- 209-

Chapter: 4

Goddess cults and cult centres between the tenth and the fifteenth

century:

Rajasthan, between the tenth and the fifteenth century, witnessed a

distinctive phase of growth and change. In the field of culture some

discernible developments took place. Temple construction both for

brahmanic and jain religions gained a new momentum. Brilliant piece of

temple architecture, embellished and opulent came into shape in this period.

Temples rose in greater number and their layout became larger and planned.

Images and sculptures in temples were systematized and were greater in

number. This period may be termed as the second phase of temple

construction in Rajasthan.

Goddesses of the brahmanic context:

In this period certain shrines of brahmanic female deities such as

Ambika,l Mahadevi/ Astamata3 and Kalikamata4 came into shape at Jagat

(Udaipur), Udaipur, Mewar and Bagodia in Jodhpur respectively. Temples

of local goddesses such as Namdadevi5 at Jakhana near Udaipur, Banadevra6

at Atru and Khokhimata at Teori in the north of Jodhpur also consist of

images of brahmanic female deities. Even temples of male deities such as

Mahakalesvara7 at Atru, Nilakanthesvar Mahadeva8 at Kekind, Vishnu9

1 R.c. Agrawala, Arts Asiatique, Paris, 10 (i), June, 1964, pp. 44-65 2 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 31 51 March, 1909, p.39 3 Major K.D.Erskine, (1992), p. 97 4 D.R. Bhandarkar, ARASIWC, 1911-12, p. 5 Major K.D. Erskine, (1992), p.192 6 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 30 June, 1905, p. 49 7 Ibid. p.49. 8 S.K. Panikkar, Saptamatrka Worship and Sculptures, 1997, pp. 137-38 9 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 30 June, 1905, p. 50

- 210 -

temple at Ramgarh, Baijnath-ka-Mandarlo and Ravan-ki-Chori ll at Jodhpur

contain images of brahmanic female deities.

Temple of Ambika, situated at Jagat, distant about 35 miles away from

Udaipur,12 constructed in 10th century AD (V.S. 1017/960 AD), suggests

elevated importance of the goddess worship. The exterior of the central

sanctum is studded with elegant sculptures of Mahishasuramardini. The

three niches on the three sides of the temple depict Mahishasuramardini in

three different styles. The eight-armed images of devi in this temple are

made in different poses. An image of devi on the main back niche of this

temple facing west depicts a demon coming out of the detruncated body of

the demon. 13 Another image of devi on the niche facing south depicts the

goddess twisting the very neck of the animal in the style as pointed out in an

earlier chapter. 14 Again on the niche towards north at Jagat is presentation of

an excellent image of goddess encountering with the demon shown in full

human form. In another niche at Jagat, we notice the demon in human form

though its head remains broken at the present moment. It is just possible that

here the demon is shown with a buffalo-head and human body as at

Mahabalipuram .... etc. 15 Not exactly the same but a human body with a

Mahisha (buffalo) head is found at Bhubhaneswara. 16 This is rather one of

the excellent projections of the Indian art. Depiction of human form demon

at Jagat is an impact of some non-Rajasthani or Rashtrakuta elements. In one

of the images of devi in Ellora, demon is presented in full human form

10 Ibid. p.54 II D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 31 s1 March, 1907, p.33; Major K.D. Erskine (1992) p. 198 12 R.C. Agrawala, Arts Asiatique, Paris, 10 (i), June, 1964, pp. 44-65 13 Ibid. pI. 13 on p.62 14 Ibid. pI. 12 on p.61 15 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art in Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma (ed.), Rajasthan Through The Age, Vol. 2; 1999, p.25 16 St. Kramrisch, Indian Sculpture, Philadelphia, 1960, pt. 8; K.M. Munshi, Saga of Indian Sculpture, Bombay, Pt. 146

- 211 -

except that the demon has got two horns. Such presentation is absent

altogether in the eight-armed statue on the exterior of the main temple at

Jagat and four-armed image on the exterior of the Tirthodaka temple at Jagat

itself. Another interesting feature of the image is the wheel (chakra) slightly

penetrated in the body of the buffalo-animal as a result of its prayaoga by

the goddess. Such a use of wheel is obviously absent in Gupta and early

terracotta from Rajasthan. 17

The images of the goddesses in Ambika temple are presented with ample

clarity. The four and eight armed images of the goddess and full human form

of Mahisha are quite exclusive. 18 In one of the niches of Jagat temple the

image of the goddess is quite impressive as she is shown twisting the neck of

the buffalo-animal. 19 In the principal back of the main sanctum at Jagat the

neck of the demon is shown as completely chopped off. 20 Here, there is an

incorporation of bird parrot along with the image of the goddess. The parrot

is perched on the left of the image of the goddess that is just above the bell

held by the goddess. In the seated Images of the goddess

Mahishasuramardini in the niches of the antargJa at Jagat the parrot is found

sitting on the skull-crowned mace held by the devi. Presentation of the image

of parrot with the images of goddess is rare. Such affiliation of bird with

goddess reflects as if devi is fond of the bird parrot?1 A miniature sculpture

of the goddess Mahishasuramardini is carved upon the exterior of the tank

for Tirthodaka at the main sanctum of Ambika temple. The image of

Tirthodka resembles the image of the goddess created on the exterior of the

17 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, in Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma (ed.), Rajasthan Through The Age, Vol. 2; 1999, p.26 18 Visheshvarananda lndological Journal, 10),1963, plate 7, Hoshiarpur 19 R.C. Agrawala, Art Asiatiques, Paris, X (i), 1964, figure 12 on p. 61 20 Ibid. p. 62

. 21 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, in Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma (ed.), Rajasthan Through The Age, Vol. 2; 1999, p. 27

- 212 -

temple Ambika. The design of miniature sculpture of the goddess evidently

follows the earlier traits except four arms of the goddess. The image of

Mahisha in Ambika temple is more advanced than that of Ellora images. In

Ellora, Mahisha is presented in human form but with the horns of a buffalo.

In the temple of Ambika, Mahisha is presented completely in human form.22

The surviving Ambika temple of tenth century has made strong impact

upon the cult of Durga of Mewar. Its influence and impact on contemporary

art as well as upon the art of Shakti cult of coming centuries of Rajasthan

needs to be studied. Other temple of this style and design dedicated to

goddess Mahishasuramardini is hardly found in India.23

A rare six-armed sculpture of Mahishasramardini is discovered on the

exterior of the Siva temple at Hita, which is about four miles from Bhimdara

in Mewar. No image of such a variety of goddess is found at this point of

time. The goddess is shown pressing the demon with two of her upper hands

and trident. The upper left hands are carrying a shield and the head of the

demon. Two of her right hands are broken and the other carries a sword.24

Sachiyamata temple consists of varied images of the goddesses of

Brahmanical context. The inscription inscribed at the back wall (placed in

lunar fortnight), dated samvat 1234 (= A.D. 1177) records that the temple

consists of the images of Candika, Sitala, Saccika,25 Ksemankari and

Ksetrapala. 26 Another inscription found at the south-eastern (placed in

22 H. Zimmer, Art of Indian Asia, Its Mythology and Transformation, Vol. II, ed. by Joseph Cambell, Princeton, Bollingen Series 39, 2nd edn. 1960, fig. 210 23 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, op. cit. 1999, p. 25 24 Ibid. p. 26 25 R.C. Agarwala, Artibus Asiae, XXI. p. 130 XVII, No. 8.3-4, In the Jain texts Saccika has been called Candika and Camunda also. R.C. Agrawala is of the opinion that Mahishasuramaridini was so popular in Rajasthan that Sacchikamata was also worshipped as manifestation of Mahishasuramardini. An image of goddess Sacchikamata dated 1234 A.D. is discovered in Rajasthan and is preserved in Jodhpur museum. pp.232-34 2 P.c. Nahar, Jain Lekha Samgraha, 1918, No. 804, part - I, Calcutta, p.198

- 213 -

Karttika) corner dated samvat 1236 (= AD 1179) refers to that the temple

consists of the goddesses such as Saccika, Samcika and Sancika.27 The

inscription placed at the principal back niche addresses to

Mahishasuramardini.

In the Sachiyamata temple is a black stone image of Mahishasuramardini.

The image of Mahishasuramardini is flanked by the images of the deities

placed on the pedestal. 28 On the left side of Mahishasuramardini an image of

Vaishnavi who is presented in a dancing pose, holding padma, gada, cakra

and sankah in her four hands with Garuda in anjali-mudra near her right

foot. On the right side of her are the Matraka images for Aindri and Varahi.

Aindri and Varahi images are now set up in the niches of the

rangamandapa. Some other images are placed in different palces of

rangamandapa or in the sanctum. Important amongst them are the images of

Ksemankari, Gaja-Laksmi, Durga, Ganesa and a female ostiery. An image of

Sesasayi is also available in the temple.29

The niches of the temple contain varied images of the female deities. The

main back niche contains an image of Mahishasuramardini corresponding to

Sachiya (Saccika). The images for Chandika and Sitla exist on the northern

wall; Ksemankari30 and Ksetrapala images are on the southern. In the

principal niches of the northern walls of Sachiyamata temple-1 and

Sachiyamata temple-2 are images ofMahishasuramardini and their size is 47

27 Ibid. 28 Roop Lekha, New Delhi, p. 10 1, pI. VIII. 29 Devendra Handa, ob. cit. p. 55 30 M.A. Dhaky, The Iconography ofSacciyadevi, Banu Chhotlal Jain Com em oration Volume, 1967,Calcutta, English section, suggests that the temple of Sac hi yam at a may have been dedicated to Ksemankari. The image of Ksemankari was the original cult-icon of the Sachiya shrine that was dedicted to a Vaisnavi Shakti. Most of the Vaisnava images are now preserved in the Sacciya complex. The original Vaisnava shrine, Dhaky says, was demolished in about A.D. 1178 to give place to the present Sacciya temple, pp.63-69. But Devendra Handa does not subscribe to the views ofM.A. Dhaky. He says that this leads to a problem with which the goddess Saccika should be identified - Candika, Camunda, Ksemankari or Mahisamardini. p. 16

- 214 -

x 22 and 68 x 51 cm respectively. The bigger image of the deity is quite

charming and has twelve arms. Most of her arms are ~hown as they are in

action. The goddess is shown taking out an arrow from the quiver at the back

with one of her right hands while the uppermost pair of hands holds a

discus. 31 Her left hands are also in use. The normal left hand is holding the

neck of a demon and other left hands have a bow, lotus and a shield. The

goddess is standing triumphantly in pratyalidha pose with her right foot

placed on the ground. With her sword held in the right front raised hand, the

head of the buffalo is cut and trident held in another hand is thrust in

buffalo's body. The human form of demon is shown coming out of the

severed trunk of the buffalo; holding a sword in the right hand. The lion is

presented attacking the buffalo from the back.32 The neck of the buffalo is

well decorated. A belt studded with bells and pendants are made hanging in

the neck with a string. The goddess wears jatamukuta with a jewel in the

centre, beaded necklace string hanging from between the breasts to the

stomach where it shows a circular jewel pendant, armlets, wristlets, anklets

and a lower garments secured by a waist-band. The image of the goddess is

flanked by female figures and has no attendants. 33 The special features of the

given image of Mahishasuramardini is the multi-handedness of the goddess

and issuing of human form out of the decapitated trunk of the buffalo.

The image of Ksemankari of Sachiyamata temple is very well designed.

She is standing in samabhang pose on a lotus supported by two lions placed

back to back. A female fly-whisker stands on either side partially concealed

by the lions. The gloriole behind the head of the goddess is circumscribed by

31 B.N. Sharma did not take this feature into account. 32 B.N. Sharma, Sculpture From Osian, Roop Lekha, XL, PI. VI, has missed to take notice of the lion in the image as it is hidden behind the buffalo. pp. 90-100. 33 Ibid.

- 215-

a deeply and exquisitely carved ring. The goddess wears a typical turban like

jata-bhara, ear ornaments, ekavali, angadas, valayas, adhovastra secured by

a chain like waist-band whose free ends fall on her thighs as pendants. The

rear right and left hands hold the trident and noose respectively. The normal

right hand though broken, seems to have originally been disposed in abhaya

pose as a careful examination of the image shows traces of the fingers of the

up-stretched palm. The front left hand, now completely gone, may have been

held in the varada pose holding a water-pot. On the whole the image of the

goddess is supple-bodied.

The inscription of Kshemankari found on the backwall of the temple

deals with the iconic features of the goddess Kshemankari. The descriptions

are such that the goddess is old, emaciated and dreadful. She is seated on a

plain bench in bhadrasan with right hand placed on the seat. She has round

bulging eyes, hanging breasts, ribs and bones are all spelling the deadly

impression of the goddess as described in most of the scriptures. The

description given in the inscription resembles Camunda that can be

identified with Kshemankari. 34

Gaja-Lakasmi image is depicted in the porch of the Sachiyamata temple.

In this figure the goddess Laksmi is seated in ardha-paryankasana on a

lotus-seat under which are carved two lions placed back to back with a pillar

in between, surmounted by some circular object. The goddess wears a

beautiful dhammila, adorned in the centre, with a jewel, ear-rings, pearl

necklace with a circular pendant falling on the belly with the string hung

from between the breasts, armlets, wristlets, anklets etc. In her right hand

raised to the shoulder, she holds a stalk with lotus surmounted by an

elephant which too, with its head turned backwards, holds a lotus in its

- 216 -

trunk. Behind this elephant is another bigger elephant inverting the water-

pitcher held in its trunk over the goddess. Similar elephants occur on the

other side surmounting the lotus whose stalk comes winding from behind the

left arm of the deity. She holds a small round object in the palm of her left

hand with the tarjani pointing downwards. Even the thumb of the left foot

shows similar disposition. Two beautiful small figures of attendant maidens

flank the goddess but are practically concealed by the contours of the . . I fi 35 prmclpa Igure.

Parvati is presented on the north-western comer niche of the north wall of

Sachiya temple - 2. The standing image of Parvati here is of 34 x 28 cm. in

Sambhanga pose, holding a full-blossomed lotus in the rear right hand. The

normal right raised hand coming to the level of the shoulder in abahya

mudra. ,The left hand of the image is damaged, the front left hand may be

supposed tobe holding water-pot and the rear left has some long object that

is broken and unidentifiable. The goddess is wearing a jata-bhara, ear

ornaments, aksa-hara with a pendant, the free end of which is reaching the

navel from between the breasts. Aksa-kayuras, Valayas and the lower

garments are tied with a similar aksa-band. Near the image of Parvati is a

Siva-Zinga carved on a rectangular projection. The Parvati is presented in the

pose as if she is trying to win the love of Siva.

An image of Chamunda is preserved in the store of Sachiyamata temple.

This image has some special features that help to confirm its identification.

The hair of the image is erect, eyes rolling round, mouth wide-open,

pendulous breasts and emaciated body. The fore left hand is touching the

mouth and the right is holding a trident. This image corresponds a lot with

34 D.R. Bhandarkar, "Temples of Osia,", ARASI, 1908-09, pp. 107 35 Devendra Handa, 1984, p. 112

- 217-

the image of Sachiyamata preserved in the circumambulatory. The image is

not in a better condition. Body parts of the image below the breast is broken

and damaged.

A few of the eight-armed images of the goddess Chandika are found in

Sachiyamata temple, adorning the jangha of the shrine. Similar images of

Candika measuring 72 x 48 cm are placed in the niches also. Niches are

created in the pradiksina order. Candika is wearing jatgbhgra, sarpa­

kundalas, sarpa-hara, osseous vanamala and a tiger skin. She is having

round bulging eyes, wide open mouth, emaciated hanging breasts, bones

looking out of the body, holding a trident with a serpent spiraling it, a

thunderbolt, and an unidentified object in the back three right hands, the

proper one holding a dagger cutting something held in his palm of the proper

left hand. The other three left hands are shown as holding a goad, a

khatvanga and touching the mouth. She rides a corpse. The two small

figures, named Chanda and Munda, are flanking the deity, one on the proper

left and the other on the right. They contain animal heads. The eight-armed

as against the prescribed sixteen-handed image of Candika bears close

resemblance to the description of the goddess as given in the Rupa

Mandana. 36

A small image of Durga Simhavahini37 lies fixed in the wall of the

corridor of the Sachiya shrine. But a detailed study of the image is not

36 Ibid. p. 109 quoted Rupamandana, V. 39-40: Candika Krurarupa ca pingakesa krsodari Raktaksi bhagnanetra ca ninnamisa vikrtanana

Vyaghracarmaparidhana bhujangabharananvita Kapalamalini krsna savarudha bhayavaha

37 T.A.G. Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, I, The iconological design of the goddess Durga is elaborately illustrated by Rao such that Dugra has been described having with four, eight or more hands, three eyes, stout thighs and big hip, adorned with attractive garments, karnada-mukta, various ornaments and beautiful look. She is standing on lotus in Samabhanga, Dvibhanga or Tribahanga mudra, head of a buffalo or a lion, carrying trident, noose, parrot or mirror and a blue lily if the goddess is two handed. In

- 218 -

possible as the image of the devi is covered with coat of oil, dust and

vermilion. Due to this ~he impression of the image is concealed.

Sachiyamata temple has subsidiary shrines also. The east wall of one of

the subsidiary shrines has an interesting image of Srnaggra-Durga38 Image

of the goddess is twelve-handed and the size of the image is 32x 22. The

image is placed upon a circular seat. The figure of lion is placed on the front

right of the goddess. Behind the figure of the lion is a small figure of a

female. The goddess is depicted in such a fashion as she is tying an anklet in

her right foot with her front hands. And her second right hand is in varada­

mudra and by that she is touching the other small figure of female. The third

hand holds a sword, fourth a discus, the fifth is putting a mukuta with a jewel

in the centre on the head and the sixth is drawing an arrow from a quiver at

the back. The second left hand holds a scent-pot, the third a bow, fourth a

mirror, fifth a Naramunda and the sixth a shield. Possibly this image may be

an impact of ten-armed image of Srngara-Durga discovered at Abaneri

preserved in the Amber Museum.39

An image of goddess Sitla is placed in the second niche of pradaksina of

Sachiyamata temple. She is seated nude on an ass, holding a winnowing

basket in her rear hands at the back of her head. The front hand of the

goddess is mutilated that may be expected holding a sweeping broom and a

pitcher.40

A fierce-image of Bhairavi seated in Sukhasana over a dog is carved upon

the east of the wall of Vishnu temple -5 at Osian. She has some typical

other two hands are a noose and goad. Disposed in abhaya and varada poses in four-handed variety or carrying in addition a conch, discus, bow, arrows, sword, sanctum etc if multi-handed. pp. 356 ff. 38 Devendra Handa, (1984), p. 105; Asha Kalia, Art of Os ian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 81"_12,h century A.D., Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1982, describes this image as Simhavahini Durga. p. 101 39 Devendra Handa (1984), p. 105 40 J.N. Banerjea, Development of Hindu Iconography, Calcutta, 1956, p. 383

- 219 -

attributes in her hands. She holds a dagger in the back right hand and a

shield in the back left. The fore hands hold an arrow and bow. A unique

physical appearance added to the image of the goddess is that the hair of the

goddess is shown standing up in horripilation, mouth wide open with side

tusks and is wearing ekavali, vaikaksaka, keyuras, valayas, uttriya and

adhovastra. The term Bhairavi is the female manifestation of Bhairava, a

form of Siva. This figure of the goddess appears along with the Matrkas and

this can be identified with Yogesvari.41

Lakshmi is one of the important Hindu goddesses being worshipped

separately as well as with her consort Visnu. Temple located near the village

Ramgarh is dedicated to Visnu. Here Lakshmi is presented with her consort

Vishnu.42 In the temple located in Kotah state Lakshmi is worshipped with

her consort Visnu.43 Again in the temple of Akalnath, she is worshipped as

consort of Narayan, another form of Vishnu. But in the temple of Apesvara-

Mahadeva she is worshipped independently.44

In the temple of Chandalesvara 45 the goddess Parvati is addressed as

Gauri and worshipped independently. In Karnesvara-Mahadeva temple,

Chirava temple of Udaipur and in Karodi-Dhaj temple Parvati is presented

together with Siva as her consort.46

Ajhari, located about three miles south of Pindwara, is an inam village,

belonging to the brother of the present Maha Rao of Sirohi. Here there are

five temples, out of which a temple ofMahavira is in a proper shape~ Four of

the temples are wrecked. In one of the cells carved in the corridor of this

41 Devendra Handa, (1984), p. 106 42 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 30 June, 1905, p. 45 43 Ibid. p.46 44 Ibid. 31 sl March, 1907, p. 25 45 D.C. Sircar, £.1. Vol. 33, Stray Plate From Nanana, pp. 238-242 46 D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 1911, p.24; D.C. Sircar, E.J. Vol. 33, Stray Plate From Nanana, pp. 238-242

- 220-

temple is a black marble image of Sarasvati. An inscription engraved upon it

is dated 1269 V.E.47

Saptamatrka worship continued even after the tenth century and their

images are discovered at various temples of Rajasthan. In the fort of

Kumbhalmeru at Kumalgadh, in the temple of Mahadevi images of

Saptamatrkas are found. 48 In village ladoli in Kotah itself, in the temple of

Baijnath-Ka-Madar, the images of Saptamatrkas are found. The temples of

Saptamatrkas are presented together with the image of goddess Durga. The

arrangement of images is such that on the either side of the image of Durga

are the three images of Saptamatrkas. The image of Durga is installed in the

centre that forms the image of the seventh deity.49 At Atru in the temple of .

Mahakalesvara the images of Saptamatrkas are created along with the

images of Brahma, Vishnu Ganapati, Varaha.5o In Nilakanthesvar Mahadeva

temple at Kekind (Nagaur, Rajasthan) are the images of the Saptamatrkas

along with the image of Siva-Nataraja and Ganesa. There are eight images of

the Matrkas and they are in standing order. The order of the Matrkas follows

the established convention as all the goddesses and children are four handed

while Siva has six hands. 51 Brahmani (Kekind, Nagaur, Rajasthan) is three-

faced. Varahi has the head of a boar and is accompanied by a buffalo. Apart

from the vahanas, all the figures are also accompanied by small attendant

figures. 52

The elongated figuration of Kekind Matrkas exudes grace and suppleness

in the treatment of firm body volumes. The gently flexed postures, at certain

47 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, July 1905 to March, 1906, p. 49 48 Ibid. 31 st March, 1909, p. 39 49 Ibid. 30 June, 1905, p. 54 50 Ibid. 30 June, 1905, p. 49 51 The specialty of this image is that there is an image of Ganesa placed in the beginning and Siva at the centre in the group of Matrkas which follows the earlier Western Indian tradition of images of Mandor. 52 S.K. Panikkar, Saptamatrka Worship and Sculptures, 1997, pp. 137-38

- 221 -

points, however, do tend towards looking sharply edged. The decorative

jewelry and drapery overflow and become extraneous to the sculptural form,

yet greatly contribute to the animation of overall space. A highly evolved

sense of compositional schema and the repetition of it merely make the

figuration a matter of craftsman perfection, leaving a certain lack in the

expressional realm. In fact, this in Kekind Matrkas, possibly has led the

inter-subjectivity between the mother and the child to become a bit

impersonal and mechanical. The image of Brahmani hails from Varman

(Sirohi, Rajasthan) originated after the tenth century has hard expression

achieved due to laborious hard surface finish of the image. The three faces

and the body (broken legs, probably was in a dance posture) definitely have

its own artistic merit, but the decorative finish has become an end in itself.

Along with the surviving portions of the lower left hand there are fragment~

of a broken hand of a child visible who touches the ear ornament of the

goddess. 53

The images of the Matrkas are generally carved in a group, in the panels

of the lintel of the doorways, in the rathikas on the kumbhakas of the

vedibandha or even independently. In Osian temple presentation of Matrkas

follows a different pattern unlike traditional pattern. Here the Matrkas are

manifested sometimes separately, sometimes two of them together but never

all in one group. In the temple not a single panel is dedicated in which all the

Matrkas are presented together.

In the Sachiya sanctum, on one of the slabs is an image of Vaisnavi and

figures of Varahi and Aindri are also carved on the panel that is placed on

the porch. Figures of Ganesa and Virabhadra are missing from the panel.

There is ample similarity amongst all these three images of Matrkas as their

53 Ibid. p. 138

- 222-

pedestals, dress and ornaments are analogous and they are holding figures of

children identical to each other. All these goddesses have been presented in

dancing pose. These Matrkas hold particular attributes in their hands.

Vaisnavi has a mace in the upper right hand and a rosary in the lower one.

Her left hands corresponding to right hands have discus and couch. The

image of Vaisnavi consists of an anthropomorphic image of Garuda also.

The Garuda is shown standing in the flying posture near the right foot of the

deity. In two of her left hands is a small figure of a child. Matraka Varahi

has face of a boar and has six hands. In two of her left hands are mace and

disc. Three of her hands are occupied in holding a figure of a child and one

back right hand is mutilated. A beautiful round aureole with lotus-petal

design is carved behind her head. Vehicle of Varahi is missing. Matraka

Indrani is holding a thunder bolt in the right hand and a child in the left. An

elephant is carved to the right in low relief behind her. She has an aureole

similar to that of Varahi, but it is broken above the head now. These three

figures of the goddesses are holding the central part of the panel. Left and

right parts of the given slab have other female mothers but are difficult to

recognize. Figures of Ganesa and Virabhadra are missing from the panel.

In Vishnu temple - 5 on the Kumbhaka of the Vedibabdha in the small

pillared niches the figures of Matraks are carved on the bhadra karna and

kapi/i projections. Matraka figures are led by the male gods: Kubera and

Ganesa. On the west wall in bhadra niches of Kumbhaka is a figure of

Matrkas Vaisnavi, seated in ardhaparyankasana on the shoulders of Garud

(in human form) flying to right, holding mace and disc in the rear right and

left hands, respectively. The front hands are not clear. The goddesss is

wearing the common ornaments. On the karna portion of the kumbhaka of

this wall Kaumari is shown seated on a peacock, holding a Shakti and

- 223 -

kukkutas in the back hands are represented. The lower left hand is broken

and the lower right hand is in the pose of abhayamudra. On the north-west

comer of the northern wall is the goddess Brahamani. The goddess is having

three faces, seated on the goose, holding a sruk and a manuscript in the back

hand. She holds nectar-pot in the lower left. The item she holds in her lower

right hand is not clear. Indrani is represented in the north-eastern kumbhaka­

rathika of the same wall. She is riding an elephant, holding a thunderbolt,

goad in the rear hands, nectar-pot in the lower left hand and the normal right

is in the abhaya pose. Varahi occupies the north-eastern comer to the east

wall of the temple. Varahi is seated' on a buffalo in the pose of

ardhaparyankasana, holding a khatvanga in the back right hand, a nectar pot

in the normal left, and an indistinct object in the rear left hand. The front

right hand holds an abhayamudra. On the eastern wall in the bhadra-rathika

of the kumbhaka is an image of Mahesvari, sitting on the bull, holding a

trident and a snake in rear hands; nectar-pot is in the lower left and the

normal right is held in abhaya. Chamunda is projected on the south-eastern

karna projection who is shown riding on a corpse, l([)oking fierce, an

emaciated figure. Her hair is raised in horripilation. She has round bulging

eyes. She is holding a trident and a khatvanga in the rear hands, but the

items held in other hands are not very clear. Another ferocious deity,

corresponding to Bhairava is installed on kapili projection. The deity is

sitting on a dog, 54 with hair-raised, erect, round eyes, mouth open, holding a

dagger in the upper right hand and a sanctum in the upper left. In her normal

hands are arrow and bow. It is assumed that this is an image of Y ogesvari

who is supposed to be originated by the flame issuing out of the mouth of

Siva. The flame of fire is expected to prevent falling of blood from the body

54 The vehicle dog of the goddess is a symbol of blood-sucking energy.

- 224-

of Andhakasura. Every drop of his blood, it is. believed, is the danger of

procreation of another Andhakasura which might become uncontrollable. 55

Astamatraka worship was a unique development in the tenth century. It

was an extension of Saptamatraka tradition, although the Saptamatraka

tradition continued side by side with it. Like Saptamatrkas, Astamatrkas are

also presented along with male deities. But the sources do not point out to

the addition of eighth deity in the group of the deities of Asthamatrkas. The

Astamatrkas are given much importance both in Saiva and Vaisnava

temples.

On the doorway of the temple of Banadevra in Atru, up over the frieze, is

an image of Astamatraka flanked by images of Siva. 56 At Barolli, three miles

north-east of Bhainsrorgarh in Mewar a temple is dedicated to Astamata.

About half a mile to the north-east of the village of Mandor (it is a ruined

town) in Jodhpur near Ravan-Ki-Chori are found nine figures of

Astamatraka consisting of an image of Ganesa. All these images are in

standing position but their hands are broken off. The peculiarity about these

Astamatraka is that they alternately bear two and four hal)ds each. Thus, the

first has two, the second four, the third two again, and so forth. But the last

image, which is an image of Chamunda is carved with eight hands. The pose

and the sculptured ornamentation of these figures leave no doubt as to their

early age, and remind one of similar figures in the old brahmanical caves in

western India.57 At Ramgarh in Kotah district is a Vaishnava temple. Its

innermost edges of the doorframe are curved with the images of

Astamatrkas. 58 In Kukadesvara-Mahadeva temple in the centre of frieze of

55 Devendra Handa (1984), pp. 110-111 56 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 30 June, 1905, p. 57 Ibid. 31 51 March, 1907, p.33; 58 Ibid, 30 June, 1905, p. 50

- 225 -

the temple is an image of Siva, flanked by the Astamatrkas.59 Even in the

temple of Bandevra in Atru, above over the frieze, Siva is flanked on both

sides by the AstaMatrkas.60 Six miles to the south ofNagari in Chittaurgarh

is a temple of Kukadesvara-Mahadeva and above over freize is an image of

Siva, flanked by the Astamatrkas. In the principal niches of the shrine

images of dieties like Bhairava and Natesa are presented with Kali.61 Sas-

Bahu, a famous Vaisnava temple, situated at Nagda in Chittaurgarh contains

images for Astamatrkas created on the entablatures of the pillars.62 In the

niches of the Saiva temple ofKekind are installed the images of Astamatrkas

(the eight divine mothers).63

In the period between the tenth and the fifteenth century temples in the

name of local female deities came into shape and these deities were accepted

as also the form of Brahmanical female deities. One of the most famous

temples of Rajasthan situated in the name of Karnidevi came into shape in

Bikaner in fifteenth century.64

Karni ji is accepted as the incarnation of Jog Maya. Jog Maya is termed as

Vishnu-Shakti and as such she is a Brahmanical female deity. Jog Maya

appeared from the womb ofDevki ofYadav family. As such, Shri Karni ji is

a Brahmancial deity being incarnation of Jog Maya. But Karnimataji is born

in a Charan family. Charans are distantly related to Raj puts. Rajputs and

Charans in their day-to-day initial salutation greet each other with "Jai Jog

Maya" or "Jai Mata Ji". Shri Karni ji, who is regarded as second incarnation

of Hinglajdevi, used to be also offered goat for sacrifice. Karni is equally

59 Ibid. 30th June, 1905 p.59 60 Ibid. 30 June, 1905, p.49 61 Ibid. 30 June, 1905, p.59 62 Ibid. 30 June, 1905, P.62 63 Major K.D. Erskine, (1992), p. 97 64 Harald Tambs-Lyche, Marriage and Affinity Among Virgin Goddesses, Harald Tambs-Lyche (ed.), The Feminine Sacred In South Asia, Mallohar, 1999, pp. 63-87

- 226-

associated to Hinglajdevi. That is why we cannot club Karniji exclusively as

incarnation of Brahman cia I deity.

In the sanctum sanctorum of Deshnok temple of Karni devi there is a

single idol of Karnimata. It is of yellow marble and is about 2ft. in height.

By the side of the image are placed the tridents. 65 Idols of Bhairava are

placed on both sides of the main idol. Gora Bhairava is on the left and Kala

Bhairav is on the right side.66 Karni ji is not linked with Gora and Kala

Bhairav as sister, wife, mother etc nor are the Bhairvas invoked together

with devi at the time of puja. Bhairav is believed a Rudra gana (group) and a

warden of Kashi (Varanasi) city. Idol of Jog Maya is placed in a niche. It is

said that this niche has been made by Karni ji herself.67 Towards the north of

main temple is a place called than (sacred place), dedicated to Awadmata,

another popular local goddess ofRajasthan.68

Karniji is worshipped thrice daily. The regular ritual of her is to show the

Jyoti as pouring Ghee on burning cow dung cakes. She is offered food twice

daily. The goddess is offered Khichara (made of Bajri & Moth), Malpua­

cake (wheat and sugar fried in ghee), Puri, Lapsi (a sweet dish made of

wheat), Halwa, Malpua and Bakla as food offering. On the 14th day of

Shukla (moon-lit) fortnight Lapsi is offered to the goddess. On the day of

65 "Patrika" newspaper of Bikaner (2nd April, 2003) consits of the a photo of deity; Ser Singh Bidawat's Eitihasik Alok Mei Jogmaya Sri Karni ji, Published on Karni Jayanti by Manju Kanwar, Vidawat Bhawan; near Shekh Sariya Kuwan, Ward No. 27, Chuk. 331001, 2001, informs that the goddess image consists of an ordinary structure. It is, therefore, difficult to mark the real gender of the image. pp. 104-105 66 Ser Singh Bidawat, Eitihasik Alok Mei Jogmaya Sri Karni ji, states that Bika, the founder king of Bikaner, had strong faith in Bhairava since childhood and was great worshiper of Bhiravas. While the temple for Karniji was under construction at Deshnok, Bika reached with the images of Bhairava and requested Karni to provide them some space in her temple. This is how the images of Bhairava placed in Deshnok temple. p. 83 67 Kalyan Shakti, Article entitled Jagdamba Sri Karni Devi, 1934, pp. 665-669 68 On the whole Vaisnava tradition is followed in the temple ofKarniji. Since presentation of a few of the images refer to Saiva tradition such as application of the imagesofBhairwas, known as Rudra gana (followers). But the rituals and most importantly the food items are far removed from Saiva tradition. In fact, it needs further investigation that at what point oftime such conversion from Saiva to Vaisnava took place.

- 227-

Akshya Tritya Khichari is offered to the Goddess. 69 Important pujas are

performed on the 14th day of Shukla fortnight of Chaitra, Bhadraprad, Aswin

and Magh months. On the 14th day of Shukla fortnight of the remaining eight

months also important pujas are performed, though less important than the

preceding ones. People offer coconut and sweets as offering to the goddess

ordinarily. There is also a provision that any individual can hold sometimes

some extra ordinary puja also.7o On such occasion sweet dish is prepared in

two big cauldrons named Sawan-Bhadwa which are 5 ft. deep and 12-13 ft in

diameter. Chaitra Navratra and Sardiya Navratra are observed at Deshnok

temple on a grand scale. Thousands of people go to Deshnok on foot during

this period to pay their respect to the goddess and seek Her blessings. During

this period the temple is illuminated with light. On every 14th day of bright

fortnight and on Akshya Tritaya also important puja is performed.

The puja rituals at Deshnok temple are somewhat identical to Brahmanic

tradition and are in some respects different to that also. Like Brahmanic

tradition the female deity here is offered with flowers. Priests here perform

puja similar to Brahmanic tradition. They show lamplight to the deity

identical to Brahmanic tradition, but ingredients and items used for making

lamplight are different to Brahmanic tradition. At Deshnok burnt cow-dung

cake pieces are placed on an iron pan (Dhupia) and on it ghee is poured for

making lamplight. Brahmanic tradition follows ghee soaked cotton wicks for

lamps. Burning flame (jyoti) is offered to the goddess with the help of

Dhupia. Chanting of Vedic, Puranic or Tantric Mantras are followed in

Deshnok temple.

69 Ser Singh Bidawat, Eitihasik A 10k Mei Jogmaya Sri Karni ji, 2001, p. 108 70 Surat Singh, a ruler of Bikaner, identified to begin with such provinces of worship.

- 228-

Trustees supervise the temple of Deshnok. They take care of financial and

staff affairs. A Kiledar is one of the trustees of temple who is entrusted with

the security of the temple. Trustees supervise temple festivals also. People of

all sections, caste and community can participate in festivals and in all sorts

of religious occasions. Rathors come to participate in the festival like other

devotees. They are not supposed to be the organizers of temple activities.

Karnimataji temple was initially only a 'Gumbhara' of stones laid one

upon the other, without using any kind of mortar. The surviving temple is a

later development. The boundary wall of the temple called 'Kate' is

constructed by Surat Singh, the 1 i h ruler of Bikaner. The edifice of Karni

temple has high walls and a huge gate resembling a gate of a fortress. After

entering the temple from the main gate there is an intermediate canopy

(Antaral Mandap) which has gates on three sides. On these gates silver

plates have been provided on which the figures of gods and goddesses are

depicted. The main sanctum is located just in front of the main gate. There is

a canopy on the sanctum sanctorum. There is a pathway on all sides of the

sanctum. Recently another entrance gate to the temple has been

constructed.71

Awardevi originated III the areas of Bikaner. The date of birth of

Awardevi is controversial. In the book Karni-Charitra it is pointed out that

the goddess was born in i h century.72 Bhawar Singh Samor says that

71 The observation made about the Desnok temple is based upon the information collected from the literary sources & through consultation with some local persons like Kamidan Singh Bhatti, Secretary ofBikaji Sansthan, Bikaner, J.P. Srivastava, person working on the Vedas and Vedic rituals, living in Bikaner and Sohan Singh Bhadoria, working upon the goddesses of Rajasthan, living in Bikaner. 72 L. Kishor Singh Warhaspatya, Karni-Charitra, Prastawana, State Historian, Patiyala Rajya, p. 21 quoted from Sher Singh Bidawat's book Eithihasik Alok Mei Jogmaya Sri Karniji, Published on Kami Jayanti by Manju Kanwar, Vidawat Bhawan, near Shekh Sariya Kuwan, Ward No. 27, Chuk. 331001, 2001

- 229-

Awardevi was born in Samvat 808 on Saturday.73 Sona Charan has

supported the investigation of Bhawar Singh Samor. 74 But Ram Vallabha

Somani has very different observation and he says that Awardevi was born . 13th 75 III century.

Awardevi temple contains an eight-armed image of devi riding on a lion76.

She wore earrings and has mark of vermilion on the head. In the book

Rajasthani Shakti Kavya it is described that devi loves application of

vermilion and is happy if her whole body is smeared with vermilion paste.

She also loves to wear dress of vermilion-colour.77 The goddess is

considered kowanri (age before puberty) and she rides on lion. Her favorite

food items are liquor and animals. The best of all food items to make the

goddess happy is sacrificing buffalo.78 "It is said that Awarji visited the

place (Deg Rai temple) and killed a male buffalo and used its skull for

drinking the blood.,,79 At the than of Awardevi close to the temple of

Karnidevi at Deshnok sacrificing buffalo is a popular practice and its

expenses are borne by Bikaner state.80

Some of the fragmentary images of the goddesses, named Brahmanic,

are discovered at vanous places of Rajasthan. An Image of

Mahishasuramardini, created in the period qetween the 10th - 15 th century is

73 Dr. Girijashankar Shanna, Dr. Bhawar Surana, (ed.), Tanot Ke Vir Karnal Jaisingh Ki Gawrav Gathai, p. 39 quoted from Sher Singh Bidawat's book Eithihasik Alok Mei Jogmaya Sri Karniji, Published on Kami Jayanti by Manju Kanwar, Vidawat Bhawan, near Shekh Sariya Kuwan, Ward No. 27, Chuk. 331001,2001 74Rajsthani Shakti Kavya, Bhawar Singh Samor (ed.), 1998, p. 508, quoted fron Sher Singh Bidawat's book Eithihasik Alok Mei Jogmaya Sri Karniji, Published on Karni Jayanti by Manju Kanwar, Vidawat Bhawan, near Shekh Sariya Kuwan, Ward No. 27, Chuk. 331001,2001 75 R.V. Somani, History of Jaisaimer, 1990, p. 55 76 Rajasthani Shakti Kavya, Bhawar Singh Samor, (ed.), p. 509, quoted from Sher Singh Bidawat's book Eithihasik Alok Mei Jogmaya Sri Karniji, Published on Karni Jayanti by Manju Kanwar, Vidawat Bhawan, near Shekh Sariya Kuwan, Ward No. 27, Chuk. 331001, 2001 77 Ibid. Meha Kiniya in this same book describes that the goddess has 'white beards' and 'moustache' p. 162 78 Ibid. Amir Ratnu "Rajasthani Shakti Kavaya" describes about the importance of meat of buffalo for the goddess. p. 122 79 R.V. Somani, History of Jaisalmer, 1990, p. 157

- 230-

preserved in Amber museum of Rajasthan. The image depicts the fight of

goddess with Mahisha. The head of Mahisha is completely severed from the

main body. He is presented in the human form, giving strong fight with

Mahishasuramardini. Such statues are never discovered at Pratihara or

Guhila centres of Rajasthan.81

In the Bikaner museum, a yellow stone plaque of Ghant~lidevi82 (local

name of Mahishasuramardini), hailing from Pugal is preserved. The plaque

contains some inscribed versions that deal with the installation of devi under

the supervision of Maharaja Kalhana ofPugal in V.S. 1475 or 1418-19 A.D.

The eight-handed image of the goddess, however, is not in a good condition

as most of her attributes in upper-arms are weathered away. The

recognizable attributes in the arms of the goddess are bow, arrow, wheel etc.

In the right lower hand is a trident quite obvious and safe. The face of devi is

also mutilated. The demon is depicted in the human form. The human body

of the demon is shown coming out of the severed body of the buffalo. The

interesting and exclusive part of the plaque is that the goddess is riding the

lion astride and then fighting with the demon. Thus, the features of

Ghantadevi resembles with the Image of the female deity of

Mahabalipuram. 83

An image of Gaja-Lakshmi of Osian temple is preserved in Jodhpur

museum. The goddess is seated on a double lotus-petalled seat, holding lotus

stalks, showing one lotus facing the deity and one placed horizontally above

which stands caparisoned elephants on either side, inverting the pitcher over

80 L. Kishor Singh Warhaspatya, Karni-Charitra, Prastawana, State Historian, Patiyala Rajya, p. 145 81 R.c. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, Vol. 2, 1999, p. 25 82 V.S. Srivastava, Catalogure and Guide to Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner- Jaipur, 1960-61, p. 13; H. Goetz, Art and Architecture of Bikaner State, Oxford, 1950, p. 189, fig. 20. 83 R.C. Agrawala, lvfahishamurdini in Er:rly Rajasthani Art, Vol. 2, 1999, p. 26

- 231 -

her head. The outfits of the image depict that it is created at some later

date.84

The Images of goddess Sitla are discovered away from the Sachiya

temple. They are in good state except few damages and are preserved in

Arthuna and Amer museums of Rajasthan. Front hands of the deity are

damaged; the face and the legs of the vehicle of the goddess that is donkey

are missing. A hoard of bronze icons of Hindu deities comprising statues of

Vishnu, Laksmi-Narayana, Durga Mahishasuramardini, Dattatreya is found

at Amarsar 112 km from Bikaner.85 'Vasantgarh-Sirohi hoard of Jain bronze

images contain images of Hindu deities also.86

At Dhanta in Sirohi district in Rajasthan an image of a local goddess

called Jogmaya is discovered. The base of the image is engraved with four

lines in Sanskrit which refer it to the image of goddess Mahishasurmardini.87

The record also informs that it was made in Dhanta-grama in 1221 AD at the

time of victorious reign of Somasimha ruling at Chandravati. The ruler may

be identified with the Paramara king Somashimha, son of Dharavarsha, even

if his title is missing. Damaged marble image of the goddess with the

passage of time assumed the name of a local goddess Jogmaya. The

iconography of the image is identical to the goddess Mahishasuramardini.

This image is broken into two pieces. It is now placed on a platform near a

84 Devendra Handa, (1984), p. 112 85 Ibid. p. 15 86 Subhashini Aryan (1994) interprets the epigraphs on the bronze idols of Achalgarh temple near Mount Abu. Interpretation is such that Dungarpur was a prominent centre of metal-casting in the fifteenth century. Dungarpur, Deval and Pandar-Ki-Pol were the main producing centres of bronze ore. The writer concludes that metal casting in rural areas was not less than in urban centres. The rural craftsmen had less amount of exposure, so they followed the old style of metal casting. Folk bronze statues before 17the century A.D. is not much survived. pp.29-30

c.L. Suri, E1., Vol. 37, Dhanta Image Inscription of Para mara Somasimha, Vikram, 1277, No. 38, pp. 209-211

- 232-

well that is called Padarta Arahat in the village. Some other damaged images

of deities like Durga and Ganesa are placed around this. 88

Goddesses of Jaina Context:

Sachiyamata temple: Osian

Oswal Jains constructed and patronized Sachiyamata temple. The goddess

Sachiyamata was the tutelary deity of Samkhala Paramaras and Upala Deva

who built her temple and founded Osian.89 Osian was a holy place in the

twelfth century A.D. mentioned in Siddhasena Suri' s Sakalatirtha-Stotra. 9o

D.R. Bhandarkar is of the opinion that the very original construction of the

temple of Sachiya mata, erected at Tivri (Teori) thirteen miles south along

with the temple of Mahavir is now "studded with the ruins".91 Temple

constructed for Sachiyamata at the top of the hill that is in use now is a later

development.92 In one of his articles D.R. Bhandarkar points-out that "before

going to Osia I visited Tivri (Teori) thirteen miles south of it. Here people

informed that there were only two temples at Osia that would be

archaeologically interesting, viz. the temple of Mahavira and the temple of

Sachiyamata, which have been referred to in both the Hindu and J aina

accounts. But on my visit, I found that the place was studded with the ruins

of many old fanes". D.R. Bhandarkar has classified that the temples

constructed below the hill are of the first kind and are constructed in 8th_9th

centuries. Further on the outskirts of the village Osia, there are no less than

eleven large temples of male-female deities including the Jaina one and all

these temples are constructed below the hill. Devendra Handa is of the

opinion that the existing temple of Sachiyamata was re-erected and re-

88 Ibid. 89 S.K.R.D. Maheshwari, Vaisya-Kula-Bhusana, Hindi, Bombay, V.S. 1980, p. 121 90 Sakalatirtha-stotra, Giakward Oriental Series, No. LXXVI, p.395 91 D.R. Bhandarkar, ARASI, 1908-09, p.1 0 1:

- 233 -

structured upon its original construction. The presence of early wall-base

moldings, near the present Sachiyamata structure, suggests the existence of

an early shrine. Though, Michael W. Meister in his article "Styles of

Common Lineage: Maru style, phase I, c. late seventh-early ninth centuries

AD Pratiharas of Mandavyapur", in the book Enclyclopaedia of Indian

Temples Architecture-North India, period of Early Maturity (Michael W.

Meister & M.A. Dhaky (edit., Text, (OUP- 1991, p.128), says that the

present west-facing Sachiya mata temple belongs to the lih century,93 an

inscription gives date of A.D. 1178 for the installation of its Jangha images,

an early eight century shrine must have preceded it. M. Meister cites local

traditions that place Sachiya temples at the site before the presence of other

shrines. It is also informed that a temple of Durga existed on the

Sachiyamata hill from at least the beginning of the 8th century. He draws

attention to an image of Ksemankari (a form of Durga) in the present

Sachiyamata compound that may date from this period and that may even

have been the central object of worship in the goddess temple.94

92 Ibid. 93 M.A. Dhaky, "The Iconography ofSacciya Devi", Babu Chhotelal Jain Commemoration, Volume, pp. 63-69 94 M.W. Meiser and M.A. Dhaky, Encyclopaedia o/Indian Temple Architecture, vol. 2, pt. 2: 128, and pt. 311

- 234-

There are various theories associated with the origin of Osian:

(1) The J aina texts have linked to the origin of Osian long back in Vira

Samvat 70 i.e. about 400 years before the beginning of the Vikrama era.95

(2) In the year V.S. 222 the eighteen gotra/6 of the Oswals were

consecrated by the Ratnaprabha Suri at Osian and those gotras were, rather,

linked to the foundation of this area.97

(3) The investigation of the modern historians is different to the

propagations given above. According to the historians neither the Oswals

nor Osian was in existence before V.S. 900. The Bhinmal prince Upala Deva

had sought refuge with the Pratihara king of Mandor and he rather took

initiative to lay the foundation for the Osian, some time after V.S. 900.

The first and the second investigations, from my point of view, are not

critically examined. The existence of Osian and the impact of J ainism in

Rajasthan in the fifth century B.C. do not carry any historical background.98

At this point of time neither Bhinmal99 nor the Paramaras 100 had come into

existence. The second theory cannot be taken as based upon the historical

facts. Since Jainism had not reached Rajasthan at such an early date ofV.S.

222 (= A.D. 165), the incident of the consecration of the eighteen gotras at

Osian by Ratnaprabha Suri cannot be a historical fact.

The third theory has to a certain extent, taken to some historical facts in

consideration dating the rise of Bhinmal and association of Paramara Upala

95 Mohanlal Dalichand Desai, (ed.), Jaina Gurjara Kavi (Gujarati), Vol. III, Part 2, Bombay, V.S. 2000, p. 2255 96 S.K.R.D. Maheshwari, Vaisya Kula Bhusana, Hindi, Bombay, V.S. 1980, The gotras are: (1) Paramara (2) Sosodia (3) Chauhan (4) Parihar (5) Rathor (6) Sankhala (7) Solanki (8) Bora (9) Dahiya (10) Bhati (11) Moyal (12) Goyal (13) Makwana (14) Kachwaha (15) Gaur (16) Kharwar (17) Berar and (18) Saunkh p. 121 97 S.T. Bhandari, et aI, 1034, Oswal Jati Ka Itihasa, p. 8 98 K.c. Jain, Jainism In Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963, p. 114 99 K.C. Jain, Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan A Study of Culture and Civilization. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1972, p. 156 100 Pratipal Bhati, The Paramaras, New Delhi, 1970, pp. 8ff

- 235 -

Dev with the Pratihara king in laying the foundation of Osian. Keeping in

view, the history of Bhinmal, it is yet difficult to accept the view of most of

the modern historians that Bhinmal came into existence in the seventh

century or somewhat earlier than that. 1ol The Paramara prince Upala Dev

associated with Bhinmal flourished during the tenth century A.D. 102

Therefore, the link of Up ala Dev with Pratihara ruler inthe origin of Os ian is

doubtful. It is stated that Upala Dev took refuge under Pratihara king of

Mandor and founded Osian with their help. The cumulative evidence of the

Bhore State Museum copper Plates of Dharavarsa Dhruvaraja of Saka year

702 (= A.D. 780)103 the Radhanpura Plates and the Wani Grants of Govind

III,104 the Baroda Plates of Karkaraja 105 indicates that Vatsaraja ceased to

rule over Wadhawan (ancient Vardhamanapura) and Jalor (Jabalipura)

sometime between A.D. 780 and 783.106 Also, there is no evidence of

Pratiharas of Mandor after Kakkuka's Ghatiyala Inscription of VS 918 (861

A.D.).lo7 This reflects that there was no direct link between Pratihara king of

Mandor and Upala Deva of Bhinmal. But the following evidences suggest

that the temples of Osian must have thus been built in and around 780

A.D. 108 and the city Osian would have emerged as a flourishing state then.

Sachiya lO9 goddess is named Ambika and Kushmandi Yakshi in Jain

religion. These goddesses are known here as Yakshi of Neminath.

According to Jain religion this Yakshi who is riding on the lion has an

101 EI, IX, p. 189; Hazari Prasad Dwivedi (trans.), Prabandha Chintamani, has made an emphasis upon the link of the rise of Bhinmal in 7th century or earlier than that. 1940, pp. XIV & 56 102 P. Bhatia, The Paramaras, New Delhi, 1970, pp.74 ff 103 £.1., Vol. XXII, No. 28, v. 21 104 £.1., Vol. VI, p. 248 105 Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIV, pp. 156ff 106 G.C. Choudhary, Political History of Northern India from Jaina Sources, Amritsar, 1963, p. 41

. 107 Journal of Asiatic Society, London, 1895, pp. 513-21; El, Vol. IX, pp. 279-81 108 M.A. Dhaky, "The Genesis & Development of Maru-GUljara Temple Architecture ", in Pramod Chandra (ed.), Studies in Indian Architecture, American Institute ofIndian Studies, 1975, p. 145 109 R.c. Agrawal, Ariibus Asiae, XXI. P. 130 XVll, No. 8.3-4, pp. 232-34

- 236-

amralambi and a boy in her hands. In Nirwan Kalika that is a Jain literature

a four-armed goddess Kushmandi is said to have been sitting on a lion. In

her right hands are a Matulinga and a trap (paas) and in her left hands are

boy and ankus h. I 10

Sachiya temple of Osian contains many images of Jain female divinities.

These divinities are Sruta-devi, Mahavidyadevis, (Vidyadevis), Yaksinis,

Vagdevi, Acchupta, Aparaticakra, Cakresvari (Apraticakra), Rohini,

Prajnapati, Vajrasrnkahala, Vajrankusi, Purusadatta (Naradatta), Mahakali,

Vairotya, Gandhari, Jvalamalini, Mansi, Mahamanasi, Nirvani, Ambika and

Padmavati. 11 I, Two of the goddesses, in this pantheon of the deities, are

assigned prime status: one Sruta-devi i.e. Sarasvati and the other, sixteen

Mahavidyas or Vidyadevis. I 12 An image of the goddess Srutadevi 113 is

carved in the niche of the temple. The goddess stands in dvibhanga on a

lotus seat bearing a diadem with a jewel in the centre. She wears an ear

ornaments, a double-stringed pearl necklace with a string hanging down

from between the breasts and a circular pendant on its end placed on the left

side of the belly above the navel. Armlets, wristlets, ankles, girdle securing

the diaphanous sari and a long scarf with its free ends falling from the arms

almost vertically on the proper right and with some bends on the left

provided an intermediate relief plane and accentuated the modeled volume

of the figure. The goddess holds a blossomed lotus in her right hand near the

110 s. Lal Nagar, Mahishasuramardini, Sahitik, Sanskritik, Aitahasik Awam Pajnaitik Paripekhya Mai, Eastern book Linkers, Delhi, 1998, p. 105 III Devendra Handa, 1994, pp. 200-2 112 Journal a/the Indian Society a/Oriental Art, Vol. XV, pp.114-77 I I3 U.P. Shah, "Iconography of the Sixteen Jiana Mahavidayas" Journal a/the Indian Society a/Oriental Art, Vol. XV (1947), The goddess Sruta-devi or Sarasvati is supposed to be one of the most important deities of Jaina sect. The goddess is closely associated both with the Svetambaras and with the Digambaras. The attributes of the goddess are as follows: a lotus flower, a book and a rosary in hands dozed in varada pose. Both the sects design the icon of the goddess in a similar fashion, except a minor difference as Svetambaras devi is seated on a swan while for the Digambaras she in on a peacock. pp. 114-177

- 237-

shoulder and a book in the left. The blank space is filled with indented asoka

leaves and a bud. The bust is not as massive and robust as the lower half of

the body.114 The sixteen Mahavidyas represent the sixteen arts and sciences. 115

Mahavira temple: Osian

Mahavira temple constructed at asian in between the 10th - 15th century

contains images of varied Jain female deities. Mahavidyas hold much

importance in the temple. I 16 The images of Mahavidyas are much developed

except the images of Prajyapti, Nardatta, Gandhari, Mahajwala, Manvi and

Mansi. The Mahavidyas are two-armed and four-armed. Other than the

Mahavidyas there are images of Sarvanubhuti, Yakshas, Ambika and

Padmawati Yakshis. The two-armed images of eight Dikpals, Saraswati,

Mahalaksmi are also found in the temple. Devakulikas of the temple

contains the images of Mahavidyas, Sarvanubhti Yakshi, Ambika Yakshi,

Ganeshas, Jivantswami and Mahavir are found. The images are two, four

and six armed. I 17

On the north face of the western phamsana of the mukhamandapa of

Mahavira temple is an image of Vagdevi i.e. Sasanadevi seated in the pose

of sukhasana on a lotus seat borne by two swans. The goddess has usual

ornament and has lotus in the right hand and a book in the left. There is also

an image of Cakresvari on the north face. On the northern face is an image

of Vidyadevi in sambhanga pose, wearing all ornaments and a vanamala,

holding a lotus and a book in the rear right and left hands, a kamandalu in

the lower left while the normal right hand is disposed in varada pose with a

114D d even ra Handa, 1984, p. 196 115 Journal a/the Indian Society a/Oriental Art, Vol. XV, pp.114-77 116 In all cases Parsvanatha occupies the central place in the temple.

~ 238-

rosary on the palm. The image of Vidyadevi consists of two smaller figures

on either side of her feet. Besides these images of the temple two of the

figures of the goddess Saraswati are found at the Kumbha of Devakulika-2

and Kapili of the southern wall of Devakulika-4. 118 She is in the sitting pose

of lalitasan beside which is the anthropomorphic form of Garuda. 119 On the

southern side of the temple is an image of Vidyadevi, standing in abhanga

pose, wearing usual ornaments, holding a lotus with a very long stalk in the

right hand and book in the left. A figure of lotus bud with big stalk is carved

even on the left hand of the goddess. Figures of Acchupta and Apraticakra

are seen at the entrance of Gudhamandapa of the temple. These deities are

very much similar to Srutadevi. The iconic design, dress, ornaments and

style of Acchupta and Aparaticakra are almost identical to Srutadevi.

Acchupta has slight bend in his standing position, holding a sword and a

shield in her rear hands, a bow and an arrow in the front hands, partly

damaged. Behind the left leg of the Vidyadevi is carved a figure of horse.

Horse's head is broken. 120An image of Cakresvari (Apraticakra)121 is

excellently placed in the niche of the temple. The goddess has four hands

and each of her hands has wheel shaped discus. All the four wheels are flat

in shape but the style of holding each of the wheels is different. The wheel

held in the right hand of the goddess is ten-spoked and is comparatively

smaller than other wheels. In the waist of the deity is a girdle but it is less

elaborate. The vehicle of the Sasandevi is Garuda, presented in the

117 M.A. Dhaky, Some Early Jain Temples In Western India, in Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, Part 1,1968, p. 312 118 Devendra Handa, 1984, op. cit. p. 196 119 M.A. Dhaky, Some Early Jain Temples In Western India, (1968), p.316 120 A small image of Acchupta is found at most of the corners of the temple ofOsians at it exists on the kumbha and rupastambha of De va kulik a-I; kumbha, rupastambha and uttaranga of Devakulika-2, rUf,astambha of De va kulik a- 3 and kumbha and rupasthambha of Devakulika-4ss 12 Dhaky (1968), op. cit. p. 315; B.N. Sharma, Sculptures From Osia, Roop Lekha, 40, 1-2: pp. 100-101, PI. VII

- 239-

anthropomorphic form, whose wings are shown at the back. The Garuda is

standing on the left side of the goddess, wearing cork-screwed raised curls

adorned with a jewel in the certre on the combed hair, ear-rings, pearl

necklace, bracelets, lower garment and an upper garment, holding a flower

in the right hand near the chest and in the left hand katyavalambita. 122 North

wall of Devakulika-4 of the temple contains a standing dvibhanga image of

Cakresvari, bearing a karndamukuta with a central jewel on the head and

wearmg karna-kundalass, graiveyaka, stana-hara, angadas, valayas,

nupuras, an elaborate katisutra, a vanamala and discus issuing forth from

their hubs in their hands. The front right hand is held in varada pose with a

rosary on the palm and the normal left hand holds a kamandalu. An image of

Garuda made in a miniature form is less clearly recognizable. Similar

images of Cakersvari are found at various places of the temple. On the

northern wall of Devakulika-l, at Kumbha of Devakulika-2 and 4, at

rupastambha of Devakulika-2 and uttaranga of Devakulika-3 and 4 the

image of Chakreswari is noticeable. The images of the goddess Rohini are

also executed and carved prominently on the walls of the temple. Here

images are found in a Kumbha of Devakulika nos.l, 3 and 4 in the

rupastambha of Devakulika nos. 3 and 4; uttaranga of Devakulika 2, 3 and

4. Even on the west face of the phamsana of the mukhamandapa is an image

sitting on a lotus-cushion, wearing usual ornaments, holding an arrow and

bows in rear hands. There is a rosary in the normal right and is a conch in

the normal left hand. Cow, the vehicle of the goddess, stands to left on the

proper right of the Sasanadevi. 123 Prajnapti appears in a very small panel on

the kumbha of Devakulika-4 in the rupasthamha ofDevakulika-2 and 3. She

122 B.N. Sharma, Sculptures From Osia, Roop Lekha, 40, 1-2: p. 101 123 Such attributes of the images resemble Svetambara Jaina tradition.

- 240-

sits in sukahasna riding on a peacock, holding a lotus and a lance (Shakti).124

Vajrankusi also appears at some places of the temple. Her images are found

at the west face of the padmasan of the mukhamandapa, in 2nd, 3rd and 4th

Devakulikas. On the kumbha of the Devakulika-3 and on the rupastambha

of Devakulika - 1, 2 and 4. Each of her images wears usual ornaments, sits

in sukhasana pose on lotus under which is carved two small birds probably

swans. In her right hand is a chain and a noose in the other. In some of the

images she sits in lalitasana on a couchant elephant to the right. She holds a

vajra in her right hand and an unidentifiable object in the left. 125 Purusadatta

(Naradatt~) is discovered at the Kumbha of Devakulika nos. 2, 3, at uttranga

of Devakulika-l and also at pahmsana of mukhamandapa. Purusadatta is

seated in lalitasana on her vehicle buffalo, standing couchant on the right of

the deity. The goddess holds the sword vertically in the right hand and the

attribute in the left is broken. On the east face of the phamsana of the

mukhamandapa is an image of a female deity, holding a sword in her the left

hand. The image is identified with Kali by Dhaky.126 The image is flanked

by Mahamansi on her right and back to back under the lotus-seat of the deity

are two small birds. Figure of Vairotya is discovered at many of the places

of the temple. The images of Vairotya are placed on the phamsana of the

mukhamandapa of Mahavira temple in Devakulika-3 and Devakulika-l, in

the central panel of the north face, in a small panel of Devakulika-l. The

image of the goddess Gauri is placed on the right hand side of Vairotya.

Vairotya is seated in sukhasana on a louts-pedestal placed on an alligator.

The tail of alligator curled and head retrose. The deity is holding a lotus in

the right and a citrus (or fruit) in the left. In Devakulika-4 and in the panels

124 This is similar to Svetambara tradition. 125 Attire and attribute ofVajrankusi are identical of the Yakshi and Vidyadevis.

- 241 -

of Devakulika-3 and 4, Manasi is flanking Vairotya on the proper left.

Manasi sits on a swan in Lalitasana. With retrogress head she is holding a

vajra in the right hand and a citrus in the left. Vairoti is represented in the

central panel also on the north face of the phamsana of the mukhamandapa

of the temple. She (general connotation Vidyadevi) is shown here seated in

the Sukhasan on the coils of the two serpents whose anthropomorphic upper

halves canopied by serpent-hoods, a sword and a escutcheon in the front

right and left respectively. The image is similar to what is given· in

Nirvanakalika. 127 Similar images are found one in the perambulatory

passage of the temple and the other on the Kumbha rathikas of Devakulika-

1, 2 and 4. The images of Gandhari, lvalamalin and Manavi are carved at

different places of the temple. Gandhari is seated on a cushion of two

lotuses, holding a vajra in the right hand and a staff in the left. She is

represented on the kumbha ofDevakulika-3 and uttaranga of Devakulika-1.

The image is formulated exactly to a Svetambara tradition. The image of

lvalamalini is not easily identified. It is not depicted with clarity in the

temple. Contrary to lvalamalini the representation of Manvai is distinct. She

is seated in sukhasana on a lotus, holding a bough in one of her hands. An

image of Mahamanasi (the sixteen Vidyadevi) is carved upon the central

panel on the eastern face of the phamsana of the mukhamandapa of the

(Mahavira) temple. She is sitting in lalitasana on the lion to the right,

holding a sword and a scutcheon in the rear hands; kundika is in the normal

left and the corresponding right is in the abhaya mudra. There are

important images of Yaks ins in the temple and they are Nirvani, Ambika and

Padmavati. Nirvani is sitting on a lotus, holding a book, a lotus, a

126 M.A. Dhaky (1968), op. cit., p.317 127 Devendra Handa, 1994, Vairotim Syamavarnamajagaravahanam caturbhajam

- 242-

kamandalu and a louts-bud. The iconic features of Nirvani represent

Svetambara style. The images of Nirwani are seen in the niches of the

perambulatory of the Mahavira temple and in the small rupastambha panel

of Devakulika-2 and 3. Ambika is placed on the north face of the phamsana

of the mukhamandapa of the Mahavira temple. Goddess Ambika is holding

a small child in her lap and a mango in her rear right hand." The rest of the

hands of the deity are mutilated. The left leg of the goddess is mutilated. The

vehicle of the goddess is lion whose face is damaged. The image of Ambika

is found in Devakulika-l also. Here she is shown seated in lalitasan on her

vehicle lion to the right, holding a bunch of mangoes in the right hand and

supporting a child with the left. The image of Ambika found in Devakulika-

2 is similar to Ambikas. In Aparaijit Priksha128 it is stated that two-armed

Ambika has fruits in one hand and the other is in waradmudra. She has two

sons: one of them is sitting in her lap. The image of Yaksini Padmavati is

represented on both the extremes of the architrave of the gudhamandapa of

the temple. The images found at both the ends are quite akin. The deity is

standing in tribhanga on a lotus pedestal, wearing a vanamala besides

traditional ornaments. On her head is a canopy of multi-hooded cobra. In her

right hand is a lotus with long stalk. Her left hand is broken. On the right

side of the image is a figure of small child whose right foot is on the left

knee of the deity.

Vimalavasahi temple: Abu (Sirohi)

Vimalavasahi temple is situated in Abu (Dist.: Sirohi) and is dedicated to

Adinath ofSvetambara sect. Sculpture of the images of Vim ala vasa hi temple

Khadgorgalamkrtadaksinakaram khetakahiyutavama karam, p. 202 128 Aparajit-Praccha: Giakward Oriental Series, Baroda, 1950,222.26

- L4j -

shows superior workmanship.129 Pillars are adorned with figures of Yakshi,

Vidya-devis. The doorframes of sanctums of the main shrine and the cells or

deva-kulikas in the bhamatis are also embellished with such Yakshi and

Vidya-devis. The outer edge of the dome of the temple of Vastupala and

Tejpala dedicated to Neminath is arranged with female deities. Sixteen

female figures holding baskets, represent the goddesses, known as Vidya-

devis, are carved on the dome. Each of the female figures is two armed and

names of few of the female deities are engraved upon the images. 130

In Vimalavasahi temple the images of the female deities are confined to

Mulprasad, Gudhmandap and Devakulikas. Jina images found in

Devakulikas dated 1062 to 1188 AD are in a meditative state sitting on a

throne and in the middle of the throne is the image of Shantidevi in whose

hands are lotus, book, kamandalu and one of her hands is in the form of

Abayamudra. Both the ends of the throne have the images of Sarvanubhuti

and Devikulika in the form of Yakshayakshimka. At the threshold of

Devakulika and Gudamandapa are the images of Sarvabubhuti and

Ambika. 131 In the garvagriha and in twenty-one Devakulikas along with two

of the Rishava images are the images of Gomuk and Chakreswari in the

form of Yaksha-Yakshi. In nineteenth Devakulikas is an unconventional

image of Yaksha riding upon an elephant and Yakshi in conventional style.

In fourth Devakulikas along with the image of Parsva are the Y aksa-Yakshi

images of Dharmendra and Padmavati. In the Devakulika no. 17, along with

four faced images of Jina are the Y aksha-Yakshi images of Sarvanubhti and

Ambika, but together with Rishava are the images of Gomukh and

129 U.P. Shah, Sculptural Art in A. Ghosh, Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, 1975, p. 308 130 Maj. KD.Erskine, op. cit. p-293; U.P. Shah, Sculptural Art in A. Ghosh (ed.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, plate 195A, B, 1975, p. 308

- 244-

Chakreswari. In Devakulika numbering 20, 9, 16 and 10 the images for the

Jinas are rediscovered.

Vimalavasahi contains developed images of Mahavidyas. Two of their

collective images - one in the Rangamandapa and other in 42 Devakulika

are visibly distinctive. The sixteen Mahavidyas in the Rangamandap are

riding upon conventional vehicle and their images are erect, consisting of

three folds in their body. They are four armed. 132 Temple contains some

independent images of Mahavidyas and this is an important tradition of

sculpting. The images of independent Mahavidyas are as follows: Rohini,

Apratichakra, Vajrankush, Vajrasrinkhala, Vairotaya, Purushdutta, Acchupta

and Mahmansi. Rohini is six-armed and her image is found in Devakulika

no. 11. Some of two-armed Mahavidyas such as Achupta, Vairoty and

Vishtibuj Mahamansi are found in Devakulika - 43, 49 and 39 respectively.

The Manvi, Gauri, Gandhari and Mansi have limited number of images in

the temple. Besides Mahadiyas, the image for Ambika, Shantideva and

Mahalaksmi are also found in the temple. The two-armed and four-armed

images of Ambika are presented riding upon lion. Saraswati holds various

attributes like sunal-Iotus, book, vina and kamandalu with a duck as her

vehicle. Another image of Saraswati found in Devakulika no. 44 is six-

armed. Mahalaksmi is always presented in meditative mood. Either side on

the upper part of her image is the images for elephants. Mahalaksmi' slower

hands are in her lap and upper hands hold lotus. In the base on which the

goddess is sitting has nine pieces of pitches. In the 40th Devakulika is an

image of Mahalaksmi around which six armed images of Ashtadikapalas are

131 On the western entrance of Gudhmandapa is the image of goddess Chakreswari. 132 In the temple ofYimlavsahi, the images have Shul (spear) in both the hands.

- 245 -

made. Various images for Sarvanubhuti and BrahmaShakti and Yakshas are

also found around Mahalaksmi .

. Sixteen of the female images of Vimalavasahi temple are beyond

recognition. 133 Most of these deities are four armed and their lower hands are

in the posture of offering blessings and holding kamandalu. The general

iconic features of the deities are as follows: the first out of two of the female

deities is riding upon the bull and holding a trident and snake in hands;

another is holding only a trident. Attributes of two of these female deities

reflect that they are impressed with the image of Siva. The third image of the

deity is riding on the lion, holding a goad and a rope in hands; fourth holds a

lotus bud and a rope in hands; fifth a club and a book; sixth a book and a

trident, seventh riding on the elephant has a goad in hand; eighth holds a

club and a rope; ninth a pitcher and tenth is riding upon cow holding a flag

in hand; eleventh holds a trident bell, twelfth a bag of money; thirteenth and

fourteenth are riding on a lion; thirteenth is holding a rope and fourteenth

holds a thunderbolt and a musal in hands; fifteenth uses deer as her vehicle

and she holds conch and bow in hands; sixteenth has elephant as her vehicle,

holding a conch and a disc in her hands.

Lunavsahi temple: Abu (Sirohi)

Lunavsahi temple is situated in Abu (Dist.: Sirohi) and is dedicated to

Neminath of Svetambara sect. In the Lunavsahi temple there are images of

Mahavidyas, Ambika Yakshi, Servanubuti and Santidevi. The icons of this

temple are very much similar to Vimala-vasahi and Kumbharia temples.

Lunavsahi contains many independent images of Mahavidyas also. They are

as follows: Rohini, Purushdutta, Gauri, Kali, Vajrasrinkhla and Acchupta. In

133 Except first two of the female deities, rest of the images of the female deities are established at the entrance gates.

- 246-

the Rangmandapa of this temple there are sixteen four-armed images of

Mahavidyas. The temple also contains seven images for Ambika, five for

Mahalaksmi and several images for Santidevi. The images for Chakreswari,

Guruvahana Yaksi, Padmavati, Brahmashanti Yaksha, Dharmendra Yaksha

and Sarvanubhuti Yaksha are also present. In Devakulika no. 24 is the

image of Ambika. Near the Rangamandap are eight-armed four images of

Mahalaksmi. The four of the hands of Mahalaksmi contain lotus, pitcher and

two of her hands hold the ropes. One of her hands is in the pose of offering

blessings and three of her hands are unidentified. The four and six-armed

images of Saraswati are riding duck as their vehicle. She is holding vina,

books and louts in her hands. The 10th Devakulikas has an image of

Chakreswari. Garurvahana Yakshi is eight armed and in all of her arms are

varied attributes such as disc, ring, bud-lotus, a disc, fruit and rest of her

hands are in Varad and Vyakhyana mudra. There are two images of

Padmavati at the entrance door of Gudhamanda. The four-armed image of

Padmavati has varied attributes such as vardaksha, snake, rope, fruit and she

sits on Nakra vehicle. 134

Five of the images of the female deities of Lunavasahi temple are

difficult to recognize. The attributes of each of the images of the female

deities are easy to mark. Upper hands of the first image hold a rope and a

gond, the second holds bags of money, third a club and a goad, fourth a

dunda and fifth an undistinctive object. 135

Parsvanath temple: Sadri (Pali)

The Parsvanath temple at Sadri in Pali consists of four armed images of

Mahavidyas, Saraswati, Dikplas and Apsaras. The images for Sarvanubhuti

134 M.N.P. Tiwari, Jain Pratimavijnana, Parsvanath Vidyasram Sodh-Sansthan, Varanasi, 221005, 1981, pp.64-65

- 247·

and Ambika or any form of Yaksha-Yakshi are unavailable in the temple.

Temple consists of eleven images ofMahavidyas and are as follows: Rohini,

Vajrankusi, Vajrasoinkhala, Apratichakra, Gauri, Purushdutta, Kali,

Mahakali, Mahajwala, Vairotaya and Mahamansi. 136 There are nine four-

armed images of Shantidevi. The lower hands of the four-armed images of

Shantidevi are in abaymudra and holding fruits. The first image of

Shantidevi is riding on an elephant and has tridents in two of her upper

hands; the second holds sanalpadha and khatak, third tridents, fourth sword

and abhayamudra, fifth rope and lotus, sixth riding upon the lion holding

go'ad and bow, seventh riding upon the elephant having shul and rope, eighth

club and rope, and ninth riding upon the lion holding goad and rope in

hands. 137

Svetamber temple: Sevri (Pali)

In Svetamber temple at Sevri III Pali the images for Mahavidyas,

Jiwantswami Mahavira, Kshetapala, Brahmashanti Yaksha and Mahavira are

found. At the entrance door of Gurhmandap the images for Chakreswari,

Nirwani and Padmavati Yakshi are carved along with the images of

Mahavidyas. The images for Rohini, Vajankusha, Gandhari, Vairotaya,

Achupta, Prajyapti and Mahamansi are also presented. In the northern side

of the temple are the images for Chakreswari and Kali Mahavidyas. Three of

the female images are beyond recognition. The sculpting of three of these

images are as follows: first is riding upon a human image holding a book in

both of her hands; second is also riding upon a human image but holding a

135 Ibid. p. 65 136 M.A. Dhaky, Some Early Jain Temples In Western India, Part 1, 1968, pp. 345-46 137 Tbid.

- 248-

pot and a dunda in both of her hands; third is holding a sword and a phalak

in her hands but riding upon Aj (Ajrider).138

Ghaneraw temple: Pali

The temple named Ghaneraw temple in Pali has two of the images of the

female deities placed near the staircase of Mandap. It is though difficult to

recognize those deities. The iconic design of both the deities are as follows:

one is holding a lotus, a goad, a rope and a fruit; the other holds a pitcher, a

fruit, a lotus, a club and a pot. At the entrance of the main sanctum of the

temple is a female deity riding on tortoise consisting of attributes such as

rope, lotus, abhayamudra and dunda. 139 Other than these female deities are

the two and the four armed images of various Mahavidyas. 14o The images of

Mahavidyas are carved upon the entrance door of the garbha-griha. The

images for Ganesa, Suparshnath and Navagrahas are also available in the

temple. In the pillars of Devakulikas, the images of Vairotya, Chakreswari,

Vajrankusi and Saraswati are found.

Fragmentary Images of Jain female deities:

Various fragmentary images constructed after the tenth century are

discovered at different places in Rajasthan. Ten of the images of Jain deity

dated eleventh-twelfth century are discovered from Chandrawati in Sirohi.

The images of the same period are discovered at Kojra, Waghin, Paldhi,

Falodhi, Surpur, Sanganer, Jhalrapatan, Atru, Lodrawa, Krishna, Vilash,

Nagor, Baghera and Maroth. 141 Various Digambar Jain images dated

eleventh-twelfth century are discovered from the places such as Bharaptur,

138 D R .. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 1907-08, p. 53 139 It is difficult to identifY the deity. 140 The images for Manvi and Sarvastramahajwal are absent here in the group of images of Mahavidyas. 141 M. N. P. Tiwari, Jain Pratimavijnana, Parsvanath Vidyasram Sodh-Sansthan, Varanasi, 221005,1981, p.66

- 249-

Katra, Bayana, J aghina all in Bharatpur district; Kota images at Talwar and

at Arthuna; Alwar images from Pranagar and Bahadurpur.142

A white marble four-armed image of Jain Sarasvati originally from Pallu,

Bikaner, is found. It is in standing tribhanga pose with a full-blown lotus,

rosary, a white lotus, a palm-leaf manuscript tied with a silken string and a

water vessel holding in her various hands. She wears an elaborate tiara and

other ornaments, a diaphanous sari secured with an elaborate girdle, with its

pearled tassels and festoons falling on her thighs. The goddess is flanked by

female attendants on her either side playing vina. Behind the head, near the

lotus-halo, is a miniature image of Tirthankara. A swan, the vahana

(vehicle) of the devi, is placed on the pedestal in front. The image represents

the high watermark of Chahamana art of the twelfth century. 143

Changing impression of Sasan-devata, Yaksi Ambika and Dikapala:

By the end of the tenth century, along with the increasing number of the

temple construction, the application of the images of Sasan-devata144 also

increased in number; their arrangement and the pattern of their construction

witnessed a marked change and continuity. But the practice of application of

Sasan-devata in pair had greatly minimized. 145 Sasan-devata was applied

separately with each of the Tirthankara. Early datable lists of which are

available in the Trisasti-salaka-purusa-carita, Nirvana-kalika, Abhidhana-

142 Ibid. p. 66 143 B.N. Sharma, National Museum, A. Gosh (edit.) Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, New Delhi, plate 337,1975, p. 556; . 144 V.P. Shah, op. cit. (1975), pp. 306-7 & B.N. Sharma, National Museum, A. Ghosh (ed.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, New Delhi, also infonn about the same. 1975, p. 555-6 145 The application of the image of Sasan-devata, means Yaksha and Yakshi together, had been a popular practice in Jain religion. They were always presented in pairs. But after 10th century presentation of Sasan-devatas in pairs have limited evidences. V.P. Shah, Sculptural Art, A. Ghosh, (ed.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, 1975, infonns that in the Deva-kulikas of Vim ala-vasa hi and Mount Abu Sasan-devata is presented in pair even after the loth century. In the shrines at Kumbharia similar images are found. pp. 306-7

- 250-

cintamani. 146 The face of Sasan-devata was made broad now with a

prominent chin. They consisted of special attribute such as karanda-mukutas

of the attendants. The conch used as a main attribute was found missing. 147

Yaksi Ambika, exhibiting both her awe-inspiring aspect, riding a lion, in

the accompaniment of a child and mangoes, came in to shape. 148 She now

held two more hands carrying the mango-bunches. Even the religious

importance of Yaksinis had rather gone high in this period. Now the

Yaksinis, the attendant spirit of the Tirthankaras, were considered as

bestower of occult powers and were linked with Tantric rites. Dikpalas also

gained greater importance as their figures emerged on temple walls. 149

The pervasiveness of Goddesses in the religious, institutional and social

context of early medieval Rajasthan

In the period between the 10th _15 th century Shakti worship continued as

a major form of worship of Rajasthan. Almost all through Rajasthan

goddesses were worshipped in varied names and different forms.

Upamitibhavaprapancha-katha, Kuvalyamala-katha and the

Samaraichchakaha inform about worshiping of Shakti of Siva in various

names as Katyayni, Bhavani, Chandika and Kausiki.150 Mahishasuramardini

and Durga, at this point of time, were one of the most popular female deities

and were worshipped in varied names, forms and rituals. They were

manifested for varied local goddesses and even for the goddesses of other

sects. Vatayaksini 151 a local goddess of Rajasthan was manifested as

146 U.P. Shah, (1975), op. cit. pp. 306-7 147 B.N. Sharma, Museums Abroad, A. Ghosh (ed.), Jain Art and Architecture; Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, 1975,p.306 148 R.C. Agrawala, Some Interesting Sculptures of the Jaina Goddess Ambika from Marwar, Indian Historical Quarterly, XXII, (iv), pp. 434-5 149 U.P. Shah, 1975, op. cit. pp. 306-7 150 D. Sharma, Lectures in Rajput History and Culture, 1966, Delhi, p. 99-100 151 DR .. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 1916, p. 56-59

- 251 -

Mahishasurmardini, Durga, Katyayani and Varada. Astamatrkas of Mandor

was named Durga consisting of her various other Shaktis like Brahmani,

Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Indrani, Mahesvari, Varahi and Narsimhi, accompanied

by Ganesa. An image of Durga was discovered from Baghera and was

popularly known as Ganesa-janani. Jagat and Abu were the important

centres for Durgaworship. They were later known as Shaktipithas. An

inscribed image of Mahishasuramardini is found from Narhad. Vasantgarh is

known with the name of a female deity as Sardapitha. Jains were worshipers

of Durga in the form of Sarasvati. The Jain image of Sarasvati discovered

from Pallu, preserved in the National Museum, is an excellent piece of art. 152

Various royal heads and their feudatories took care to promote the cause

of goddess tradition in early medieval Rajasthan. They made monetary

donation and granted lands for its growth and development. Temples,

images and sculptures were constructed under their supervision. Rao Tanu, a

Bhati chief, constructed a temple and a fort in the name of Awardevi. It is

believed that the temple was constructed on devi's wishes and she herself

inaugurated it. Vijayraj, the son of Rao, on the command of the devi, set up a

town named Bijnote and constructed a big fort. He construced a temple also

for devi where he laid an image of devi and named it Bijasanmata. 153

Mahendrapala II, a ruler of Pratihara dynasty, who had been reigning at

Mahodya (Kanauj) in the year 913-914, as recorded in the inscription, made

grants for Vatayakshini. Hada Rajputs took control ofBundi and constructed

a temple for Bangamata. 154 Jamvaimata155 is linked to the Kachvahas, Ad

152 D. Sharma, Lectures in Rajput History and Culture, Delhi, 1966, p. 100 153 Dr. Sersingh Bidawat, Eitahasik Alok Mai Jogmaya Sri Karni ji, pp. 36-38 154 C.S. Gupta (ed.), op. cit. Ramnagar, p.32 155 Lindsey Harlan, Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1994, p. 55

- 252-

matal56 with Jhala Rajputs and Ashapur, also called Annapurna, with the

Chauhanas. 157 Samkhala Paramaras and Upala Deva took care of the

construction of Sachiyamata temple and laid the foundation of Osian.1 58

Sisodiayas worship Durgamataji in the name of Banmata. 159 Samkhala

Paramaras and Upala Deva took care of the construction of Sachiyamata

temple and laid the foundation of Osian.16o Chalukya king Kumarapala in

1149-50 or 1150-51 made some donations to the temple of god

Samiddhesvara (Siva) and the temple was constructed on the hill of

Chitrakuta, the modern Chitorgadh. In the inscription of this temple three of

the verses are dedicated to Siva and two to the goddess Sarasvati. The ruler

donated village to the temple. Other donation was a ghanaka or oil mil1. 161

The royal heads took care of construction of Jain temples also. They

installed images of varied female deities in them. Dandanayaka Vimal, one

of the ministers of Chalukya ruler Bhimdev, built a celebrated temple of

Adinath known as Vimala-vasahi on Mount Abu in 1032 A.D. which

consisted of numerous images of Jain female deities. 162 The Rangamandap,

Bramika and 54 Devakulikas of this temple had been constructed under the

supervision of Prithivipal, the minister of Kumarpal and then by Dhanapal,

the son of Prithvipal in the year 1145_89. 163 The prime-minister Vastupala

and his brother, minister Tejpala, were the two statesmen of Vaghela chief

Viradhavala of Dhavalakakka who took up jointly the cause for the

156 Ibid. p.55 157 Ibid. p. 57 158 S.K.R.D. Maheshwari, Vaisya-Kula-Bhusana, Bombay, V.S. 1980, p. 121 159 Lindsey Harlan, (1994), p. 57 . 160 S.K.R.D. Maheshwari, Vaisya-Kula-Bhusana, Bombay, V.S. 1980, p. 121 161 E.1. Vol. 2, XXXIII, Chitorgadh Stone Inscription of The Chaulukya Kumarapala 162 Shri Krishna Deva, West India, Caulukya Temples, A. Ghosh (edit.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, plates 183 to 188, 1975, p. 301 163 Shri Krishna Deva, West India, Caulukya Temples, A. Ghosh (edit.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. 1, Bhartiya Jnanpith, 1974, p. 304; Munishri Jayantvijaya, Holi Abu, 1954, pp. 28-29

- 253 -

construction of fifty Jain temples all through Rajasthan during their

tenure. 164 Tejapala patronized a celebrated world famous Luna-Vasahi

temple on Mount Abu in 1231.165 Sagar the ruler of J aisalmer along with two

of his sons Sridhara and Rajahara built a Parsvanath temple in their capital

town Lodrawa. 166 Kirtipal of Nadlai in 1160 AD made some financial

donation for the construction of Mahavira temple. 167

Srimalis from Srimala Bhillamala, Pragvatas (Powwar) from Abu and

Ukesavalas (Ukeswal) later called Oswals from Ukesa or Osian, Palliwal

from Pallika (Pali), Mor from Morderak (Modera)168 were prominent Jain

traders who helped the growth of Jain religion. Their liberal patron of

building-art and culture provided a new dimension to Jain religion.

Inscription found from the Osian temple refers to the guild of business

community. 169 Vogel tells that Oswal Jains built the temple of

Sachiyamata. 17o During the regime of Krishanaraj various Jain guilds took

initiative for the installation of images both for the male and the female

deities in the temple. 171 A Jain inscription of the 10th century mentions that

the gosthi of Hasti Kundi took initiative for the growth of a Rishavadev

temple. l72 An inscription dated 967 A.D. found in Shantinath temple located

at Diyana states that a Jain guild took initiative to install an image in the

temple. 173 Arthuna inscription dated 1109 A.D informs that the town Seth

164 Shri Krishna Deva, West India, Caulukya Temples, A. Gosh (edit.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, plates 190 to 194, 1975, p. 305,446; M.A. Dhaky and U.S. Moorti, The Temples in Klimbhariya, 2001, pp. 20-21; Munishri Jayantvijaya, Holi Abu, 1954, pp. 91-92 165 Ibid 166 P.C. Nahar, Jain Inscriptions, Jain Vividha Sahitya Shastra Mala, Part - 3, Calcutta, 1929, p. 160 167 M.A. Dhaky, Some Early Jain Temples In Western India, Part 1, 1968, pp. 295-96 168 Ibid. p. 298 169 D.R. Bhandarkar, The Temple of Osian, ARASI, 1908-09, p. 108 170 J.P.H. Vogel, Antiquities ofChamba State, Vol. I, Cacutta, 1911, 171 Jayant Vijaya, Arbuda Prachin Jain Lekh San doh, Part. 5,2005, p. 1 68 172 E.J., No. 10, p. 1 7; P.e. Nahar, Jain Inscriptions, Jain Vividha Sahitya Shastra Mala - 8, Calcutta: V.J. Joshi, part, 1, 1929, p.233, 173 Munishri Jayant Vijay, Arbuda Prachin Jain Lekh Sandoh, part, 5, essay no. 486, p.168

- 254-

(Mahajan) called Bhushan constructed Rishabha Nath temple. Jalor

inscription dated 1182 A.D. states that Seth Yasovira of Srimal Vamsa

together with his brother and with guild members took initiative for the

construction of balcony for the temple. An inscription, dated 1185 A.D.

found from the Parsvanath temple, mentions that Bhandari Yasovira initiated

reconstruction of Parsvanath temple of Kumarapala. 174 In the beginning of

the eleventh century large number of Jain traders migrated to Gujarat from

Rajasthan and tested their trade prospects. In Gujarat, like Rajasthan, they

participated in temple building construction and held high position at the

court of the Solanki monarchs. l75

Conclusion:

The period between the 10th _15th century witnessed an upsurge in temple

construction in Rajasthan both for the brahmanic and the Jain sects. Jain

temples came into shape in various places of Rajasthan. At Mandor in the

cave of Nahdarao a Jain temple came into shape in 10th century.176 Two of

the Jain temples - one at Nadsor (Surpur)l77 and other at Nana in Bali - rose

into prominence in 960 A.D.l7S During the regime of Guhila kings in the

Medapata or Mevada, two Jain temples - one at Ghanerav in c. mid of the

tenth century and second at Aghata (Ahada) in the last quarter of the tenth

century - were constructed. In the tenth century in the year A.D. 967 Jaina

temples emerged at the places like Candravti, Ker, Nandiya in the Abu and

also in Jabalipura. 179 In Nadlai in Pali in Udaipur, nearly sixteen Jain

174 £1 .. no. 11, p. 52-54 175 M.A. Dhaky, U.S. Moorti, The Temples in Kumbhariya, American Institute ofIndian Studies, New Delhi, Lalbai Dalpatbhai Institute ofIndology, Ahmedabad, 2001, p. 12 176 PRA SIWC, 1906-07, p. 31 177 Ibid. 1911-12, p.53 178 Ibid. 1907-08, p. 48-49 179 G.S. Gai, Inscriptions, A. Ghosh (edit.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, 1975, p. 446; M.A. Dhaky, U.S. Moorti, The Temples in Kumbhariya, American Institute ofIndian Studies, New Delhi, Lalbai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 2001, p. 13

- 255-

temples were constructed in between the tenth and the eleventh century;

most of them are the Svetambar temples. All these temples are dedicated to

Adinath, Shantinath, Neminath and Parsvanath. I80 Adinath temple amongst

all sixteen temples is considered to be the oldest and the largest. I81 Mount

Abu consists of five prominent temples, aptly known by the casual name of

Dilwada temples, belonging to Svetambara sect. Dilwara temples are as

follows: the Vimala-vasahi, the Luna-vasahi, the Pittalhara temple, the

caturmauka or Kharatara-Vasahi and the Mahavira-svamin temple. 182

Vimala-vasahi temple in particular is un.derstood as the earliest extant Jaina

temple in the south-west. I83 The notable temples of Mt. Satrunjaya (c. A.D.

1231 all destroyed), Mt. Gimar (Vastupala-Vihara, A.D. 1232; and

Satyapuravatara Mahavira), Satunjayavatara Adinatha (Dholaka), Astapada

temple (Prabhasa), Asaraja-vihara (Anahillapataka) and also a temple in

Khambhat, Chittaur (now used as Samiddhesvara temple), were constructed.

The Lunavsahi temple constructed on Mt. Abu consists of 48

Devakulikas. I84 Nearly five miles south-west away of Kharadi or Abu Road

in the village of Mungthala is a temple for Mahavira constructed in 15th

century.I8S On the hill of Jalor are three Jain temples dedicated to Adinath,

Parsvanath and Mahavira, constructed in 1 i h -13 th century. 186 In the village

of Amvam in the Kanwas tahsil of the Kotah state, a temple of Jain

Digambara sect is discovered. 187 At Bijolia in Aravali Range few miles away

180 M.A. Dhaky, (1968), op. cit. p. 341-342; PRASIWC, 1905-06, pA2. 181 E. 1. No.9, pp. 49-51 182 G.S. Gai, Inscriptions, A. Ghosh (edit.), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, Bhartiya Jnanpith, 1975, p. 446; D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 31 st March, 1907, pp. 24-30. 183 Shri Krishna Deva, West India, Caulukya Temples, A. Ghosh (edit), Jain Art and Architecture, Vol. II, BhartiyaJnanpith, plates 183 to 188, 1975, p. 301 184 Ibid. plates - 190 to 194, p. 305, 446; M.A. Dhaky, U.S. Moorti, The Temples in Kumbhariya, 2001, pp. 20-21 185 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 31 st March 1907, pp. 25-30. 186 Ibid. 1907-08, pp. 34-35 187 Ibid. June 30, 1905.p-45

- 256-

from Kotah two of the Jain temples of Parsvanath came into shape after 10th

century.188 In Nadol at the time of Chahamanas, the temples for Neminatha

Shantinatha and for Padmaprava were constructed. 189 At Bhadresar and

Uthman are the temples of 11 th century.190 Jain temples of 10th century are

found at Bikaner, Taranagar, Rani, Nohar and at Palu. 191 "The Morkahana

temple built in Bikaner prior to 1172 A.D. is referred to in the inscription of

the temple itself. Bhandasar temple built about 1411 A.D is a Jain temple. 192

Sagar, the ruler of Jaisalmer along with two of his sons Sridhara and

Rajahara, built a Parsvanath temple in his capital town Lodrawa. 193

Padmawati Digambar temple dated 946 AD is constructed at Nagada in

Mewar. 194 The ruins of Jina temples discovered at Wirpur near Pratabgarh

are supposed to be constructed in the 10th century. Some ruins of Digamber

Jain temples belonging to 9th _10th century are found at Krishnavilas or Vilas

in Kota. Near Jaipur (Chatsu) and Alwar are discovered some Jain temples

constructed in 10th_II th century.195 At Jagat in Udaipur a temple dedicated to

Jain goddess Ambika belonging to 10th century has been discovered. l96 A

temple ofParsvnath built in 11 th century is located at Pali. 197 At Ghaneraw in

Pali is a famous Mahavir Jain temple that was constructed in 10th century.198

Another Parsvanath temple at Sadri in Pali is constructed in 11 th century.199

188 Ibid. p-51 189 G.C. Choudhary, Political History of Northern Indiafrom jain Sources, Amritsar, 1963, p. 151 190 K.C. Jain, Jainism In Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963, pp. 113 191 Ibid. pp.113-114 192 Rajasthan And Ajmer, Census 1951, District Census Handbook, Bikaner, Part - 1, informs that Rathor rulers constructed these temples. p. IX 193 P.C. Nahar, Jain Inscriptions, Jain Vividha Sahitya Shastra Mala, Part -3, 1929, p. 160 194 PRASIWC, 1904-05, p. 61 195 K.c. Jain, Jainism In Rajasthan, 1963, p. 114-115 196 M.A. Dhaky, 1968, op. cit. p. 305 197 PRASIWC, 1907-08, p. 43; M.A. Dhaky, 1968, part. I, op. cit. pp. 333-334 198 PRASIWC, 1907-08, p. 59; M.A. Dhaky, Part 1,1968, op. cit. pp. 328-32 199 M.A. Dhaky, 1968, op. cit., pp. 345-46

- 257 -

In Pali at Sevri is another Svetamber temple constructed in 11th century.200

At Nadol in Pali there are three Jain Svetamber temples constructed in 11th

century. They are the temples for Padmaparva, Neminath and Shantinath.201

Brahmanic temples rose with the same pace as the Jain temples after the

10th century. At Sirohi,202 in particular, the following brahmanic temples

came into shape: Mahadeva temple (loth A.D.), Apeswara-Mahadeva temple

(11 th); Madhusudan temple, Kasi -Visvesvara ( 12th), Hrishikesa temple,

Patanarayan temple (lih), Achaleswara temple (l4th), Vasishtha temple and

Kali temple of Karodi Dhaj (loth).203 Mokalji, Sringar Chavadi Jaina,

Abdhuta and Kalikamata temples204 came into shape in Chittorgarh. These

temples emerged after the 10th century. Ruins of eight temples are found in

the village of Amvam that is situated in the Kanwas tahsil of Kotah.205 Near

Kanwas tehsil, in the city of Atru, are the temples like Gadgach-Ka-Mandir,

Aniruddha temple, Maliomka temple, Phuldevra Mahadeva, Lal Biharji Ka

Mandir, Syama Sundara Ka Mandar, Gosavi temple ofMahadeva, Shrine of

Mahakalesvara, Chhaniadi Mahadeva, Budhasagar and Phuldevra Mahadeva

. temple.206 At Bijolia in Aravali Range few miles away from Kotah a large

number of temples arose after the 10th century and the temples are as

follows: Hajaresvar Mahadeva, Sahastraling, Mahakala, Undesvara and

Baijanatha temples.207 Near an old Kund located in the village of Ladoli in

Bijolia is a group of five shrines called Baori-ki Devri which came into

shape in the period between the 10th_15th centuries.208

200 PR As/we, 1907-08, p. 53 201 MA Dhaky, (1968), op. cit p. 343-45 202 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRAs/we, 31 51 March, 1907, pp. 25-30. 203 Ibid. pp. 24-30. 204 Ibid. 1905-06, pAO 205 Ibid. June 30, 1905, p. 48 206 Ibid. 1905, p. 48 207 Ibid. p. 51 208 Ibid. p. 55.

- 258-

Temple construction had assumed a new pattern of layout in this period.

They were constructed bigger and larger in shape due to introduction of the

attendant shrines encircling round the central shrine. The central shrine held

an image of the principal deity and attendant shrines consisted of images of

subordinate deities. Apesvrara-Mahadeva temple209 located in the village of

Sirohi consists of a Linga in its central shrine and is understood as principal

deity. At the back wall of its central shrine is a colossal image of Trimurti

and other deities are installed in the niches created all around the wall of the

central shrine. The attendant shrines around the central shrine are as follows:

first attendant shrine consists of images of Ganesa, Kartikeya and Lakulisa,

second consists of images of Vishnu and Ambika and remaining shrines

contain image of Surya. Deities placed in attendant shrines are given an

auxiliary status compared to the principal deity of the cental shrine.2lo The

temple of Karodi-Dhaj has the attendant shrines encircling around the

central shrine. The attendant shrines are constructed on the north and east

directions of the central shrine of the temple. On the north of the central

shrine is an attendant shrine dedicated to Surya and Patalesvara. Touching

north-east corner of the hall of the temple is another small temple containing

an image of Surya. Further to the east is the temple of Kotesvara. But very

close to the main sanctum of the temple is constructed a temple dedicated to

the female deity, though the name of the deity is not mentioned in the

source. In Karodi-Dhaj temple Visnu holds the prime position.2ll Siva

temple at Nagada in Udaipur contains a principal shrine encircled with

209 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 31 sl March, 1907, states that besides Apesvra-Mahadeva temple, many other temples are found in the village of the Sirohi and they are constructed after 10th century. The temple of Kasi-Visvesvara is constructed in the village Kayadra, has a linga in the main shrine, behind which two old figures of Parvati are established. In the niches are the images for Ganga, Yamuna, Ganapati, Lakulisa, Brahma, Visnu. pp. 24-25. 210 Ibid. p. 25 211 Ibid. p. 29

- 259-

attendant shrines. Two of the attendant shrines are constructed at the back

and two in the front of it.212 Amidst many archaeological remains at Nagda is

the most important temple of Sas-Bahu dedicated to Vishnu. Four of the

attendant shrines encircle its central shrine - two at the back and two in the

front. The principal niches in the front of attendant shrines contain images of

Kali, Mahishasuramardini and Bhairavi. The attendant shrines located at the

back of the temple consist of images for the goddesses.213 Six miles to the

east of the village of Jadoli (near Bijolia) is a temple of Talesvara Mahadeva

located in Tilama that consists of a central shrine encircled with attendant

shrines of Annapurna .and Bhavesvar. Some other attendant shrines

connected to this temple are razed to the ground.

Jain temple also consisted of a central shrine with attendant shrines. At

Bijolia, an inscription dated 1160 A.D. found in Parsvanatha temple informs

that the temple consists of a central shrine encircled with seven smaller

shrines. It also refers that the central shrine is larger than rest of the attendant

shrines.214 A very celebrated temple of Sachiyamata is surrounded by five

other fanes,z15

Temples now consisted of multiple of images of the deities. One of the

images in the group of deities is given the central position. In the Bandeva

temple, constructed in 1212 A.D. Siva is given the central position along

with the deities such as Ashtamatris, Bhairava, Visnu and Brahma.216 Vishnu

temple located near the village of Ramgarh contains the images of Lakshmi,

Vishnu, Surya, Siva, Bhairava. Vishnu holds the central position.217 In the

212 Ibid. June 30, 1905, p. 6 I 213 Ibid. p.62 214 Ibid. June 30, 1905, p. 5 I 215 Devendra Handa, 1984, op. cit. p.29 216D R .. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 30 June, 1905, p.49 217 Ibid. p.49

- 260-

Siva temple located to the north-west of Amvam in Kanwas tahsil of the

Kotah state, the image of Siva holds the central position along with the

images of Vishnu, Lakshmi, Brahma, Savitri and Gayatri.218 At Atru in the

temple of Maliomka Phuldevra Mhadeva there are multiple of images such

as Siva, Brahma, Visnu, Ketu, Rahu, Navagrahas, Saptamatrkas and

Ganapatis. Siva is positioned at the central place in the form of Linga.219

Introduction of an enclosure around the temple was a new development in

the changing layout of the temple construction in this period. The enclosure

marked a distinct space for the principal and the attendant shrines .. The

Saranesvara temple of this period consists of an enclosure around the

temple. The temple of Ashtmata at Barolli, three miles north-east of

Bhainsorgarh, has an enclosure within which shrines for Ganesh, Narada,

Brhama, Vishnu and Siva are constructed.220 The Panchayatana temple of

Bijolia is placed in an enclosure.221

Marusthali zone of Rajasthan had started expenencmg a phase of

settlement and growth in the period after the 10th century. Politico-cultural

development had been gaining ground. Temple construction and formation

of indigenous regimes began with a process of settlement and urbanization.

Temples for local female deities affiliated with brahmanic tradition, and Jain

cult centres rose into prominence under the supervision of indigenous rulers.

In Jaisalmer, temples for indigenous goddess Swanjiaji came into shape

218 Ibid. p.46 219 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWe, 30 June, 1905, informs that Vaishnava temple of Sas-Bahu consists of multiple of deities such as Kali, Mahishasuramardini, Bhairavi, Surya, Brahma, Siva, Ganapati, Bhairava and Ashtamatrikas. All of them are accommodated together with special importance granted to Siva. p. 62; D.R. Bhandarkar, PRA Sl we, 31 51 March, 1907, reports that Apesvara-Mahadeva temple contains creation and carving of multiple of deities and the deities are as follows: Lakulisa, Vishnu, Ganesa, Kartikeya, Ganga, Yamuna, Lakshmi and Ambika. p. 25 220 Major K.D.Erskine (1992), p. 97 221 D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASWe, June 30, 1905, Panchayatana means one principal temple with four small attendant shrines constructed one at each comer. p. 51-52

- 261 -

under the superVISIOn of Bhati Bahadriya and Maharwal Gajsingh.

Swanjiaji222 is understood as manifestation of goddess Kalka.223 An

important temple ofNagnecheji, also called Shakti temple, arose in Bikaner

under the tutelage of Rathor rulers of Jaisalmer.224 At Desnok in Bikaner, in

fifteenth century, Karnidevi herselflaid the foundation of her temple, but she

always remained inspiration for the Rathors of Bikaner and Jodhpur.225 Jain

centres also came into being in Bikaner and Jaisalmer. At Taranagar, Reni,

Nohar and at Palu Jain temples were constructed.226

222 Bhatiyo Ki Kula Devi, A Unpublished Paper, ICHR (Delhi) 223 C.K.M. Walter, The Rajputana Gazetteer, Vol. II, Jaisalmer, 1879, p.176. 224 Lindsey Harlan, op. cit. p. 56 225 Harald Tambs-Lyche, Marriage and Affinity among Virgin Goddesses, Harald Tambs-Lyche (ed.), The Feminine Sacred In South Asia, Manohar, 1999, p. 65-71 226 K.c. Jain, Jainism In Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963, pp.l13-114