosedinordertopreventpredatorsfromenteringandinordertokeepthehen and chicks warm at night.

26


Thebasketcaneasilybemovedaround.Thedaybasketneedstobebiggerandmoreopen in order for the chicks to move around without the hen stepping on them and in ordertosecuregoodventilation.Therehastoberoomforasmallfeederanddrinker.Whentheweatherishot,thechicksoftendonotneedextraheat,buttheyshouldbeprotected against wind and rain.

Illustration15:Daybasketwithajutemat,afeederandadrinkerinsideThebasketsystemmaybeusedaccordingtotheschedulepicturedinIllustration16:

A:0-1weekofage:Shouldkeepthehenwiththechicksfrom4to7daystoprotectthemandtoadjustthetemperature.Shewillknowexactlyhowtoadjustthetemperatureaccording to the sound of the chicks. Farmer must make sure that there is easy access tocleanwaterandhigh-proteinfeedforthechicks.Ensurethatthebasketisalwayskeptclean,byremovingdroppingsandspilledfeedonapieceofpaperorawovenmatplacedbeneaththebasket.

B:1-3weeksofage:Shouldkeepthechicksinthecageallthetime,butletthehenoutforscavengingduringtheday.Sheshouldbeabletohearthechicksfromwhereshemoves. If shewants toenter the cageand if theweather is cold, sheshouldbeallowedtodosobylettingherin.Farmermustmakesurethechickshaveeasyaccesstocleanwaterandhigh-proteinfeed,andensurethatthebasketiskeptcleanat all times. Keep hen and chicks together during the night.

C:3-6weeksof age:Henandchicksmust be kept togetherduring thenight, butgraduallyasthechicksgrow,shouldbeletouttoscavengewiththeirmotherduringdaytime,atfirstonlyforafewhoursinthemorningandthengraduallyalittlelonger.However the chicks should still have easy access to clean water and high-protein feed underthebasket,buttheentranceshouldbetoosmallforolderbirdstoenter(creepfeeding).Thebasketandthegroundmustbekeptcleanatalltimes.

D:After 6weeks:At 6weeksof age, thebasket systemshouldbe removed,andthe chicks let out to scavenge freely together with the mother hen and other adult chickens.Supplementaryfeedingmustbegivenintheeveningforthewholeflock,accordingtotheirneeds(seechapteronfeed).

27


Illustration16:Managementofyoungchickensusingthedaybasketsystem

2.4 Simple rules for better management in free-range systems

Thefarmermust:Receivetraininginpoultryrearing;Provideahouseorshelterwithperchesinsidethehouse;Cleananddisinfectthehouseonaweeklybasis;Giveunlimitedaccesstocleanwaterandmakesurethatfeedingmeetsthenutritionalneedsofthebirds;Vaccinatebirdsregularlyaccordingtotheadviceoflocalvaccinatorsorveterinarians;Monitorthebirds’healthdailybyobservationandwatchingtheirbehavior;Isolateabirdwhenitbecomesillandcalltheveterinaryassistantorkillthebird;Reportdiseasetoveterinarianpromptly;Managetheflocksizebymakingsurethatitcorrespondstothefeedandspaceavailable;Checkthereproductionstatusofeachhenonceamonth,giverightcaretohensthatarebroodingandkillorsellnon-productivebirds,i.e.cockerelsandoldhensthathavestoppedlaying;Providenests,andchecknestsforeggstwotimesaday(layers);Protectthechicksbyusingadaybasketduringdayandanightbasketduringnightandseparateyoungchicksfromadultswhentheyarefed; Make calculations of production costs and income and make sure that productionisprofitable.

28


2.5Howtoimprovemanagement(small-scaleconfinedsystems)

2.5.1FlockManagement

Itisimportantthatfarmerssourcetheirdayoldchicksfromcertifiedhatcheries.Contactsbetweenthebroilerchickensandindigenousbirdsincludingducksandturkeysmustberestrictedasthesespeciesmighttransmitdisease,i.e.Avianinfluenza,butalso Pasteurella multocida,SalmonellasppandE. coli for example. It is recommended tokeepnotmorethan25birds/m2,however,withwarmandhumidsettingslessbirds/m2(downto10)ishighlyrecommendedtoavoiddeathfromheatstress.

2.5.2Housingandhygiene

Broilerproductionshouldbean“allin–allout”operation.Thispracticediminishestheriskofdiseasesandfurthermoreitenablesthefarmertodisinfectandmaintainthehousingfacilitiesinhygienicconditionbetweenflocks.Aperiodof3weeksbetweenflocksisrecommended.Duringthisperiodthehouseshouldbethoroughlycleanedanddisinfectedwithe.g. limewash.Allequipmentinsidethehouseshouldalsobewashed and disinfected. Therearemanydesignsforbroilerhouses. In thiscontext itshouldbementioned,thattheconstructionshouldbemadeofmaterialsthatareeasytomaintain,washanddisinfect.Inparticular:thereshouldbesufficientventilationinthehouse;thefloorshouldbemadeofconcrete;windowsshouldbecoveredwithchickenwire-nettingwhichdoesnotallowwildbirdstoenterthebroilerhouse;afootbath(40x40x10cm)withdisinfectantshouldbeplacedoutsidethehouseattheentranceandvisitorsshouldnotbeallowedentryintothehouse.

2.5.3Feedandwater

Toensureagoodqualitybroilerandanevensizewithintheflock,commercialfeedingisrecommended.Dependingonthecommercialbreed,restrictedfeedingmightbenecessary.Suchdetailsshouldbeenquiredandobtainedfromthehatchery.Cleanwatershouldbegivenad libitum. It is important that the feeders and drinkers are kept clean,sothatinfectionsdonotspreadthroughdirtyfeedandwater.AccordingtomanyfarmersinEastAfrica,commercialfeedsdonotalwaysmeetthenutritionalrequirementsofthebirdsanditmightbepossibletoencounterdeficiencydiseases related to lack of vitamins or minerals in the feed. An analysis of the feed willrevealanysuchproblems.Thesediseasescanbeavoidedbyaddingadditionalvitaminsandminerals.Inaddition,growthratemightbelowbecauseofpoorqualityfeeds.Broilersshouldnormallybe ready forsalebeginning from theageof35-40daysoldwhentheyoughttoreachaliveweightof1.5to1.8kg.

29


2.5.4Health

The recommendationsgiven for free-rangepoultryapplyhereaswell.However, itshouldbenoted thatcommercialbreedsgrow faster.Especiallybroilerswhicharereadyforsaleattheageof35-40days.Theshortproductionperiodreducestheriskofinfectionwithdiseases,exceptforviraldiseaseswithanepidemicnaturesuchasNewcastleDiseaseorAvianInfluenza.Forsuchdiseases,thesituationmightbetheopposite,asepidemicdiseasesspreadfasterinflockswithahighdensity.

2.5.5Behaviour

Unlikefree-rangeflocks,abroilerflockmaybeof500–to50,000birdsandhencenormalbehaviorofthebirdsisnolongerpossibleandhencemanagementofsuchflocksmusttakethatfactorinaccount.Diseasesspreadatahigherrateinlargeflockscomparedtosmallflocksof30birds.Thereforeentryintotheflockshouldberestrictedandifpossibledonebythesamepersonneltoavoidoutbreakoffearintheflock.Fearintheflockcancausemassivedeath. Themajority of recommendations for broiler farms also apply for the layer farms.However,aflockdensityofonly5layers/m2isrecommendedindeep-littersystems.

2.6Simplerulesforbettermanagementinsmallscaleconfinedsystems

Thefarmermust:Receivetraininginpoultryrearing;Onaweeklybasis,cleananddisinfectthehouseincludingthenests,allequipmentandeggtrays.Eggtraysshouldbethewashableplastictypeorelsemustbeforsingleuseonly.Makesurewildbirdsorotheranimalscannotenterthehouse; Should give unlimited access to clean water and make sure that feeding meets thenutritionalneedsofthebirds;Ifthefeedisacommercialdietaskforaqualityassurancecertificate;Shouldinspectthebirds’healthdailybyobservationandwatchingtheirbehaviour; Should vaccinate the layers regularly according to the advice of vaccinators or veterinarians;Mustisolateabirdwhenitbecomesillandcalltheveterinaryassistantorkillthebird;Shouldcheckthereproductionstatusofeachhenonceamonth,andslaughterorsellnon-productivebirds;Mustrestrictvisitorsaccesstothepoultryhouse(s);Shouldcalculatethecostsandincometoseeiftheproductionisprofitable.Usetheall-in-all-outconcept.

30


3. Selection and breeds

3.1Whatyouwillfindinthischapter

Thetrainerwillbecomefamiliarwithbasicconceptsandmeaningofbreedsandtheirproductioncharacteristicsandhowtoselectbirdsforoptimalproductivity.

3.2 Background information

Infree-rangesystems,indigenouschickensarethemaintypekept.Theindigenousorlocalchickensarestrictlyspeakingnotabreed.Insuchsystems,breedingisusuallynot controlled.

Local indigenousbirdshavedifferentsizesandplumagecolor,andvariedgeneticpotential. For example, they can be classified as follows: frizzle feathered, nakedneck,barredfeathered,mauvefeathered,blackfeathered,dwarfsizebirds.Buttherearemanyother types.Thebiodiversityof the indigenouschicken is immenseandthere is thus great need for their conservation.

In the1960’sand1970’spurebreedsofexoticchickenswere introduced inmanydevelopingcountriesinsmallnumbers.ThesewereRhodeIslandRed,LightSussex,NewHampshireRed,BlackAustralorpsandwhiteleghorns.LaterthePlymouthRock,theBarredRockandtheBuffRockwereintroduced.Inthe1970’s,hybridlayersandbroilerflockshatchedfromimportedeggswere introducedandlater fromimportedbreedingstocksraisedinthecountry.Thecrossbreedingprogrammeshavetosomeextentinfluencedthelocalgeneticpoolinsomevillages.

Farmers keeping indigenous chickens or crosses hatch their own day old chicks from eggsthathavebeenincubatedbybroodinghens.Theoriginalbreedingstockmayhavebeensourcedfromarelative,neighboror friendgivenasagiftor thefarmermight purchase from the local market.

Today,commercial layerandbroiler farmersobtain theirdayoldchicksfromeitherhatcheriesorimportdirectlyfromsourcesabroadthatareapprovedbytheveterinaryauthorities. This is regulated to prevent importation of chicks infected with e.g. Avian Influenza.

In theadventofHPAI,governments in the regionhavebanned importationofanypoultryandpoultryproductsfromcountriesthathavereportedH5N1HPAI.Howevereventhelocallyproducedcommercialdayoldchicksareatriskofbeinginfectedwhenbeingtransportedfromthehatcheryinthedirtyvehicleswhichmighthavebeenusedtotakeeggs,livebirdsandfeedstothemarket.Furthermore,thelargenumberofbirdsin commercial enterprises is another risk for multiplying diseases and propagation of a diseaseinaflockinthesmallscaleconfinedpoultryproductionsystem.

31


Illustration18:Ahealthychick

3.3. How to improve selection

This chapter addresses the situation in both free-range and small scale confinedsystems.Selection forsmallscaleconfinedsystems isespecially important for thefarmers when they buy their birds from hatcheries. Selection of healthy birds inthevillages,marketsorhatcheries is important tosecureahealthyflockandhighproductivity.Oneshould therefore knowhow to judge thequalityofbothsexesofdifferenttypesatvariousages,basedprimarilyontheirappearance,size,sound,andbehaviour(Illustration17).

Judgingaday-oldchick,afull-growncock,oralayinghen,naturallydemandsdifferentskills.The features to look for becomeevenmore complicatedwhendealingwithdifferentbreedswithdistinctlooks,behaviour,andpurposes,i.e.egglayingormeatproducing. Here are simple guidelines on how to select a healthy animal at different ages.Criteriaforbreedselectionarealsogiven.CarefulinterpretationmustbemadewhendealingwiththedifferentecotypesoflocalchickensinEastAfrica.

Illustration17:Physiognomyofhealthyandstrongcockandegg-layer

3.3.1 Animal Selection

Itisimportanttolookfordifferentfeaturesinchicks,growers,hens,andcocks.Selectorbuynewanimalsearlyintheday,asstressfromlackofwater,feed,andrest,willmakemostanimalslookrathersickanddrowsy.Stresscausedbylackofwaterandfeedcanalsolowerthebird’sresistancetodiseasesanditmayevendie.

32


Note:Asoftbellyandaclean,drynavelareimportantfeaturesofahealthy,newlyhatched chick

Ahealthy,newlyhatchedchickshouldhavethefollowingfeatures:Welldevelopedbodylengthanddepth;Shiny,dry,thick,andcoloureddownfeathers;Softbelly;Clean,drynavel;Thickshankswithspacedandstraighttoes;Big,cleareyes;Livelybehaviour.

Ahealthygoodbroilershouldhavethefollowingfeatures:Appearhealthyandlively;Featheringshinyandnormal(maydependonthebreed);Largesizefortheage;Eyesclearandshiny;Cleananddrybeakandnostrils;Cleanfeathersaroundthevent; Straight legs and toes.

Ahealthyandgoodegg-layershouldhavethefollowingfeatures:Shouldappearhealthyandlively;Featheringnormalforthebreed;Aredcomb(morecoloredwheninlay);Eyesclearandshiny;Cleananddrybeakandnostrils;Cleanfeathersaroundthevent;Straightlegsandtoes,withnosignsofscalylegs;Legslesscoloredinlay;Thebreastboneshouldnotbesharp;Abigbroadbottom(layingstatuscanbechecked,seeIllustration19).

Illustration19:a)Heninlay;b)henoutsidelay

33


Insmallflocks,itisrelativelyeasytocheckwhetherthehensarelayingornot.Checkwithyourhand.Thedistancebetweenthepubicbones(top)willbeequivalenttotwofingerswhenthehenisinlay.Onlyonefingermaypassbetweenthepubicboneswhen thehen isoutside lay.Thedistancebetween thepubicbones (top)and thebreastbone(bottom)willbeequivalenttothreetofourfingerswhenthehenisinlay.Onlytwofingersmaypasswhenthehenisoutsidelay.Thecriteriamustbeinterpretedcarefully when selecting indigenous chickens.

Ahealthyandgoodcockshouldhavethefollowingfeatures:Alertandprotectivenature;Shinyandnormalfeatheringforthebreed;Clearandshinyeyes;Cleananddrybeakandnostrils;Cleanfeathersaroundthevent;Straightlegsandtoeswithnosignsofscalylegs;Largesizerelativetothehens.

Itmaybeanadvantagetokeeprecordsonthegrowthandproductivityofeachbirdinordertoselectbirdsaccordingtofeaturessuchaseggproduction,growth(meatproduction), and broody behavior. Keeping recordsmay help you select the bestlayersorthebestmothertoprotectthechicks.Seechapter7forexamplesonrecordkeeping.

Ifnewbirdsareboughtonthemarketandbroughtbacktothefarm,itisimportanttoisolatetheminseparatehousesorbasketsforthefirsttwoweeks.Thiswillenablethefarmertofindoutaboutpossiblediseasesordisordersinthenewbirds.Iftheyshowsignsofanykindofillness,thebirdsshouldbeslaughtered.Whenabirdisbought–eitheratthemarketoratahatchery–thefarmersshouldaskwhethertheyhavebeenvaccinated,andifso,againstwhichdiseases.Vaccinationascriterionforselectionofindigenous chickens may not apply.

3.3.2 Breed selection

When the farmer has taken on improving the productivity and survival of local free-rangepoultrythroughimprovedmanagement,housing,feeding,chickprotectionetc.,she/hemayembarkonbetterselectionandbreedingthebestindigenouschickensfromher/hisownflock.Thesewillbechickenswhichproducealargenumberofeggs,henshavinggoodmotheringability,havebigbodiesandlargeeggs.Thefarmermaywish to add other criteria such as plumage etc. The advantage of the indigenous chickens is that they are well adapted to the local and usually harsh environment.

The farmermaywant to further increaseproductivityby introducingbetterbreeds.Abreed isagroupofpoultrywithacharacteristicbodyformandfeathercontours.Chickens belonging to one breed are genetically very closely related. Productiontraitsaredeterminedbythebreedtheseuniquecharacteristicsareinheritedfromonegenerationtothenext.Alsofeaturessuchasthecomb,colorofearlobes,andshank

34


colorsandlengthareusuallydeterminedbybreed.Ineverybreed,differentvarietiescanoccur,usuallydeterminedbyplumagecolor.Thusawhiteandablackhenmayjustbedifferentvarietiesofthesamebreed.Illustration20showthreedifferent“breeds”commonlyfoundintropicalregions.Strictlyspeakingthesearenotbreeds,butratherecotypes,theyhavediversegeneticmakeup,examplesareFrizzledFeathers,Naked-Neck,andtheDwarf.Naked-Neckgenesarefoundinalmosteveryvillageandarebelievedtobeanaturaladaptationtoavoidheatstress.FrizzledFeathersmaylookillatafirstglance,butisalsoacommonecotypeinmostvillage-basedsystems.Insome countries, Frizzled Feathers are higher priced in themarkets than normallyfeatheredpoultry.Dwarfpoultryshowstandardcolorsandplumage,buttendtobe2/3ofthenormalsizeforpoultry,mostlybecauseoftheshortshanks.

Illustration20:Differentecotypes:Frizzledfeathers,nakedneckanddwarf

Insmallscaleconfinedsystems,chickenskeptareusuallyhybrids.Chickensofonetypeofhybridaregeneticallyandphenotypicallyalmost identical.Hybrid chickensare usually kept for two distinct purposes, that is, either egg ormeat production.Highproductivityineithereggormeatproductionisaresultofspecializedbreedingprogrammes. The so-called dual-purpose breeds are also results of breedingprogrammes and may produce more eggs as well as more meat than traditional indigenousbirds.Itisimportanttoselectbirdsthataresuitedforthekindofproductionthefarmerhasinmind,andthatthebirdsarefitfortheconditionsunderwhichtheyare kept, e.g. free-rangeor confinement.Also checkoutwhether theyareable toadapt to hot climates.

Thefeaturesofbirdsspecializedineggproduction,meatproduction,orboth(dual-purpose) are shown in Illustration 21. Laying hens are “boat-shaped” with a longstraightbackandabigbottom.Meatproducers (broilers)are long-legged,haveamoreuprightpositionandwingsplacedinhighpositiononthebody.Dual-purposebreedshavebodyformsin-betweenlayersandbroilers.Localbreedsoftenhavetheformofadual-purposebreed,thoughmuchlessheavyinbodyformandsize.

Illustration21:Classicalshapeofbreedsproducinga)eggs,b)meatandc)both

35


Forsmallscaleconfinedandalso largescaleconfinedsystems,highlyspecializedhybridshavebeendeveloped(crossesofseveralbreeds),ofwhichlayerscanproduce300 eggs per year and broilers can reach 2 kg in 6-7weeks.To obtain this highproduction,thehybridshaveveryspecificrequirementstomanagement,feeding,anddiseasemanagement,andproductioncostsarehigh.Theyarethereforenotnormallysuited for free-range systems but should be kept in confined intensive productionsystems.

3.3.3 Cross-breeding

Toincreaseproductionfromlocalchickens,crossbreedingwithestablishedbreedscanbeintroduced.Itis,however,importanttoconsultprofessionalbreedersorbreedingcompanies, who may recommend suitable and available breeds to increase eggproduction,growth,orboth.Itisimportanttobeawarethattheoffspringwillobtaindifferentqualitiesdependingonwhetherthecockorthehenofthenewbreedisused.This isbecausesomequalitiesaresex-linked,andthusit is importanttoconsultabreeder.

InBangladesh,thefemaleofanEgyptianbreed,Fayoumi,andthemaleofanAmericanbreed,RhodeIslandRed(RIR),werecrossedtoproduceacrossbredlayersuitablefor a semi-scavenging life under village conditions. The result was a laying capacity of upto160eggs/hen/yearandagrowthrateundersemi-scavengingconditionsof10g/day.Furthermore,thebrown-goldenfeatherswerehighlypraisedbythefarmers,whonamedthebreed“Sonali”(meaning“Golden”inBangla).ThecrossofmaleFayoumiandthefemaleRIRdidnotgivethesamesatisfactoryresults.

It isalso important tostressthat ifacross-breed is introducedatvillage level, it iscrucialthatmanagement,feeding,andhealthprotectionschemesareimprovedandsecured at all times.

3.3.4 Challenges of cockerel exchange programs

Inmanycountries,acommonattempttoincreaseproductionfromlocalchickenshasbeentoestablishso-calledcockerelexchangeschemes.Theideawastoimprovetheproductivityoflocalbirdsbymatingthemwithimprovedcocks.Forseveralreasons,theseschemesusuallyfailedtowork.Firstofalltheintroducedbreedsthatcouldnotadapt to thehotclimate, low feeding,andextensivemanagement,and thusmanyofthemdied.Furthermore,theimprovedcockswerenotaslivelyandactiveundervillage conditions as the local cocks and therefore lost in the mating competition for thehens.When reproductionsucceeded, thefirstgenerationof thesecocksoftenshowed a slight increase in production, but as no strict breeding schemes weremaintained,theeffectwasgoneafterafewgenerations.Otherimportantpotentialdisadvantageswerelossofbroodiness,reducedscavengingcapability,andreducedsurvival.DiseasessuchasNewcastleDiseaseandLeucosiswereintroducedtonewareas,andtheresultwashighmortalityamonglocalbirds.Forallthesereasons,itisveryimportantthatselectionofbreedingbirdstakeplaceintheexistingenvironment.Simple cockerel exchange programs as such are not recommended.

36


3.4. Simple rules to choose the right breed and improve selection

Practicejudgingtheexternalfeaturesofcocks,hens,growers,andchicks, to know which features indicate a good healthy and productive animal.Alwayschoosebirdswithalivelybehavior. Always check whether the hens are in lay.Apotentiallygoodlayerhasalongstraightbackandabroadbottom.Alwayscheckthebellyandnavelspotofnewlyhatchedchicks.Keepnewbirdsisolatedfor2weeksbeforeintroducingthemintotheflock.Makesurethatnewbirdsarevaccinatedagainstimportantdiseasesinanareaandarefreeofparasitesbeforebeingintroducedintotheflock.Theresultsofcrossbreedingshouldalwaysbemonitoredcarefully.Uncontrolleduseofexoticcocksinfree-rangevillageproductionshouldbeavoided.Ifthefarmerusescrossbredorexoticbreeds,she/hemustmakesurethathousing,feeding,andhealthmanagementareimprovedandavailableat all times.

3.5.Recommendationsforimprovementofbiosecurity–Breedingstockandtheir products

Forcommercialflocksinsmallscaleconfinedsystems,it isrecommendedthattheprotocols and procedures in the hatcheries are monitored regularly to ensure that healthy day-old chicks are supplied.

Asaminimumadescribedbiosecurityplanshouldbeinplaceforhatcheriesandallpersonnelshouldbetrainedaccordingly.Furthermore,useofappropriatedisinfectantsin thehatcheryand in thebroodinghouse ismandatory.Day-oldchicksshouldbecarried and transported from the hatchery to the farm in clean chick containers and vehicles.

Fortheindigenouschickensandtheircrossesinfree-rangesystems,thefarmermustprovidecleanbeddingsforthebroodinghenandprovidecleanseparateareaawayfromtheotherbirdswhere itcanbrood thechicks forat least thefirst twoweeks.Further separation of the chicks for another 4-6 weeks is recommended.

Theselectionofbreedsappropriatefortherespectiveproductionsystemsisimportantashybridchickensrarelycanmanageinascavengingproductionsystem.Inadequatefeed and feedingmay lower the immunity of chickens, and the chickens becomesusceptibletodiseases.

Whenintroducingnewanimalsintoafree-rangeflock,theanimalsshouldalwaysbekeptinquarantineforminimum2weeks.

In all systems, the keeping of only one poultry species at the farm is stronglyrecommended.

37


4. Housing

4.1.Whatyouwillfindinthischapter

The chapter includes a detailed description of different types of shelters, mainlyfor free-range systems.The purpose and the requirements of proper housing aredescribed.Emphasisisonhousingandbiosecurity.Useoflocallyavailablehousingmaterialsisencouraged.Oneofthemostimportantcriteriaofagoodshelteristhatit should facilitate easy cleaning and application of hygienic measures. This chapter should equip the trainerwith adequate knowledge to advise the farmer onproperhousing for chickens.

4.2. Common practices in free-range systems

Commonly indigenous chickens are kept in a separate shelter which is located very near the main house for security purposes. Sometimes the chickens are kept in the familyhouse.Inbothcases,chickensarehousedduringthenightonly.

Wherehousingisprovided,thefloorandwallsaremadeofwoodplanksandroofsare grass thatched. Some more advanced ones may have iron sheets for the roofs. Inotherplacesthehousesareeitherelevatedonemeteraboveground.Someoftheelevatedhousesaremadeofintertwinedthinsticksfortheflooringandwalls.Otherchicken houses aremade by simply surrounding the lower part of a granarywithchickenwire-mesh,leavingadoorforthechickentoenter.Mostofthechickenhouseshavesmalldoorsandattimesonlyyoungchildrenmaybeabletoenterthroughthedoors.Itwillbedifficultforadultstocleantheshelterinside.

4.2.1 Biosecurity issues related to housing in free-range systems

Indigenous chickens often scavenge for their feed. During this activity they might move up to 2 km a day. The scavenging activity increases the risk of spread of diseases. Alsotheconstructionofmosthousesinthissectormakesthemdifficulttocleananddisinfect.Movementbetweenfarmsisnotrestrictedandneighborsusuallyvisitoneanotherevenduringdiseaseoutbreaks.Therearenofootbathsfordisinfectants.Thepoultry manure and slaughter waste are disposed within the farm area.

4.3. How to improve sheltering in free-range systems

Housingisessentialtoprotectthebirdagainstincrementalweather(rain,sun,verycoldwinds,droppingnighttemperatures),predators,andtheft,andalsotoprovideshelterforhenslayingeggsandbroodyhens.Andmostimportant:housingisnecessaryinordertomaintainahighlevelofbiosecurity intheflock.Furthermore,asuitableorcomfortablepoultryhouseisextremelyimportanttomaintainanefficientproductionandfortheconvenienceofthepoultryfarmer.Inthefollowingsection,guidelinesfortypeandsizeofchickenhouse,siteselection,choiceofbuildingmaterialandlastlytheequipmentneededforraisingthepoultryarediscussed.

38


Illustration22:Housingshouldfirstofallprotectagainstpredatorsandbadweatheratnight

The decision to build a chicken house should build upon a rationale involving anestimate of the costs, the durability, and immediate gain of using a house for thepoultry.

The simplest and often most cost-effective housing system for free-range poultry is thebasketsystem(Illustration15).Suchnightbasketsmaybeplacedinaquietanddryplaceinsideabuildingonthefarmduringnight,eitheronthefloororhangingfromtheroof(toavoidsnakes).Anightbasketmayhold5-10chickensdependingonthesize.

Whenamoreelaboratestructureisenvisaged,itisimportanttobuildachickenhouseofappropriatesize(accordingtotheflocksize).Onemustconsidercarefullythesite,thematerials,andnotleastthecostsinvolved.

Whenchoosingtherightsite,youshouldtakethefollowingpointsintoaccount:

Ashadyanddryplaceonflatbutraisedground ispreferable tokeepthefloordryduringtherainyseason.Itmaybenecessarytodigadrainaroundthehouseortoraisethegroundfirst.Alternatively,thehousecanbeelevatedfromthegroundasinIllustration 3.

A well-drained soil is desired. The area must not get flooded during heavy rainsbecause the chickens can drown. Furthermore, it is very detrimental to havewetfloorsinachickenhouse; itmayleadtodiseases.Aslopinghillsideprovidesgooddrainage and affords some protection also.

For security reasons it is also important to have the chicken house near the living housesothatthefarmerisabletohearifchickensaredisturbedbypredatorsatnight,orbyathief.However,thechickenhouseshouldnotbelocatedveryclosetothelivingquartersbecauseitwillcreateunsanitaryconditions.Henceitshouldbelocatednotlessthan15metresawayfromthedwellinghouses.

39


The orientation of a chicken house has to take into consideration the movement of thesunandthedominatingwinds,makingthehousenaturallyshadedandventilatedatcertain timesof theday. Inmost localities it isbest toselectasite inwhich thepoultryhousefacesSouthorEast.Windowsplacedonthesouthsideofthehousewillbeagoodsourceoflightandwarmthduringthecoldweatherandagoodsourceofventilationinhotweather.InarectangularhousetheendwallsmustfaceEastandWest. This will ensure that only the end walls face the hot morning sun or the even hotter sun during the afternoon.

BuildingthehouseAlwaysusethecheapestmaterialslikebamboo,wood,reeds,thatchgrass,orclaybrickscombinedwithcement.Removethebarkfromthewoodyouuse,asparasitesoftenhidebehindthebark. Clay houses should have windows with chicken wire mesh. A vent at the top of thehousewillensuregoodventilation.Thesemeasureswillalsogivelight,makingiteasiertoworkinthehouse.However,makesurewindswillventilate the house without making chickens or hens cold.Thefloorshouldideallybemadeofconcrete,butclaymayalsobeused.Itshouldberememberedthatduringtherainyseason,rainandwindmaycause

severe chilling and hence farmer must protect chickens against that. Heat,humidity,andharmfulgassesmaybeconsiderablyreducedthroughgood

ventilation of the house or shelter. High temperatures can cause deaths or drop ineggproduction,lowshellquality,andreducedweightgain.Acombinationof high temperatures and high humidity can kill young chicks. Placingperchesandnestsinsidethehousewillsafeguardagainstmost

predators. It will also help to keep the legs of the chickens and the eggs clean. Thenestsmustbeplacedinaquietplaceinthehouse,tomakethehensfeelcomfortableandatease.Thebestprotectionagainstdiseasesandparasitesisgoodhygiene.Itisthereforeimportantthatitiseasytocleanthehouse/shelter.Itshouldbetallenoughforagrown-uppersontoworkinthere.Inhousesraisedabovetheground,cleaningwillbeeasierifthefloorismadeofslats. Must make the nests and perches easy to remove when cleaning. Houses/sheltersmaybesprayedorlimewashedaftercleaningtodisinfectandreducethequantityofparasiteeggsfromthewallsandcracks.Onemayputsomeashesordrylimeonthefloorandintheneststokeepoffparasites.Grass,bushesandtreesmustbeclearedforadistanceofabout3metersormoreonallsidesofthehousetokeepvermin(snakesandrats)awayfromthechickens.Treesarebeneficialinthescavengingareaandserveasawindbreakduringthecoldseasonandasshadeduringthehotweather,andprotectfromflyingpredators.Inwoodenhouses,farmershoulduseslatted,raisedfloorstoremovedroppings

and avoid predators.Inclayhouses,mustusewire-meshedwindowstoavoidpredators.

40


Housesmaybebuiltonpoles,wellabovethegroundtoprotectthechickensfrompredatorslikedogs,rats,andsnakes.Mustbuildpoultryhousetopreventpossibleinjurytothebirds.Removeanysharp-edgedobjectsfromthehouse.

Thehousehastobelargeenoughsothatthereissufficientroomforthebirds,andsothattheairinsidedoesnotbecometooheavywithhumidityandgasses.Aroundorsquarehouseof1.5-2.0m²willhold10-12adultbirds.

Illustration23:Abadlyconstructedchickenhouse

Thehouseisplacedinthesunwithalowflatroofandnowindows,makingitveryhotandbadlyventilated.Ithasasmalldoor,whichmakesitdifficulttogetinsideandclean it.

Illustration24:Awellconstructedchickenhouse

41


Thiswell constructed chicken house is placed in the shade, has a high roof, andwindows with wire mesh, providing good ventilation. The door is facing north toavoiddirectsun.Thedoorisbigenoughforapersontoenterandcleanthehousefrequently.

Access

Oftentheentrancetothechickenhouseisverysmallanditisnoteasytoenterthehouse.Itisimportantthattheopeningtothechickenhouseismadebigenoughsuchthat anadult person caneasily enter andwork in thehouse.Consequently, otherprecautionsagainsttheftshouldbetaken.Inordertoguardagainsttheftalockmaybefittedonthedoor.

Theshelter/houseshouldbepartitionedtoprovideforbroodinghens.

Perches

Perchesareimportantforchickenstorestonduringnight.Parasitesmayinfectpoultryrestingonthefloor,andperchesoftenreducetheriskofexternalparasitescrawlingontothechickensatnight.Itisalsonaturalbehaviorofchickenstosleepabovethegroundintrees.Eachone-meterperchmayroostfiveadultbirds.Perchesarebestmadeofbambooorroundstickstoaccommodatefor thesizeandstructureof thebirds’feet.Ifthesticksaretoobigortoosmall,thebirdsmayfall.Perchescanalsobesquareandflat:5-10cmbroad.Topreventattackofexternalparasites,theperchesmaybetreatedwithwasteoilorkerosene,wheretheymeetthewall.

Illustration25:Perchesshouldhaveanappropriatediameter

Illustration26:Sticksshouldmatchthesizeofthebirds’feet

42


Nests

Often,nestsarenotprovidedforthehens,andeventuallythehenswilllaytheireggson the ground, in high grass or in natural shelters,where theymaybedifficult tofind.Somepoultryfarmersbuildnestsonthegroundoutsidethechickenhouse.Thisshouldbeavoided,aseggsoutsidehousesareexposedtopredatorsandtheft.Nestsshould be placed inside the chicken house and preferably above the ground. Forlayingonemayhaveabatteryofnestswheremorehenscanlayatatime(Illustration27).Theremustbe1nestforevery5hens.Thenestsmaybemadeoflocalmaterialsor,forsmallscaleconfinedsystems,therearecommerciallyavailablenestsmadeofwoodandrubberfloor.Thesecommerciallyavailablenestsarepreferredduetotheeasiness of cleaning.

Illustration27:Batteryofnestsforlayinghens

Thenestsforbrooding,ontheotherhand,mustbeindividual,placedinaquietanddarkplace,andtheymustbeeasytomove(Illustration27).Oncethehenisbroody,itmaybenecessarytomovehertoadifferentplace,preferablyaquietplace,e.g.astoragehouse,topreventpeopleandotherhensfromdisturbingher.Otherhenscangobroodyaswell,iftheyareclosetoabroodyhen.Ifbroodinessisnotwanted,thehenshouldberemovedfromthenestandplacedinacoolandlightedenvironment.

Illustration28:Nestsforbroodyhensshouldbeplacedinaquietplace

43


Simplenestsmaybeclaypots,calabashes,orbasketsmadeoflocalfibers,cardboard,orwoodenboxes(Illustration28).Nestsshouldbeoftherightsizeforthehentofeelcomfortable.Anestboxwilltypicallymeasure30x30x30cm.Donotmakethemtoobig,asthehenwillnotfeelcomfortable.Acalabashornestbasketmaymeasure40x20x25cm(upperdiameterxheightxlowerdiameter).Aclaypotshouldbeofmoreorlessthesamesize.

Ahealthyandattractivenestforthebroodyhenmaybepreparedbyfollowingthesethreesteps:Takeacleanpotorbasketandfillsandmixedwithashesupto1/3ofthedepth;Putclean,softnestingmaterial(hayorstraw)ontopupto2/3ofthedepth; Then place the eggs in the nest.

Illustration30:Preparinganestinthreesteps

Nestingmaterial should be changed at least once a week except when a hen isbroodingonhereggs.Thefarmershouldmakesurethattherimis1/3ofthedepthtomakethehenfeelsecure,andifnecessaryput“dummyeggs”(e.g.boiledorstoneeggs)inthenesttoattractahen.Mixingashes,tobaccoleaves,drylime,orotheranti-parasiticsubstanceswiththenestingmaterialwillkeepoutmostexternalparasites.Externalparasitesinnestsmayreducethehatchabilityofeggs,asthehenwillusetoomuchtimeandenergyleavingthenest,cleaningandscratchingherbody,thusleaving the eggs cold.

Providingnestsalsomakesiteasiertocollecteggs.Thefarmerwillavoiddirtyandcrackedeggs,iftheeggsarecollectedtwiceaday.CollectEggsmustbecollectedatthesametimeeveryday,inthemorningandtheevening.Removingeggscontinuouslyisimportantifonewantstoavoidthatthehensbecomingbroodyandgetmoreeggs,asbroodyhensstoplayingeggs.

Illustration 29: Simple nests for broody hens are easily made and can easily bemoved

44


Shelters for the mother hen and chicks

After hatching, it is important to keep the hen and the chicks close together in aseparatecage:thebasket(seealsoChapterone,Managementofsmallchickens–basketsystem).Suchasheltershouldprimarilyprotectagainstadultpoultrycompetingforfeedandagainstpredators;anditshouldprovideastableenvironment,shelteringagainstsun,rain,andwind.

Illustration31:Shelterforchicksafterhatching

Ashelterofbasketworkwithatophole(diameter20cm)isuseful,asfeedandwatermaybechangedwithoutdisturbingthebirdsunnecessarily.Italsogivesthenecessaryventilation.

Awovenmatonthefloormayprovideadditionalprotectionduringcoldperiods.Thematshouldbecleaneddailytoremovedroppingsandleftoversfromfeeding(Illustration31).Droppingsmayberecycledasmanureinavegetablegarden.

Hygiene of chicken houses or shelters

Chickenhousesshouldatalltimesbekeptclean.Dependingonthenumberofbirdsinthehouse,itshouldbecleanedonadailybasis.2-3timesayeartheentirehouseshouldbedisinfectedbypaintingthefloor,wallsandpercheswithlime-wash.Aruleofthumbistoapplynewlimewashwhentheoldhasbeenwornoffthewalls.

Chicken runs

Chicken runsareagoodoption;whereproper feeding isassured.A fencedopenairspaceof25m²ormoreisrecommended,wherepoultrymaybekeptprotectedagainst predators and thieves. Fenced areas are also used for feeding,watering,observationoftheflock,andcollectionofeggs.Fences,1.5–2meterhigh,canbemadeofwovenmatorotherlocalmaterial(Illustration32).Achickenrunisrelativelycostly,butmayprovideasortofsecurityagainsttheftandpredation.Tomaketherunsecureagainstpredators,itmaybenecessarytoalsocoverthetopwithwire-mesh.Itis,however,crucialthatadultbirdsareleftfreetoscavengeoutsideduringdaytimein order to keep feed costs low.

45


Illustration32:Chickenrunsmaybeusedforfeeding,watering,andobservationoftheflock

4.4. Simple rules to make a better shelter in free range systems

Buildhousesoutofsuitablelocalmaterialswhichcanbecleanedanddisinfectedorbeburnedatregularintervals;Inwoodenhouses,useslatted,raisedfloorstoremovedroppingsandavoidpredators;Inclayhouses,usewirenettingforthewindowstokeepoutpredatorsandbirds;Placetheperchesandnestsinsidethehouse,andmakethemremovabletofacilitatecleaning;Makesurewindswillventilatethehousewithoutmakingchickensorhenscold;Placethehousesothatheavyrainswillnotdamageorenterthehouse,and

so that the sun will not overheat it.Providenestswithcleanstraw,andmakesurethatyoucaneasilycontrol,cleananddisinfect,andmovethem;Makesurethathousesareeasytoenterintoandclean;Mustcleanonaregularlybasis,i.e.removedroppingsonadailybasis; Always house young chicks with their mother away from other adults (Free-range).Toreducechickmortalityandreducecosts,usebasketsforthechicksduringnightandday;Achickenhouse/sheltershouldbedisinfectedonaregularlybasisbyapplyinglimewashonthefloor,wallsandperches.Aruleofthumbistoapplynewlimewashwhentheoldhasbeenwornoffthewalls.

46


4.5.Commonpracticesinsmallscaleconfinedsystems

4.5.1.Broilers

Commercial chickens are usually provided with simple shelters. The houses usually haveearthfloorsorcementbuttheupperhalfofthewallshavechickenwirenettingwhile the bottom half ismade ofmud, wooden planks, iron sheets or brick/stonewallingdependingonthefinancialabilityof thefarmer.Corrugated ironsheetsarenormallyusedfortheroofing.Woodshavingsareusedforthedeeplitterandwaterissuppliedincommercialdrinkersorhomemadedrinkersbothmanuallyfilledwithwater. Feeders are wooden troughs, plastic or metal commercial feeders placedconveniently in the poultry house.

4.5.2.BiosecurityissuesinbroilerhousesHousesaresometimesopenandinfectionsmaybetransmittedtotheflocksfromotherbirdsflyingintothehouse.Feedandwatercanalsobecontaminated.Movementofpersonnelclosetotheflockhousesisoftennotrestrictedandpoultryworkers/ownersusehomeclothesandshoeswhileinthepoultryhouses.Movementbetweenfarmsisusuallynotrestrictedandneighborsvisitoneanotherevenduringdisease.Therearenofootbathsinmostfarms.Feedingandwaterequipmentandemptyfeedbagsall pose disease risk if they are not decontaminated properly. The poultry manure and slaughter waste are most often disposed within the farm area and at times the manure issoldouttobeusedbyneighborsasfertilizerwithoutcomposting.

4.5.3.LayersThestructureofthelayerhousesisthesameasforthebroilersexceptthat layingboxesarenowprovidedandthatthereismorespacepersquarefootperbirdforthelayerhousescomparedtothebroilershouses.Drinkersandfeedersmaybehomemadeforthosefarmerswithsmallsizeflockswhileforthosewithlargerlayerflocksmayhavecommercialplasticdrinkersand feeders.Layerflockhouseshavewoodshavingsorricehusksasdeeplitterbeddings.Thewoodshavingsusuallydecaytopowderymanurebythetimethelayersstoplayingandaretobedepopulatedattheage of 18-24 months.

4.5.4.BiosecurityissuesinlayerhousesIngeneralthesamerisksexistforlayerhousesasforbroilerhouses.However,oneimportant factor differentiates layer houses frombroiler houses–namely the timefactor - as layers are kept in the same environment for up to 2 years without proper cleaninganddisinfectionduringthisperiod.Poorpersonalhygieneparticularlylackofregularwashingofhands,thewearingofhomeclothesinthepoultryhouse,notwearinggumbootsandnotwearingheadcoversleadstopotentialentryofdiseaseintheflocks.Therearenofootbathsinmostofthesefarms.Disposaloflitterinthefarmandsellinglittertoneighborsortofarofffarmerscreatesbiosecurityriskswherediseasecanbereadilyspreadsincethelitterisnotcompostedbeforedisposal.

47


4.6.Howtoimprovehousinginsmall-scaleconfinedsystems

Likeforfree-rangesystemshelters,broilerhousesshouldprotectthebirdsfromstrongwindsanddraftsandprotectthebirdsfromthievesatnightorday;predators,rodents,mongoose,wildcatsandbirds;shouldprovidegoodventilation.Thechickenhouseshould provide enough sunlight and sunshine and adequate drainage so that thepoultryhouseremainsdry.Ifpossibletheorientationofthehouseshouldallowproperlighting,sunshineandpreventwindchills.Thehousingshouldalsoprovideadequatespaceforbirdsingeneral,thatis5-7layerspersquaremeterand15-25broilerspersquaremeter.

Adequate feeding troughs and watering equipment have to be provided for bothbroilers and layers and laying nests for the laying houses.The size of the housewilldependonthenumberofbirdstobekept.Thehousesaretobepermanentortemporarystructuresandthebuildingmaterialswillvary.Thematerialsshouldprovidetheconditionsgivenabove,forexample:whenironsheetsareusedtobuildwalls,thehousecanbeeasilycleanedbutitismaybeverycoldduringcoldweatherandhotduringthehotseason.Grassthatchwillprovideverygoodinsulationfrombothheatandrain,buttheyareagoodrestingplaceforrodents,insectsandincaseoffiretheyigniteeasily.Acombinationofbothcorrugatedironsheetandgrassthatchmayalsobeconsideredandwouldbeanidealroofinthetropics.

Thechickenhouseshouldbeofsuchmaterialtomakeitpossibletothoroughlyandeasilycleananddisinfectandhenceshouldbeconstructedusingimperviousmaterials.Thusthelowerhalfofwallsshouldbemadeofbricks(mud,burnedorstone)andtheupperhalfcoveredwithchickenwiremesh.Thewallsmustbeplasteredwithcementandthehouseshouldhaveacementfloor.Thereshouldbeprovisionforafootbathwith a disinfectant.

4.7.Simplerulesforbetterhousinginsmall-scaleconfinedsystems

Themostimportantpointisthatthehouseshouldbeeasytoclean;Thehouseshouldreducewindchillorheatandprovideadequateventilation,sunshineandsunlightforthebirds;Thefloorshouldbemadeofconcrete;Perchesshouldbeplacedinthehouse;Inlayerhouses,layingboxesshouldbeprovidedandeasytocleananddisinfect; The construction of the houses should facilitate parasite and disease control–i.e.,easyaccessandclean;Adisinfectantdipshouldbeplacedatthedoorofeachhousetoprevententryofdiseasesagentsintotheflockhouse;Thehousesshouldbeproperlycleanedanddisinfectedcarefullyafterthelitterhasbeenremovedandthehouseshavebeencleanedmechanicallyfirst;Thefarmersmustrestrictentrytothehousesbyvisitors.Thebestoptionistoconstructafencearoundthehouse;Dedicatedclothesandbootsshouldbeworninthepoultryhouse;

48


Thehousesmusthaveenoughspaceforthenumberofbirdstoavoidover-crowding;Thewindowsshouldbecoveredbywirenettingtoavoidwildbirdsandverminenteringthehouseastheymaytransmitdiseases;Aseparateroomshouldbeconstructedtokeepfeedandotherequipmentinasafeplaceprotectedfromweatherandcontaminationbyhumans,rodentsandwildbirds.

5.FeedsandFeeding

5.1.WhatyouwillfindinthischapterThis chapter is a description of feeds and feeding with special emphasis on feeds and feeding for free-range chickens. It provides information on feed formulation for supplementary feeding in improved free-range systems. There is emphasis on proper feeding for young chicks including creep feeding and the use of locally availablefeedingredients.Theneedtorelateflocksizeandscavengingfeedresourcebaseis emphasized.The importanceof thequality of commercial feeds for small scaleconfinedchickens isemphasized. Information in thischapterwillgreatlyassist thetrainer to properly guide the farmer on proper feeds and feeding.

5.2.ScavengingIndigenousbirdsinfree-rangesystemsgettheirfeedbyscavengingforinsectsandwastegrains scattered in the farmandaround thehomestead, food leftoversandgreenvegetationandfinallywaterfromrainwaterpoolsinthecompoundorsupplyofwaterbythefarmer.

Biosecurity risks arise from the places where the birds scavenge feed resourceswhichmightbecontaminatedwithdiseaseagentstransferredfromwildbirds,deadbirds,otheranimalsormanuredisposedfromaneighbor.However,thelikelihoodissmallcomparedtosmallscaleconfinedsystems.Free-rangebirdsaremanytimesinverypoornutritionalstatustowardstheendofthedryseason.Thismakesthebirdsmoresusceptibletodiseases.However,theyrecoversoonaftertheonsetoftherainyseason.

Inatraditionalfree-rangeorimprovedfree-rangepoultryrearingsystem,adulthensand cocks should alwaysbegivenenough timeand space for finding feed in thesurroundings(scavenging).Smallchicksshouldbekeptinconfinementforthefirst4-6weeks.Thebesttimeforscavengingisearlymorningandlateafternoon,asthereare more insects and less heat.

Thebesttimeforgivingsupplementaryfeedwillbeinthemorningandintheeveningwhen thebirds comeback to thehouse.Theday’s ration shouldbedivided suchthathalfisgiveninthemorningandhalfintheevening.Adlibitumwatershouldbeprovided in shady areas during the day to avoid heat stress.

49


5.3.Supplementaryfeeding

Feeding is essential to increase and have the maximum production of meat and eggs frompoultry.Evensmallscavengingflocksinfree-rangesystemswilleventuallystarveduringcertainperiodsoftheyear,iftheyareonlyfedleftoversandfeedthattheyfindbyscavenging.Lackoffeedorwaterwillalsoreducethebirds’resistancetodiseasesandparasites,andsubsequently increaseflockmortalityand lower thebiosecuritylevel.

Eggproductionandgrowthoflocalbirdsiseasilyimprovedbygivingsupplementaryfeeds, but improved breeds can also performwell under village conditions if theyare given a steady supply of feeds.However, one should always start bymakingcalculationsofthecost-benefitandjudgetherisksinvolved(Chapterseven),beforechoosingthequantityandtypeoffeeding.Adviceonfeedsandfeedingwillbedifferentfor traditional free-range, improved free-range or small-scale confined systems ofpoultryproduction,basicallyduetodifferenteconomicsituations.Inthefollowingtheimportanceoffeedrequirements,feedtypes,feedmixing,andlastlyneedforproperstorageoffeedsandtheequipmentarediscussed.

Illustration33:Correctfeedandwaterisessentialtoincreaseproduction

5.3.1Whatfeed?

Thecompositionandavailabilityoffeedswillvary,dependingontheseason,localityand farming system. In general, poultry, like other animals, need feed containingenergyandprotein,aswellasvitaminsandminerals.Theneedforfeedwillchange,dependingontheageandstatusofthebird(chicks,growers,egglayers,broodinghens)andofthepurposeoftheproduction(meatoreggs).Thecheapest–andalsooftenthebest–waytosupplementthedietofpoultry,istouselocalfeedresources.However,thismightbedifficultifbigquantitiesoffeedareneeded.Manyvitaminsandnutrientsaredestroyedifstoredfortoolongorundersub-optimalconditions,e.g.highhumidityandheat.Knowledgeofthequalityandsourceofdifferentfeedstuffsisthusimportant to reduce the risk of inappropriate feeding.

Avoidgivingcommercialfeedstolocalbreeds,asitisrarelyeconomicallyfeasible.However,inordertoreducechickmortality,givingthechickspremixedsupplementaryfeedfromthemarketduringthefirstfourorsixweeksofageincreasesthesurvivalofchicks.

50


Types of feeds

Ifthebirdsarefedfullyonpre-mixedfeed,feedshouldbeavailablealldaytogetherwithfreeaccesstocleanwater.Thefeedwill,dependingontype,containmoreorlessenergyandprotein,aswellasvitaminsandminerals(Illustration34).

Illustration34:Feedtypessplitintosourcesofa)energy,b)proteins,c)minerals,d)vitamins

Note:Rememberalwaystogivefreeaccesstowater.

Energy-rich feeds

Normally,atleast¾ofapoultrydietconsistsofenergyfeeds.Energyfeedsarethemostimportantnutrienttomaintainbodytemperatureandexerciselevelsofthebirds.Cereals, grain, roots, and tubers are themost important energy feeds. Examplesofenergy feedsarecereals likemaize(corn)and itsby-products (bran),sorghum,wheatanditsby-products(bran,shorts,screenings),riceanditsby-products(bran,polishing),cassavarootmeal(farina,tapioca),yammeal,yuccameal,sweetpotatomeal,plantainandbananameal.Rootsandtubersshouldbesoakedinwaterfor60minutesorcookedbeforedryingtoremoveharmfulsubstances,andtheproportioninthedietingeneralmustbekeptbelow1/10.

Fatisalsoagoodsourceofenergy,inparticularinhotclimates,astheheatproducedduringmetabolismislessthanfromtraditionalenergyfeeds,e.g.cereals.Sourcesoffataree.g.:tallow,lard,oilcakemeals,poultryfat,fishoilandrestaurantfats.However,fatshouldonlybegiveninsmallamounts,i.e.lessthan1/10ofthetotaldiet.

51


Protein-rich feeds

Proteinisneededforgrowth,eggproduction,andforkeepingupagoodhealthstatus.Normallynomorethan1/5ofadietisprotein-richfeeds,astheyarenormallyveryexpensive. Protein may come from either animal sources or plants. Examples ofprotein-rich local feedsare:maggots, termites, termiteeggs, insects,worms,meatscraps,fishscraps,fishmeal,meatmeal,bonemeal,bloodmeal,leucaena,cassavaleaves,feathermeal,peas,beans,andoilcakesfrome.g.groundnuts,cottonseedcake,sunflowercakes,palmkernels,andcoconuts.Harmfulsubstancesarepresentinsomeprotein-richplants,e.g.beansandcottonseedcakes(ifnotheatprocessed),andtheproportioninthedietshouldthusbekeptlow.Theleveldependsonthetypeofplant,andwhetherthefeedisbeingtreatedbeforefeeding.Oilcakesmaycontainmuchfibreandoilandshouldthereforebegiveninlimitedamountstoyoungchickens(lessthan1/5-1/10ofthediet).

Mineral-rich feeds

Mineralsareimportantforboneformation,eggshellformation,andforagoodhealthstatus. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorous. To produce strong shellsfortheireggs,layinghensneedfreeaccesstocalcium(limestoneorcrushedshells).Adultbirdsareusuallyabletobalancetheir intakeaccordingtoneeds.Ifaphosphorousrichfeedisadded,itshouldbebalancedwithcalcium,sincetoohighlevelsofonemaycausedeficiencyof theother.Examplesofsources formineralsare:bonemeal,crushedoystershells,snailshells,andburnedeggshells.Usingbonemealoreggshellsisagoodwaytosupplycalciumandphosphorus.Eggshellsshouldalwaysbescorchedorcookedbeforere-useindietstoremoveanydiseasegerms,seeIllustration35.

Illustration35:Scorchingbonesoreggshellstoproducecalcium-richbonemeal

Vitamin-rich feeds

Scavengingbirdsgetvitaminsbyeatinggreengrass,vegetables,freshcowdung,andthroughsunlight.VitaminsA,B2,andD3areconsideredveryimportantbecausemanyproblemsarisewhenbirds lack thesevitamins.SunlightandgreengrassorgreenfoddernormallyprovideVitaminAandD,whereasVitaminBmaycomefromfreshcowdung.VitaminBmayalsobeaddedbygivinge.g.Riboflavintablets.Additionalvitaminsshouldonlybegiveninverysmallquantitiesandpurchasedthroughdrugstoresorfeedsellers,butthisisnormallynotneededforscavengingpoultry.Confinedbirdsalwaysneedadditionalvitaminsmixedintotheirfeedsorasaminimumgivensomegreengrass,vegetablesandsomefreshcowdung.

52


5.3.2Howmuch?

In the free-range systems, the economic advantage is based on the fact that thepoultryfindmostoftheirfeedswhenscavenginginthesurroundings.Thisso-calledscavenging feed resource base(SFRB)willchangeovertheseasonsanddependontheclimate,geographyandfarmingsystemsintheareas,wherethepoultryscavengeforfeed.Thepoultry/chickenstockingrateinfree-rangesystemsvariesaccordingtoclimate,vegetationcover,seasonandabundanceoffeedforscavengingandamountof supplementary feeds provided, as a guide, on the average one adult chickenrequiresnotlessthan100squaremetres.Dependingontheseason,chickensmayfindnearlyalltheyneedinthesurroundings(e.g.duringharvestorrainyseason)orclosetonothing(duringdryandleanseason).ItcanbeagoodideatoidentifythetypeofSFRBandrelativeamountsofSFRBavailableineachseason.Thiswillgiveanideaofwhatthechickensshouldbesupplementedwithduringaparticularseason.

Table 2 : Supplement requirement and total feed requirement at different agesAge, weeks Approximate amount re-

quiredperdayperconfinedbird(g.dryweight)

Approximate amount of supplementary feed given to a scavenging bird per day

(g.dryweight)week 1 12-15grams 10-15gramsdryweight

week 2 15–21 15–20gramsweek 3 21–35 21–30gramsweeks 4 to 7 35-50 30-40gramsweek 8 55-60 30-40gramsweeks16-27/grower

65-80 30-50grams

fromweek28/adult

100-150gramsdependingonthesizeofthebird

30-50grams

Itispossibletolimitthequantitygiventolocaladultbirdsto30-50percentoftheirfullintake(seeTable1forfeedlevelsandneeds).

From hatch to the age of 4 to 6weeks, the small chicks should receive full feedaccordingtotheirneeds.Ingeneral,fromweek4-6andonwardsthefarmershouldgivemaximum 30-40 g/bird/day, gradually reducing the amount of supplementaryfeed,untiltheyonlygetbetween1/3andhalfoftheirneedsasadults.Inpracticethismeansestimatingtheeconomicbenefitfromsaleofeggsandlivebirds,andthecostsformedicine,housing,labourandfeed,calculatingthebreak-evenpoint,andlearninghowtoreducecostswithoutreducingbenefits(seeChapter6forriskassessmentandsimpleestimationprocedures).

To assure a stable egg andmeat production, it is better to give a little feed on acontinuousbasis,thantogivelargequantitiesduringharvestseasonsorfestivalsandno feed during lean seasons. It is important to reserve and preserve some feeds for poultry to feed them during seasons when there are limited scavenging feeds. If feeds aretoocostly,thefarmershouldconsiderreducingtheflocksize,ratherthanreducingtheamountoffeedgiventoeachbird.

53


5.3.3How?

Theeasiestmethodtoadministerthefeedsistousesimplemeasures.Table2allowscalculationofthequantityoffeedrequired.Table3showsacalculationofhowmuchsupplementaryfeedisneededperdaybasedonaflockof1cock,4hens,and15three-week-old chicks.

Table 3: Simple calculation for supplement requirement per dayChicken category Amount of supplementary feed needed per

day1cock:35g 1x35g = 35g

4hens:4x35g 4x35g = 140g15chicks:15x25g 15x25g = 375g

Total = atleast550gperday

Ifacontainerisused(e.g.atablespoon,ateacuporonelitrecontainerasmaybelocallyavailable)anditismeasuredhowmuchthecontainerholdswhenfull,itiseasyto calculate how many containers of feed one should feed every day.

Tokeepthebirdshungryforscavenging,oneshouldgivenomorethanhalfofthesupplementationinthemorning.Toavoidcompetitionbetweenthebirds,alittlemorethan half of the feed is given to the small chicks in a separate shelter. Then the hens arefedandbeforethefeederisempty,thecockisgivenfeed.Ifallthepoultryarefedatthesametime,thecockwilleattoomuchandleavelittletotheothers.Ifthecockishungry,hewillbebetteratfindingfeedsinthesurroundings.Thechicksneedrelativelymoreproteinintheirdietthanadultbirds,sothebestsolutionistomixtwodifferentkindsofrationsforyoungandadultbirds,respectively.Ifthefarmerdoesnotwanttomixtwodifferentrations,he/shecanchoosetogivealittleextrasupplementofagoodproteinsourcetotheyoungchickens,e.g.maggotsortermites(seeTable5)

Simple supplementation

Itisadvisabletomakeasemi-balanceddietforthesmallchicksfrom0-6weeksofage.Locallyavailableingredientsshouldbedriedintheshade(thesunmaydestroyimportantvitamins)andgroundedinamortarbeforemixing.Foreasyquantificationof thedifferent ingredients,use locallyavailablecontainerssuchas tomato tinsormatchboxes(seeTable4andTable5below).

Gramsorpercentagesshouldbetransferredintolocalquantitiesforfieldpractice.Largequantitiesofready-mixedfeedshouldonlybestoredifadequatestoragecapacitiesareavailable.Ingeneraloneshouldnotstoremixedfeedmorethanafewweekstoavoidcontaminationfrommould,bacteria,orrodents.Above6weeksofage,poultrymaybefedinacafeteriasystemsavingtimeandenergyonmixingfeeds.

54


Thecafeteriasystemisdescribedbelow.

Table4:Simplerationsforsupplementinglocalchicksof0-6weeks(total930g)Ingredient Quantity

Crushedsorghum/milletgrainormaizeWheatbran,sorghumbran,ormilletbranGroundnutorsesameoilcakeSeashellorbonemeal/saltmixFishorbloodmealSesbanialeaves

1 litre container1 litre container2matchboxes1matchbox(1portionsaltwith13portionsbonemeal)2matchboxes2matchboxes

Illustration36:Bonemealandsaltaremixedinmatchboxesina13:1ratio

Termitesormaggotsmayalsobeaddedduringthefirst6weeks.Dependingonthetypesofcropsgrowninparticularareas,substitutesforcereals,oilcakesetc.willhavetobefound.Alternatively,achickstarterrationcanbeusedduringthefirst4-6weeksof age. In this way the farmer will ensure that the chicks are provided with everything theyneedduringthesemostvulnerableweeks.

The cafeteria system

Adultbirdsareabletomixorselecttheirownfeedaccordingtotheirneeds.Thebestwaytofeedimprovedfree-rangebirdsabove6weeksofageisthecafeteriasystem,whereby the most common types of feeds are given in separate compartments.Usually,inthedryseason(harvesttime),chickenswillfindalotofenergy-richfeedsandwilleatmostoftheprotein-richfeedinthecompartments.Intherainyseason,chickenswill easily findprotein-rich feeds (many insects) andwill eatmost of thecereals offered in the cafeteria system.

Illustration37:Thecafeteriasystem.

Forthecafeteriasystem,abamboopoleissplitanddifferentfeedingredients(sourceofenergy,proteinandminerals+vitamins)dividedintothreecompartments,enablingthe poultry to choose from feed ingredients according to their needs.

55


Inthecafeteriasystem,thereshouldbeatleastonefeedingcompartmentfor:Energyrichfeeds,e.g.maize,millet,sorghum.Proteinrichfeeds,e.g.beans,peas,oilcakes,fish,meat,bonemeal,maggots,termites.Mineralrichfeeds,e.g.bonemeal,crushedoystershells,snailshells,burnedeggshells.

Anadditionalcompartmentforoilrichfeedsmaybeadded,e.g.tallow,oilcakemeals,andfishoil.Bygivingadultbirdsfeedsincompartments,onecanobservefeedingbehaviourofthebirdsandavoidfeedingunnecessaryamountsandtypesoffeed.Forexample,duringharvestseasonsthefarmersmayfindthattheyfeedlessonenergyfeedsintheeveningsbecausethereisplentyofcerealintheenvironment.

5.4.Mixingandformulatingfeeds

Mixingandformulatingpoultryfeedsmaybebasedonsimpleassumptionsaboutthenutritionalrequirementsofthebirdsandthecontentofthefeedstuffs.

Ifpossible,itoftenpaystohavesamplesoffeedingredientsanalysedatanationalnutritionlaboratoryonceortwiceayear,dependingonseasonandgeographicalarea.Nationaltablesonnutritionalcontentoffeedingredientscouldalsobeused.

Table 5 shows the relative content of energy and protein for some locally usedfeedstuffs.Table5:Examplesofproteinandenergysources

Feed ingredient Protein EnergyCassavatuber + +++Sweetpotatotuber + +++Milletbran + ++Ricehulls + +Ricebran ++ ++Sorghumbran + ++Maizebran + +Sorghum grain ++ +++Sesbanialeaves ++ +Cowpeas ++ +++Chick pea ++ +++Cotton seed oil cake ++ ++Sesame oil cake +++ +++Groundnutoilcake +++ +++Soyabeanmeal +++ ++Maggots +++ ++Fish meal +++ ++Meatandbonemeal +++ ++Bloodmeal +++ ++++=low,++=medium,+++=highcontent

56


Itisimportanttorealisethatthenutritionalrequirementsofthebirdsmaybemetinmanywaysbyofferingalargevarietyoffeedingredients.Finaldecisionsonwhichfeedingredienttouseinwhichseasonwilldependontheavailability,quality,andnotleasttheprice.SeeTable9andTable10forexamplesoffeedpricecalculations.

Table 6: Examples of composition of 1 kg feed mixture for local chickens at different ages

Age

Cereals(milletbran,sorghum

bran,ricebran)

Oil cake(cottonseed,sunflower,groundnutorsesame)

Meat, blood, or fishmeal

Cassava, tubers

Total

in g. in g. in g. in g. in g.0–8

weeks700 200 100 - 1000

9–20weeks

650 150 50 150 1000

>20weeks

600 100 100 200 1000

Table7:Examplesofdietsforchickens(contentsof1kgfeed).Age Rice

hullsRice bran

Sor-ghum bran

Sor-ghum grain

Millet bran

Millet grain

Soya bean meal/

sunflowercake

Fish meal

Cotton seed, or Groundnut oil cake

Cassava tuber

Bone meal/sea

shells

in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. in g. in g.AsiaLayers 200 600 150 50 Ad lib.Growers 300 500 100 100 Ad libChicks 300 400 150 150EastAfricaLayers

400 400 200 Ad lib.

Growers 500 300 200 Ad libChicks 100 600 300West AfricaLayers

300 300 400 Ad lib.

Growers 400 300 300 Ad libChicks 600 100 100 200

ThedietsinTable7arebasedonasimplefeedformulationusingthePearsonSquare(theEnvelopemethod).Asitcanbeseenfromthetable,youngchicksneedacerealgrain.Forolderbirdssomeofthecerealgraincanbesubstitutedwithcerealresidueslikebranorhulls.Whichcerealandcerealresiduetousewilldependonthearea,availabilityandprice.Allagegroupswillneedtobefedsomekindofproteinsource.Againarea,availability,andpricewilldeterminewhichoneisbesttouse.Therecanalsobeproblemsinusingtoohighconcentrationsofsomefeedstuffs. Harmfulsubstancesinsomefeedscancauseproblemsiffedinexcessiveamounts,ortheymaycontainanti-nutritionalcomponentsandshouldnotbefedinrawform,seeTable8.

57


Table8:ProblemsrelatedtosomefeedsFeedstuff Problems

Fish meal Cangiveafishytastetomeatandeggsisfedinlargeamounts.Can contain excessive amounts of salt.

Cassavatubers Sometypesofcassavacontaincyanide,whichistoxic,andthetubersmustbeslicedanddriedinthesunbeforefedtochickens.

Oilseedcakes Cancontainexcessiveamountsofoilandfibre,whichlowerdigestibilityofthefeed.

Beansandpeas Containanumberofanti-nutritionalcomponentsandshouldbedriedinthesunorcookedforashortperiod(chickpeaandpigeonpeaareexceptionsandcanbefedrawaftercrushing).

Table9:ExamplesofpoultryfeedpricesandquantitymeasuresinBenin(January2002)Ingredient Price USD/kg G in a tomato-tin

Maize 0.323 505Wheatbran 0.129 320Soyabeancake 0.517 467Fish meal 0.536 500Seashell/saltmix 0.106 587DrySesbania/leucaenaleaves

Found locally 125

Table10:Simplefeedpricecalculation(basedonTable5andTable9)

Ingredient Local containers Quantity Pricein g. in USD

Maize 35tomatotins 35x320g 11kgx0.323=3.55Soya cake 2 tomato tins 2 x 467 g 0.934kgx0.517=0.48

Fish meal 2 tomato tins 2x500g 1kgx0.536=0.54Seashell/saltmix 1 tomato tin 587g 0.587kgx0.106=0.06

Sesbanialeaves/leucaenaleaves

2 tomato tins 2x125g 0

Total 1 bag 13.8kg 4.63Price/kg 0.34

!! The feed prices will differ from country to country depending on the price of feed ingredientswhichdiffersbetweencountries.

5.5.Simpletechniquesforgrowingmaggotsandtermites

Maggots and termites are excellent and cheap sources of protein in the improved free-rangesystems.However,theywillonlybeasupplementtootherfeeds.Givethemaggotsor termitestothesmallchicks,astheyhavethebiggestneedforagoodprotein source.

58


Illustration38:Growingmaggots

Maggotsmaybegrownbyasimpletechniqueandusedtosupplementthedietoftheyoungchicks(Illustration38).Blood,offal,carcassesandcowmanurearemixedinalargeopenpot(donotusechickenmanureasitmaytransmitdiseases).Thepotisfilledwith1/3water.Flieswilllaytheireggsinthemixture,andthemaggotswillfeedonit.Leavethepotopenduringdaytimeandclosedduringthenight.After5-10days(dependingontemperature),whenthemaggotsarereadytopupae,youcollectthemaggotsbygentlypouringwaterintothepot.Themaggotswillfloatandyoucanthenwashthemandfeedthemdirectlytothebirds.Remembertoplacethepotawayfrompublicplaces,asthesmellmaybeoffensive.

Illustration39:Growingtermites

59


Illustration39showsasimplemethodforgrowingtermitestobeappliedindryareas.Takeapotwithashortneckandacapacityofat least10 litres.Fill itupwithcowdungandstraw,andsprinkleitallwithalittlewater.Setthepotupsidedownwiththeopeningonsandysoil.Afteronedayandonenight,thepotwillbefulloftermitesandthe farmer may empty the living contents in front of the hen house in the morning.

5.6.Feedsandfeedingforsmallscaleconfinedchickens

Insmallscaleconfined,differenttypesofcommercialdietsareavailable.Usuallytheyaredividedintothreedistinctcategories,chieflydifferinginproteincontent,e.g.:Starters’diet:highinprotein(19-20%);fromhatchupto4-6weeksofage(allchicks);Growers’diet:mediuminprotein(16-18%);upto20weeks(allgrowers);Layers’diet:lowerinprotein(16%);hensfrom20weeks(onlyeggproduction).

Ifafarmerisconsideringbuyingcommercialfeeds,itisnecessarytocalculatewhetheritisprofitabletodosoornot.Ifthepriceofeggsormeatislowerthanthepriceoffeedneededfortheproduction,itobviouslydoesnotpay.

In some areas there are many feed millers and the chicken feed is generally of good quality. But the opposite situation is also seen. Theremight be a good supply ofbothlayerandbroilerfeedsforthedifferentagegroupstoberearedinSmallscaleconfined

(SeeTable7 toTable9above for additional details).Many feed shopsalso keepsupplementarymineralandvitaminpreparationswhichcanbegiventothebirdsinthecaseofstress.However,thefeedisnotalwaysofhighqualityandgeneralknowledgeonhowtojudgesignsofmalnutritionisneeded.SeeChaptersixfordetailsonhowtorecognise clinical signs of malnutrition.

5.7Feedersanddrinkers

Feedersanddrinkersarethesame,whetherbeingusedinfree-rangeorsmall-scaleconfinedsystems.Feedersanddrinkersshouldalwaysbekeptcleantopreventspreadofdiseases(seealsochapteroneonManagement).Theyshouldbebigenoughforallbirdsof thesameage to feedat thesame time.Onemeter troughora35cm(diameter) tube feeder isbigenough for20adult birds toeatand for40 todrink.Feedersanddrinkersmayeasilybeproducedoutoflocalmaterials.Anemptytinorplasticcontainerplacedupsidedownonaplateformsanexcellentdrinker.Byplacingthetincanbottomup,theproducerwillavoidcontaminantsinthewater.

Start bymaking two small holes near the rim diagonal to each other. Pour cleanwaterinthecan.Putaflatplatewithasmallrimontopandturnthecanandplateupsidedown,whilepressingthemagainsteachother.Gentlyplacethedrinkerontheground.Therimoftheplateshouldbelowenoughforsmallbirdstodrink,butalsohighenoughforadultbirdstodiptheirwattlestokeepthemcoolduringhotweather.

60


Usuallyseveraldrinkersindifferentsizesshouldbeapplied.Itisimportantthatfeedersareplacedinsuchawaythatfeedwasteisminimized.Thisisdonebyplacingthefeederonsomebricksorhangingitfromtheceilingataheightwheretheedgeofthefeederandthebackofthebirdareatthesamelevel.Likewise,feedwastecanbedecreasediffeedersarenotfilledtothebrim.Itisbettertofillfeedersjusthalffullandthencheckthemregularlyforrefills(Illustration40).

Illustration40:Simpledrinkermadeofanoldtincanandaplate

Illustrations41,42:Feedersanddrinkersmayalsobemadelocallyfromwood,clay,ormetal

61


Illustration43:Commercialdrinker/feederinplasticormetal

Commercialfeedersanddrinkersmayalsobeboughtonthemarket,eitherinmetalorplastic.Theyareoftenexpensiveandnormallynotanybetterthanlocallyproducedfeeders or drinkers.

5.8.Feedsandriskofdiseasetransmission

Risksarisefromthepossiblecontaminationofthefeedwithdiseaseagentseitherbythefeedbeingexposedtofaecalmaterialfromsickbirds;rodentsinvadingthefeedstorewherebythefeedgetscontaminatedwithrodenturineandfaecalmattercontainingdiseaseagents;orifthefeedingequipmentsareleftoutsideforsometimethemaybecontaminatedwithfaecalmatterordustladenwithdiseaseagents.Thisappliesfor feed mixed directly at the farm as well as at the feed mill. Water contaminated with diseaseagentswillalsomakethebirdsatriskofobtainingdiseases.

Whetherthefeedisproducedatafeedmillorathometheingredientsshouldbefreeofanycontaminantinparticularfaecalmaterial.Furthermore,thefeedshouldbefreshand well smelling. Taste and smell the feed to ensure it is not mouldy or otherwise not suitableforanimalfeed.Forthefeedmillabiosecurityplanshouldbeavailableuponrequestfromthefarmersothatthefarmerisassuredoffeedsafety.

5.9.Simplerulesforbetterfeeding

Beforebuying,mixing,andstoringfeeds,itisimportanttounderstandsomeunderlyingprinciplesofgoodfeedmanagement,themostessentialofwhicharementionedhere:Uselocalfeedingredientsforlocalbirds.Commercialpremixedfeedsaremoreexpensivebutaremoreuniformintheirqualityandthusmoresuitableforimprovedbreeds(Smallscaleconfined);Knowthequalityorfeedvalue,andchangingpricesofeachfeedingredient;

62


Buymissingfeedingredients,suchasvitaminsorproteinsources;Changethefeedformulationdependingonavailability,quality,feedvalue,andvaryingprices;Reducetheflocksizeinfree-rangesystemsduringleanseasonsandifthefeedbecomestoocostly;Ifonechangesfeedandfeedinglevel,alwaysdoitslowlyandgradually;Mixfeedingredientsuniformlyinrelativelysmallquantitiestoavoidtoolongstoragetime;Uselocallyavailablematerialssuchascontainerssuchasbuckets,spoonsormatchboxesforquantifyingthedifferentingredientstobemixed.Gramsorpercentagesdonotworkinpractice; Store mixed feed or feed ingredients separately upon a platform approximately 30cmabovethefloor,avoidentryofrats,pigeons,orothertypesofbirdsintothefeedstoreroom,andmakesufficientventilationofairsothatthefeedingredientsarenottaintedduetohumidity;Qualitycontrol:Becarefulthatfeedingredientsthataremouldy,discoloured,orfromwhichpests/rodentshaveeaten,arenotused.

5.10.Requirementsforimprovedbiosecurity - Feeds and water

Allbirdsneedtobeprovidedwithcleanfeedandwater;Thefeedshouldbefreefromfaecalmaterialfromanyanimal;Thefeedshouldbekeptinaclean,drystorefreefromrodentsandinsectpests.Thefeedersandwaterersshouldbecleanedanddisinfectedproperlyand

regularly with an approved disinfectant. Thefeedgunnybagsusedtopackthefeedsshouldnotberecycled,andifthisisdonethentheyshouldbethoroughlycleanedanddecontaminated.SupplementaryfeedforbirdsinFree-rangeshouldbegivenintheshadeandifpossibleintheshedwhichwouldpreventwildbirdsgettingattractedtoitandgettingclosertothedomesticbirds.Anypoolsofwaterinthechickenrunshouldberemoved.Thefeedmillermustberequestedtoprovidealistofingredientsintheirfeedsandforacertificateofguarantee.Forfeedmillsabiosecurityplanshouldbeinplace.

63


6. Health and Disease Management


The chapter is a brief description of diseaseswhich commonly affect chickens insmallscaleproductionsystemsinEastAfrica.Themethodsforpreventionandcontrolarealsodescribed.It isexpectedthatattheendofthechapter,userswillhaveanoverview on the most important chicken diseases in the region and the appropriate healthmanagementmeasurestobetakentopreventandcontrolthediseases.

6.2 Background information

The most important diseases which affect chickens in the region are viral diseases. Newcastle Disease (NCD) is the most devastating, especially in village chickenswhicharenormallynotvaccinatedagainstNCD.Theotheroneisfowlpox.Oftherecent,Infectiousbursaldiseasehasbecomeaveryimportantdiseaseinsmallscaleconfined systems and to some extent free-range systems aswell. The frequentlyencounteredbacterialdiseasesarefowltyphoid,fowlcholera,infectiouscoryzaandpullorum disease. Ecto and endo-parasitic diseases are frequently seen amongbothvillageandcommercial chickens.Helminthsaccount formostof theparasiticdiseases. The ecto-parasites are most prevalent among village chickens and include fleas,lice,mites.Ticksarelesscommon.Detailsofeachdiseasearetobefoundinthis chapter.

Farmers must be made aware of the disease threat which will cause death, un-thriftinessand loweredproductionamongchickens.Farmersmustknowabout themorerecentemergingdisease,HighlyPathogenicAvianInfluenza(HPAIH5N1);itscause,clinicalsigns,preventivemeasuresandcontrolmethods.

Non-infectious diseases do occur, especially those due to nutritional deficiencieswhich may result from poor feeds. In free-rangesystems,andwithexceptions, farmersdonotusuallyvaccinate theirbirdsroutinelyunlesstherehasbeenanefforttointroducevaccinationinthearea.

Forthecommerciallayerandbroilerflocksinsmallscaleconfinedunits,vaccinesarenormallyavailableforallthecommonviralandbacterialdiseasesofchickens:eg.NCD,Infectious bursal disease,Mareks’s disease, fowl pox, infectious laryngotracheitis,infectiousbronchitis,eggdropsyndrome-76,fowltyphoid,andmycoplasmosis.

ThebreederchickensareusuallyvaccinatedduringtherearingperiodwhileMarek’sdiseasevaccineisgiventothedayoldchicksinthehatchery.Alltheotherbirdsarevaccinatedatthefarmer’spremises.

Treatmentiscarriedoutinlayerandbroilerflocksforbacterialandprotozoandiseases.Mostoftheindigenouschickenfarmersusetraditionalmedicinestotreattheirbirdsandonlyafewcanaffordmodernmedicinessuchasanthelminticsorantibiotics.

64


6.3. Biosecurity issues

Lackofconfinementisaseriousflawinbiosecurityinsmallscaleproductionsystems.Butitisinherenttothefreerangeproductionsystems.Layerandbroilerfarmersusuallyhavetheirflockhousesclosetothefamily

house and there is no restriction of entry to the poultry houses. Disposal of the manure and the slaughter wastes is done in the farm and the

deadbirdsmaybeburiedinthefarm.Wildbirds,wildmammalsandthedomesticpetshaveaccesstothehome

compoundandtheflockhouses.Alltheseactivitiesmakesegregationofbirdsfromdiseaseagentsverydifficult.Purchaseofnewanimalstotheflockposesaserioushealthrisk,unless

thebirdsarekeptinquarantinefor14daysandthisisnotnormallydonein the region.

6.4. How to improve disease control

Better biosecurity measures

Biosecuritycoversmanyactivitiesrelatedtodiseasemanagement.Itincludesaspectsofhousing,feeding,marketing,breedselection,etc.

Biosecurityisinpracticaltermsamanagementpracticewhichmustbedevelopedbythefarmerinordertodecreasetheriskofanydiseaseenteringorleavingtheflock.Itisanapproachtoanimalhusbandrythathasafocusonmaintainingorimprovingthe health status of their animals and preventing the introduction of new disease pathogensbyassessingallpossibleriskstoanimalhealth.

The fact that chickens in many small scale systems have access to outdoor facilities posesanriskofattractingdiseases.However, theonlywayofminimizing this riskwouldbetoconfinethebirds.Thisisnotfeasibleduetothenatureofthescavengingsystem.Vaccinationisthereforeanoptionwhichcancontributetoensureacertainlevelofbiosecurity.

Wild birdsRodents, Insects

Dogs, cats

Poultry Flock/House

Litter (e.g. sawdust)Feed WaterMedication

Air (ventilation)

HumansVehicles

Equipment

Day-old chicks from hatchery Chicks from other sources (e.g. hen) Other chickens

Figure 1:Sourcesofintroductionofdiseasesintoaflock

65


The fact that chickens in many small scale systems have access to outdoor facilities posesanriskofattractingdiseases.However, theonlywayofminimizing this riskwouldbetoconfinethebirds.Thisisnotfeasibleduetothenatureofthescavengingsystem.Vaccinationisthereforeanoptionwhichcancontributetoensureacertainlevelofbiosecurity.

Recognising unhealthy birds

It is extremely important for the farmer to learn how to detect an unhealthy or sick bird, so that she/he immediately can initiate the right action. In Illustration 44 themaincharacteristicsofhealthyandunhealthybirdsaregiven(SeealsoChapter3).Healthybirdsmaybeabletofightagainstsomeofthediseasesthemselves,whereasunhealthybirdswilleasilysuccumbtodiseases.Itisimportanttoisolateunhealthyorsickbirdsfromthehealthyflock.

Illustration44:Characteristicsofhealthyandunhealthybirds

Healthy birds Unhealthy/Sick birds

Alert and on guard Tired and lifelessBrighteyesandcomb dulleyesandcomb

walk,run,stand,andscratchcontinuously sit or lie downeat and drink normally eat and drink less

lay eggs normally lay less or stop laying eggssmoothandneatfeathers(accordingto

race)ruffledandloosefeathers

soft compact droppings wet/loosedroppingswithbloodorworms,diarrhoea

breathequietly cough,sneezeandbreathenoisily,andmayhavenasal discharges

Disease management and prevention

Diseasecausingagentsareeverywhereandwillinfectbirdsofallages,butcarefulmanagementcanpreventmanydiseases.Illustration52showsapoultryhouse,whichiscleanandnicelykeptoutsideandinside:Awomanisvaccinatingabirdwiththeeye-dropmethod(Illustration58).Onesickhen is isolated inasmallshelterawayfromtheothers.Birdsarewellfedandcharacteristicallyhealthy.

Illustration45showsabadexampleofflockmanagement,thereisfoodanddroppingslyingaround,therearesickanddeadbirds,thereisdirtywaterinthepotanddirtyfeedinthefeeder.Birdsarecharacteristicallysickandthefarmisperdefinitionthereforebadlymanaged.

66


A B C

Illustration45:Themostcommonmethodsofvaccinatingadultpoultryare:-(A)eyedrops (B)injectionsinthebreastorthighmuscles(C)bypiercingtheskinofthewing

Ifunhealthyorsickbirdsarefound,theanimalshouldbeisolatedimmediatelyandtheveterinarianorhealthassistantshouldbecalledfordiseasediagnosisandfurtheradvice.Ifabirddies,itshouldbeburnedorburiedandnevereaten.Thisisespeciallyimportant due to the possible presence ofAvian Influenza. Dead birds should behandledwithgreatcaution;i.ewrappedinaplasticbagusingplasticglovesoranotherplasticbagtokeepthehandsin.

Good feeding

Infree-rangesystems,supplementaryfeeding, inparticularforsmallchicks, isoneofthemostimportantmeansofpreventingdiseases.Feedsshouldalwaysbestoredinadryandcleanplace,astheymayeasilygetcontaminatedandspreaddiseaseintheflock.Insmallscaleconfinedsystems,highqualityfeedsshouldbegiventothebirds.Mouldyorwetfeedsshouldbeavoided.Mouldyfeedscantransmitfungaldiseasessuchasaspergillosis to the animals.

Clean Water

Afarmershouldusecleanwaterfromawellandnotapond.Watershouldbecleanandnot contaminated. It is important toavoid thespreadofwaterbornediseases,suchasFowlCholera,NewcastleDisease(NCD),andAvianInfluenza(AI).IfahighlycontagiousstrainofAI ispresent in thearea, strict careshouldbe taken toavoidcontacttootherbirds–domesticcatorwild.

Good hygiene

Dry and clean housing is essential for to prevent the transmission and spread of diseases.Everythreetosixmonths,housesandsheltersshouldbedisinfectedwithlimewashaftercleaning(seeChaptertwofordetailedadviceonpropermanagement).A rule of thump is to apply new lime wash when the old one has worn off the walls.

Regular culling

Awellmanagedflockincludesregularcullingofthebirds.Itisgoodpracticetoslaughterchickensthatareverythin,astheyarelikelytobesusceptibletodiseasesandcantransmitdiseasestopoultryingoodhealth.Birdswhicharenotlayingeggsduetoageshouldbeculled.Sickanimalsshouldbeculledifadiagnosiscannotbemade.

Illustration46:Apoorlymanagedflock

Adapted housing and chicken runs

Chickensarelikelytofightandevenkilleachotheriftherearetoomanybirdstogetherinlimitedspace(Illustration10).Localbreedsinconfinementshouldneverbekeptwithout free access to outdoor areas. If outdoor runs are used, at least 5 squaremeters per adult animal should beprovided.When space is limited, diseasesaretransmittedmoreeasilyfromonebirdtoanother.Otherspeciesofbirdsmaycarrydiseaseswithoutshowinganysignsofbeingill.Forexample,ducks,guineafowls,and turkeys can transmit diseases to hens, or vice versa.The bestway to avoidspreading diseases from one species to another is to keep them separate in different cages,baskets,orhouses.Itisimportanttoalwayskeepdomesticatedbirdsasfarawayfromwildbirdsaspossible.

Adequate treatment of diseases

Dependingonthecauseofthedisease,itmightbepossibletocureit.Table11givesan overview of how to treat different types of diseases.

Table 11: Types of diseases and possible treatmentsDisease type Possibilities for control or cure

Virus Viraldiseasescannotbecured,butmaybepreventedor controlled if the animals arevaccinatedbeforethediseaseoccursintheflock.Ifthediseaseispresentintheflock,vaccinationsmightincreasetheseverityofthediseaseorevenkillthebirds.

Bacterial Manybacterialdiseasescanbetreatedbyuseofantibiotics.Itisimportanttodi-agnosethediseaseinordertochoosetherightantibiotic.

Parasites Most parasites canbetreated.Onecanuseconventionalveterinarymedicine(an-thelmintics),andsometraditionalmethodshavealsoprovedefficient.

Fungus Fungal diseases mightbetreatedwithantibioticsandotheranti-fungalagents,butthe most important is preventionbyofferingfeedofgoodquality.

Nutritional diseas-es/disorders

Nutritionaldiseasesordisordersarecausedbywrongfeedcompositions.Depend-ingonthedisease,itcanbepreventedorcuredatanearlystagebymixing the right feed with minerals and vitamins,orgivingaccesstoadiversityoffeedstuffsfromthesurroundings,e.g.greengrassandfreshcowdung.

67


68


6.5.Briefdescriptionofthemaindiseasesaffectingpoultry

Diseasesareoftencharacterisedaccordingtotheiraetiology,suchasVirus,Bacteria,Parasites,Fungi,andtheircauses,e.g.nutritionaldisorders(Table11).However,inthefollowingthemost importantdiseasesinpoultryarecategorizedatthreelevelsaccording to their severity and importance in villagebased small-scale productionsystems.Distinct features, such as the signs observed during outbreaks (symptoms) andpossible treatments (preventionor control),aswell as the timeofoccurrence,arepresented.

Theimportanceofadiseaseisjudgedbymortalityratesandeffectonproduction,andwill vary greatly from area to area and from season to season.

Highimportance(▼▼▼)signifiesacommondiseasewithhighmortality(morethan30percentoftheflock),highlycontagiousanddifficulttotreat.Mediumimportance(▼▼)signifiesacommondiseasewithmediummortality

(10-30)percentoftheflock)witheasytodifficulttreatments.Lessimportance(▼)signifiesnotcommon,lowermortalityand/or

easy treatment.

Note that some less important diseases may interact with other diseases to create a moresevereeffectonthebirds.ThisisthecaseforthecombinationofE.coliinfections,nutritionaldeficiencies,andinternalparasites.Suchdiseasesrarelykilltheindividualbird,buthavearemarkableeffectontheimmunesystemofthebirds,thuscreatingthebasisforeasyinfectionbyotherdiseases.Oftentreatmentagainstparasites issufficient.

6.5.1Viraldiseases

▼▼▼NewcastleDisease(NCD)Thediseaseisverycommonandisoftenseeninyoungchicks,butalsoinadults.Highflockmortality,oftenbetween30and100percentof thebirdsdie,whenthediseaseoccurs.Clinicalsignsvaryfromperacutetoacute.Inacutecases,thechickensloseappetiteandhavepoordigestion.Theymayshowheavybreathing,greenishdroppings, and sometimesbloodydiarrhoea.Nervous symptomsandparalysis. Insome cases several symptomsmay occur at the same time. Peracute cases arecharacterisedbysuddendeaths.Thediseaseisavirus,sothereisnotreatment,butitmaybepreventedthroughvaccinationofallbirdsincludingchicksfromtwoweeksofage.ThesymptomsofNCDresemblethoseofavianinfluenza.

▼▼▼AvianInfluenza(AI)The disease is found naturally in ducks and other waterfowl without showing severe signs but may spread in a highly contagious and potentially dangerous form tochickens. Inchickens, itcauseshighflockmortalityandgrosspathological lesionsincludeblueandswollencombandwattles.AIistransmittedthroughcontactwithother

69


birds,contaminatedfeedanddrinkingwaterfrompondsfrequentedbywildbirds.Thediseaseiscausedbyavirus,sothereisnotreatment.ThebestwaytopreventAIisstricthygiene.AImaybepreventedthroughvaccinationofbirds.However,differentstrategies for vaccination exist in each country. The vaccinator should consult with the authoritiestoensurecorrectprocedure.Afterdiseaseoutbreak,allbirdsintheflockmustbeculledandburned,andchickenhousesthoroughlycleanedanddisinfected.Aveterinarianmustbe informed ifanAIoutbreak issuspected.The infectedbirdsshouldneverbeeaten.Itisimportanttomakesurethatnopersonsoranimalsgetnearinfectedanddeadbirdsortheirdroppings(cleanthesurroundingscarefully).

▼▼▼FowlpoxFowlpoxisoftenseeninyoungchicks,butalsoinadults,andshowsaspocks(smalllumps)lesionsonwattles,comb,andface.Themortalityrateismoderate.Thediseaseiscommonduringdryseasons,althoughissomecountriesinEastAfricaitismorecommonduringtherainyseasonandthatitmayalsobefoundallyeararound.Fowlpoxisaviraldiseaseandhencethereisnotreatment.Avaccineisavailableandishighly effective.

▼▼Gumborodisease(InfectiousBursalDisease,IBD)IBDisonlyseeninchicksyoungerthan6weeksofage,andnormallyonlyinlargeflockskeptinconfinementbutmayalsobeenseeninFree-rangechickens.Thediseaseisnotcommoninsmall-scalevillagebasedsystems.Commonclinicalsignsincludediarrhoea.Itisaviraldiseaseandthereforethereisnotreatment.Butavaccineisavailableandmostlyeffective. It is important to vaccinate using the correct vaccine strain.

▼▼Marek´sdiseaseMarek´sdiseaseisonlyseeninbirdsolderthan16weeks.Initiallythebirdsmayshowparalysisofoneorbothwings.Oroneorbothlegsmightbeparalysed.Thediseaseiscausedbyavirus,sothereisnotreatment,butcommercialvaccinesareavailable.

A B C

Illustration47:A)Newcastlediseaseinadvancedstage;B)Fowlpox;C)Gumborodisease

70


6.5.2Bacterialdiseases

▼▼▼Fowlcholera(pasteurellosis)Fowlcholeramayattackatanytimeinallagegroups.Symptomsaresevere.Diarrhoea,respiratorysymptoms,lossofappetite,bluecombsandwattlesarecommonclinicalsigns. The disease may occur as a chronic disease or as an acute or peracute disease with sudden death. Infection occurs through contaminated feed and drinking water or fromfaecalmaterialfromhealthycarriers.Treatmentwithantiobioticsisdifficult.Thebestwaytopreventthediseaseistoobservestricthygieneandtovaccinate.Sickbirdsshouldbekilledandburnt.Thevaccineisusuallyavailableandeffective.

▼▼Pullorumdisease(Bacillarywhitediarrhoea)Thediseaseismostlyseeninyoungchicks.Chickswalkwithdifficulty,showbigbellies,anddragtheirwings.Faecesisliquidandturnswhite.Treatmentwithantibioticsisnoteffective.Inordertopreventthedisease,hygienemustbestrictlyobserved.Incaseofanoutbreak,sickbirdsmustbeisolatedkilledandburnt.Diseaseistransmittedtochicksfromtheeggsofinfectedhens,whichmaynotshowsignsofbeingill.

▼▼▼FowltyphoidFowltyphoidisusuallyseeninratherolderbirds,usuallylayersatpointoflay.Clinicalsignsincludehighbodytemperature,tirednessandbluecomb.Thediseaseoccursas acute condition or peracute in which case there is sudden death. Treatment with antiobioticsispossiblebutdifficultandnotrecommended.Preventionisdonethroughstricthygieneandcullingofsickbirds.

▼▼InfectiouscoryzaCoryzaaffectsallages.Theclinicalsignsare:Runnynose,swellingundertheeyes,closedeyes,dropineggproduction.Treatmentmaybegivenbyaddingantibioticstodrinking water.

▼▼Chronicrespiratorydisease(Mycoplasmosis)Thediseaseischaracterisedbyrunnyorblockednose,swollenface,closedeyes,dropineggproductionbutrarelycausesdeath.Treatmentmaybegivenbyaddingantibioticstothedrinkingwater.

▼Colibacillosis E. coliinfectionsarecommonamongnewlyhatchedchicks,causingenteritis.Inolderbirds thesymptomsmay includerespiratorydistress, infection in theoviductwhichcause loweredeggproduction.Thebestway toprevent thedisease is to improvehygieneofeggsforhatchingandofthenests.Treatmentofsickchicksmaybepossiblewithantibioticsbutisdifficult.

6.5.3Parasites

▼▼▼Coccidiosis(internalparasites)Thediseasemayoccuratanytimeatallages,butcanbepreventedbyregularand

71


carefulcleaningoftroughsandpoultryhouses.Resistancedevelopsafterinfectionifthebirdsaretreated.Thediseaseischaracterizedbyunthriftiness,headdown,ruffledfeathersandbloodydiarrheaanddeath,especiallyinyoungchicks.Ifthechickssurvive,theywillremainthinandbelateinlayingiftheyhavenotbeentreated.Coccidiostatsindrinking water or feed are effective for treating the disease. The disease is prevented byapplyingtherightstockingrateandavoidovercrowding.Differentagegroupsofbirdsshouldnotbemixed,asthediseasemayspreadfromadultstoyoungchicks.ThediseaseismostcommoninsmallscaleconfinedchickensbutmayalsooccurinFree-rangesystemofhusbandry.

A B C

Illustration47:A)Marek´sDisease;B)Chronicrespiratorydisease;C)Diarrhoea

Diarrhoeamaybecausedbyseveraldiseases,but theappearanceof faecesandcolor will differ depending on the disease.

▼▼Roundwormsandtapeworms(internalparasites)Internalparasitesareverycommoninallagesinthevillagebasedproductionsystems.Theseparasiteswillcausepoorhealth,weightloss,dropineggproduction,andbloodydiarrhea.Thebesttreatmentisaddinganthelminticsindrinkingwateronceortwiceayear,atbesttwoweeksbeforevaccinationagainstNCD(Seeabove). Properhygienicpractices will prevent heavy infections.

Illustration48:Internalparasitesasfoundinthefaeces

▼▼▼ExternalparasitesExternalparasitesmayattackbirdsatallagesatanytime,butoccursmostfrequentlyinhumidchickenhouseswithbadhygiene.Adultbirdsareclearlydisturbedandspenda lot of time pecking and polishing feathers. Young chicks may die from anemia. If not treated,mites,lice,fleas,tickswillcauseweightlossandpossiblylossoffeathersduetotheparasitessuckingbloodandtoskinirritation.Licecanbeseenaroundeyesandnose.Fleascanbeseenonthebelly.Treatmentispossiblebysprayingordustingbirdswithpesticides,drylime,ashes,andoil.

72


Ashes,drylime,andsulphurpowdermaybeusedwherethehensdodustbathing.Nestsmaybeprotectedbyputtinga few tobacco leavesmixedwithashes in thenests.

Illustration49:Behaviourofpoultryinfestedwithexternalparasitesplusflea,mite and tick

▼▼ScalylegsScaly legsarecausedbyanexternalparasite irritating theskinon thebirds’ legs.Thediseaseiscommoninolderbirdsofmorethan2yearsofage.Legsclearlyhavescalesandwoundsandmaybecomecrippled in theirappearance.Thedisease istreatedbydippingthelegsdailyinkerosene,oil,orinaninsecticideuntilthescalesdisappear.Oldbirdswithcrippledlegsshouldbeculled.

Illustration50:Scalylegsatthreestagescausedbyscalylegmites

73


6.5.4Fungaldiseases

▼▼Mycotoxicosis(fungalpoisoning)Fungal diseases are common if the chickens are fed mouldy feed. The disease is characterised by general weakness and pale combs. Sick birds are treated bysupplementingfeedswithvitamins.Thediseaseispreventedbyproperstorageoffeedtopreventgrowthofthefungithatproducemycotoxins,thecauseofthedisease.

6.5.5Nutritionaldiseases

Illustration51:Symptomsofnutritionaldiseases:a)Featherloss;b)Legdeformation

▼Nutritionaldisorders/diseasesNutritionaldiseasesarecommonlyseeninpoorlymanagedflocks.Clinicalsignswilldependonthetypeofnutritionaldeficiency,forinstancebonedeformationisduetocalciumdeficiency.Thebirdswalkwithdifficulty;theylimp.Legsaredeformed.Somedeficienciesmaycause feather loss. If thecondition isdetected in time, itmaybepossible to treat thediseasebysupplementingwithe.g.vitaminsandcalciumandprovidingbirdswithfreshgrassandcowdung.Nutritionaldiseasesmaybeavoidedwhenthebirdshaveaccesstonormalvegetationandhencearerareinscavengingchickens.

Illustration52:GoodmanagementequalshealthybirdsNote:thecafeteriatypeoffeeder,properdrinker,eyedropvaccinationandisolationroomforsickbirds.

74


6.6. About vaccination

All poultry should be vaccinated against themost common viral disease(s) in thearea.VaccinationschemesatvillagelevelshouldattheminimumcoverNewcastleDiseaseandFowlPox.

Vaccination against Avian Influenza should depend on the advice by veterinaryauthorities.

Other viral diseases such as Gumboro andMarek’s diseasemay be covered byvaccination,buttheyareoftenlessimportantatvillagelevel.AbacterialdiseasesuchasFowlcholeramayalsobepreventedbyvaccination.Poultryshouldbevaccinatedwhen they are very young, and before they havebegun to lay eggs.Most youngbirdsthathavenotbeenvaccinateddonotresistdiseases,andoftendie.Vaccinesshouldonlybegiventohealthybirds.Ifasickbirdisvaccinateditwillusuallykillthebird(Illustration53).Anthelminticsagainstinternalparasitescanbegiventwoweeksbeforevaccination,toimprovetheeffectofthevaccine.

Illustration53:Nevervaccinateasickbird

6.6.1 Vaccination methods

Inseveralcountriesvillagevaccinatorshavebeentrainedtoassisttheveterinarianwith carrying out vaccination programmes. Aimple instructions in relation to vaccination aregivenhereunder(Illustration58).

A B C

Illustration58:SitesfoeVaccination

75


Inprincipletherearesixfundamentalwaysofvaccinatingbirds:Eyeandnasaldrops(easyadministration)Injections(Intra-muscularorsubcutaneousaredifficultbecauseit

involvesindividualbirdhandling)Skinpiercing(easyadministration)Orallyinfeed(difficultbecauseofshelflifeanddosageproblems)Water(maydifficultbecauseofcalculationofdosageandthequalityofwater)Inlargecommercialfarms,vaccinationcanbebysprayingthevaccine

Forscavengingpoultry,thefarmershouldavoidmixingvaccineswithdrinkingwaterorfeed,asitisdifficulttogivetherightdosetoeachbird.Researchhasshownthatprotection against e.g. Newcastle disease is highly uncertain if the vaccine is given through water or feed.

Administering the right dose is essential for the vaccine to work properly. Underdosingwillnotprovideadequateprotection.Ifthemotherhenhasbeenvaccinated,an early vaccination of her chicks may also cause an overdose and kill the chicks or mayberenderedineffectivebecauseofmaternalantibodies.Thus,itisimportanttoconsultaveterinarianorpara-veterinarians for furtheradvicebeforecarryingoutavaccination.

Afarmershouldneverpurchaseareconstitutedvaccine.Vaccinationshouldbedoneeither early in the morning or late in the day to avoid hot temperatures which may compromiseviabilityofalivereconstitutedvaccine.

Illustration54:Importantvaccinationtools

76


Tools for vaccineapplicationnormally includeaclean apron (greenorotherdarkcolourifpossibleinordernottoscarethebirds)(A),vaccinevial(B)storedinacoolbox (C), soap to cleanhands (D), cleanandsterileneedles (E), cleanandsterilesyringe(G),andacleanboxforneedlesandsyringe(F)(Illustration54).Needlesandsyringeshouldbeboiledinwaterfor5minutesandcooledbeforere-use(Illustration55),thiswillnotbenecessarywhenusingsingleusedisposablesterilesyringesandneedles.

Illustration55:Boilingwatertodisinfectneedlesandsyringesbeforevaccination

Itisimportanttotreatthecleansyringesandneedlescarefully.Avaccinatorshouldbecarefulnottotouchtheendoftheneedleaftercleaning.Illustration56showshowtohandleasyringeforvaccination:

Theneedleshouldbeputgentlyonthesyringe,holdingtheneedlewiththe sharp end upwards.Thevaccinevialshouldbeheldupside-downandneedleshouldbepressedgentlythroughtherubbersealofthevialcap.Pullthesyringehandlegentlydown,whilesuckingthevaccineoutofthevialuntilthesyringeisfull.Shouldpressthesyringehandlebackuntiltherightvolumeisreached.Makesurethatthereisnoairbubblestrappedinthesyringe or the needle.

Airbubbleswillgivethewrongdosetothechickens.

Normallyafull1mlsyringewillmatch10doses,oneforeachoftenadultbirds(Illustration57).Thishoweverdependsontheweightofthebird,thetypeofvaccine,andtheapplicationmethod.Aftervaccinationof10birdsinthesameflock,theneedlesshouldbechangedorcleanedinboilingwaterandthesameshouldapplybetweenflocks.

77


Illustration56:Itisimportanttohandlethesyringeandneedlecorrectly

Illustration57:Onefull5mlsyringeisusuallyenoughfortenadultbirds

A B C

Illustration58:Themostcommonmethodsforvaccinatingadultpoultry

The most common vaccination methods for young chicks are eye drops and skin piercing (Illustration58,AandC).When thebirdsgrowolder, injectionsaregiveninthebreastmuscles(Illustration58,B).Dependingonthevaccinetype,eyedropsmayalsobeusedforadultbirdsVaccinesshouldbegiveneitherearlyinthemorning,beforelettingthebirdsoutofthechickenhouseorintheeveningwhenthelocalbirdsareeasytocatchrestingonperches.Whenvaccinatingadultpoultryforthefirsttime,it is preferably tobe twopersons, oneholding thebird, theother one vaccinating(Illustration59).

Illustration59:Twopersonsvaccinatingadultpoultrybyinjectioninthebreastmuscle

78


Generalprecautionsforvaccinationwithlivevaccines:Allvaccinesshouldbestoredinarefrigeratorbeforeuse.Somevaccinesareheatstable,whichmeansthatthevaccinewilltoleratehightemperaturesforsometime.However,heatstablevaccinesshouldalsobestoredinacoldplacetokeepthemviable.Vaccinesshouldalwaysbekeptout of direct sunlight.Whenusingvaccinesinthefield,transporttheminacoolboxwithice.Thesyringe,needleandotherequipmenttobeusedforvaccinationshould

notbecleanedbyanychemicaldisinfectants,asthesemaydestroythevaccine.Theyshouldinsteadbedisinfectedinboilingwater(Illustration55)andbeused after cooling.Thevaccinesmustbemixedordilutedincolddistilledwater,andcaremustbetakentoensurethatthevaccinesarenotexposedtodirectsunlight.Itisbesttovaccinatebirdsduringthecoolhoursoftheday,eitherinthemorning

or evening.Livevaccinesshouldbeusedwithin30minutesoncereconstituted.Otherwisetheywillbeuselessandshouldbeadequatelydisposedof.Itisimportanttofollowthemanufacturer’sinstructions.Alwaysconsultaveterinarianorpara-veterinarianbeforeconductinga

vaccination campaign.

6.6.2 Vaccination and disease prevention calendar

It is important to prevent and treat diseases according to the occurrence of diseases. Vaccination campaigns against NewcastleDisease (NCD) or Fowl Pox should beimplementedbefore theonsetof thedisease,especially for diseaseswhichoccurseasonallylikeNCD.Toplanvaccinationandmedication,itisadvisabletouseaso-called “disease prevention calendar”, where veterinarians, farmers, and extensionworkers together identify the periods where diseases should be prevented ortreated.

(Illustration60)Anexampleof“diseasepreventioncalendar”isprovidedinIllustration60.Extensionworkersshouldbeable toassist todevelopsuchacalendar,whichshowsthefarmer’sactivitiesthroughouttheyear,fromfestivals,planting,sowingtoharvestingoffarmcrops.VaccinationagainstNCD(firstrow),treatmentagainste.g.helminths(secondrow),vaccinationagainstFP(thirdrow),treatmentordustingagainstexternalparasites (fourth row).Timingand frequencyofvaccinationand treatmentmayvaryasmayberecommendedbyextensionworker.

79


Illustration60:Exampleofvaccinationanddiseasepreventioncalendar

80


About transmission of HPAI from animals to humans

Animaltohumantransmissionofavianinfluenzaiscurrentlybelievedtooccurwhenthereisveryclosecontactbetweenthepersonandthepoultrysource.Inthisregard,the persons at risk would be the farmers, middlemen, individuals at the live birdmarkets,slaughterhouses,poultryhousesandanyothersuchcircumstancesinwhichanindividualspendquitesometimeincloseproximitytoinfectedbirds.Inparticularthefollowingpersonsareatrisk:Poultry-menandwomenwhospendatleasttwotothreecontinuoushoursin

the poultry house giving food and water or manoeuvring the litter. Anypersonstravellinginthesamevehiclethatmightbecarryinginfectedbirdsinsidethevehicleorinanyofitscarriagecompartments.Buyersandsellersoflivebirds,especiallywhenthepremisesareenclosed

and there is accumulation of aerosols in an enclosed environment.Workersinthechickenabattoirswhethertheyusedryorwetdefeathering

methods. Personswhomaysleepinthesamehousewithaninfectedchicken.Personsworkingfulltimeinachickenmeatprocessingplantandhandling

raw chickens for a prolonged period of time. Anypersonwhomaybeatadrydefeatheringslaughteringprocessandisreachedbytheaerosolsgeneratedfromthesickbirdsbeingslaughtered.Anypersonswhomaydisposeslaughterwaste,offalsorlitterfrom

infected premisesAnypersonwhomayconsumerawinfectedchickenoffals,meatsor

undercooked chicken meat on infected raw eggs and or products made from raw infected eggs.

6.7. Simple rules for better health of chickens

Giveaccesstotherightfeedandcleanwater(potablewaterwhereverpossible),inparticularforsmallchicks;Buildhousesorsheltersagainstdiseases,windandrain;Cleanhousesweeklyandapplylimewashonthefloorandthewallseverythreetosixmonths;ForSmallscaleconfinedproductionsystems:makesure to leave the house empty for 2-3 weeks and disinfect the house properly betweenflocks.Providecleananddrylitterregularly;Donotputtoomanybirdstogether(5hensperm²inthehouseforlayersand10-15chicks/m2forbroilers);Differentspeciesofpoultry,forexamplehens,turkeys,pigeons,ducks,andguineafowlsshouldbekeptseparate;Smallscaleconfinedfarmersshouldnotkeepotherspeciesthanthecommercialchickens:Separatechicksfromadultbirdswithexceptionofthemotherhen;Vaccinatechicksagainstthemostimportantdiseasesandrevaccinateifnecessary;

81


Isolateandtreatsickbirds–ifmedicationisnotpossiblethenkillthesickbirdsandnevereatsuchbirds;Burnorburykilledbirds-Theyshouldneverbeeaten;Simplefencessuchashedgesshouldbeputinplacetoseparateflockhouses/areas;Visitorsshouldnotbeallowedtoenterthefarm;Dedicatedclothingandshoesshouldbeusedexclusivelyintheflockhousesandatabattoirs;Adisinfectantdipshouldbeprovidedattheentranceoftheflockhouses;

7.Profitabilityandmarketingofproducts


Thischapterwillequip the trainer toassist the farmer tobecomemoreefficient inmanaginghis/herflockwithanobjectivetoraisehis/her incomeandmorebroadly,alleviate poverty.Furthermore,thechapterprovidesadetailedmethodologyforcost-benefitanalysis.Cost-benefitanalysisisaverygooddecisionmakingtoolregardingtheprofitabilityofthe poultry enterprise which a farmer may want to undertake.

7.2 Background

Free-range

Tradeorganisationsdonotexistforfree-rangefarmers,however,middlemendotravelaround tovillages tobuy indigenousbirds forsalealong themajorhighwaysor inthenearbybiggercities.Otherwise, localchickensareoftenmainlyusedforhomeconsumption,asgiftsoraspaymentforsmalleritems.Veryoftenchickenssoldatthelocalmarketsarepurchasedtoreplenishflocksbackhomeinthevillage.

Smallscaleconfined

Trade organisations rarely exist for small scale producers in developing countries. Farmersinvolvedinsmallscaleconfinedproductionoftenfindthemarketsfortheireggsandbroilersbythemselves.Eggsaresoldatthefarmgateandthenatthelocalmarketsandalsototargetedrestaurants, institutionsandgroceryshopswherethefarmers may have arranged contracts.

7.3 Biosecurity issues

Themarketingchainsforbothsystemshavesimilarities.Riskofdiseasetransmissionishighinmanystagesofthemarketingchainrelatedtobothsystems.Atthelocalmarkets,thefarmerislikelytocomeacrossinfectedmaterialsandiftheybringhomebirds thatwere not sold during a particular day the home flock is at risk of beinginfected.Furthermore, theymaybringbackhome, trayswhichhavebeenused toferry the eggs to the market. Also shoes and clothes may pick up infectious agents

82


fromthemarket.Infectiousagentpickedatthemarketwillbetransportedtothefarmontrays,shoesandclothesorvehicles.Veryfewfarmersdisinfectthematerialtheyuseformarketingtheirproducts,i.e.baskets,eggtrays,vehiclesetc.Spent hens are usually sold to traders who take them to the urban markets forslaughter.Thelayersaretransportedontopofbuses,inopenpickups,motorcyclesandbicycles.Inallthesecases,thebirdsareindirectcontactwiththeenvironmentandwouldbedischarginganyexudatesintotheenvironmentalongthepathtothelivebirdmarkets.

Insmallscaleconfinedsystems,broilersmaybesoldaslivebirdsorasslaughteredanddressedbirds.Homeslaughterispracticedandhygieneis,inmostcasespoor.

Birdswhicharesoldas livebirds inmarkets,maybe re-sold tocustomers liveorslaughteredonsite.Hygienemeasuresatslaughterfacilitiesat livebirdmarketsisoftennotappropriate.Thedisposalofwastewater,feathersandoffalisnotappropriateandthereisnotreatmentofwasteswhicharedisposedofjustlikeanyothermarketwaste.Thus,slaughterfacilitiesareagreatriskfordiseasetransmission.

Thetradeofproductsfromsmallscaleconfinedsystems(eggsanddressedbroilers)isgenerallywithinthecountry,butmightbedoneacrossbordersaswell.However,when it comes to purchase

ofparentstockorday-oldchicks,tradeisfrequentlyacrossborders.TradingacrossbordersposesanenormousriskoftransferofHPAIfrominfectedcountries/areastonon-infectedcountries/areas.

Free-rangefarmerskeepingindigenousbirdsdonothavemanyeggstosellbutwhenthey do, they sell themat the farmgate or at the localmarket as fertile eggs forhatching or for consumption. Diseases may spread vertically from the hen through the eggs to the off-spring although this is not the case for AI. The main risk is the farmer getting his feet or clothes contaminated at the market.

7.4 How to improve marketing of poultry and poultry products

Beforestartinganypoultryproductionactivitywithapurposetosellbirdsoreggs,itisimportanttoknowthemarketsituation,thatis,whetherandwhereitispossibletosell theproducts.The farmermustalsoknow the investmentcosts, runningcosts,theexpectedrevenueforthedifferentproducts,andwhetheritispossibletogetthenecessaryinputs(vaccinesandotherveterinaryproducts,supplementaryfeedetc.).

Illustration61:Transportationof chickens shouldbe in cagesas illustratedon theright.

83


Itisadvisabletoknowthelocalsituationverywellthroughdetailedmarketstudiesandcost-benefitanalyses,beforedecidingonthetypeandsizeofproductionsystem.Atvillagelevel,itwilloftenbeadvisabletostartwithaproductionbasedonlocalbreeds,localfeeds,andlocaldemandbeforeenteringintoamoresophisticatedsmallscaleconfinedproductionsystemwithimprovedbreedsandaneedforamorestablemarketoutlet. In general the economic outcome as well as the need for investments and the riskinvolvedintheproduction,willbeverydifferentforimprovedfree-rangesystems(relativelylowrisk)andsmall-scaleconfinedsystems(higherrisk).Itisrecommendedthatfarmersinavillageformacooperativesocietyinordertogetbetterpricesfortheirproductsandcombineeffortsforsupplyofinputs.

Attraditionalvillagemarkets,itismainlylivebirdsandeggsthatareforsale.Theeggsareoftenfertile. Importednon-fertile tableeggsaremoreoftenfound inperi-urbanandurbanareasoralongtrafficcorridors,whereconfinedsystemscanbemanaged.

At localmarkets, the price of cocks and henswill vary significantly depending onfactorssuchasdemand(highduringfestivals),sizeandweight,plumage,andcolour.Cocks are usually higher priced at themarket than hensmostly because of theirbiggersize.Inmostregions,localbirdsarealsopricedhigherthanimportedimprovedbreedsbecauseofconsumer’spreference(taste)eveniftheyareoftensmaller.Thepriceoflocaleggsisalsooftenhigherthanimportedeggs,despitetheirsmallersize.Tasteandtextureofmeatandeggcolouraremajorreasonsforthehigherpriceoflocalproducts.Onthebasisofthecostsoftheproduction,thefarmershouldcalculatetheminimumpriceatwhichshe/hecanaffordtosellpoultryoreggs.Thefarmereitheralone or as a cooperative society ought to study the market and discuss prices with local chicken vendors.

Illustration62:Birdsforsale

84


7.4.1 Marketing of free-range birds

Cockerelsshouldbesoldassoonastheycanfetchagoodprice,asonecockto10-15hensperfarmissufficienttoproducefertileeggs.Insomecases,thefarmermayalsowanttosellacock,ifitisnotmatingasexpected.Attheageof6monthsandaweightofapproximately1kg,cocksareusuallybigenoughtobesoldatthemarket.Birdsmaybesoldaliveinthemarkets,butlivebirdsshouldnotbereturnedfromthemarketifnotsold,asthisisamajorcauseoftransmissionofdiseases.Ifthebirdsarereturnedtothefarm,theyshouldbekeptseparatefor2weeksbeforebeingputtogetherwiththerestoftheflock.Oldhensthatarenolongerlayingeggsshouldalsobesoldorslaughtered(Illustration64).Whencatchingthebirds,itisbestdoneinthehouseinthelateeveningorbyattractingthemwithfeedorbyusingalongstickorapieceofmetalwire,bentattheend.Atthemarketthebirdsmustbekeptintheshadeandgivenadequatefeedandwater.

7.4.2 Marketing of eggs

Eggsshouldbecollectedandmarketedwhilefresh,especiallyifnotcooled.Farmersshouldcollecteggsfromthenestingboxesatleastonce,butrathertwotimesaday,andstoretheminadarkandcoolplace.Eggsshouldnormallynotbecleaned,butkeptcleaninthenests.Iftheyaredirty,cleantheeggswithaclean,dryspongeorcloth,andselltheeggsimmediately.Cleaningeggswithwatermaydisturbthenaturalprotection of the shell and introduce infections into the egg.

Illustration63:Eggsforsale

85


Packeggsinboxes,eggtrays,oranyothersuitablepackage.Iftheeggsaresoldinthemarkettwotothreetimesaweek,thefarmermightgetagoodnameforsellingfresheggs.Ifprofitable,onecouldalsogradetheeggsaccordingtosize.Farmermustalwayskeeprecordsoftheproductionandsale,asexplainedbelow.

Illustration64:Keeprecordsoftheproductionandsales

7.4.3 Keeping records

Tomanageapoultryproductionenterprise,thefarmermustkeepdetailedrecordsonadailyorweeklybasis.(SeeTable12)

Table13,Illustration65andIllustration66giveexamplesofhowtokeeprecords.Thetwotablesmaybeusedforliteratefarmers,theillustrationsforilliteratepeople.

It isvery important tospendsometimeeachdayobservingtheflockcarefullyandrecordany importantobservations. In thiswayearlysignsofdisease,malnutrition,or other problemsmay be discovered, and the necessary precautions taken (seechapteroneforadviceonmanagement).

86


Table 12: Record keeping for small-scale chicken productionAnimalsProductionRecordWeek/Day:Nameoffarmer:Family:

Record Number Value/Price

Comments

Hens Healthstatus,inlay?Cocks Healthstatus,Growers Healthstatus,age,weightChickens Healthstatus,age,weightDeadbirds Cause of deathEggslaidFertileeggsincubatedChickens hatchedCocks sold Whereandtowhom?Hens soldGrowerssold Chicks soldEggssold Towhom?Eggs/PoultryconsumedPoultrygivenasgiftsWhatvaccinehasbeenbought? Whattreatment/vaccineand

how?Cocks vaccinatedOtherchickensvaccinatedBirdsgivenmedicine

Table 13: Record keeping for small-scale chicken production (investmentandrunningcosts)Materials and feeds purchasedName: Day:Record Numbers Price CommentsMaterialsBasketsSheltersChicken housesNestsFeedersDrinkersOthermaterials Type,quantityFeed Type,quantityFeed stuffsFormulated feedsVitamins,mineralsMedicine

87


Illustration65:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(forilliteratefarmers).

NotethattheinterpretationofdrawingsinIllustration65shallbemadebyextensionworkerandexplainedtothefarmer(Row1:Numberchickensofdifferentagesdrawing1to4;Row2:Lossofchickensduetovariouscausesdrawing5;Row3:numberofeggslaid,soldorhatcheddrawing6to8;Row4:Cocks,hens,growers,chicksandeggssolddrawings9to13;Row5:Eggseatenbyhouseholdmembers–woman,manandchildrenorgivenasgiftsdrawing14and15;Row6:Vaccinesandmedicinesboughtanduseddrawing16to19).

88


Illustration66:Recordkeepingforsmall-scalechickenproduction(fortheilliteratefarmer)

7.4.4 Materials and feed

Recordsshouldbekeptonchickensandhens,notingtheirapproximateageortimeofhatching.Thehensshouldstartlayingeggsat22-32weeksofage–thereforetheageoffirstlayandtheproductionovertimeshouldbemonitored.Ifeggproductionisdelayedordropssuddenly,thefarmershouldcheckconditionsinthehouse,accessto feed,wateretc. Ifeggproductiondropsgradually, itmaybe timetochangetheoldhens.Ifthecostsforfeedexceedtheincomefromsellingcocksand/oreggs,thefarmermayalsoconsidersellingbirds,orreducingtheamountoffeedgiven(basedonanassessmentofhowmuchfeedisavailablearoundthefarm).

All expenditures for feedor feed ingredients shouldbe registered carefully, notingquantity,priceanddateofpurchase.Thiswillenablethefarmertoseewhetherthe

89


feedisboughtatagoodpriceorifithasbeentooexpensive.Ifthefeedisboughtfromfeedsellers,notethenameofthesellerandthetimeofpurchase.Feedsofbadqualityshouldasfaraspossiblebetrackedtothesellerorproduceroffeeds.Thepriceanddateofpurchaseofvaccinesandmedicineshouldalsobecarefullynoted.Supplementaryfeedconsumedonadailyorweeklybasisshouldbenotedforeachflockorpoultryhouseseparately.Suddenchanges in feed intakemaybe thefirstindicatorsofbadhealth.

Incomefromsaleofeggs,cockerelsorchickensshouldbecarefullynoted.Giftsandhomeconsumptionofeggsandbirdsbyfamilyandfriendsshouldalsobenoted.

7.5Economicanalysisandsimpleriskassessment

Before starting a poultry production enterprise, the farmer should calculate if it iseconomicallyfeasibleandviabletodoso,therebymakingtherightdecisionsaboutthe production type and the type of interventions needed.

Illustration67:Revenuefrompoultryisexpressedinmoneyaswellasmeat,eggs,manure

The revenue orincomeisallthemoneythefarmerearnsinrelationtothepoultry,thatis:Incomefromsaleoflivebirds,e.g.growers,cockerels,orspenthens;Incomefromsaleofeggs;Incomefromsaleoffeedorotherproducts;Incomefromsaleofmanure;Valueofeggsorpoultryeatenorgivenaway.

Tothisthefarmermayaddthevalueofthestandingstock,i.e.theflockatthefarmwhichisnotintendedforsale,butwhichisthefoundationoffutureincome.Poultrymanure also represents a value when used in the crop farm. It provides many nutrients

90


totheplants,andmayreducecostsofbuyingfertilizer.The costsinvolvedarealltheexpensesrelatedtothepoultry,whichareforbuying:

Materialsforbaskets,shelters/poultryhouses;Growers,hensorcocks;Fertileeggsforincubation;Dayoldchicks;Supplementaryfeed,vitamins,orminerals;Vaccinesandmedicine;Labourandtechnicaladvice.

Ifthechickensarefedwithcropsthatcouldotherwisebesold,thisalsorepresentsavalueandshouldbeincludedinthecalculation.Ifmoneyisborrowed,therepaymentandinterestonloansarealsoexpensesthathavetobeincludedamongtheinputs.Invillagepoultry,wheretheoutputsareusuallylow,theinputsshouldalsobekeptlow.Thismeansthatexpensesforsheltersandequipmentshouldbekeptataminimum.Smallbasketsorshelters (Illustration2and Illustration3)maybebuiltusing localmaterials and these are normally cheap.

7.5.1Cost-benefitcalculation

Inordertocalculatetheprofitinanenterprise,oneshouldestimatecostsandrevenuesonanannualbasis.Table14andTable15showexamplesoftheinformationneededinordertomakeasimplecost-benefitanalysis.

Table14:Exampleofsmall-scalefree-rangesystem,52weeksplan(Tanzania2008)Flocksize Numbers

Localhenslayingandbrooding 3Localhenslayingeggs,notbroody 2Cocks 1Survivingchickens/hen/batch* 8Growers.Weeks4-24 24TotalFlocksize 30Feedconsumption:1kg/bird/4weeks=35g/bird/day KgAdultsfeed:1kgx6birdsx52/4weeks 78Chicken/growersfeed:1kgx24birdsx46/4weeks** 276EggProduction: NumbersLocalbroodyhens.72eggs/bird/year 216Localhensnotgoingbroody.104eggs/bird/year 208Eggsforhatching.3hensx12eggsxtwobatches/year -72Homeconsumption,1.5eggs/week -82Saleablebirds:3batchesx8growers*** NumbersCockerels. 22 weeks of age 24Pulletsforsale.24weeksofage 24

*12eggslaid=10eggshatched=8chickssurvivingafter6months**Seeexplanationattheendofthischapter,abovetable5.5***Theother3batchesx8growersarekeptintheflockandsoldlater

91


Table15:Cost-benefitanalysisbasedonexampleinTable14

Expenses Cost/Unit CashflowTShs* TShs

5hensand1cock 5x5,000+1x8,000 -33,000Baskets,3night+3daybaskets 6baskets 2,000 -12,000Lowcosthome-madefeed 354Kg 250 -88,500

Vaccine(ND)+medicine(Coc+anti-worm) 60Doses/year 3.00 -180Miscellaneous -11,000Totalcashout-flow -144,680Income(revenue)Sale of eggs 424–154=270 300 81,000Saleofcockerels,22weeks 24 7,000 168,000Saleofpullets,24weeks 24 4,000 96,000Totalcashinflow 345,000Netcashflow 200,320

*1,150TShs=1USD

Itisassumedthatthefarmerusesfamilylabourandhenceitisnotincludingintheequation.Manuremayalsobeincludedwhereinlocationswhereitisnormallysold.

Thesamemethodcanbeusedtocalculateacost-benefitratioforsectorenterprise.IntheexamplereferredtoinTable14andTable15,theflocksizeisinitially5hensand1cock,alllocalbreeds.Aproductionmayalsostartwithless,i.e.only1henlayingeggs, fertilisedbya localcock in thevillage.Figureswill thenhavetobeadjustedaccordingly.With1cockand5hens,ofwhichnomorethan3hensareallowedtogobroodyatonetime,theflocksizemaygrowtoamaximumof24growersand6adults,whichismanageableforasmall-scalefarmer.Veryimportantforthissystemisthatthescavengingfeedresourceinthevillagewillbelessdepleted,iftheflocksizeiskeptbelow6-10adultsand20-30growersandchicks.

Itisassumedthatbyimprovedmanagementandfeeding,theeggproductionofthenon-broodyhenswillincreaseto104eggs/hen/year,i.e.2eggsperweekonaverage.Broodyhenswillalsolayanaverageof2eggsperweek,howeverexcluding2x3weekshatching+2x5weeksbrooding,i.e.2x8weeks=16weeksnon-layingperiodperyear.Annuallyeachhenwillthenlay:52-16weeks=36weeksx2eggs=72eggs/hen/year.Forthreehensgoingbroodyonlytwiceayear,thetotaleggproductionwillbe3x72=216eggs/year.

Aproductionof24cockerelsand24pulletsperyear(Table14)isbasedonthefollowingassumptions:Awell-managedbroodyhenwillsiton12eggsandhatchonaverage10chickstwiceayear.Useofthebasketsystemandimprovedmanagementwillreducetheoverallmortalityofthechickstoamaximumof1chickoutoftenduringthefirst4weeks(equalto10%)and1groweroutofninefortheremaining20weeks.Attheageof22-24weeks,whenthegrowersaretobesold,anaverageof8growersperbatch

92


willbealive.Usingthreebroodyhens,atotalof3x8growers=24birdsmaybesoldtwiceayear.Outofthese,thehalfwillbecockerelsandtheotherhalfpullets.

Awell-managedproductionplanmeanssellingbirdsatthetimeofthehighestprice,andbuyingfeeds,newhens,orinputs(e.g.baskets,feeders,anddrinkers)atthetimeofthelowestprice.Formanyfarmersthismeanskeepingthebirdsintheflockuntilthetimeoffestivals(e.g.Eidfestival,Christmas,Easter,ornationalholidays),wheretheymaygetapriceoftentwoorthreetimesthenormalprice.However,itisimportanttostressthatkeepingbirdsintheflockmeansmorefeedandahigherriskintermsofloosingbirdsbecauseofpredators,diseases,ortheft.Ingeneralbirdsshouldbesoldnolaterthanattheageofmaturity,i.e.22-32weeksofage.

IntheexamplefromTanzaniainTable14andTable15,thecostoffeedingonebirdwas250TShsevery4weeks,asonekgfeedatthepriceof250TShwouldbespentduring4weeks.Inthiscase,ifthefarmerwantstokeepabird4weekslongerintheflock,oneshouldbesuretogainmorethan250TShsonthemarketprice.Otherwise,itwouldbebettertosell4weeksearlieratalowerprice,andthusbeabletorestockwith new growers.

Thus, by knowing the market and environmental conditions and by doing simpleeconomiccalculations,thefarmerwillbeabletoplanwhentosellthebirds,whentolethensgobroody,andwhentokeepbirdsintheflock.

Supplementary feedingshouldalwaysbekeptata reasonable low level to reducecosts. However, chicks at age 0-4 weeks should be given what they need (Seechapter4onadviceforfeeding).Onaverageeachbirdwillbegiven1kgfeedevery4weeks.Thiscorrespondsto1000g/28days=approximately35gramsperbirdperday.2batchesof24growersneedfeedtwotimes22-24weeks,i.e.44-48weeks,onaverage46weeks.Thetotalannualneedforfeedinaflockof6adultsand24chicksandgrowersiscalculatedinTable16.

Table16:Supplementaryfeedneededforaflockof30free-rangebirdsinoneyear1 cock 1 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 52 weeks 13 kg5 hens 5 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 52 weeks 65 kg

24 chicks/growers 24 x 1 kg/ 4 weeks x 46 weeks 276 kgTotal 354 kg

7.5.2Riskassessment

Ariskassessmentisajudgmentthatmostfarmersdoeveryday.Theyjudgewhethertheyshouldbuysomeseeds,sellachicken,callaveterinarianforasickanimaletc.,orwhetheritisbettertowaituntilconditionsaremorefavourable.Inparticularwhenstartinganewenterprise,theriskassessmentbecomescrucial.Whenimprovingfree-rangepoultryproduction, it is importanttojudgewhetherthechoiceof intervention(e.g.feed,vaccination,housing,chickshelter)hasaneffectandwhichrisksmaybeinvolved.

93


Illustration68:Incomeisoftenspentonavarietyofitemsincludingfood,schooling,housing

7.6Simplerulestoachievehigherprofitability

Analysethemarketsituation,thedemandforproducts,prices,investmentcosts,runningcosts,andexpectedrevenuefordifferenttypesofpoultryproduction systemsbeforestarting.Ifpossiblemakearrangements/acontractwithamiddlemantobuytheproducts. Make a thorough calculation of expected costs and revenues for different

production systems. Always keep records of the production and sale.Infree-rangesystems,theflocksizeshouldbekeptbelow30-50birdstoensureavailabilityofadequatefeedresourceintheenvironment.Insmallscaleconfinedsystems,thefarmersshouldmakesurethathe/shehasthenecessaryfundsforpurchasingfeedsforthebirdsandalsothatafeedmillcandeliverthefeeds.Estimatetheproductionofeggsandbirdsovertheyear.Planbeforehandwhenandhowtosellthebirds.Neverintroducebirdsfromthemarketdirectlyintotheflock.Sellbirdsiffeedcostsaretoohighortherearehighrisksofdiseasesor

dwindling market prices.Rememberthatcostsinvolveinvestments,runningcosts,labour,losses,andmaybeloanrepaymentandinterestonloans.Judgetherisksinvolvedineachtypeofproductionsystembeforestarting

a production.

94


7.7 Recommendations for improvement of biosecurity - Marketing of products

Farmersneedtobemadeawareoftherisksofintroductionofdiseaseswhenmarketingtheir poultry products.

Theyalsoneedtobeshownwhattoavoidandhowtheycanimprovetheirpracticessothatchancesofbringingdiseasesintotheirflocksarereducedandthepossibilityofspreadingdiseasetotheirneighboursisreduced.Thiswouldinclude:

Observingregularwashingofhands;Personalhygieneanduseofcleanordedicatedclothesandshoes;Identifyingcleananddirtyprocessesinthefarm,salesandslaughteringprocessessoastoavoidcontaminatingcleanareas;Useofdisinfectantstodecontaminatematerialsandequipmentthathasgonetothemarketbeforeitisreusedatthefarm;Refrainingfromreturningtotheflockhouseanybirdsthatleftthehomefortheshoworforsalebutwerenotsoldout.

The municipal authorities need to work out procedures that ensure that the slaughter premises are kept clean and ideally decontaminated after the slaughtering process. This would also involve creating awareness on biosecurity issues related to theslaughtering process.

Anotherimportantrecommendationistoorganisemarketingbyestablishingfarmers’organisations,whichcanarrangeforthesaleofeggsandmeat.Therebythefarmersmayhaveastablemarketthroughouttheyear.Astablemarketwillensureaonewayflowofanimalsandproductstothemarketandnotbacktothevillages,asconsumerexpectationswillbuildupandthusaneedfortheproductswillenablethefarmerstoplan for their production.

95


8.GLOSSARYOFTERMSTERMINOLOGY MEANINGAd libitum Feeding or drinking without restricting the amount consumed and hence chickens

feed as much as they wish.Allin–all-outpractice

Isahusbandrysystemmeanttocontroldisease,sothatitisnottransmittedfromonebatchofchickentoanother.Thisappliestocommercialchickenssuchasbroilersorlayerswhichareraisedasbatchesfromonedayoldtosellingweightforbroilersorforlayers,untilaftertheendofthelayingperiodwhentheyareculled.Inthispractice,mixtureofdifferentagesonthesamefarmisnotpermittedandthatthechickenhouseiscleanedanddisinfectedbetweenbatchesandbeforere-stocking

AvianInfluenza Infectioncausedbyinfluenzaviruswhichoccurnaturallyindomesticandwildbirdsandalsolesscommonlyinpigsandhumans.Theinfluenzaisclassifiedbasedontwosurfaceproteins,theHemagglutininantigen(HA,thereare16types)andtheNeuraminidaseantigen(NA,thereare9types).Thereare144subtypesmajorityofwhichonlyinfectsonlybirdsandmaybelowlypathogenic

Biosecurity The processes aimed at minimising the entry and spread of pathogens into a coun-try,withinanation/regionandbetweenvillages/farms/households.orImplementation of practices that prevent the introduction and spread of disease.

Brood Whenahensitsoneggsandincubatesuntileggsarehatched.Duringtheperioditstops laying eggs

Broody Ahenwhichwantstolayeggsandsitonthemandhencebroodyhenandbroodi-ness

Clutch Abatchofeggslaidbyahenatonetime,beforeincubatingandhatchingthem.Thenumberofeggsmayvarybetween10and20.Ahenmaylayinthreetofourclutches a year

Commercial chicken

Hybrid,especiallyselectedandraisedforhighproductivity,e.g.BroilersfortablemeatorLayersfortableeggs

Eggcandler An instrument with source of light used for checking an egg whether or not it is fertileandhasaviableordeadembryo

Highly pathogenic AvianInfluenza(HPAI)

ThecurrentHPAIoutbreaksarecausedbyH5N1subtypewhichcausesupto100%mortalityinpoultryflocksandiszoonoticandcausesseverediseaseandmortality in humans.

Indigenous chicken Localchickenwhichhasnotbeensubjectedtoanyselectionorsubjectedtoverylimitedselectionandmaybeforreasonsotherthanproductivity.Othertermswhicharecommonlyusedare:Village/Ruralchicken,backyardchicken,familypoultry,free range local chickens etc

LimeorQuicklime Calciumoxide:Awhitesubstanceobtainedbyheatinglimestoneusedacheapdisinfectantinchickenhouses.Normallyusedasbuildingmaterial

Lowinput–lowoutput system of husbandry

Isasystemhusbandrywherebythefarmerdoesnotinvestmuchinraisingpoultryintermsoftime,capitalorveterinarycarewithresultinglowproductionoroutput

Manure composting Amethodofrenderingchickenmanurefreeofinfectiousmicroorganismsbycol-lectingchickenmanure(droppings)inoneheapandcoveringtheheapwithaplastic for at least two weeks to allow fermentation to take place and generate enough heat to kill infectious agents.

Preen AnactwherebyabirdcleansitselfandmakesfeatherssmoothusingitsbeakScavenging chicken

A chicken which looks for its own feed from its surroundings and with no or limited supplementaryfeedsbeingprovidedbythefarmer.Thisisthecommonhusbandrysystem traditionally practiced for the local poultry.

GOOD PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY …legacy.iica.int/Esp/regiones/sur/uruguay/Documentos de la...

Documents

Transcript of GOOD PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE POULTRY …legacy.iica.int/Esp/regiones/sur/uruguay/Documentos de la...