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Chapter: 3

Early evidence of goddess cults in Rajasthan: a study of

archaeological, epigraphic, sculptural and architectural evidence (to

the close of the ninth century):

This chapter is specifically concerned with the analysis and

interpretation of the history of constructing temples and religious sculptures

produced in Rajasthan to the close of the ninth century. Also, the spatial

distribution of the cult centres for the goddesses, pattern of patronage

provided to them by various social groups, sectarian affiliation, growth and

alteration in iconic pattern of the female deities are taken into account.

The early history of Rajasthan between 6th to 9th centuries was a phase of

great changes. In this period, in the sphere of culture some visible

developments like construction of cult centres, creation of sculptures and

images and powerful emergence of three of the major Hindu sects like

Vaisnava, Saiva and Sakta came into being. The cult centres for female

deities like Bharmamata, Khimelmata, Dadhimatimata, Sakambharimata,

Pipladevi etc. rose into prominence. Sculptures of the goddesses like

Mahishasuramardini, Kali, Kshemankari, Parvati, Sarasvati, Matrkas etc.

were discovered. Vaishnava, Saiva and Sakta, three major hindu sects, were

undergoing religious developments, suggesting new sources for the

construction of cult centres, enticing and interacting with vanous

clanlcummunities and with rising political groups.

Cultural developments of Rajasthan between 6th to 9th centuries went

apace with political developments. After sixth century A.D. some new states

governed by indigenous political forces came into force. A division of the

clan Pratihara emerged to power and established its capital at Mandor

(ancient Mandavyapura, near modern Jodhpur). Two of the known

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inscriptions like the Jodhpur inscription of the Mandor Pratihara Bauka,

dating to V.S. 894 (AD 837) and the Ghatiyala pillar inscriptions of his half-

brother, Kakkuka, from V.S. 918 (AD 861)1 serve as sources for the earlier

history of the Mandor branch of the Pratiharas. In seventh century A.D. the

older republics of Rajasthan like the Mauryas, the Guhils and the Gurjars

began transforming themselves into independent states. These independent

ruling lineages constituted majority of Rajputs. Such formation of ruling

lineages constituted both indigenous and non-indigenous forces like the

Hunas, the non-indigenous and the Guhilas and the Chalukyas, the

indigenous.2 Of these, Chittor under Mauryas, Mewar under the Guhils and

Gujaratra (western Rajasthan) under the Gujaras were the most prominent.3

In the seventh century as stated in Vasantgarh in'scritption dated V.S.

682IA.D. 625 that the region of Gurjaradesa-Arbuda had come under the

rule of Rajjila, a local feudatory of the Capotkata (or called Cavada) ruler

Varmalata, who had created Bhillamalla (modern Bhinmal, in Jalor

district).4 By the eight century, the ruling family of Mandor, which we have

discussed earlier, had been defeated by another branch of the clan known as

the Gurjara Pratiharas,5 though the struggle between both these forces like

I R.C. Majumdar, EI, Vol. XVIII, "The Jodhpur Inscription ofPratihara Bauka, V.S. 894. 1925-26, pp. 87-92; B.N. Puri, History of the Grujara-Pratiharas, Bombay, Hind Kitabs, 1957, p. 25; D.R. Bhandarkar, EI, Vo. IX, "Ghatiyala Inscription of Kakkuka: Samvat 918, 1907-08, pp. 277-8 I. 2 B.D. Chattopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India, OUP, Reprint 1997, p. 22 3 Devendra Handa, Os ian, History, Archaeology, Art & Architecture, 1984, says though direct evidence is lacking yet it will not be unreasonable to hold that Marwar too formed part of the Kushana empire. p. 5; K.S. Singh, (Gen. ed.), 1998, p. 8; 4 D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC (1905-06): 50; D. Sharma, Rajasthan Through The Ages, Bikaner, pp. 101, 228-29; D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, "VasantgarhInscription of Varma lata, "1905-6, VS 682, 9:187-91 5 "Mandor Pratihar"originated from this area. Another branch "Gurjara Pratihara" in which "Gurjar" refers to what was once the name of the region in which Jalor (ancient J~b~lipura) was located: Gurjaradesa. Though the origin of the Gurjara Paratihara is always a matter of dispute and has not been resolved so far. I prop,ose a very simple argument about the origin of them is that the family emanated from Jalor (ancient Jabalipua) which is situated in the south of Jodhpur and borders parts of northern Gujarat. Two of these branches ofPartiharas are different to each other. These facts are well illustrated by the following researchers: B.N. Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1957, Bombay, Hind Kitabs, p. 25; R.c. Majumdar, Age of Imperial Kanauj, The History and Culture of the Indian People, Bombay: Bhartiya

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Pratihara and Gurjara Pratihara continued up to the eighth-ninth centuries.

Gurjaras then held control of Mandor and expanded their hegemony towards

the northern side of India. By the ninth century they claimed control over

Kanauj and Nagabhata II (A.D. 815, 833), and declared Kanauj as their

capital City.

Spatial Distribution of Early Cult Centes, Images and Sculptures

The architectural references to early temples for female deities (close to

the 9th century) came in the shape in north, east, south-east, south and south-

west of Rajasthan. The pattern of spatial distribution of these cult centres is

as follows: the Jhalawar museum inscription of the fifth century A.D. from

Gangadhara refers to the existence of a "Shrine of Dakini Mothers under

Tantric influence". This is supposed to be one of the earliest examples of

temple construction for the female deity in Rajasthan. The existing epigraph

is, in fact, the earliest extant record having an important bearing on Dakini

structure in ancient Rajasthan.6

Two of the temples, one for Bharmamata7 and the other for

Sakambharidevi8 are found to be located in the east of Rajasthan.

Bharmamata temple is located 2112 miles away from the town of Chotti Sadri

near the Neemuch station 24.24 North and 74.34 East on the Ajmer

Khandwa railway line. The inscription, found in the temple of Bharmamata,

named Chotti Sadri Inscription, refers to the construction of the temple in the

Vidya Bhawan, Vol. 4, 1955, pp. 19-43; D. Sharma, Rajasthan Through the Ages, Bikaner, Rajasthan State Archives, 1966, pp. 124-30; 6 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma, (ed.), Rajasthan Through The Age, Vol. 2; 1999, pp. 22-27; 1. F. Fleet, "Gangdhar Stone Inscription of Visvavarman, Year, 480", Corpus 1nscriptionum 1ndicarum 3: 78 informs on the basis of available inscriptions that a Kali temple, instead of "Shrine ofDakini", was constructed other than the Visnu temple, for the sake ofreligious merit. The temple was constructed in 490 A.D. on the initiative of the minister of prince Visvavarman. The temple is located approximately thirty kilometers to south-west of Chan drab hag. 7 D.C. Sircar, £1, vol. XXX, pp- 120-24. 8 B. Ch. Chhabra, £1, Vol. 27, Sakrai Stone Inscription, V.S. 699, pp. 27-3 I; D.C. Sircar, £1, Vol. 35, Two Inscriptions of Durgaraja, pp. 239-242; D. Sharma, Lectures of Rajput History and Culture, 1966, p. 100

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year 491 A.D. but it does not bear the name of Bharmamata by which the

temple is known at present.

The temple of Sakambharimata is located on the bank of the rivulet

called Sarkara in the village of Sakarai.9 The village of Sakarai is situated in

the Sekhavati province of Jaipur state in Rajputana, fourteen miles north-

west of Khandela. Sakarai is a sacred place for the Hindus. Here on the bank

of the rivulet called Sarkara is a temple of goddess Sakambhari. An

inscription was found in the temple on the basis of which D.R. Bhandarkar

interprets that 'Sankara' was the correct and the original name of the

goddess, not Sakambhari by which she is at present known. He again

highlights some of his observations regarding impact of the cult upon the

geographical condition. He denies others'observation that the rivulet and the

village were named after the name of the goddess Sankara. According to

him, researchers have developed confusion as due to the popularity of the

goddess, the name of the rivulet and the area is followed by the name of the

goddess. The Sakrai Stone Inscription inscribed in the temple of

Sakambharidevi IS dated V.S. 699. Besides Bharmamata and

Sakambharidevi temples, the Harsatmata temple also came into shape in

early period before ninth century in Abhaneri in east of Rajasthan close to

Jaipur.

Architectural pattern of Naktimata,1O Kalikamata,11 Ksemankari 12 and

Kumbhaswa temples and its sculptures suggest that these temples came into

9 B. Ch. Chhabra, EI, Vol. 27, Sakrai Stone Inscription, V.S. 699, pp. 27-31; D.C. Sircar, EI, Vol. 35, Two Inscriptions of Durgaraja, pp. 239-242 IO M. W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky eds. Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt. 2 :242-45, pIs. 554-56; c.P. Atherton, The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, 1997, p. 82 II C. Lin-Bodiaen, "Chronology ofChandravti, Kusma, Chitaurgarh: A Case Study in the use of Epigraphic and Stylistic Evidence" Archieves of Asian Art 33, 1980, informs that Manabhanga, an early eight-century Maurya ruler may have been responsible for the construction of the early Surya and Siva temples. pp. 49-64,52-53 12 Ibid. pp. 49-64

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shape in and around eighth-ninth century A.D. Naktimata temple is located

in the west of Jaipur, off the Jaipur road. The Kalikamata, Ksemankari and

Kumbhaswa temples are located on the hill in the town of Chittaurgarh. The

Kalikamata temple was originally the Surya temple. The date of its

construction and its patron are doubtful and debatable. Some of the damaged

inscriptions are discovered from near Shankarghat; therefore, the

confirmation of the date of its construction is expected to be the seventh-

eighth century. Historians have drawn conclusion about the construction of

this temple as early as eighth century as it rose under the supervision of the

Mauryas. Derived conclusion is not based upon conjectures; it is drawn on

the basis of iconographic design of the sculptures. 13

Dadhimatimatal4 and Khimelmatal5 temples originated in south-west of

Rajasthan in the areas of Nagaur and Sirohi respectively. Dadhimatimata

temple is located at the boundaries of two villages, named Goth and

Mangold. These villages are twenty-four miles north-east of Nagor, the

principal town of the district ofth~ same name in Jodhpur state. Khimelmata,

temple is located on a hillock at Vasantgarh five miles away in the south of

Pindwara, which is the principal town of the district of Sirohi state. The

inscription inscribed on the wall of the Dadhimatimata temple refers to the

construction of this temple in the year [Gupta] Samvat 289 and it bears the

name of the Dadhimati by which the temple is at present known. But the

Vasantgarh Inscription of the Varmalata, dated VS 682, linked to

13 Ibid. pp. 49-64 14 Pt. Ram Karan, £'1., Vol - II, No. 31, Dadhimatimata Inscription of the Time of Dhruhlana, [Gupta] Samvat 289, p-299-303; Michael W. Meister, M.A. Dhaky (edit.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture North­India Period of Early Maturity, Text, c. A. D. 700-900, OUP - 1991, p.252, 15 D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, 1905-06, p. 50; D.R. Bhandarkar, EI, Vol. 9, No. 25 "Vasantgarh Inscription of Varma lata" VS 682, 9: pp. 187-91

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Khimelmata, does not bear the name of the goddess Khimel by which the

temple is at present known.

A group of early temples for male-feamle deities is supposed to come up

at Osian in the region of Jodhpur in south-west of Rajasthan. One of the cult

centres of Pipladevi came into shape here in the ninth century A.D. Vishnu

temples is constructed at Buckala a short distance east of Jodhpur on the

Pipad road. 16 Even at Bhitu, Auwa and Khed lying in Marudesa in south-

west of Rajasthan, temples for various deities came into shape. Bhitu is

located at the fringes of the traditional interface between Marudesa and the

Medapata and Gurjarades Arbuda areas, with the Aravalli range forming a

natural geographical division between the points in this regional triangle;

here a temple for Mahadeva is constructed. Kamesvara temple is constructed

at Auwa. Auwa is located at a short distance southeast of the traditional

interface between Marudesa and the Medapata and Gurjaradesa-Aarbuda

areas, with the Aravalli range. Rancodji temple is constructed at Khed, in

modern Barmer district, situated at the southwestern fringes of ancient

Marudesa. 17 Temples constructed in three of these areas like Bhitu, Auwa

and Khed are devoid of prominent image for the female deities. The

Sitalesvara temple situated on the bank of river Chandrabhaga close to

Jhalarapatan was constructed in 689/90 A.D. during the regime of king

Durgagana by a man named Voppaka. 1s Temple for Kevyamata 19 is situated

on the summit of a hill in the vicinity of a village named Kinsariya, four

16 D.R. Bhandarkar, "Buchkala Inscription of Nagabhatta; Samvat 872, p. 199 17 M.W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (eds), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt. 2,254-59, pIs. 569-77 18 Michael W. Meister, "Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhaga and Kansuan" Archieve of Asian Art 34 (1981): 56-73 & Lin-Bodien, "The chronology ofChandravati, Kusam, Chitorgarh: A Case Study in the Use of Epigraphic and Stylistic Evidence" Archieves of Asian Art 33 (1980), 49-64 19 Pandit Ramakarna, E.l., Vol. 12, No. 11, Kinsariya Inscription of Dadhichika (Dahiya) Chachcha (Vikrama) Samvat 1056, pp. 56-59

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miles north of Parbatsar, the principal town of the district of the same name

in the Jodhpur state. The stone fixed in the wall of the Sabhamandapa,

named Kinsariya Inscription of Dadhichika Chachcha, informs that this

temple had been constructed in 9th _10 th century AD.

Early fragmentary images for female deities have been discovered from

the following places: a group of sculptures, dated sixth century, containing

images for Chamunda and Mahishasuramardini have been discovered at

Amjhara-Dungarpur. The Mahishasuramardini image as dated belongs to the

sixth century A.D.2o Further, an image for Mahishasuramardihi is discovered

from Jagat in Mewar. Gajalaksmi image is discovered at Indragadh site near

the Chandrabhaga, a river close to Jhalarapatan. This image is presumably

dated 710-11 AD on the basis of the inscription discovered from the same

area. 21 One of the images of Sarasvati dated Vikram Samvat 744 that is 687

A.D. is discovered in the hoard of the Jain bronzes in Vasantgarh in the

temple at Pindvada. Saptamatrka images of Aindri and Brahmani dated

middle of the sixth century AD are discovered from Jagat in Udaipur. Early

images of Aindri and Amjharan Saptamatrkas are discovered at Dungarpur. \

Some of the Saptamatrka images are discovered from Tanesara also.

Early terracotta figurines of the female deities are also suggestive of

goddess tradition in early Rajasthan. Figurines have been discovered from

various areas of Rajasthan. Late-Kushana or early-Gupta terracotta figurines

of female deities have been discovered at Suratgarh:·Hanumangarh region of

North Rajasthan and are preserved in Bikaner museum. A plaque of

Bhadrakali has been discovered by L.P. Tessitori in Ganganagar district of

20 R.C. Agrawala, Lalit Kala, Nos. 6 & 10 and R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sahram (ed.) Rajasthan Through The Age, vol. 2; 1999, p. 22-27

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Rajasthan consisting of the i~portant features of the Gupta period.22 As

early as the 2nd and 1 st century B.C. images of Mahishasuramardini, Indra

and his consort Indrani or Aindi, Rati and her spouse Kamdev are discovered

from Nagar in Jaipur district. 23 Another terracotta image of a female deity of

2nd - 1 st century B.C. is preserved in Amber museum.24 Excavation at Rairh

in Rajasthan has yielded large number of nude and semi-nude mother

goddesses, not earlier than the first century A.D.25

Iconographies of the goddesses:

Researchers are of the opinion that the images of the goddesses in India

achieved a standardized form after a long process of evolution. They also

suggest that the standardized artistic construction of the images have,

however, occurred gradually through various assimilation, addition and

alteration. The elements of religious dynamics like theology, philosophy and

metaphysical systems and some social dynamics have been taken into

consideration in varied artistic creation of the images of its time. Diana L.

Eck (1985) explains the purpose of the creation of the images: "for our

purpose, the iconic image is one which is representational; it has a

recognizable "likeness" to its mythic subject".

Studies about the growth of the images as a part of historical process

have not been undertaken so far; it is, rather, neglected. Inter-regional

variations and inter-regional impact in the creation of the images also

deserve some attention. We shall examine here the evolution and the

21 K. Deva, £.1. "Indragarh Inscription of Nan nappa, V.S. 767",32,1957-58, pp. 112-117; D. Stadtner and M. Willis, The Dictionary of Art, Vol. 15: 495 and R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajsthani Art, Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sahram (ed.) Rajasthan Through The Age, vol. 2; 1999, p.24 22 Lalit Kala, No.8, pI. XXXVI. 23 23 Artibus Asiae, vol. XXI, (2),1957, pp. 123-130; PI.I; Lalit Kala, Nos. 1-2, pp. 72-74; V.S. Srivastava, Catalogue and Guide to the Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner, 1961, p.5 24 R.C. Agrawala, Arfibus Asiae, Ascona, XXI (2),1957, pp. 123-30 25 K.N. Puri, Excavtion at Rairh, in 1938-39 and 1939-40, Jaipur, pt. XII & XII, p.26

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changes in the creation of the images of the goddesses in Rajasthan. The

image of the goddesses in early Rajasthan was presented in two distinctive

forms: solitarily and composite. Both these forms of iconic presentation of

the deities, with passage of time, evoluted stylistically and assumed the

standardized shape. The iconic design of Rajasthan had much similarity as

well as some distinctiveness with the iconic formation of the goddesses

caused and created in other parts of India.

First of all we shall examine the expression and iconic design of the

female deities delineated in the inscriptions. Chhoti Sadri Inscription of

Bharmamata temple describes the iconic feature both for goddess and the

god. The second verse of the inscription deals with the concept of

Ardhanarisvara image. It is stated: "victorious again is she who, out of her

devotedness (to the god), assumes half of the body of the moon-crested Hara

(and) who, out of her kindness to the devotees, sustains the worlds just like a

mother full of tenderness arising from her affection from her own children".

It is also stated that "victorious is the Goddess who bears a sharp spear that

tears asunder the demons (or, the demon Mahishasura); the luster emitted

from whose jeweled crown makes a tremulous flow; whose rapidity is

impetuous owning to her being seated on a chariot attached to a fierce lion

(or, fierce lions); and whose anger is concentrated in her frowing glance."

Regarding Siva it is inscribed "the moon-crested Hara." Gangdhar Stone

Inscription of Visvavarman records that the mother goddess shrieks and

produces loud sound to express her joy; she can cause tremor in the ocean by

her mighty wish that she can produce through her religion. 26 The cult of the

fierce aspect of divine-mothers was pretty popular in lhalawar region at such

261. F. Fleet, "Gangdhar Stone Inscription of Vi svav arman, the Year, 480", Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3: 78

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an early stage. The existing epigraph is, in fact, the earliest extant record

having an important bearing on Dakini structure in ancient Rajasthan.27

Sakrai Stone Inscription also describes features of the goddess Chandika. It

is stated that "may those hands of Chandika - dancing with (proper)

gesticulation, having thoroughly agitated the earth by the weight of her feet,

(and) having dispelled the darkness by the flashes of her nails glittering in

the night bereft of moonlight -, that have annihilated the foes (and) that, with

the palms sportively tossed up, make the quarters appear to be extending

offerings of lotus-flowers, shower prosperity on yoU?,,28

Design of Rajasthan's images of Brahmanic male-female deities created

before the sixth century is simple and straight. Most of such images are

found in the form of terracotta figurines. Figurines are created upon the

earthen plaques also. A soft clay Kaolin terracotta plaque of female deity

found in Nagar in Jaipur region known as the Malavajanapada in ancient

time is preserved in the museum of Amber and Bikaner. The existing Nagar

plaque, preserved in Amber museum, is a sublime product of Indian artistic

genius.29 Amber plaque of Mahishasuramardini is shown holding a

rectangular shield in her upper left arm and a vajra in the upper right arm;

the lower left arm is holding the tongue of the buffalo-demon and lower

right arm presses his back. There is no trisula that is worth taking note of. A

small lion is sitting at the foot of the devi. The dress and ornaments of the

goddess are exquisite. Another Kaolin terracotta of the Amber museum

27 R.C. Agrawala, "Mahishamardini in Early Rajsthani Art" in Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma, (ed.) Rajasthan Through The Age, vol. 2; 1999, p. 23 28 B. Ch. Chhabra, E.I., Sakrai Stone Inscription, Vol. 27. V.S. 699, p. 27 29 Artibus Asiae,. vol. XXI (2),1957, pp. 123-130; PI.!; Lalit Kala, Nos. 1-2, pp. 72-74;

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projects the buffalo-demon who is shown between the legs of the devi. The

goddess is shown pressing the horns of the buffalo-demon with great force. 3o

The terracotta of Mahishasuramardini of Amber projects her physical

strength and the weapons that she uses to kill demon buffalo. According to

researchers the features of terracotta reveal two different periods of Indian

history. The use of physical strength to kill the demon is depicted in the

icons of Kushana period, but the use of weapons is similar t6 the icons of

Gupta period. The oozing out of a human form from the body of animal

body is the special feature of the icons that came into shape after 6th century

AD. It is rather an impact of imaginary discussion about the features of the

image of the goddesses in Purana.

A beautiful red clay plaque of a female deity called Bhadrakali31 IS

preserved in the Bikaner museum. Devi is shown here in the act of killing

the buffalo-demon with a trisula which she holds in her upper right arm; the

upper left arm is broken; the lower left arm holds the head of the buffalo-

demon and presses its back. The lower right arm is broken, but it seems as if

there was some weapon in lower right arm. Devi is shown in an act of

killing buffalo-demon riding on him.32

The cult of the fierce aspect of divine-mothers was a pretty popular

practice in lhalawar region at an early stage. The existing epigraph is, in

fact, the earliest extant record having an important bearing on Dakini

structure in ancient Rajasthan.33

30 R.C. Agrawala, Artibus Asiae, Ascona, XXI (2),1957, pp. 123-30 31 Masukazu Tanaka in Patrons, Devotees and Goddesses, explains that Bhadrakali is a ferocious form of Kali, though bhadra in Sanskrit literally means "auspicious." p. 101 32 Lalit Kala, No.8, pI. XXVI, fig. 23 33 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art in Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma (ed.), Rajasthan Through The Age, Vol. 2; 1999, pp. 22-27

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Two almost identical images of Durga with the same attributes exist in the

north-western basement niches of the north walls of the temple of Harihara -

1 and 2. The size of the image measures around 45 x 27 cm. The image of

Durga in both the temples stands in samabhanga pose on a lotus supported

by two lions standing back to back. The trident and the noose are in rear

hands, a water-pot is in the normal left and the front right is in varada pose.

The goddess wears besides the usual ornaments, a vanamala also. Two

female fly-whiskers, one on either side, are also shown behind the lions.

Both the figures are quite worn out but the characteristic features are clearly

discernable. On the north side of the temple are the images for goddess

Ksemankari, Siva and Gajalaksmi. On the north wall, Narasimha is in the

central niche flanked on the west by Brahma and on the east by

Mahishasuramardini. In the Harihara temple -1 in the center ofthejangha of

the south wall is carved Durga. The image of the goddess is carved on a

lotus seat with Karttikeya in the lap held by the front left hand. The back left

hand of devi is holding a lotus. The normal and rear right hands show trident

and rosary. The size of the image measuring 42x 21 cm. Durga is presented

here in motherly form.

Subsidiary shrine of Harihara -1 contains an image of Srngara-Durga

measuring 32 x 22 in size and this is a twelve-armed image. The icon is

seated at ease on a circular seat. In the front of the image is couchant lion,

the vehicle of the goddess. A small female figure is carved in profile as

seated behind the lion. With the front pair of hands, the goddess is shown as

tying an anklet in her right foot. The second right hand held in a varda­

mudra touches the head of the small female figure. The third holds a sword,

fourth a discus, the fifth is putting a mukuta with a jewel in the center on the

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head34 and the sixth is drawing an arrow from a quiver at the back. The

second hand on the left side holds a scent-pot, the third a bow, fourth a

mirror, fifth a naramunda and the sixth a shield.

The north wall of the Harihara -1 contains one of the earliest images of

Mahishasuramardini, presented with aggressive outfit, attempting to kill the

demon animal.35 The image of the goddess measures 33x14 cm. She is

shown in an aggressive pose, trampling the neck of the demon Mahisa with

her right foot36 and holding the demon from the tail by her left hand. In her

front right hand is a trident that she is thrusting into the body of the buffalo.

The trident of the goddess has long spikes that are noteworthy. Lion, the

vehicle of the goddess, is attacking the head of the buffalo. In devi's rear

hands are a sword and a bell. She wears a hair coiffure, heavy earrings,

pearl-necklace with a ring pendant falling on the stomach from between the

breasts. The construction of the image of devi reveals a remarkable

simplicity. Such a pattern of the image of devi, Vogel suggests, is similar to

the eighth century four armed (brass) image of the goddess called Lakasan,

found in Chamba state.37

The temple Harihara-2 has an image of Mahishasuranardini measuring

42x12 cm., revealing a robust action of devi. Devi is shown attempting to

trample the mighty demon buffalo Mahisa with her right foot at the back.

The face of the demon is twisted backward by her front left hand. The

buffalo is shown with a bell hung round its neck and the tail also forms a

beautiful curve on the hind part. In this image also like the earlier one, the

34 B.N. Sharma, Sculptures From Osian, Roop-Lekaha, 1971, 40, 1 -2; 95-102 35 Researcher, V-VI (1964-65), pp. II ffand pIs; East & West, XVI, pp. 109-1 I, figs. 1-6 36 T.A.G. Rao (1968), Elements of Hindu Iconography, 2 Vols.Rao potulates that the trampling of the neck of the buffalo, the symbol of the demon Mahisha, indicates the substitution ofthe buffalo totem worship was a form of devi worship among some early primitive tribes in the country, p. 354. 371. P. H. Vogel, Antiquities ofChamba State, Calcutta, 191 I, p. 138, pI. Vll, b.

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goddess thrusts a trident into the back of the buffalo and holds sword and

bell in the rear hands. Standing in the pratyalidha pose, she places her left

foot on a cushion placed on the back of the lion to left, with face turned

back. The relief thus creates the impression that the buffalo has been lifted

up in the air and attacked by the goddess.

On the north wall of Harihara -3 IS a four handed image of

Mahashasuramardini very much similar to earlier images mentioned above.

Here the goddess is placed together with male deities. Narasimha is the

central figure with an image of Brahma placed on Narsimha's west and

Mahishasuramardini on his east. Vayu and Kubera stand guard at the west

and east corners respectively.

In the Surya-Visnu temple, an Image of Durga-Mahisasurmardini is

carved in the central niche on the north side of the temple. The image of

Durga is flanked by two of the ascetic males. The image of Durga is found

different in some respects from the images of Durga found in other asian

temples. Here the image is slightly tame. The image has a high head-dress

with a large central diadem. It has globular breasts with prominently scored

folds of flesh below, broad hips and sturdy posture. The decorative aesthetic

of this image is dull.

The Surya 2 temple constructed in the second half of the eighth century

sets an example of ensemble of images of various deities like

Mahishasuramardini on the north wall, Surya on the east and Ganesa to the

South. Such a pattern of ensemble of the images has been found in later

Saiva shrine both in Orissa and in Central India, especially at Naresar,

Batesara and Padhavali. It is also repeated elsewhere, albeit with slight

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variations, in western India examples such as Buckala and Bhundana.38

There is an image of Parvati on the performing penance (pancagnitapas) -

on the north wall. The original programme for the Surya -1 temple at Osian

included a similar sequence of Parvati, Kartikeya (alternatively Surya or

Harihara), and Ganesa.39 All these deities in both the temples are given their

due places.

In the Surya I temple there are relaxed images of Ganga and Yamuna. On

the west corner of the temple is carved the sturdy image of Ardhanarisvara.

The sturdiness of Ardhanarisvara and Siva Natesa images are repeated in the

squat. On the north wall the paired floral motifs of Ardhanarisvara, Siva

Natesa, Agni and Yama are found in the niches. The forms of the images

and sculptures are much simplified; they are contained within definite

outlines. Movements are seemingly more controlled and coherent. The

artistic application of the images here is relatively clear and straight.

Mahishasuramardini's image in Surya temple -2 is unique and

masterpiece of art. The divine victory of the goddess over the demon Mahisa

is depicted in a very natural fashion with much clarity and control. The

demon Mahisa is shown emanating from the body of buffalo. The goddess is

shown wielding her weapons in perfect fashion. There is an excellent co-

ordination of the attributes of the goddesses and also the precision with

which her physique and ornaments are depicted. The victory of the goddess

is presented with expression of satisfaction on her face. The unique

presentation of this image is that the goddess is trying to expel the demon

out of the wall of the temple. The image of the goddess has concentrated and

volumetric formulation of the body. She wears an analogous full headdress

38 M.W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky, Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, vol. 2, pt. 2:418-45 39 Ibid.

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with prominent central diadem, her hair pulled back in wavy stations. The

image has square face with protuberant, elongated eyes, sharply raised,

ridged eyebrows, and pursed, full mouths. This image of Durga in many

respects differs from the images of other female deities. It is more

organically rendered, and the base of the image is softer and more circular

than those of the deities made in Harihar 1, Mahavira, and Harihara 3. The

addition of a loop below the center of the belt makes the image different

from other images of goddess Durga.

In the temples of Hariharas no. 1 to 3, constructed at the time of the

Pratihara rule, the female deities are presented with some special features. In

Harihara -1 the lower portions of the door-jambs-pedyas have the carving of

river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on the proper right and left sides,

standing gracefully in symmetrical postures under trees which serve as

canopies over their heads. In all Harihara temples the river goddesses are

presented in iconic design. They are either shown with pots of water or

accompanied by symmetrical male figures holding flowers in their right

hands held near the chest and resting the left on their respective waists.

River deities are with their respective vehicles like Ganga on crocodile

accompanied by a female attendant or Yamuna on the other side on tortoise,

accompanied by female and male figures in an identical manner. In the

temple Harihara - 2 Ganga stands in a beautiful gopgJgsan on the vehicle

holding a lotus (or ghata) in the left hand. Ganga is draped in well-carved

dress and ornaments. The back of the image is wraped with the garments of

which the free ends are shown fluttering beautifully on the sides. Yamuna on

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the other karna proj ection is depicted similarly on her tortoise vehicle,

carrying a ghata in the right hand at shoulder and left hand akimbo. 40

Projection of Chamunda in the form of Mahishasuramardini is one of the

iconic features of Rajasthan. Chamunda is shown killing the demon Mahisa.

The image of Chamunda found also from Amjhara is well preserved. The

composition of this figure is such that it is four handed with emaciated

figure. She holds a severed head and a skull cup in the lower and upper left

hands. The other hands are broken. She has mundamala andjatajuta41• In the

Visnu temple no. 2 & 3 an image of Camunda is found individually on the

southern and western wall. It is also found on the south-western subsidiary

shrine of Harihara -1. The iconography of the image of Camunda is

interestingly designed. The goddess has emaciated image with pendulous

breasts and fierce looks killing here the demon Mahisa with her dreadful

attributes42. She is shown standing in pratyalikdha posture, just like

Mahishasuramardini, piercing the body of the buffalo with a tridnet held in

her normal right hand The rear right hand holds a sword with which she has

severed the head of the anthropomorphic form issuing from the neck of the

buffalo. She holds this severed head with her proper left hand while the back

left hand is shown as holding a bell. The images of Camunda are discovered

from Kiradu, Jodhpur,43 Baroli,44 Arthuna and Ajmer Museum.45

In temples of Mandor (Osia), the images of Sarasvati are also carved in

different designs. The images of Sarasvati are seen in Harihari -3, Harihara

40 Devendra Handa, Os ian, History, Archaeology, Art and Architecture, 1984, Sundeep Prakashan, Delhi, p. 113; C. P. Atherton, The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, Jan Fontein (ed.), Studies In Asian Art and Archaeology, Continuation of Studies in South Asian Culture, 1997, Vol. XXI, Brill, Leiden. New York. Koln. pp. 24-25 41 Sara L. Schastok, The Samalaji Sculptues and 61h Century Art in Western India, Leiden, 1985, Fig. 62 42 East & West, XIX (3-4), p. 421, fig. 14 43 G.H. Ojha, History of Rajputana, 1938" 4 Vols. Ajmer, pp. 45 & 55, 44 Lalit Kala, X, p. 20, pI. XII, 14 45 East & West, XIV, p. 421, fn. 59

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-1, Visnu temple -2. In Harihara temple -3 devi is seated with male deity

Brahma. She is held upon the stool, holding a kamandalu in the left hand,

the right one disposed in abhaya pose. The two-armed images of devi with

Vina exist on Harihara-1, Sachiya temple -2 and Visnu Temple -2. But all

these images of the devi are found on small subsidiary panels46. One of the

images of Sarasvati discovered in the hoard of the Jain bronzes in

Vasantgarh in the temple at Pindvada is a masterpiece bronze idol. Sarasvati

carrying a lotus and a manuscript in her two hands form part of this group.

The goddess has the delicacy, elegance and slim grace of post-Gupta

sculpture. 47

In the Osian temples are the references to various forms of the goddess

Laksmi. She is presented in temples with and without Vishnu in the form of

Gaja-Laksmi. The Gaja-Laksmi form of the goddess is quite a popular form.

Laksmi is presented as consort of Vishnu. She is shown embracing Vishnu

in Laksmi-Narayan images carved on the walls of Vishnu temples -3 to 5.

At some of the places in the temple she is found sitting on the lalgta-bimbas

and at some places with Narayan.48

The temple of Pipladevi (or Mahishasuramardini) is one of the best

examples of the goddess temples constructed in Osian, located slightly south

. of the Mahavira temple and is aligned in the same northern direction, which

is appropriate here for a goddess temple. The style of decoration of this

temple has the characteristics of the later half of the eighth century of Osian

and the sculptures have the characteristics of the ninth century. Outfit of the

temple and finish of sculpture contains twin characteristics of early and late

periods. Meister says "the remains that survive suggest some disruption in

46 Devendra Handa, Os ian, HistOlY, Archaeology, Art and Architecture, 1984, p. 30-45 47 Subhashini Aryan, Folk Bronzes of Rajasthan, New Delhi, Lalit Kala Akademi, 1994, pp. 25-26

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work on the structure and the addition of the present plain rangamandapa

late in the ninth century". 49

The image of Mahishasuramardini is placed in the central niche of this

temple, flanked by the apsaras. It is also flanked by the images of Kubera

and Ganesa500n right and left respectively. It is an eight-armed image of

Mahishasuramardini. 51 It is well decorated and is having full number of

attributes. The goddess is wearing a typical head-dress, adorned with jewels

in the centre. She stands trampling the back of the buffalo with the forepart

of her right foot. Out of the severed neck of the buffalo, with head still

attrached to it comes out the demon in human form holding a sword in the

right hand. The goddess is pressing the left· side of the Mahisa with her

normal left hand while the trident held in one of her right hand pierces the

back of the buffalo. The other right hands are shown as holding a discus, a

sword and taking out an narrow from the quiver at the back. The left hands

hold a scutum, a bell and a bow besides the one which presses the demon.

The lion attacks the buffalo from behind. An ornamented belt is also shown

on the back of the buffalo going around from above the forelegs. In this

image the presence of a plain round aureole behind the image indicated that

it is an original cult-icon.

On the east wall in the principal niche is another image of

Mahishasuramardini that is eight-armed and this image is fairly homologous

to the image of the main sanctum. This image is interpretated as the original

image of the goddess. Since this image lacks the aureole but the use of big

48 D evendra Handa, 1984, p. 112 49 M.W. Meister, Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2. 204-9, pIs. 462-72 50 R.C. Aggrawal in "Sculptures from Abaneri, Rajasthan," states that in Rajasthan at Abaneri the image of goddess Gaja-Lakshmi is flanked by Ganesa and Kubera. Lalit Kala, Nos. 1-2, (1955-56), pp. 132-33, fig. 5 51 D.R. Bhandarkar, "The Temples ofOsia", ARASI, 1912, 1908-09, Calcutta, p. 107

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lotus leaves encircled by flame-like pattern is reminiscent of a feature

noticed at the back of the Kevala-Nrsimha image at Deoghar.52

The sculptural design of the images of the temple of Pipladevi has unique

combination of stiffness and imperturbability. There is aesthetical change in

the presentation of the sculpture of Pipladevi temple. In the early part of the

ninth century the sculptures contained some natural presentation with lively

expression on the faces. This image of the devi reveals twin characters of

sculptural design. The image contains dense and compact physique with

sharp angularity of her arms and the puppet like figure of the demon Mahisa.

The naturalism and energy of the image of the devi is similar very much to

the image of Surya 2. But the image lacks the elegant ornamentation that is (

one of the important features of the images of the Osian. Even the costume

of the devi does not have that speciality and perfection like the costumes of

the images of the Surya 2.

So far we studied about images placed in the interior of Pipladevi temple.

There are images found in the exterior of the temple. Qualitatively images

created both inside and outside are almost the same. The design of the

costumes and the structure of the body of the deities created both inside and

outside are very much the same. Even then there are some obvious

differences between interior and exterior images of the female deities. The

expression of the eyes of the goddess placed interior of the temple appears as

if they are looking at the devotees with devotion which exterior images lack.

Besides this, weapons and ornaments, her enormous coiffure, the diaphanous

band across her breasts, and the twisted cloth that encircles her broad hips of

the interior images is much more organic than the crisp, linear details of the

52 Memoirs oj Archaeological Survey o/India, No. 70, pI. XXII. C; J.N. Banerjea, Development o/Hindu Iconography, New Delhi, 1974, pA17, pI. XXXIII, 3; IV, p. 87, fig. 87

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exterior image. The images created outside the main sanctum are the later

development and they are copied from the interior ones. Meister is of the

opinion that such "qualitative and chronological inconsistencies" are the

outcome of disruption in the construction of the temple.

In sum, the temple of Pipladevi adopts a differing sculptural and

architectural aesthetic; parts and phases of which are more successful than

others. At the same time, such experimentation at the site may suggest new

sources of creativity, probably imported from other regions. As we have

noted, the sculptural style here is weld of the tense ornateness a

characteristic of Osian and a more organic naturalism unusual for the site.

The latter trait is reminiscent of sculptural trends further south in the

Medapata and Gujaradesa-Anarta regions, where a luster, more volumetric ;

approach to the female form predominates. This style contrasts with the

hardened tauter rendering of such Osian figures as the Surya-2

Mahisasuamardini or the Harihara-3 bracket figure. Ultimately, then, the

sanctum figures from the Pipladevi temple would seem to partake of both

regional traditions, for they are neither as fully formal as the Osian genre nor

as naturalistic as the Medapata and Gurjaradesa-Anarta examples.

The report of Bhandarkar of 1908 informs about the missing image of

Gajalaksmi. He says that Gajalaksmi was seated on a lotus, borne by lions

placed back to back, being anointed by elephants standing on a lotus issuing

from the back on either side. This image of Gaja-Lakshmi could be

compared to the image of lying in the Sachiya porch. The image measures

45x27 cm. and 44x25 cm. He again comments that there was an image of the

goddess sitting on the lion throne that, in fact, according to him, was the

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image of Ksemankari that was stoned in the porch. He says that it is also

missing and must have occupied the south-central niche. 53

An image of Durga assignable to the eight century A.D. is found in the

temple of Sachiyamata. Though, the existing temple of Sachiyamata belongs

to lih century, but it is erected in situ much earlier than that of the existing

temple. The existing temple is complete reconstructuring of the earlier

temple. Some of the images found in the temple are the older ones installed

as early as i h - 8th century A.D. The image of devi is quadrumanous. She is

seated in lalitasana on a lotus seat under which are carved two lions back to

back with a pillar surmounted by a circular object in between. The image has

carved dhammilla hair coiffure, kundalas, a snake necklace with its tail

falling from between the breasts on the navel, angadas, valayas, nupuras

and an adhovastra of tiger-skin indicated by the tail falling from over the left

leg under the left hand secured again by what seems to be a naga-sutra. At

the back of head is a plain halo with beaded rim. The goddess carries a

trident and a noose in the rear hands, while the corresponding left holding a

rosary is paced on the calf of the left leg in varada pose. On the face of

image is beautitudinous smile; soft gazing eyes, exaggerated breasts,

graceful curves in the body and the simplicity of the image are its unique

features.

Siva temple constructed at Bhundana in the first quarter of the 9th century

has a very simple plan. The image of Siva is placed with his consort Parvati

in the interior sanctum together with a linga. The image of Siva is four-

armed and Parvati is carved in black stone. Along with images of Siva and

Parvati are the small images of their offspring's - Ganesa and Karttikeya. On

Siva's free intact arms, elongated fingers lightly clasp a lotus bud at his

53 D.R. Bhandarkar, "The Temples ofOsia", ARASl, pI. XLlIb, pp. 107-8

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chest form a cup under Parvati' s breasts and holds up a snake. The

remaining arm is broken, but presumably it held a trident. No less exacting

are Parvati' s attributes, with the brittle detailing of her tall bouffant coiffure

and her precisely carved collection of beaded and holed earrings and other

ornaments.

The north wall of Bhundana temple depicts Mahishasuramardini

accompanied by Vayu on the west comer and Kubera standing guard on the

east. The image reveals a fresh vibrancy. Her hip portion is slim and shapely

and her ten arms have fighting attributes. This image does not have tense

muscles and strong physique nor does it have action and activity like the

image of Surya 2. The gesture of pride oozes out of the expression of the

image as she holds the weapon aloft. She has full control over the Mahisha.

The image is three-dimensional.

Some of the fragmentary sculptures of female deities like Ganga and

Yamuna are discovered near the step-well at Choti Khatu, a site located at

the juncture of the western fringes near the border of modern Nagaur and

Sikar district. The images are attributed to the third quarter of the eighth

century. The sculpture discovered from this site is sophisticated.54 The

images of Ganga and Yamuna are riding upon the crocodile and tortoise,

respectively.

Yamuna's image found at Choti Khatu has much correspondence with the

image of Yamuna found in Harihara temple of Osian. Both the images have

enough curves, firm expression, square shaped shoulders, globular breasts,

proturent belly, round shaped legs and curved hips. Even the neck of the

54 M.W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (eds.) Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt. 2, North India: period of Early Maturity. C. A.D. 700-900,226-28, pis. 497-502

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Images contains three of the rings and three rings are curved under the

breasts that reveal the traditional fashion of its time.

Differences are obvious in the features of the images of Yamuna found one

at Choti Khatu and the other in Harihara temple. The Choti Khatu female is

more organically conceived, slenderer and softer than her powerful Osian

counterpart. The face of Choti Khatu' s Yamuna, for example, is composed

of rounded features arranged in a distant, somewhat abstracted expression

which is absent in the images of Yamuna at Osia.

Chandrabhaga Patan in Eastern Rajasthan was an important centre which

has yielded number of such colossal sculptors, now preserved in Jhalawar

Museum. Here, we notice the demon coming out of the cut-off body of the

buffalo-demon as also at Osian, Ababeri ... etc. 55

Near the early Siva temple at Didwana several images are found. The

image of Siva-Parvati placed in the temple at Bundana is believed to have

originated in Didwana. At Amber an image of Yaksis is discovered which

shows the excellence of sculptural creation in this region. The image of

Yaksis is thin linked to the images of Choti Khatri as far as the thickness of

the figure is concerned. Amber images are different from Didwana and the

images of Bhundan in the sense that the Amber images are not sharp and

specific like the images of Didwana and Bhundan. The images of Amber are

mask-like and frozen.

Harsatmata temple is one of the most prolific temples constructed in early

medieval time. The temple of devi has inclusion and incorporation of some

Vaisnava elements also. It consists of very sophisticated image of

Ardhanarisvara, though the image is damaged, but surviving joint male and

55 R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art in Suresh K. Shanna & Usha Sharma (eds.), Rajasthan Through The Age, Vol. 2; 1999, pp. 22-27

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female halves have beautiful decorative. The Parvati contains full-breast,

deep curves of the hip and the lower garments have good folds. There has

been rosary in one of her four hands and has heart shaped pendants. Some of

the features of Parvati distinguish her from Siva like her garland and ankle

bracelet. The bull Nandi on the one side reminds the presence of Siva beside

Parvati. Some attributes identify the presence of Siva or distinguish Siva

from Parvati. The array of skull garland, twisted band, tiger skin, matted

headdress and snake-wreathed tridents are the attributes of Siva.

Near the step-well of Abhaneri is found images for Balaram and for

Parvati. Parvati is in ascetic posture. The style of the sculpture of Parvati is

plain and simple free from much ornamentation. Lacking ornamentation of

the image of Parvati corresponds to these meditative stance of the goddess,

but carving of the image is beautifully rendered.

An image of Durga is discovered from the temple of Abhaneri which is

curved with authority. The female deity is shown sitting on lotus seat in an

unusual fashion: two of her legs, one up and the other is in the normal sitting

posture. The face of the lion is peeping aggressively out of the right thigh.

Embattled eight arms hold attributes like a noose, a pot, a bow, a shield and

a sword. This image of Durga is different in many ways from the image of

Parvati. The hair of Durga has matted locks, large dangling earrings and

pendants that are absent in the image of Parvati. The face of Durga is

beautifully sculpted, brows are arch shaped, deep set eyes are downcast, lips

attractive and nose broad. The similar kind of ornamentation and decoration

is applied for her attendants also. In attendants there is further addition of

ornamentation as a twisted jeweled' diadem is arranged on their heads. The

images are profusely embellished. The ornamentation and decoration are

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done together in greater amount, but the art of naturalism is always taken

care of.

One more image of Durga is found in the temple of Abhaneri. The image

is ten-handed, bearing in her right arms trisula, khadga, etc. and in the left

arms pasa, parasu, etc. She has big long eyes, developed breasts, broad tight

thighs and an appearance of full youth coming on her. She is seen in the act

of killing the buffalo-demon with trisula. Below is the headless body of the

demon, from whose neck the demon in human form is seen emerging with a

sword in his hand. There is no lion; the devi is in the act of killing, the

buffalo-demon is riding over him. 56

The Dadhimati mata temple is located at the boundaries of the two

villages, named Goth and Mangold. These villages are twenty- four miles

north-east of Nagor, the principal town of the district of the same name in

Jodhpur state. The goddess Dadhimatimata IS commonly called

Dadhmatmataji supposed to be constructed at the time of Druhalana.57 The

sunk floor-level of this temple's sanctum possibly represents the garbha of

the seventh-century shrine. The structure that stands, however, in spite of

further renovation, is of the ninth century A.D. 58

The Naktiamata temple is still in good shape. At the roof of the porch

standing upon two of the pillars is an image ofDurga. The image ofDurga is

presented in the form of Kshemankari. The image ofDurga consists of eight-

arms and is seated upon double lion with one of her legs hanging

downwards. The other leg is folded in the form of Siddhasana. Rest of the

features of Durga is very much obscured under the excessive use of

56 P.K. Majumdar, Shakti Worship in Rajsthan in D.C. Sircar (ed.), The Shakti Cult and Tara, 1967, Calcutta, pp. 95-96 57 Michael W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (edit.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture North-India Period of Early Maturity, Text, c. A. D. 700-900, ouP - 1991, p.252

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vermilion and whitewash. Other than the given porch of Durga, other niches

of the temple consist of the iconographic presentation linked with Siva and

Shakti. Naktimata temple has much resemblance with Ksemankari temple of

Chitaurgarh.59 In the small south niche is dikpala Indra and in the north sides

of the niche is the Isana. Even the sculptural arrangement of Naktimata

temple is very much similar to the temple of Ksemankari temple of

Chittaurgarh.60

The overall sculpting of Naktimata temple is not so pronounced and

prominent. The images look languid and restrained. The ornamentation of

the images is less developed. Comparing architectural design with the figural

presentation in the temple of Naktimata, there is an obvious incompatibility

between the two. For example, the image of Yam a curved in the southwest

corner is languid and least prominent. As opposed to this, in the temples

constructed in late eight and the first half of the ninth century, the figural

presentation was prominent and pronounced. The images curved in walls

and niches in this period had been occupying visibly a prominent position.

Kaman, situated in Bharatpur district, lying in the eastern most part of

Rajasthan, is one of the important places from where several important

images of Siva and Parvati are discovered. Even Siva linga (phallus) in the

form of pancayatana is discovered from Kaman. The images of Siva and

Parvati are presented in a fashion as if they were marrying. The images of

Siva and Parvati of Kaman, preserved in the Bharatpur museum, are lively

and expressive. Siva and Parvati are presented along with two of their sons

58 Ibid. 59 There is a temple dedicated to Ksemankari in Sirohi district and the image is installed therein of Durga. Another Ksemankari temple is preserved in Goth-Mangold in Nagaur district about which I have discussed later. This temple is known by Dadhimatimata temple. The temple consists of central images for Ganesa, Ksemankari and Parvati. M.W, Meister presumes that the temple originated in ninth century, though the inscription found in the temple suggests that this temple originated in 6th century. 60 c.P. Atherton, The Sculpture a/Early Medieval Rajasthan, 1997, p. 82

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Ganesa and Karttikeya, the full family of the deities. Siva and Parvati are

sitting on the Nandi in the image while Karttikeya and Ganesa on their feet

and various other attendants are shown hovering round them. Three

diminutive images of the deities like Visnu, Brahma and Siva in the form of

linga are also presented in the temple.61 The sculpture of three deities looks

relaxed and is presented in natural posture.

The Kalikamata temple faces the east and is situated on a raised platform.

The temple of Kalikamata has decorative enclosing ambulatory like the

temple of Abhaneri, though the Abhaneri temple was constructed a century

later than this temple. The base moldings, the walls and the doorframes of

the temple are also well decorated. The interior ambulatory images are also

well decorated with various divinities, celestial figures and decorative

motifs. The installation of the images in the exterior walls is not extensive.

The images here like the temple of Surya-l temple are fixed as separate units

arid therefore the images can be shifted to other niches according to wish. In

the western side of the niches is placed the image of Lakulisa. There are the

images of Surya and Ardhanariswar. The image of Siva is projected

prominently with some female deities. The importance of Surya appears

minimized in the temple and the temple was converted from Surya to

Kalikamata temple.62

Kalikamata temple contains an image of a female deity that is known as

Kali. The images of devi consits of four-arms, with a trishula (trident) in her

upper right hand and there ia a pankha (hand fan) in her upper left hand. She

61 M. M. Mukhopadyay, Sculptures a/the Ganga-Yamuna Valley, fig. 29, New Delhi, Abhinav, 1984 62 M.W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky talks about two important monuments of Surya and Siva in "Encyclopaedia a/Indian Temple Architecture", Vol. 2, pt. 2: 285-97, fig; 120-23, pis. 655-83; c.P. Atherton, op. cit. vol. XXI, 1997, provides detailed information regarding the temple ofKalikamata. pp. 89-95

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is represented in a sitting posture. Her left lower hand is broken but the right . 63 lower hand rests over the knee and the plam faces upwards holding a mala.

Most of the images in Kalikamata temple lack vivacity and are languid.

Though the image of Ardhanariswar is compact and has jointless fluidity,

the ornamentation of the image is excellent and curves of the body graceful.

The ornamentation, the style and the figural presentation of the image in the

temple of Kalikamata are different to earlier figural designs of sculptures as

mentioned in the discussion of Marudesa and sculptures of north-west of

Rajasthan. Sculpting features of the images here resemble very much with

the figures of Sondhi and Khileipura in Mandasor district constructed in

sixth century A.D. The images here are decked up with heavy

ornamentation. Such an excessive use of ornamentation appears to have

derived from an impact of sculptural trait of central Indian temples.

Comparing the images of Kalikamata temple with the images of

Naktimata of Bhawanipur, we notice that there are differences between the

two. Figures of Naktimatimata temple are more provocative while the image

of Kalikamata is restless, impassive and undemanding. The base of the

images of Kalikamata temple is designed neat and framed in conventional

pattern and is predictable but opposed to the surfaces of the images of

Naktimata temple that are innovative and uncommon.

The Kumbhasyama (Siva) temple contains varied images of male female

deities. Images of Harihara, Lakulisa, Ardhanarisvara, Durga and emaciated

image of Camunda are found on the exterior walls and base molding. In the

interior walls are the images of Gajalaksmi, Ganesa, Pavati and Karttikey.

63 Henery Cousens, J'RASIWC, 1894-95 to 1903-04, p -38

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The inclusion of the images of female deities in Kumbhasya temple reflects

the rising importance of the Sakta tradition. 64

The temple of Ksemankari is situated in the dry tank right in front of the

Kalikamata temple, on the top of the hill in the town of Chittaurgarh. In the

base of Ksemankari temple resides Ganesa, Gajalaksmi on the west and

Kubera in the north. The sculptural programme of Ksemankari temple is

very formal, dramatic and brief in presentation that is why we find that the

images are erected in later ninth century. A very close observation of the

images of this temple reflects that the figures are restless and contain

common and general pattern of ornamentation.

At Kidarpura near Nagaur district is a temple belonging to Saivites.65

There is much similarity of this Khidarpur temple with Ksemankari temple

of Chittaurgarh. That the temple is Saivite is indicated by the representation

of Lakulisa on the doorframe as well as the pairing of images of Rev ant a and

Camunda on its buffer (Kapili) walls. On the west side of the temple is

stationed the goddess Durga in her benign Ksemankari manifestation, with

her four arms displaying the typical attributes: the lower right is open in the

boon-granting gesture (Varadamudra), the upper right holds a trident, and

the upper left bears a lotus; the lower left is damaged but probably held a

pot. She sits on a lotus in a posture of royal ease (Lalitasana), her right foot

resting upon the back of one of two lions that lie at her feet. Gajalaksmi is

seated on the moldings below while Nirrti and Varuna find their customary

position on the corners.

Comparison of sculptured Images of Kumbhasyama temple with

Kalikamata and Ksemankari temple reflects that Kumbhasyama images are

64 c.P. Atherton, The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, vol. XXI, 1997, p. 93

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stylistic and clearer than both of these temples. The images in Kalikamata

and Ksemankari temples have indistinctive carvings, less ornamentation and

subsumed projection of physique. The images of Kumbhasyama temple are

advanced and stylistic which reflects that Kumbhasyama temple rose after

Kalikamata and Ksemankari.

Sitaleswara temple is supposed to be one of the largest sacred centers in

its region. Some of the lost images of Sitaleswara temple have been

discovered near the site of Chandrabhaga river: one for Ardhanarisvara and

other for goddess Mahishasuramardini.66 Both of these images are

discovered in Jhalarapatan and now preserved in Jhalawar Museum. The

figural features of both these images are not the same. There are some

obvious differences between the two that marks the difference of periods in

their construction. The rough and coarse finish of Ardhnarisvara, clumsy

combination of male-female deity, round head, thick neck, large coiffure,

triangular nose and thick arched brows and full mouth are suggestive of the

creation of the image earlier in the seventh century. The figure of

Ardhanarisvara IS very much different from usual features of

Ardhanarisvara, as the image consists of six arms and cocooned III

ithyphallic shape. In two of the upper hands of Siva: tridents is in the left

hand and snake in the right. Lower hand is placed upon the head of the bull

and the bull is presented in a human figure. The bull is supposedly Nandi.

The half of the Parvati has two hands: one upp~r left hand is damaged and

lower hand rests above a small figure of Karttikeya who is presented with a

65 M.W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky, Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt. 2:240-42, pI. 548-53 66 Michael W. Meister, "Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhaga and Kansuan" Archieve of Asian Art, 34 1981,p.57

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peacock as his vehicle.67 In this sculptural presentation the image of Ganesa

IS mIssmg.

Fragmentary statues of early-medieval time of the goddesses have been

discovered from various places of Rajasthan. The Amjhara-Dungarpur group

of sculptors contains standing and emaciated images of Chamunda. Though

the sixth century image of Mahishasuramardini68 is missing in the group.

The four-armed colossal statue of devi is discovered at Amjhara where the

goddess is shown twisting the very neck of the buffalo-demon. There is utter

absence of the chopped-off head of Mahisha as also in the early medieval

statues from Ellora, Elephanta and Chamba.69 At Jagat in Mewar is also

discovered an image of female deity. The goddess is shown pressing the

head of the demon by one of her feet. 70 Here, too, we do not notice the cut-

off head of the buffalo at all. These are some early traits of the images of

medieval art of Rajasthan.

The image of Durga, other than Ardhanarisvara image, found near the

site of Chandrabhaga river has articulate and elegant finish. It is, though not

simple, rather complex. The image of Durga consists of important attributes

like a trident and eight weapon bearing arms. The demon as buffalo is

presented in a typical form. He is shown as if emerging out of the body of

buffalo. The figural presentation of the image of Mahishasuradini follows

exactly the traits of images created in the late seventh or early eight century.

The central image of the goddess consists of arrangement of varied figures

of deities. Expression and action in the images are well revealed. Upon the

67 Vishakha N. Desai and Darielle Mason's (ed.), Gods, Guadians and Lovers: Temple Sculpture; From North india, A .. D. 700-1200. 1993, New York: Grantha Corporation for the Asia Society Galleries, and Ahmedabad: Map in Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Similar kind of image of Ardhanarisvara is discovered at Kanauj and preserved in the Archaelogical Museum ofKanauj; figure - 70 68 R.C. Agrawala, Lalit Kala, Nos. 6 & 10) 69 Arts Asiatiques, Paris, 4(i), 1957, figure 2 on p. 16 fig. 21 on p. 58 70 R.C. Agrawala, Lalit kala, No.6, pI. 24, tig. 24

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images both for Ardhnarisvara and Mahishasuramardini from Jhalarapatan

there is an obvious impact of its neighbouring regions of east and south

instead of Chittaurgarh. The peculiar features of the images - like tall figure

with square shoulders, round bellies, flat hips, long waists, tubular limbs,

limited use of ornaments - set them apart from the features of the images of

Chittaurgurh.

An image of Gajalaksmi discovered from Indragadh around fifty

kilometers away from the Chandrabhaga supposedly belongs to eighth

century. The goddess is presented in sitting posture with elephants on either

side. Behind head has the structure of halo. She is sitting on the lotus and at

the base are arranged flanking pairs of worshiping Nagas, Naganis and

Kubera. On either sides of the image are found the images of Ganga and

Yamuna; Ganga stands to the left of the goddess on Madara and Yamuna on

the right on tortoise. The image of Gajalaksmi is sophisticated and neat in

finish. Figural finish of Gajalaksmi gives an impression that this image is

created later than the image of Mahishasuramardini as this image is more

neat and sophisticated than the image of Mahishasuramardini. The image of

Gaj alaksmi is presumably dated 710-11 AD on the basis of the inscriptions

discovered in Indragadh site.71

A few yards from the Sitalesvara Mahadeva temple at Chandrabhaga is a

temple for Kali in which are stored a number of images offering an

important and uncommon array of nude female figures. 72 Besides the stored

images, the images for Camunda, Durga, Ganesa, Siva and Natesa are also

found installed at different places of the temple. The style of construction of

71 K. Deva, E1, Vol. 32, "Indragarh Inscription of Nan nappa, V.S. 767" 1957-58: pp. 112-117; for sculpture D. Stadtner and M. Willis, The Dictionary of Art, Vol. 15: 495 & R.C. Agrawala, Mahishamardini in Early Rajasthani Art, Suresh K. Sharma & Usha Sharma ed., Rajasthan Through The Age, vol. 2; 1999, p. 24 72 The Rajasthan District Gazetteer, lhalawar, 1964, p. 283.

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the images reveals that they are good match to the images of Sankaragan

panel. These images, therefore, may be dated to eight century A.D. The

features of the images are as follows: interlocking of long slenderer limbs,

the prominent breasts, dented waist, small hips and animals are sitting

behind the legs of the figures. Such features tally with the images that

belong to the 8th century. The images are a bit rough which underlines the

fact that they are not created under stringent care. Even figural pattern of

images reveals lot of variations.

The stored images in Kali temple have the majority of images of Y oginis

led by the goddess Chamunda. The following images both Chamunda and

Yogini give horrifying impression. The Y ogins are provided with either six

or eight arms and each of their arms contain particular attributes like

daggers, choppers, severed heads and skull cups. Their neck has hanging

skull necklace, ornaments of snakes and on their feet are the jackals. The

image of Chamunda has a usual awful appearance, emaciated, pendulous

breasts and sunken belly. Camunda is almost naked except with animal skin

loincloth. She is adorned with garland of snakes and scorpions grace her

midriff. She stands upon a corpse and around her feet are jackal and some

hungry ghost. In her hands are severed heads, a skull bowl, a small curved

dagger, sword, trident, tunderbolt, rosary, bell, drum and serpent noose.

The finish of the fragmentary sculptures differs in many ways from .the

style of sculptures of Marudesa and the images found in Nagaur and Jaipur

areas. But the impact of Western and· central Indian influences upon the

construct of sculptures of the areas of Chittaurgarh regime cannot be

negated. 73

Images of the goddesses Outside Rajasthan: A Comparison

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Early images for female deities have been discovered from various parts

of India. It was a pan-Indian phenomenon. Gupta period, in particular, was

the phase when image construction witnessed some marked changes. It was

marked as the culmination of earlier developments in the plastic art. In this

phase, sculptures and images achieved a new growth as the vehicles in the

images are used as necessary out-fit. Multi-armed images of the deities are

found holding different attributes and weapons. Images were clad with

clothes and sometimes covered with ornaments also. The nude presentation

had almost come to an end. Most of the findings of the images show that

female deities were presented independently and in fierce mood attacking

the animal demon with weapon.

Images discovered in the areas of Bhita, Ahichatra, Rajghata, Udaigiri

(Vidisha), Sivamandir and Karvan (Kayabrohan) belong to Gupta age.74

These images consist of vehicles and have two or more arms and each hand

is holding weapons and some other attributes.75 The image of devi

discovered from Bhruma is quite popular in which devi is presented in this

fashion that she is putting her right leg on Mahisha in inclined posture and in

both of her left hands have swords and the right hand has a trident with

which she is attacking the rear part of the animal. 76 In Ahichatra, one of the

images of the goddess of Gupta period consists of two hands. Some of the

images are made in a sitting position holding trident in her right hand and

trying to hit Mahisha. In the archives of Allahabad in one of the images the

goddess has two hands: in the right she is holding trident and trying to hit

Mahisha and with the left hand she is trying to pull the tail of Mahisha

73 C.P. Atherton, The Sculptures of Early Medieval Rajasthan, 1997, pp. 89-95 74 K. Bharatta Iyer, "An Early Bea! of Mahishasuramardini" Artibas Asie, XXXI, 1969, p. 180, fig. -8. 75 Shanti La! Nagar, Mahishasuramardini, Sahityika, Sanskritik, Aitihasik and Rajnaitik Paripekshya Mai, Eastern Book Linkar's, De!hii, 1995, p.95

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upward. 77 Some of the fragmentary tables of Naliasar represent the goddess

Durga slaying the buffalo demon. Another image, as reported by Marshall,

discovered from Bairat, is a terracotta figure of a dancing girl; it is supposed

to be the figure of Yakshi, the feet and the head of the figure are lost.

(Tirualandari temple of Shiva78 and Achileshwar temple of Tiruwarur79 have

similar images of goddess in which she is standing on (Abhang Mudra) the

head of buffalo and is armed with weapons. Er~wteshwar temple of

D~r~suram, Brihdishwar temple and temple of Gangaikond~chol~puram

have images of goddess and they are almost similar except for one

difference that in the temples of Brihdishwar and Gangaikondacholapuram

the lion is on the right side of the goddess.80 A very impotant Gupta image is

found in a relief carved on the facade of cave at Udaigiri near Bhilsa,

Madhya Pradesh shows that the goddess is killing Mahisasura, the bufflao-

demon. Here the goddess is twelve armed.81 Two armed figures of the Devi

fighting with the Buffalo Demon belonging to the Gupta period is

discovered by Marshall at Bhita in which other accessory figures are also

shown. 82

Pallavas also set a unique tradition of sculptural design in their own time.

In their sculpture Durga is presented as a Vaisnava deity. She is always

presented as bearing Visnu' s conch and disk and is primarily associated with

Vaisnava temples. She is always potrayed as beautiful and is distinguished

from ,other female figures by a specific type of band around her breasts

76 Ibid, p.95 77 Ibid. p.90 78 V. Mishra, Mahishasuramardini, Delhi, 1984, p. 42 79 Ibid. 80 Shanti Lal Nagar, Mahishasuramardini, Sahityika, Sanskritik, Aitihasik and Rajnaitik Paripekshya Mai, Eastern Book Linkers, p.97, plate. 27 81 Artibus Asiae, XXXI, p. 180 82 John Marshall, AiUlUal Report, Archaeological Survey ofIndia, 1911-12, p.86. PI. XXXI, Fig, 13 and 14

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(kucha-bandha) shared with her female guardians.83 Pallava specimens is the

Mahisamardini of Mamallapuram, assigned to the seventh century A.D.

which shows the goddess Durga mounted on the lion, her eight hands armed

with bow, sword, club conch, axe, gong, etc. the demon represented with the

head of a buffalo holding a club and a sword.84 Kameshwar temple of

Tribhuwan has six-armed image of devi and each of the six hands has disc,

conch, shield, Abhai and Kati Hasta Mudra and goddess is standing on

fallen head of buffalo. 85

. The monumental work of Mahishasuramardini in the Ramesvara cave at

Ellora probably belongs to A.D. 650. In Rameshwar of Ellora the goddess

has just held the neck of the Mahisha and is trying to strike Mahisha with

trident. 86 The images of the goddess found in the caves of Sanghol in

Punjab87 and in Hemwati88 are similar images.

The Chalukya kings who reigned between A.D. 550-642 erected the

temple of goddess Druga at Aihole. The Aihole relief shows the eight-armed

goddess pIercmg the upturned neck of the buffalo-demon.89 In

M~rkandeshwar9o temple at Bhuvaneswar the goddess is presented pulling

up the tail of the Mahisha with the left hand and striking Mahisha with

trident with the right hand.

Rao has made some comments upon the changes in presentation of the

images at different places at different points of time. The Ellora relief shows

83K.R. Srinivasan, Cave-Temples of the Pallavas, ASI, New Delhi, 1946, pp.141-48 J.P. H. Vogel, "The Head-offring to the goddess in Pallava Sculpture," Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, 6, 1930-32, 538-43. 84 N.N. Bhattacharyya, The Indian Mother Goddess, Manohar, 1999, p. 162 85 Shanti Lal Nagar, ob. cit, p.97, plate. 27 86 Ibid. plates- 14, 18 87 Ibid. plates- 14, 18 88 J. P.H. Vogel, Antiquities ofChamba State, Calcutta, 1911, p.138, VIl- B 89 N.N. Bhattacharyya, The Indian Mother Goddess, Manohar, 1999, p.161 90 K.C. Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhuhaneshwur, Bombay, 1961, P 134

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that the eight armed devi riding her lion is vigorously attacking Mahishasura.

Mahishasura is presented a full-scale man of her stature with buffalo horns.

Other demons, some fallen and others still fighting, are shown below and in

the two uppermost rows in the panel. If we compare this image of the Ellora

with the image of Aihole and other from Haripur (Mayurbhanj, Orissa) we

find a change in devi's style of combating with the demon. The Aihole relief

(c. 6th or i h century A.D.) shows the eight-armed goddess piercing the

upturned neck of the Buffalo Demon (no man comes out of the decapitated

trunk of the animal, which is a later feature), her lion mount on the left being

a silent onlooker (PI. XLII, fig. 3). The Haripur sculpture (a few centuries

later than the Aihole one) shows the eight-armed goddess in a more

aggressive pose, where the three prongs of the sula pierce the upturned neck

of the human demon issuing out of the decapitated trunk of the animal, the

lion also taking part in the fight (PI. XLII, Fig. 2). The early Chalukya artist

appears to lay stress on the easy and effortless grace with which the divine

act of retribution was carried out, while the Orissa sculpture portrays with

success the dynamic vigour underlying the act. 91

The images constructed after Gupta periods have been discovered from

various places of India. The beautiful brass image of the four-armed goddess

of the time of Meruvarman, king of Camba (c. 8th century A.D.) has an

inscription which describes her as Lakshana; here the devi is shown uplifting

the hind part of the demon in the shape of a buffalo by holding its tail with

her front left hand, and piercing its neck with a trisula with front right, while

she tramples on its neck with her right leg (her back hands hold a sword and

a bell).92 In the image of Lakshana devi discovered in Himachal created at

91 IN. Banerjea, Development oj Hindu Iconography, p. 499 92 1. P. H. Vogel, Antiquities ojChamba State, Calcutta, 1911, p. 138, PI. VII (b).

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the time of Meruwarman. Lakshana devi has four hands but the head of

Mahisha is not chopped off. This image is more near to the image of

Bhruma.93

Some of the references to the images of goddesses of early time are

found in Bihar and they are preserved in Indian Museum. One of the

goddesses is seated astride on the back of her mount. Her backhands carry a

sword and a shield, front left a sula, the front right being in the varada pose.

There are usual flying Vidyadhara figure on the top section of the sparingly

decorated elliptical prabhavali. The other sculpture emphasizes the mother

aspect of Kurga Simhavahini seated in lalitaksepa on the baci of her

couchant mount; her two right hands and the back left hand are shown in the

same manner as in the other Bihar sculpture, while her front left hand clasps

her child (probably Karttikeya) seated on her left lap.94 In Baijnath-Ka-

Mandr temple the image of goddess has ten hands, two left mutilated, the

other two holding a bow and the fifth a bell, and the four right wielding a

lathe, a trident, arrows, and a rosary. of beads, the fifth being open.95 One

unique image of Durga recovered from a North Bengal village in the district

of Dinajpur, depicts a very interesting manner of Nava (nine) Durga motif.

The central figure of Mahisasuamardini is eighteen-armed, while eight other

sixteen-armed miniature replicas of the same type are grouped round it. J.N.

Banerjea has made reference to a goddess found in Bengal that has thirty-

two hands and called by the name ofMahishasuramardini.96

In south India in i h _8th century A.D. the image of the goddess IS

presented in Abhang, Dvibhang and Tribhang a pose. The goddess IS

93 J.N. Banerjea, Development of Hindu Iconography, p.493 94 Ibid. p. 501 95 D.R.Bhandarkar, PRASIWC, June 30th

, 1905, p.54 96 J.N. Banerjea, Development vf Hindu Ic.:vl1ography, p.500

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presented standing on the head of the Mahisha. Standing image of goddess

on the head of Mahish depicts that she is Mahishasuramardini. Such images

besides many other places are found at Arkeshwar temple at Mysoor;

Bhognandeshwar temple at Nandi; Tiruwilengudi Shiva mandir at Sriyoor

(district Trichi); Mukundmishwar mandir Kalathur at Chingalpat;

Ekamabareshwar mandir at Settur (Pondicheri); Shivasthaneshwar mandir,

Kanchipuram (Chiglapat); Swaymbhunath Swami mandir at Nedangdu;

Ishwar mandir at Dhnyakarkotai.97 At Sri Rangava Shiva temple in Kerala is

an image of goddess dated 620-728 A.D. The goddess is settled upon the

headless body of Mahisha. Her left leg is on the head and right on the body

ofMahisha. Two of the worshippers of the goddess are sitting beside: one of

them is sitting in the postures of vajrasana (sitting on keens) involved in

meditation and the other one is busy in cutting flesh of his body and offering

it to the goddess. 98

Multi armed images of i h _8th century of female deities are found at

various places in India. In Brihdishwar and in Arkeshwar temples the images

are four armed holding disc, conch, Abhay and Katihastha. In a ninth

century four-armed image found at Abaneri, she has smiling face and her

right leg is on the fallen head of Mahish. She is striking on his head with

trident and out of the ripped neck is oozing out a human form. With her left

hand, she is pressing hard on Mahisha' s head. The severed head is shown

fallen on the floor. Even goddess's vehicle lion is also attacking Mahisha

from behind.99 Ten-armed image of goddess is preserved in AllahabadlOo

97 Shanti Lal Nagar, Mahishasuramardini, Sahityika, Sanskritik, Aitihasik and Rajnaitik Paripekshya Mai, Eastern Book Linkar's, Delhii, 1995, p.96 98 V. Mishra, Mahishasuramardini, Delhi, 1984, p. 38 99 Shanti Lal Nagar, Mahishasuramardini, Sahityika, Sanskritik, Aitihasik and Rajnaitik Paripekshya Mai, Eastern Book Linkar's, Delhii, 1995, p.96 100 Ibid. p. 98, plate no. 656

- In-

museum, at Manbhum 101 in Calcutta museum and such images are found in

Lakshman temple at Khajuraho 102 and at Hissar in Harayana.103 Twelve-

armed images of the goddesses ar~ found in the caves of Udaigiri 104 and in

Khajuraho. 105 Sixteen-armed image of goddess is rarely referred to III

scriptures but in practice for worshiping such images are found quite III

number in different parts of India. They are found in Baijnath Almoraha,

Khajuraho, Kangra, Halibidu and Banarasi.106 The eighteen-armed image of

goddess, as pointed out by J.N. Banerjea, is found in western Dinajpur and

near this image are found the images of goddess that are eight armed and

sixteen armed images of Mahasasuramardini. 107 In Chid~mbram temple, 108

Gangaikonda Cholapuram,109 and at Chamballo(picture in Kangra form of

eighteen armed goddess) we find images and picture of eighteen-armed

goddess. Twenty-armed goddess is found at Chidambaram and Bheraghat. III

We have discovered an image of thirty-two-armed goddess in the village of

Betana situated in west Dinajpur.112 The goddess has thirty-two arms and

devi is trying to kill Mahishasura. J.N. Banerjeal13 depicts that multi-armed

images of the goddesses reflect their omnipotence.

Given facts of images and their features above do reflect that at this

point of time almost all regions of India including Rajasthan had been

sharing some features of images across the regions. For example, the multi-

101 Ibid. p. 98 102 v. Mishra, Mahishasuramardini, Delhi, 1984, p. 78, pl.54 103 S.L. Nagar, 1995,op. cit. p. 98-99, pic. 61-62 104 J.N. Banerjea, 1974, op. cit. p. 500, pI.XLI, fig. 4 105 Ibid. 106 Sara L. Nagar, 1995,op. cit. p, 99 107 J.N. Banerjea, 1974, op. cit. p.500 108 R. Nagaswami, Tantric Cults of South India, Delhi, 1982, says that at the base of the image is inscribed "Tripurasundari" the name of the goddess. p. 179, pI. 54 109 S.L. Nagar, Mahishasuramardini in Indian Art, New Delhi, 1988, p.9 110 Ibid. p.9 III Ibid. P 99, pic.65 1121. N. Banerjea, HistOlY of Bengal, Vol. I, p. 115,454,

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armed images, variety of attributes in hands, presentation of varied mudras

and curves in the statues are some common features of the images.

Refinement, stylistic and systematic presentation of the images is also some

common pattern of image construction. But Rajasthan in some respect had

initiated and introduced markedly a new feature in image construction

during the fifth and in the first half of the sixth century and that was the

presentation of an uncommon form of Camunda. Camunda is presented in an

emaciated and terrible form. It consists of multiple arms, large belly, the

head embellished with the skull, the snake encircling the body, dangerous

weapons in hands. The overall impression of Camunda was threatening and

malevolent. I 14 Finding of image of Camunda at Tanesara (Rajasthan) is one

of the best examples of it. 115 It is rather a regional preference. Gradually, in

course of time, this feature became a pan-Indian tradition. It became a

dominat practice. Presentation of beautiful visualization of Camunda had

come to an end, except in South India where goddess Camunda was

presented both in the form of beautiful visualization and malevolent

nature. I 16

Matrkas Images

Matrkas are one of the important forms of the goddesses and are

worshipped all through India. Its antiquity is as ancient as the origin of Siva

and the fertility cult of the goddesses of Indus valley civilization. Matrkas

are projected in literatures, icons, rituals and visuals that are linked to the

brahmanical and non-brahamanical religious traditions.

1 J3 J.N .Banerjea, 1974, op. cit. p. 500 114 There is no textual reference to substantiate the early phase of Camunda in Rajasthan. 115 Shivaji. K. Panikkar, Saptamatrka Worship and Sculptures, An Icon%gical Interpretation o/Conflicts and Resolutions in the Storied Brahmanical Icons, D. K. Printworld (p) Ltd., 1997, p.83 116 Ibid

- 174 -

Matrkas represent the embodied energy and prowess of the seven famous

gods, their male counterparts as their very names indicate. Matrkas are

generally presented in a group of mother goddesses, but Matrkas number in

each of given group vary as referred to in texts. The number of the mothers

is found seven or more than that but four of them like Kaumari, Vaisnavi,

Varahi and Aindri are almost common to all the lists. The Markandeya

Purana informs the seventh as Narainhi, Ksirasvamin and the

Suprabhedagama incorporate Vamani, Vainayaki, Mahalaksmi and Candika

respectively. 117 The Varaha Purana designates the eight mothers as

Yogisvari, Mahesvari, Vaisnavi, Bramhi-Svayambhu, Kaumari, Indraja,

Yamadandahari, Anasuya and Varahi. 118 The Brahmanda Purana enlists

Mahalaksmi as the eighth mother. 119 Skanda Purana l20 informs about nine

names of Matrkas: Narasimhi, Camunda, Varahi, Varuni, Laksmi, Kali,

Kapali, Kurukulla and Indrani.

The Puranas do inform various stories pertaining to the OrIgm of

Matrkas. The Suprabhedagama tells that Brahma had created Saptamatrkas

with the purpose to kill Nirta. 121 The Markandeya Purana narrates that

Brahma, Visnu, Siva, Skanda and Indra had given birth to Matrkas to

destroy the demons such as Sumbha and Nisumbha and Canda and

Munda. 122 Devi Mahatmya desribes the Matrkas in detail saying that they are

the counterparts of the gods namely Indra, Visnu, Varaha, Brahma,

Narasingh, Mahesvara and Kumara. 123

117 Pushpendra Kumara, Shakti Cult in Ancient India, 1974, p. 234 118 Ibid. 119 Ibid 120 Ibid 121 Gopinatha T. Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconograhpy, Madras, 1916, p. 382-383 122 Pushpendra Kumara, Shakti Cult in Ancient India, 1974, p. 235 123 Ibid.

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The archaeological sources for the study of the images of Saptamatrkas

are quite inconsistent. The images of Matrkas are not properly dated and

their regions are not duly specified which create problem in the

identification of the images of the goddesses. Due to these complexities the

historical growth of the images cannot be analyzed.

The Saptamatrkas are often carved in relief on a rectagular stone slab

with the fingers of Virabhadra and Ganesa on either side. The usually

accepted list of the Matrkas supported by iconographic data consists of

Brahmani, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Varahi, Indrani and Camunda.

Stone and bronze sculptures are not unknown in which the number of the

Mother are only three, and they are usually Brahmani, Kaumari and

Vaisnavi. One such bronze composition is originally found at Imadpur.

These three goddesses are seated between Virabhadra and Ganesa. 124

The images of the Matrkas are discovered at various places in Rajasthan

and some of their images are very complex in nature. Images are discovered

in Medapata, Gurjaradesa- Arbuda and Gurjaradesa-Anarta (in Gujarata).

Scholars believe that three of the regions like Medapata, Gurjaradesa-

Arbuda and Gurjaradesa-Anarta interacted and influenced each other in the

course of sculptural construction. The pattern of construction of images

continued similar to each other but with minor variations. Samalji located in

Gurjardesa-Anarta (situated on the border of Rajasthan, in northern Gujarat)

is known for its excellence of sculptural design started as early as from the

sixth century. This place is known for the production of Siva and

Saptamatrka images. 125

124 N.N. Bhattacharyya, The indian Mother Goddess, Manohar, New Delhi, 1999, pp.171-72 125 Sara L. Schastok, The Sarna/aji Sculptures and Sixth Century Art in Western india, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1985, Chapters 2 & 3.

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The artistic production of Samalji was short-lived and by the second

quarter of the sixth century it stopped. From here the sculptural production

gradually shifted to eastward and large number of images for Matrkas were

found in Medapata at the sites like Jagat, Tanesara, Amjhara, Durngarpur

and Udaipur.126 The i~ages found in these given area had an impact of

Samalaji's style of image construction. The images consist of naturalism and

ornamentation. But later images of Medapata developed variations as the

ornate and the naturalism came to an end. One of the images among the

seated images of Durga found at Jhadol near Udaipur reflects absence of

ornamentation and naturalism. 127

At Tanesara in Udaipur the Images of Matrkas are discovered; their

features are complicated and difficult to decipher. Here the images of the

deities have some limited features to reveal their divinities. Some

researchers like R.C. Agrawala, Pratapadity Pal and Sara Schastok have

identified these goddesses with Karttikas. 128 But certain features of the

images of the deities identify them with the Saptamatrkas. Various attributes

and embellishment in particular link the images with the group of Matrkas.

Their ornamentation, pattern of hairstyle and Clothing are very distinct. The

manner of holding the children, four arms, large belly, blow horn, vassal or

skull bowl like kaplal, snake wrapped round the neck are some of the special

features that identify them with the Tanesara Matrkas. Therefore, associating

126 R.c. Agrawala, "Some Unpublished Sculptures from South-Western Rajasthan" Lalit Kala 6 (1959): 63-71 "Some More Unpublished Sculptures from Rajasthan" Lalit Kala 10 (1961): 31-33 127 Joanna G. Williams, Art of Gupta India: Empire and Province. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 173, 1982, fig. 264 presumes that this image was likely to be produced in A.D. 600, but Sara L. Schastok (1985), fig. 75 is of the opinion that the image was produced a bit earlier in AD 535-40 128 (a) R.C.Agrawala, "Karttika Cult in Early Indian Art", Lalit Kala, 14, 1969, pp. 56-57

(b) Pratapaditya pal, "Some Rajasthani Sculpturres of the Gupta period", in Bulletin of the Allen Alemorial Art Museum, Oberlin college, XXVIll/2, 1971, p. III

(c) S. L. Schastok, The Samalaji Sculptues and 6111 Century Art in Western India, Leiden, 1985, p.83

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these images with the Karttikeya needs further investigation and

interpretation.

From the middle of the 6th century A.D. some additions in the images of

the Matrkas of Western India are noticeable. In the images of Saptamatrkas

of this period the Vahanas and Ayudahas were added which in the earlier

images of the Saptamatrkas were missing. Such images are discovered in the

areas of Jagat in Udaipur. The images belong to Aindri and Brahmani.

Schastok is of the opinion that the image of Andri is dated 540-50 A.D. 129

But R.C. Agrawal has a different view. He does not subscribe to any

particular date of construction of the images, he, rather, stipulates it broadly

a "post-Gupta" construction. 130

Aindri and Brahmani contain some significant separate distiction. In the

image of Aindri, apart from the Vajra in the right hand, a child is held in the

left hip supported by the left hand. But Brahmani does not hold any

ayudha.131 She is identified as Brahamani as she has worn Jatajuta. Her right

hand is in abhay-hasta. Both Aindri (Jagat) and Brahmani (Jagat) images

have been presented with large halos around their heads. Both the figures are

in graceful tribhanga and their half-closed eyes. Eyes of this fashion of the

images date back to their origin from the classical era. This is the meditative

posture of the goddess. Certain features of the Matrkas are not identifiable as

some parts of the images are broken. The images below the knee of the

deities are broken which makes it difficult to confirm whether they had

vahanas or not.

129 s. L. Schastok, (1985), fig. 53 130 R.e. Agrawala, Lalit Kala, 1961, pp.31-33 131 Ayudahs (spear like long object) are not always an important feature to mark the identity of the Matrkas. Sometimes some other attributes are used to compensate the representation of Ayudhas.

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From Kalyanapur, a site located midway between Samalji and Udaipur,

an image of Nagini dated the end of the eight or the beginning of the ninth

century is discovered. The style of creation of Nagini has an impact upon

sculptures of Matrkas collected from· Devagana, Delvada (Mt-Abu),

Achalgarh and Mandarra. Mandarra a site south of Varman has yielded an

icon of the Matrka Maheswri dated 7th century A.D. All images here have

rounded belly and truncated legs. Such a heavy pattern of the images is one

of the chief features of this region.

Matrka images of Rajasthan reveal some visible inter-regional impact.

The design of Samalaji images of Gujarat has strong impact upon the images

ofMatrkas of Rajasthan. 132 Tanesara Satpamatrkas, Aindri of Dun gar pur and

the images of Amjhara from Dungarpur are the best examples that received

the impact of iconic model of the Matrkas of Gujarat. The very discernable

similarity of the images of Saptamatrkas of Tanesara and Dungarpur of

Rajasthan with the images of Samalaji is that Tanesara and Dungarpur

images are presented standing like Samalaji images. Amjhara Matrkas also

have standing images, impressed upon the Samalaji pattern. The images of

Amjhara are. in mutilated state and the fragmentary lower portion of the

figure with a bird behind the legs is similar to the Samalaji Brahmani. Sara

Schastok133 identifies the Amjhara fragment as Kaumari. In fact, all the

Matrkas had standing images right at the beginning of its construction. Their

sitting images had been a later development.

132 (a) R.C.Agrawala, "Some Unpublished Sculptures from South-Western Rajasthan", in Lalit Kala, 6, 1959, pp. 63-71

(b) "Some More Unpublished Sculptures from Rajasthan' in Lalit Kala, 10, 1961, pp.175-84 (C "More Sculptres from Amjhara, Rajasthan", Arts Asituque, XII, 1965, p. 186-88 (d) "Krttika Cult in Early Indian Sculptures", Lalit Kala, 14, 1969, pp.56-57 (e) "Mothers and Child Sculpturres from Samalaji and Rajasthan", Bulletin of Baroda Museum and

Picture Gallery, XXIII, 1971, Agarwal is of the opinion that the Matrka sculptures found from Tanesara, Jagat, Amjhara etc. have influences of Samalaji images. pp. 101-17 133 Sara L. Schastok, The Samalaji Sculptues and 61h CentUlY Art in Western India, Leiden, 1985, Fig. 62

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Besides standing images of Matrkas at Amjhara, some images in sitting

posture are also discovered. Amjhara is the center where the construction of

sitting images started under the influence and in association with the

Samalaji. Pannikar is of the opinion that such construction of images started

in Amjhara with the assistance of the workers of Samalji who are expected

to have migrated in the areas of Amjhara. 134 That is why, we find that the

images constructed in the areas of Dungarpur, Tanesar and Amjhara had an

impact of the design ofSamalji.

There are some specialities of the images of Amjhara. Along with all

seven Images of Matrkas male deities like Siva and Ganesa are also

incorporated. Brahmani (Amjhara) III particular IS seated III

pralambapadasana in an upright posture. She is in dhoti with some folds in

it and U-shape of the central loop falling from the waistband. A hansa

attends on the left side of her feet. The right hand is broken off and the

object held in the left hand is badly mutilated. Brahmani has Jatajuta.

Kaumari Matrka (Amjhara) is seated on a decorated stool with a

naturalistically bent body turned to the side and the legs harmoniously

composed. The partially broken peacock vehicle stands in the front of her

legs. Both the hands are broken. Another two-handed Vaisnavi (Amjahra) is

seated in lalitasana on a Garuda. In the left is a child. That is only part

which is preserved. Probably, the object held in the right hand is a lotus.

Only, the lower portion of the Varahi image is preserved. The Vahana of the

goddess is a boar that is similar to the Samalji example135. The images of

Mahesvari, Vayavi (Amjhara) and Aindri, are preserved; only belm\' the

134 Shivaji K. Panikkar, Saptamatrka Worship and Sculptures: An Jconological Interpretation of Conflicts and Resolutions in the Storied Brahmanicallcons, D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. New Delhi, 1997, p.I05 135 R.C.Agrawala, "More Sculptures from Amjhara, Rajasthan", Arts Asiatique, XII, 1965, pp.176-77, Fig. 1,2,3 published Aindri, Varahi and Mahesvari

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waist of them are surviving. These goddesses are designed in lalitasana on

their respective vehicles. At Amjhara the goddesses like Mahesvari,

Kaumari, Vaisnavi and Aindri have more or less consistent iconographic

traits. The images have much similarity with the images of the deities of

Central India such as Rajghati (Deoghar), Nand Chand. Due to the closeness

of the features of these images with Samalaji Matrkas, Amjhara group of

sculptue~ could be dated to mid-sixth century AD. Sara L. Schastok136

establishes an association of Samalaji sculpture with the Saculpture of Gupta

time.

In the site of Chandrabhaga near Jhalarapatan a few of the fragmetary

Matrka images are discovered. The image found of Indrani Matrka found at

Indrabhaga is not a neat construction. The feature of the image is not sharp;

it is, rather, clumsy. It suggests it is a folk image of the seventh century. The

mother deity is made to sit with legs splayed like other images of mother

goddess. The image holds attributes like Vajra (thunder bolt) in her right

hand and in the left is a cord balancing her on the knee. Another image of

Indrani discovered from Baroli is made up of dark brown coloured shine and

designed meticulously.I37 The Boroli Matrka image consists of strong and

powerful expression. There is naturalism in the construction of the image

which suggests that the image is created in the first half of the eighth

century.

Fragmentary three-headed Matrka image is found from Bhanpura, dating

to the first half of the eighth century. The image is damaged but the face and

two of her arms are intact. The right hand is holding an unidentifiable

broken object while the left hand is upraised with two fingers thumb and

136 Sara.L. Schastok, The Sarnalaji Sculpture and 61h Centurey Art in Western india, Leiden, 1985

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index joined. The coiffure of the images of Bhanpura is designed in a

fashion similar to the image of Indragadh which roughly denotes that they

are the contemporary images.

A bust of Matrka Maheswari is found from Bhanpura. The bust was in fact

. the part of set of Saptamatrkas. This image is also contemporary of the

images found from Bhanpura and from Indragadh, but its sculpting is more

neat and advanced than the rest. The carving of the image is distinct and

clear, the surface smooth, face full of flesh and bulky, eyes round and large

bow-shaped brow and lips attractive. The breasts are spherical and waist

indented. The coiffure is well- arranged, lines of the hairs symmetrical and

decorated with diadem. Hairs are also matted. In some respects the image of

Maheswari is similar to the image of Indragadh Lakulisa as both have bulky

face and eyes large and round.

Kankoni is another important place for antiquarian objects. From here, a

fragmentary panel of dancing Saptamatriaka of ninth century has been

discovered. Another panel of eighth century from the same site has been

discovered. In one of the panels of seven mothers, the fragments of four of

them along with Siva, has been discovered. The four of the mothers are four

armed and they are identical in features. Each of the deity is accompanied

with vehicle. At the deep end of the left of the panel is a dancing Siva.

Vaisnavi along with Siva is accompanied with kneeling Garuda. She holds

discus, conch, an unidentified object, crown and mace. Varahi is with

buffalo vehicle, rosary, skull cup, staff, discus, boar face. Indrani is with

elephant vehicle and holding crown, rosary, Vajra and pot and Camunda is

in deadly and horrifying form who has a carved dagger, skull bowl and a

137 The images ofVarahi and Vinadhara Siva are in the seated posture preserved in The Central Museum, Indore. The image ofVaisnavai stored in Baroli resembles the image ofIndrani.

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finger raised towards mouth showing of her hunger and jackal. The panel

may be assumed to have linked with the first half of the ninth century

because the panel is curved with sophistication and naturalism. The finish of

hip and faces are rendered meticulously and varied attributes have rhythmic

arrangement. '

The three seated Matrkas, Kaumari, Varihi and Camunda are found at

Mt. Abu. These Matrkas, stylistically and iconographically, can be dated to

the mid-seventh century.138 Kaumari is two-handed and holds a Shakti and a

child in the right and left hands. A peacock is represented in front of the

seated goddess. Varahi is seated in ardhaparyankasana on a human figure.

She is four handed and boar faced. In the upper right and left hands she

holds a gada and cakra, with the lower hands she supports a child. The four

handed emaciated Camunda is seated on a human corpse. She holds a

severed head and a khatvanga in the lower and upper right hands. Her lower

left hand probably touches the mouth and upper left hand probably holds a

sword.

The period of sixth and seventh century is supposed to be the turning

point in the creation of. the images of Matrkas. The construction of the

images was standardized at this point of time. Motherly personalities of th,e

Matrkas and their militant personalities were now blended together.

Addition of ayudhas and Vahanas in the images was a marked development.

The basic reason for standardization and elaboration of the images at this

point of time was in the wake of increasing inter-regional interaction and

sharing and adopting regional convention of image making.

138 (a) U.P. Shah, "Sculptures from Samalaji and Roda", Bulletin of Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, XlII, special issue, 1960, fig. 6, 7, and 8, p.118

(b) U.P. Shah, "Some Early Sculptures from Abu and Bhinmal" Bulletin of Baroda Museum and Pictures Gallery, vol. XII, 1955-56, p.44 and plates. Assigns a date between ca. AD 600-700

- 183 -

By the late seventh or early eighth century A.D. the images of the

Matrkas developed a change. Images at this point of time were presented

much more stylisticly. The creation of seated images declined, but three-

dimensional pattern with greater sense of fine surface finish came into being.

"an elaborate ornamentation and decorativeness" was also introduced.

Beaded stings and certain curved attenuation of the drapery were applied

profusely.

There are a few good examples of the images of Matrkas constructed by

the late ih - 8th Century A.D. The three Matrkas images - Brahmani,

Kaumari and Varahi, discovered at Malagon (Sirohi, Rajasthan) belong to

this period. Brahmani of Malagon seated on a lotus seat in lalitasana has

three faces and four hands. A hamsa is presented on the right side of her

seat. In her upper right and upper left hands, she holds sruk and a lotus

respectively. The lower right hand is in Varada-mudra and a chkold, seated

on the left thigh is supported with the lower left hand. Kaumari and Varahi

too are seated in lalitasana. Seated on a peacock the two handed goddess

Kaumari holds a shakti and a cock in the right and left hands. Varahi is four

handed and is seated on a buffalo. She holds sankha, gada and cakra in

lower right, upper right and upper left hands. She holds a child in similar

manner as Brahmani.

Matrkas outside Rajasthan

Matrka tradition was followed in most of the parts of early India. The

four-armed Matrka images, discovered from the village of Hoogly, are

preserved in Asutosh museum, university of Calcutta, She has a fish in her

right hand which tells her association with the Tantric cult. Beneath her

couch is an elephant that is more pleasing. The back right hand holds a

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vajra, the front clasping the child on her left lap. She also wears many

ornaments. Her royal headgear and the ear ornamets are worth noticing. 139

On the bank of a holy tank at Puri (Orissa) known as Markandeya

Sarovara have been discovered separate images for the Matrkas. The images

for Brahmani, Maheswari and Kaumari are discovered here. Four-faced (the

fourth face is invisible) and four armed Brahmani, seated in the

ardhaparyanka pose with her swan mount beneath and couch, with a child

on their left-lap, is discovered here. The front right hand is in the ryakhyan

pose and the front left holding the child. The goddess wears no ornaments.

Mahesvari wears ornaments. She is seated on her bull mount beneath the

couch and her back hand is broken, the front right hand appears to have been

abhayapose, while the front left holds the hand of the child on her left lap. In

the similar pose is seated the image of Kaumari. She also has a child in her

lap and is mounted on the peacock beneath her couch. She is decked with lot

of ornaments. 140

The image of Matrkas in eastern part of India in seventh century was

presented in sitting posture. The earliest set of seven Matrkas, on the north

side of the J agamohana of the Parasuramesvara temple, dating mid-i h

century, is seated in padmasana or paryanka, i.e. with legs crossed or one

resting on the other, rather than in lalitasana, that is found in most of the

later images. In the sanctum of the Vaital Deul, dating to the late 8th century,

four of the eight Matrkas are seated in padmasana with legs interlocked

while Kaumari and Sivaduti are seated in lalitasana with one leg pendant.

V~r~hi and Camunda are seated in Ardhaparyanka with one knee raised.

There are thus three different sitting postures for the Matrkas. By the 9th

139 J.N. Banerjea, op. cit., p.507 140 Ibid. pp. 505-506

- 185 -

century, as evident at Simhanatha and Mukhalingam, all of the Matrkas

assume more relaxing pose of lalitasana except for Varahi and Camunda

who remain seated in ardhaparyanka. By the end of the 9th century,

however, exemplified at paikapada, even Variah adopts the lalitasan 141 pose.

The icons of Saptamatrkas originated in Central India in the fifth century.

The deities have two special typologies: one, Ayudhas reflects militancy;

second, son in their lap indicates motherly aspect. Such approaches are

clearly expressed in the icons discovered from Udaigiri, Badoh-Pathari and

Besnagar.

Udaigiri Saptamatrkas is supposed to be the earliest Matrkas in Central

India. The images are situated in the cave. The inscription inside cave no. 7

informs the visit of Gupta king Candra along with his minister Virasena

during AD 401-402 at the site in order to build the shrine dedicated to

Sambhu. 142 Cave no. 6 and the third cave no. 4 have planets of

Saptamatrkas. On the outside of the north wall of cave no. 4, to the right of

the doorway is the Saptamatrkas' sub-shrine which houses nine figures.

Skanda on the extreme left of the group is identifiable since the wall on the

back of the figure faintly preserves the outline of a cock placed on a stand.

Matrkas are seated in pralambapgda. One of the goddess carrying a child is

discernible. 143

Contemporary to Saptamatrka images of Udaigiri (Vidisha, MP) are the

images found in the villages of Badoh-Pathari. Villages are located in the

vicinity ofUdaigiri. On the inscription, affiliated to the female deity, that is

not distinctly visible, is carved in the name of Maharaja layatsena. N.P.

141 G.c. Tripathi and Hermann Kulke, Religion and Society in Eastern India, pp. 195-96 142 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, pp. 34-36

- 186 -

Joshi 144 mentions that the inscription refers to the divine mothers as

Bhagavato Matarah. On the extreme right of the relief is a male figure seated

in lalitgsan on a high throne, which is slightly larger than those occupied by

Matrkas. It is only the !:!:.rdhvaretas aspects of the male figure that enables

the identification as that of Siva. The hair of the image is arranged in rows of

curling wavy pattern, similar to that of a peri wig. The deity is adorned with

a necklace and Yajnopavita. The goddesses do not carry children.

The Besnagar (Vidisha, M.P.) Saptamatrka group,145 dated 400-415 AD,

is contemporary to Badoh-Pathari (Vidisha, M.P.) and Udaigiri sculptures.

Six sculptures 146 of the group of Besnagar are housed in Archaeological

Museum at Gwalior and the seventh one is in the National Museum, New

Delhi. Relatively Besnagar scultures are more refined147 than Badoh-Pathari

and Udaigiri sculptures. D.R. Patil148 and R.C. Agrawala149 suggest that the

Matrkas from Besnagar represent the Sapta-rsi-patnis (or Karttikeya) who

had assumed the role of mothers to Skanda.

Matrka tradition in Western India hailing from Samalaji (Gujarat),

Amerli, Junagarh has increasingly scanty evidences before the fifth century.

Images for Matrkas are found in the form of terracotta figurines. Even some

of the terracotta findings do not have nature of mother and child motif in this

region. The highly mutilated terracotta sculpture of Mother-Goddess from

Samlaji is seated in Godohikasan, akin to the Kushan type of Matrkas. The

143 D. R. Patil, Monuments of Udaigiri Hills, Archaeological Department, Gwalior, 1948, p. 12 144 N.P. Joshi, Matrkas - Mothers in Kusana Art, New Delhi, 1986, p. 86 145 Joanna G. Williams, The Art of Gupta India, New Jersey, 1982, Fig. 48, p.51 146 " J.C. Harle, Gupta Sculpture, OXlord, 1974, p. 40 14? Ibid. 148 D.R. Patil, Sapta Matrkas from Besnagar, Proceedings of the Indian HistOlY congress, Cuttack, 1949. 149 R.C. Agrawala, "Mothers and Child Sculptures from Samalaji and Rajasthan" Bulletin of Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, XXIII, 1971, pp.101-17

- 187 - .

Matrka sculptures which are devoid of Vahanas and Ayudhas are designated

as belonging to the early phase of Matrkas iconography in western India.

At the early stage of evolution of Matrkas, generally the individual

personality of the goddesses are insignificant and the group characteristics

are more pronounced. The primary aspect then is the group association,

counted in heptads. Hypothetically, in Besnagar and in the early phase in

western India the individuality of the particular goddess is signified on the

basis of their positionality in the group; that is the particular order in which

they are installed. As a collectivity, the development of their distinctive

personalities is a matter of elaboration, which also explains the motivation

behind experimentations.

Sectarian Affiliation:

Construction of composite Image of the deities like Ardhanarisvara

image, miscellaneous arrangement of the images of the deities in the

temples, concept of interchangeableness of deities, manifestations, varied

religious concepts and practices had rather introduced, in early Rajasthan, a

new idea of "reconciliation and rapprochment"amongst sects and creeds.

Here we shall study the attempts made to introduce sectarian affiliation in

early Rajasthan through icons, iconic design and through other religious

means.

In earlier chapter the theological interpretation of the concept of Shakti is

examined and its feasibility in various sects in the form of

interchangeableness of the goddesses is noticeable. The tribes, Jain,

Buddhist and various branches of Hindus have experimented and succeeded

to adjust one clan and community with other through applying and

implementing the tradition of manifestation of goddesses. Under this

concept, one goddess is treated as impersonation of group of goddesses or

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vice-versa and, in this way, all of them are treated part of one another and

are given equal status. This is how the goddess of one sect is manifested for

the goddess of other that consequently introduced the sense of togetherness

and oneness of all goddesses. By the end of the Kushan period many

Brahmanic female deities such as Yakshinis, Mithunas, Sri Lakshmis were

incorporated into Buddhist artistic vocabulary. The new female images did

not appear overnight but were the result of a syncreticism of various visual

and symbolic components from tribal, folk and Buddhist deities. In the

meantime several Buddhist goddesss such as Hariti and Mahamaya and folk

female deities such as Matrkas had also emerged. Their erotic and maternal

characteristic were either separated or subdued. Many of these Buddhist

deities also reappeared as brahmanic deities with new epithets during the

time of the Gupta monuments. 150

The practice of interchangeableness of deities, unison among them has

been perpetuating down from the early time in Rajasthan. The inscriptions

discovered in temples reveal that the tradition of unison of the goddesses has

always been followed quite distinctly in Rajasthan. All sorts of Brahmanic

female deities are considered equal and one. Eyen indigenous goddesses

have been manifested as part of Hindu goddesses or vice-versa. In

Vasantgarh Inscription goddesses like Durga, Kshemarya, Shivani and

Kshenankari are invoked together and blessings sought from them. All of

them are considered equal. There is no sign of hierarchy in them. Similarly,

in Kinsariya Inscription, the goddesses like Katyayani, Kali and Bhavani are

invoked together and are reflected equal to each other. But Dadhimatimata

Inscription is different and special in one respect to rest of the given

150 Madhu Bazaz Wangu, Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths. Meanings and Models. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 2003, p. 62

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inscriptions. In this inscription one of the local goddesses named Dadhimati

is also incorporated and is invoked together with goddess Sarasvati. One of

the verses "sarva mangala-mangalye sive sarvarthasadhikel saranye

trayambake Gauri Narayani namo=stu te" dedicated to goddess

Mahishasuramardini has also been included in it.

Seven of the inscriptions spanning between the 4th and the 10th centuries

refer to in the collection of essays titled "Reappearance of the Goddess or

Brahmanical Mode of Appropriation: Some Early Epigraphic Evidence

Bearing on Goddess Cults", presented at a seminar in the memory of G.D.

Sontheimer inform about the female deities such as Aranyavasini ('Goddess

of the Forest'), Ghattavasini ('Goddess of the Pot'), Vatayakshini ('Goddess

of the Ficus Indica '), Stambheshvari ('Goddess of the Post'). These deities

are discovered in the Bagh (near Gwalior), Bundelkhand-Baghelkhand

regions of eastern Madhya Pradesh and in the Mewar areas of Rajasthan.

They are found in addition to the 'Great Mothers (mahamatarah). A

combination of sacrifice (bali, Charu and Sattra being three of the

panchamahayajnas - the five great sacrifices) with what was essentially the

ritual of the worship of the image through the offerings of gandha, dhoopa,

malya marked the "reappearance, or rather the entry" of these cults of

goddesses. Chattopadhyaya's view is that this phenomenon takes place

mainly because of the linkage which is established between such cults and

emerging monarchies through the mediation of the brahmanas and their

rituals. Further, he identifies this process as "Brahmanical mode of cult

appropriation." 151

Blend of indigenous/local goddesses with brahmanic is quite discernible

in the early temples. For example, Pipladevi, Natkimata and Harsatmata

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refer to indigenous female deities and the temples are known by their names.

But the images found in these given temples belong to brahmanic tradition.

The images are identified both with indigenous and Brahmanic goddesses.

For example, the icon in Pipladevi temple belongs to Mahishsuramardini but

it is identified both with Pipladevi as well as with Mahishasuramardini.

Similarly, Khimelmata, Sachiyamata, Kevyamata and Dadhimatimata are

known as indigenous female deities and their temples are identified with

their names. But the icons installed in their temples belong to Brahmanic

tradition. In Sachiyamata temple the image belongs to Mahishsuramardini. 152

In Dadhimati temple female deity is clothed in the fashion of Brahmanical

goddesses and on the high sukangsa, fronton facing the temple, has an image

of what we normally identified as Durga slaying a buffalo demon. 153

Syncretistic and miscellaneous presentation of sculptures of the gods and

the goddesses in the temples had been an important practice in India.

F ormation of such images was an attempt to encourage the spirit of

reconciliation and rapprochement between the rival creeds. 154 Deities of

various sects were synthesized in a way: one that had "not come into being

and others that had originated and being systematized." The Ardhanarisvara

image in Bharmamata temple 155 of Raj asthan is an apparent example of the

151 K.M. Shrimali, Contesting Fundamentalism, Biblio, Vol. IX Nos. 9 & 10, September-October 2004 152 M.A. Dhaky, The Iconography ofSacciya Devi, Babu Chhotelal Jain Commemoration Volume. 1967, pp.63-69 153 Michael W. Meister, Light on the Lotus: Temple Decoration or Essential Form? In L. A. Babb, V. Joshi, M.W. Meister (ed.) Multiple Histories Culture and Society in the Study of Rajasthan, Rawat Publication, Jaipur and New Delhi, 2002, p. 234 154 Devendra Handa, (1984), pp.131-164 155 T.A.G. Rao, Element of Hindu Iconography, II, says that the Ardhanarisvaramurti of Siva and Parvati symbolizes the sectarian affiliation, a syncretic ideology and a union of principal cult deities of Saivism and Shaktism. It is the projection of the combination of the two "primeval parents of the universe". But the concept of Ardhanarisvara depicted in Siva Pruana does not reveal the intention to create sectarian affiliation. According to Siva Purana, Brahma, the Hindu god of creation, begot a number of Pajapatis and exhorted them to proceed with the creation of other beings. Brahma felt discomforted at their slow progress and prayed to Siva for succour. The latter appeared before him in the composite male-female form of which the former prayed for the female half to proceed with the task of creation. The request having been granted,

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union of Saiva and Shakti sects. Siva and Shakti are presented in the form of

Ardhanarishvara in which devi has half of the body of the moon crested

Hara (Siva). It is a composite image. This is one of the best creations of the

Gupta period. 156 Other Ardhanarisvara images are found in Kumbhasyama,

Kalikamata and Abhaneri temples. One of the fragmentary images of

Ardhanarisvari is found on the bank of Chandrabhaga. In the Satya-Narayan

temple of asian, on the south is a graceful four armed seated image of

A dh . 157 r anansvara.

Composite images of deities made in vanous shapes and designs in

early Rajasthan had paved the way to assimilate the deities of rival sects

together. Deities are presented together either on a single platform or carved

in a piece of stone or placed in-group in the niches of the walls of the

temples. Such composite images are discovered at various places of

the work of creation continued satisfactorily. This story does not present the tendency of religious rapprochement and synthesis which may have truly been the causative factor for the Ardhanarisvara images.

Story narrated by G.Rao about Ardhanrisvara will focus upon sectarian tendencies. Once on a particular occasion the groups of Devas and Risis landed up on the Kailash to cicumambulate both Siva and Parvati. But Rsi Bhringi who was the exclusive worshipper of Siva did not cicumambulate Parvati. Devi turned angry and converted Bhringi into a skin-covered skeleton. Bhringi was not able to stand up on his skinny weak legs. Therefore, Siva provided him the third leg to stand up. Bhringi grew happy with it. But Siva did this in connivance ofParvati. So to keep the honour ofParvati, Siva united his body with her, thus, the concept of Ardhanarisvara developed. Siva also thought this Ardhanarisvara form wiIl force Bringi to cicumambulate both of them. Bringi was a staunch believer of Sa iva sect. He never compromised to accept Shaktism equal to Saivism. He, therefore, assumed the form of beetle and cut a hole through the composite body and circumambulated the Siva part only. Though, the story given for Ardhanriswara is naiVe, but it certainly conveys an impression that there was staunch sectarian tendency in early time.

Rao has not given the source of this story, but he has evidently taken it from one of the Puranas which has extolled the creed of this god. The given story sounds less patriarchal. But as inscribed in Chotti Sadri Inscription the given story does not fit into that. Narration of the inscription is very much patriarchal. It depicts that "out of her devotedness (to the god), she assumes half of the body of the moon-crested Hara." It is just opposite of what is given in the story of Rao. pp. 321-23. 156 D.C. Sircar reports that the characters ofChhoti Sadri Inscription belongs to the Western variety of the so-called Gupta alphabet as used in the Malwa-Rajputana region about the fifth century A.D. and resemble those employed in the inscriptions of the Aulikaras of Mandasor. The Mandasor and Biharkotra inscriptions ofNaravarman, dated respectively V.S. 461 and 474 (above, Vol. XII, pp. 315ff and Plate; Vol. XXVI, pp. 130ff. and Plate); Gangdhar inscription of Vi svav arm an; dated V.S. 480 (CII, Vol. Ill, pp. 74 ff, and Plate); Mandasor inscription of Bandhuvarman, dated V.S. 522 (ibid, pp. 81 ff and Plate); Mandasor inscription of Yasodharman, dated V.S. 589 (ibid) pp.152 ff, and Plate), etc. 157 Michael W. Meister & M.A. Dhaky (Edit.), Encyclopaedia 0/ India Temple Architecture, North India, Period o/Early Maturity, Text, OUP -1991, p. 132

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Rajasthan. In the temple of Karodi-Dhaj 158 situated on the Mount of Arbuda

is an image of Kali presented together with the images of Siva, Brahma and

Visnu. In the same temple of Karodi-Dhaj, on the frieze is Siva in the centre

flanked by Brahma and Vishnu immediately on the right and left. Near the

image of Vishnu at the north end is the image of Kali. In the temple of

S§:kambharimata the image of Chandika is flanked on either side by the male

deities named Mahaganapati (called Ganesa) and Dhanada (called

Kubera).159 At the bank of the tank in Satwas at Kaman in Bharatpur area are

the images of the goddesses arranged together with the images of the gods.

Here an image of devi is placed between the images of Surya and Vishnu.

Surya is on the left and Visnu is on the right of the image of Devi. On the

either side of these images of Surya and Visnu are standing and kneeling

images of the female attendants. Such a combination of gods and goddesses

on a single block of stone is extremely rare. 160 Further, at Kaman in Surya

temple is a combination of deities of varied sects. On the wall of the Surya

temple, a fine image of Chamunda is placed. The goddess is dancing on a

prostrated male. To the right of the dancing image of Chamunda is an image

ofVarahi. To her left is another female figure that is not very clear. On the

left side of the bottom of the image ofChamunda is the image of Siva. There

is also an image of devi seated on a lion. Image of Mahadevi is placed above

the image of devi. In the right lap of Mahadevi is an image of child Ganesa.

Separate independent images of some male deities like Karttikeya and

Gartesa are also placed. Images of Indrani, Vaishanavi are also placed

here. 161 One of oldest examples of the creation of images of varied male-

158 D.R. Bhandarkar, P RASIWC, 3 I sl March, 1907, p. 29 159 B.Ch. Chhabra, £.1., Vol. 27, Sakrai Stone Inscription; V.S. 699 160 R.D. Banerji, Annual Report AS]. Western Circle, Poona, 1920-21, p. 1 17 161 Ibid. pp.l 17- I 18.

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female deities is discovered in the areas of Kalibangan located in Sri

Ganganagar in north Rajasthan. At Nagar, as early as the second and 1st

century B.C. images of Hindu deities such as Durga Mahishasuramardini,

Indra and his consort Indrani or Aindri, Rati and her spouse Kamdev were

made in relief in soft clay in Nagar in the district of Jaipur.162 In the temple

of Satya-Narayan at asian, left over the doorway are small panels that

preserved the three-faced original image of Brahman a, Vishnu & Siva. 163

The arrangement of the images of deities installed or carved upon the

walls of early temples is suggestive of sectarian affiliation. Temples are

multivalent as Siva, Shakti, Visnu, Surya and other deities are presented

together. The Harihara temples constructed under the influence of Vaisnava

cult contain images both of Siva and Sakta sects. In Harihara temple 1 are

the images of the following deities: Ganesa, Durga, Balarama, (missing),

Gaja-Laksmi, Surya (broken), Garudarudha Visnu, Buddha (broken),

Karttikeya, Varaha, Kubera. l64 In Harihara No.2 the deities are as follows:

the jangha of the temple is adorned with the figures of Nrshimha, Harihara

and Trivikrama in the northern, eastern (back) and southern bhadra niches

respectively are adorned with dikpalas on the karna-rathikas and Brahma,

Mahisasuramrdini, Surya, Visnu (Visnu in anthrophomorphichc Garuda),

Candra and Ganesa on the pratiratha niches. On pedyas are the images of

Ganga and Yamuna. Ganesa, Uma-Mahesvara are seated on Nandi, Laksmi-

Narayana (in the center), Brahma-Sarasvati and Kubera are presented on the

panels. The main niches of the Karnaprasada of north-west corner contain

images for Siva and Parvati. Both of them are presented together. In the

162 Subhashni Aryan, op. cit. p. 22 163 Michael W. Meister & M.A. Dhaky (Edit.), Encyclopaedia of India Temple Architecture, North India, Period of Early Maturity, Text, OUP, 1991, p. 132 164 Bhandarkar has not pointed out about this in his discussion.

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Harihara Temple No.3 the deities are: Indra, Agni, Ganesa in the standing

form, Harihar, Ananta or Brhaspati, Yama, Nirrti, Surya, Trivikarama,

Candra, Varuna, Vayu, Brahama, Nrshimha, Mahisasuramardini, Kubera

and Isana. Two Siva temples, contemperonous to the temples mentioned

above: one that existed near the Visnu temple -1 is distinct from

Bhandarkar'sl65 investigation and the second is situated to the north-west of

Sachiya temple - 2. The first temple of Siva is known by the name of Siva Ji

Ki Deri which contains various images of Dikapalas. In the second Siva

temple, image of Siva occupies the central place with tricephalous Brahma

and Skanda in the rathikas on his proper right and Visnu and Ganesa on the

left. The temple of Pipla Devi stands a few metres north-west of Siva temple

no - 2 and in the principal niche of the temple is installed the image of

Mahishasuramardini. On the either side of the image of Mahishasuramardini

are the following images: Kuber on the right and Ganesa on the left. The

other deities like Isana, Mahisamardini and Indra are placed on the east wall

with female figures on the juxta-buttress niches; Agni and Yama on the

south wall with Nirrti and Varun. The central niche is vacant which was

once occupied by Gaja-Laksmi. The lalgta-bimba thus indicates that

Pipladevi (Mahishasuramardini) represents the Vaisnavite form of Shakti. 166

The images of Matrkas of Rajasthan reveal the composite pattern of

construction, expressing an idea of syncretism and sectarian affiliation. The

images of the Matrkas found in Amjhara of Rajasthan exemplify the

conflation of Saiva with Shakti sect as well as Saiva with Vaisnava sects. In

Amjhara along with the seven images of the female deities like Brahmani,

Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Mahesvari, Vayavi (Amjhara), Varahi and Aindri, the

165 D.R. Bhandarkar, The Temples o/Osia, ARASJ, 1908-09, p. 109 166 Devendra Handa, Osian, HistOlY, Archaeology, Art & Architecture, 1984, p. 41

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images of Vinadhara Siva sitting on Nandi and the image of Ganesa are

created. Siva is presented here with various forms of Shakti and at the same

time Vaisnavi is presented with the Mahesvari which is suggestive of

combination of Vaisnava with Saiva sect. The Saptamatrkas along with

Siva-Nataraja and an eight goddess on the outer walls of Nilakanthesvar

Mahadseva temple at Kekind (Nagaur, Rajasthan) ,are discovered. Ganesa in

the beginning and Siva at the center are placed here.

Space of the Centres: locational context of the goddesses

The early temple of Khimelmata originated in Vasantgarh (Sirohi).

Vatanagarh is evidently the same a Vata (Vatapura) which is identified with

Vasantgarh of Sirohi state which is about sixteen miles away from Samoli.

The Samoli record shows that it was a settled area. 167 Brahmanical and Jaina

religions flourished in Vasantgarha and also in areas contiguous to it. The •

early temples, as known from the inscriptions, were for the goddess

Kshemarya, Sun, Brahma and the Jaina Tirthankaras. These temples came

into shape as early as seventh century A.D. An inscription of 625 A.D.

records that Rajilla was a feudatory who had been given governorship of

Vasantagarh. 168 Before Rajila, his father Vajrabhata Satyasraya, who was

also a feudatory, took care of this area. Both of these feudatories had been

ruling and reigning under the ruler named Varmalata of the territory round

about Mount Abu. It is about Varmalata pointed out in Nisithachurni,

written in 676 A.D. and also on the silver coin of Srimala. 169 In seventh

167 R.R. Halder, £'1., Samoli Inscription of the time of Siladitya, (V.S.) 703, Vol. XX, pp. 97-99; D.R. Bhandarkar, P RASIWC, 1908-09, p. 48 & Indian Antiquities, Vol. XXXIX, p. 189 168 D.R. Bhandarkar, £.1., Vol. IX, No. 25, Vasantgarh Inscription of Varma lata, Vikrama Samvat, 682, p. 189 169 B.D. Chartopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India, 1997, Srimala was an important community of merchants. In later periods the community of Srim,i!la became more popular in trade activities. One of the records ofMt. Abu (Sirohi) dated 1144 mentions it Srim,i!la-kula (£,1., Vol. 9, p.151) and a lolor record of 1183 (E.l., Vol. II, pp. 52-4) has recorded praise about one of the individual merchants of the lineage. The person is named as Sri Sri Malavavamsavibhusana Sriesthi Yasodeva. p. II

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century Vasantgarh was a site of trading activities. This place had

concentration of the merchants. A group of mahajans had trade activities

away from Vatanagarah. Jentaka headed the group of mahanans to the area

of Aranyakupagirin. In Aranyakupagirin they discovered mine (agara) and

used it for their trade purposes. 170

Goth Mangold (Jodhpur) where the temple of Dadhimatimata originated

had business links with Uttar Pradesh and Saurashtra in seventh century

A.D. A large number of silver-coins issued by Ranahastin attributed to

Vatsarajal71 viz. in Rajasthan, Uttarpradesh and Saurashtra. Siver coins used

for trade had wider circulation and it spread to various places. The coins

Drammas were in use here in the regime of the Pratiharas as mentioned in

various inscriptions. 172 The seventh century Goth Mangold inscription refers

to the use of this coin. 173 It was rather one of the urbanized centres of

Rajasthan.

Aranyavasini (goddess who lives in the forest) temple, begins with

aranya, means forest. The name of the temple and the name of area like

Aranyakupagiri both reveal that the temple was located in the hilly forest

areas of Mewar. In Mewar hill of the tribes, in the zone of Aranyakupagiri,

there are references to the land grants made in the seventh century. Besides

the kutumbins or agriculturists householders, the mahattara is mentioned

among the officials and subjects to whom the Dhulev agrahara grant of

170 R.R. Halder, £.1., Vol. XX, Samoli Inscription of the time of Siladitya (V.S.) 703, pp. 97-99; B.D. Chattopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India, 1994 & Nandini Sinha Kapur, State Fromation in Rajasthan, 2002, Manohar, too provide information about the same. 171 D. Sharma, Identification of Ranahastim with Vatsaraja Pratihara, Journal of Numismatic Society of India, XVIII, pp. 222-3 & P.L. Gupta, 'The Attribution of the Coins of Ranahastim', Journal of Numismatic Society of India, XX, pp. 189-91 172 £'1., Vol. XIX, pp. 52 f; Pehoa inscription, AD 882; 4har inscription, Harsa Samvat 258; £'1., Vol. I, PK 184 f & Siyadoni inscription, tenth century, pp. 162f 1 3 Pandit Ram Karan, £'1, Vol. XI, Dadhimati mata inscription of the time of Dhruhlana (Gupta) samvat-289, No. 31, pp. 299 f

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Maharaja Bhetti of the Kiskindha branch, AD 679, is addressed. 174 The

Dungarpur plate of Babhata of the same line, 689 AD mentions the

mahattara as one of the three prominent persons who among the others

determined the boundaries of the two plots of land gifted to brahmanas by .

Babhata. 175 Samoli inscription of the Guhila King Siladitya reflects that a

good number of mahajans migrated to the areas of Aranyakupagiri from

Vasantgarh. 176 The migrating mahajans had .started use of ggara (gkara, a

mine) in the areas of Aranyakupagiri. Mine became a source of livelihood

for the people. Aranyakupagiri had consequently emerged as the exchange

centre in this period and had attracted wealthy people for business deal in

Aranyavasini temple. l77 Aranyakupagiri's cultivable area was "workshop-

cum-manufacturing center." Copper belt around Ahada or at Zinc-lead-silver

.concentrates at Zawar (south of Udaipur) had been its main mineral centres.

The Zawar mines had come into operation in the beginning of the seventh

century.178 Aranyakupagiri reflects a condusive inter-regional contact of

traders between rural and urban areas.

In between sixth to ninth century, temples such as Bhawarmata,

Kalikamata, Kshemarya and Manorathswami came into shape in the areas of

Chittarurgarh. In this period a shift of geo-political system from Nagari, a

place situated 17.6 km to the north of the present city ofChittarugarh that is

considered to be the first known political centre of early Mewar,179 had been

heading towards Chittaurgarh. There is an inscriptional evidence that an

174 D.C. Sircar, Guhilas of Kiskindha, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1965, p. 62 175 Ibid. p. 66 176 R.R. Halder, E.!. Vol. XX, II. 8-9, No.9, Samoli Inscription of the time of Siladitya, V.S. 703, 'tatra jentaka mahattarah sri aranyavasinya devakulam cakra mahajanadistah devo ca pratisthapyamanupalayatu' 177 Ibid. p. 99, 1.8. dhanadhnaya hrstapusta (pra) vistajana nityasambadham' 178 Nandini Sinha Kapur, State Formation in Rajasthan, Mewar During the Seventh-Fifteenth Centuries, 2002,p.37 179 Dasharath Sharma, Rajasthan Through The Ages, Bikaner, 1966, pAO

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important merchant family moved to Chittaurgarh in Banas plain. The

family styled as Vanijam srestho - meaning of it is that they are the best

among merchants. 180 From the Manasarovar inscription we learn that a

Manasarovar lake was excavated by the Mori ruler Mana in the year 713 AD

at Chittarugarh. 181 Even the grant of rajasthaniya made by governor or a

government official for the temple of Manorathasvami. 182 This shows the

link of neighbouring Mandasaur to the ancient region of Madhyamika. 183

As early as seventh century AD, asian came under the supervision of

Mandor rulers. The process of settlement, cultivable operation, emergence of

exchange and, of course, the cultural centres came into force here. Early

asian had possibly been a flourishing part as for exchanging and exporting

items. The Bhore State Museum Copper Plates of Dharavarsa Dhruvaraja of

Saka year 702 (A.D. 780), the Radhanpura Plates and the Wani Grants of

Govind III, the Baroda Plates of Karkaraja and the Harivamsa Purana give

an idea that in eighth century city asian must have been developed. I84 The

hoard of silver coins of eighth century of Ahmad is found from the mound of

asian. I8S The coins belong to the Arab governor Ahmad and most of them

are in mint condition. I86 In eight-ninth century AD huge step-wells were

built in asia. The step-well (Vgpi) was about 125 feet long, 100 feet broad

and 50 feet deep.I87 The Jodhpur inscription of Bauka (AD 837) informs that

180 D.C. Sircar and G.S. Gai, £'1., Vol. XXXIV, No. 11, Fragmentary Inscription From Chitaurgarh, pp. 53-58 181 James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, II, pp. 919-22 182 D.C. Sircar and G.S. Gai, E.l., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 53-8 183 Nandini Sinha Kapur (2002), op. cit. p. 32 184 Devendra Handa (1984), op. cit. p. II 185 Ibid. p.12 186 D.R. Bhandarkar, "Temples of Osia", ARASI, 1908-09, p. 109 187 R.C. Agrawala, 'Rajasthan ke Katipaya Prgcina Sarovar aur Vgpi', Varad£!, VI, (iv), pp. 59-60; B.D. Chatlopadhyaya (1994) informs that in early medieval Rajasthan, the artificial irrigation was one of the important sources of cultivation. Araghatta, kupa, vapi, well, kosavaha, dhiku, dhimada were the sources used for the irrigation of agricultural plots. In the eighth-ninth century, there are references that such

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his predecessor Siluka had initiated the excavation of a tank. 188 The ninth

century stone relief informs about the use of Persian Wheel at work

discovered at Mandor. 189 The Nabhinanadanajinoddhara Prabandha,

Upakesapura i.e. Osian has been described as the 'Svastika' of the earth, an

ornament of the desert endowed with natural beauty. Shorn of its usual

literary exaggerations, the description does indicate that Osian was an . fl' h' h ,,190 Important ouns mg town ten.

Patrons of the cult centres

Dadhimatimata inscription states that Brahmanas erected the temple for

Dadhimatimata. The members of this community contributed and collected

donation from Brahmans to construct the temple. Lines 3 to 10 of the

inscription contain the names· and gotras of the donors with their fathers'

names and the amount contributed by each, the details whereof are

embodied in the subjoined table: 191

No. Name of donor Name of father Gotra Clan Amonnt

Contributed

1. A vighnanga ....... Langaka ......... V achchha 192 .... Avo ... 1, 100

2. Misra....... Kataka....... do........... do... do ..

3. M£!tulya .............. P!!phaka .............. do ........... do ......... do .. .

4. Yasapati .. ~ .......... Yakshadinna ......... do ..... , ..... do ........ do.

5. Majhabiha ........... Ganabhata ............ do .......... do ......... l 00

sources had been coming into shape and gradually became more popular in later periods for the use of cultivation work. pp. 47-48 188 EJ Vol. XVIII, Puskarini Karita, pp. 87 f. 189 B.D. Chattopadhyaya, 'Irrigation in Early Medieval Rajasthan', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XVI, pp. 293-316 190 Devendra Handa (1984), pp. 4-8 191 Pt. Ram Karan, EJ Vol - 11, Dadhimatimata Inscription, p-299-303. 192 Perhaps the same as Vatsa

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6. ......................... 120

7. Vishnudeva ......... Dhulana ............... do .......... do ......... 50

8. Nimbagana .......... Suraka ................. do ........ ~ .do .......... l 00

9. Dhaniyaka ........... Achintita .............. do ........... do .......... 300

10. !3~I~ditya ............ Avigahaka ............ do ...... Mahattara .... 100

11. Bappaka ............. Pumnamukha ......... do ......... do ......... .150

12. Somanaka ............. ..................... 4

13. Achilakade [Va] ... Nimbaditya ........... do ......... do......... 4

14. Suvak ................. Nimbaditya ............ do ......... do ......... 4

The given list reflects that the donors belonged to the same gotra and

were divided in Avo and Mahattara clans. Members made payments for the

construction of the temple to their capacity and status.

The gosthikas called as a group of members, headed by A vighnanaga,

took initiative for the construction of Dadhimatimata temple. A vighnanaga

headed the group of members to collect fund for the construction and

maintenance of the temple. The donors belonged to A vighnanaga

community and gotra. The members of the gosthikas lived in and around the

temple. These members had been spending most of their time in

worshipping the goddess. It is also recorded in the inscription that Sri-Dadhy

Brahmans had been "meditating on the feet of Dadhimati". Dadhimati is

undoubtedly the goddess Dadhmata mata, and the Dahima Brahmans are

named after her.193

There is controversy regarding the emergence of actual edifice of the

temple for Dadhimatimata. The words asmin devya nivese of the line 3

reflects that Dadhimatimata temple was in situ when the contribution was

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raised by the Dadhya Brahmanas headed by A vighnanaga. Had this

subscription been called for erecting the shrine, some such word as karita

would have been used. The temple is, therefore, a very old one. Additions to

the temple were made by a Dahima Brahmachari named Vishnudasji in V.S.

1906.194

Dadhya-Brahmanas are now-a-days known as Dahima-Brahmanas. They

are one of the Chha-nyati (six-castes) of the Brahmanas of the pnach-gauda

section. The names of the six castes who interdine, but do not intermarry are

as follows - Dahima, P~rikaha, Gauda, Gujara-gauda, Sarasvata, Sikhawala.

Now the whole community of Dahima Brahmanas recognizes this goddess,

as their kuldevi or family goddess. In the inscription, the word Avoti or

Aboti is used, means worshiper. Hence, it may be inferred that Dahiyas were

the worshipers of this goddess. The facts also substantiate that they were

attached to this temple as in the month of Chaita and Asvina. These

Brahmans personally perform the worship of the deity and offer oblation in

her honour. In these two months a large fair is held in the campus of the

temple. All the inhabitants of the contiguous area meet together to offer

worship to the goddess and offer their cattle for sale. 195

The temple of Khimelmata at Vasantgarh came into shape under the

supervision of a gosthi signified to Panch or committee entrusted with the

management of the religious endowments. The gosthi is known by some

favourite terms like Pandita-gosthi, Pana-gosthi so on so forth. In common

terms the gosthi is understood as 'an assembly'. The gosthi members were

males except one of the members in the list was a woman. Her name as

193 D.R.Bhandarkar, PR ASIWC, 31 51 March, 1907, p.31 194 Ibid. Further repairs to the temple are being executed by the Dahima-mahasabha, by raising subscription from the whole community of Dahima brahamanas residing in all parts of India. Nearly a sum of Rs. 10,000 has already been collected and spent for the purpose.

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pointed out in the inscriptio~ is Buta. She is spoken of as a courtesan

(attached to the temple) of Sri-mata i.e. undoubtedly the mata to whom the

temple was dedicated. 196

The temple construction for the goddess Kshemarya was performed under

the supervision of the gosthi of Vatakaraothana. The gosthi consisted of a

group of members headed by Karapaka. At the time of construction of the

temple for devi, Satyadeva was appointed as Karapaka of the gosthi who

was the son of a merchant. On the direction of town assembly trader

Satyadeva brought the temple into shape. 197 D.R. Bhandarkar states that "the

temple to Kshemarya, as said in the inscription had been built by the gosthi

of Vata, is no other than the temple of Khimelmata in Vasantgarhof which

the inscription stone originally formed part. It is also pointed out that the

temples dedicated to the Sun and Brahma mentioned as existing in Vatapura

in the inscription of Pumapala dated V.E. 1099, are still existing in

Vasantgarh." The ruling feudatory like Rajilla also took care of the

construction of this temple. 198 This shows that at one point of time it was the

temple of the goddess Kshemarya which with the elapse of time became

popular in the name of Khimelmata.

Temple for Sankaradevi was constructed under the supervision of a gosthi

(an association or a committee). The inscription found in the temple of

Sankaradevi ascertains the fact, as interpreted by D.R. Bhandarkar, that this

temple was erected for the goddess under the supervision of a gosthi (an

association or a committee). The number of members and nature of their job

is also specified in the inscription. It is stated that the committee consisted of

195 Ibid. 196 D.R. Bhandarkar, PRASIWC (1095-06): 50; D.S. Shanna, Rajasthan Through The Ages, pp. 101,228-29; D.R. Bhandarkar, "Vasantgarh Inscription of Varma/ata" VS 682, 9: 187-91 197 D R . . Bhandarkar, E.I., IX, p. 189

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eleven members and all of them were bankers. D.R. Bhandarkar has

examined the caste of the members by the information locally gathered. One

of the members of the Gosthikas i.e. members of the temple supervision

committee was the Sresthi Mandan of the Dhusara family. The surname

Dhusara is famous in Jaipur. Dhusaras of Jaipur call themselves Bhargava

Brahamanas, though, people generally suspect them to have been originally

banias. This popular suspicion has originated due to the facts mentioned in

the inscription. Mandana Dhusara is called a Sreshthi i.e. Set or Seth, which

title is borne by none but the bania class. Another Gosthika of the temple

was Sresthi Garga of the Dharkata-family. The name Dharkkata has survived

the slightly altered form Dhakad, a sub-division of the Osvals. Given below

is the table, showing the donors' names, parentage etc:-

No. Donor Donor's

Father

Donor's

Grandfather

Donor's

Family

1. Mandan ......... Rama '" ....... Yasovardhana ...... Dhusara

2. Garga ............ Madvana ....... Mandan ............ Dharkkata

3. Ganaditya ....... Vardhana ...... Bhattiyaka .............. Do ..

4. Devalla .............. Do ............... Do ..................... Do ..

5. Siva ................. Tatta ......... ..

6. Sankara ........... Vishnuvaka ....... .

7. Mandubaka ....... Adityavardhana ... .

8. Adiyanaga ........ Vodda ..... ..

9. Bhadra ........... Vodda ...... ..

10. Udyotana ........ Jeulla ... ..

198 Ibid.

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11. Sankara .......... Sondhaka ...... .

The Mewar of Rajasthan had, as we discussed earlier, witnessed erection

of two of the early goddess temples - one, Ghattavasini and other,

Aranyavasini. The Dabok Inscriptionl99 refers to Ghattavasini temple. The

object of the inscription reveals that Vaidya Giyaka, son of N~gad~man, of

the Kayastha family, an inhabitant ofDhavagart~ (at present it is called Dhor

and is located in the lahazpur district of the Udaipur State) made permanent

endowments of some Sgradyagraishmika fields (the fields that can be tilled

in autumn as well as in summer) and, probably, shops, too, for the

construction, the repairs and the maintenance of the temple. It is also

informed that endowed fields for the temple were in the share or inheritance

of Chachcha (probably one of the sons of the donor). The purpose of the

endowment of the field as pointed out in the inscription was to increase the

religious merit and fame of the donor and his parents. The Aranyavasini

temple also came into shape in the areas of Mewar at Aranyakupagiri under

the supervision of Mahatara (Mahattara) lentaka who had migrated from

Vatanagara. lentaka took initiative for temple construction at the command

of the Mahgjana (community).20o

For various early goddess temples such as Bharmamata, Abhaneri,

Sitaleswara, Aranyakupagiri and Kali different social and political groups

came forward to patronize them. Gauri, a Manavaynikula (probably

Mnavayani) Kshatriya ruler, laid the foundation for the temple of

Bharmamata, as early as he assumed the kingship.z°l The Abhaneri

Harsatmata temple came into shape with the initiative taken by the

199 R.R. Halder, E1., XX, Dabok Inscription of the Time of Dhavalappadeva [Harsha-] Samvat 207, pp. 122-123 200 EI .. , Vol. XX, II. pp. 97-98

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community of artisans together with the contemporary rulers. The pattern of

construction of the temple is suggestive of the impact of competing claims

of power in Abhneri area in eighth-ninth centuries. The north-eastern part of

Rajasthan had, at this point of time, been experiencing political rivalry. The

Chahamana ruler was rising as a force under the influence of their overlord

Pratiharas. It is equally possible that the Pratiharas were the patrons.202

Gangadhara inscription dated to be 490 AD found approximately thirty

kilometers to the south-west of Chandrabhaga records that the minister of

prince Visvavarman, took initiative for the construction of Kali temple. He

constructed Visnu temple also as for the sake of his religious merit.203

Conclusion:

From seventh to ninth centuries A.D. some major changes occurred in the

pattern of image construction in Rajasthan. Changes were gradual but

consistent. The figures were not elaborate, but there was a touch of style in

the images. Jhalarapatan fragmentary Image of Ardhanarisvara and

Mahaishasuramardini of this period do suggest that images had unique

combination of dense and awkwardness revealed through the body parts of

the images. The Matrka images of this period found from Chittaurgarh and

from its contiguous areas reflect confluence of frontality and lateral

movement.

The eighth century images were different and developed in many ways to

the images of its earlier century. The images of Osian and Chittarurgarh of

this period are elaborate and integrated. Cuts and curves of the images are

definite and distinct. They are not dull, rather visibly energetic and full of

201 D.C. Sircar, E.1., Vol. XXX, Two Inscriptions ofGauri, No. 22, Chhoti Sadri Inscription, year, 547, pp. 120-24 202 c.P. Atherton, The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan, 1997, pp. 64-82

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life. The experimentation of the image making made in eighth century added

a new dimension to the images of the ninth century. The images of ninth

century thus came up more composed and clear. Naturalism overpowered

the artificiality of the images. The images of temple of Abhaneri are the

examples of. this peri~d which are free from tension, refined and

systematized. Naturalism and exuberance are well intertwined; clarity and

confidence are visible in the images of Abhaneri.

The image construction in the periods between seventh to ninth century

reveals concept of syncretism?04 Assimilation and adoption in the pattern of

icon construction had been preparing a platform for the growth of variety of

images mixing with the heterogenous social and religious elements.

Respective important sects likeVaisnava, Saiva and Sakta were involved in

promoting images of their own deities. But Siva and Sakta cult produced

image of Ardhanarisvara and set an example of confluence of Siva and

Sakta deity. Even the temple construction taken by any of the given sects

always provided space for assimilation to the deities of different sects.

Earlier we have examined about early goddess temples and the

inscriptions found in them. The early temples are known at present by the

names of Sakambhrimata, Kevyamata, Khimelmata etc. This shows that

these temples are dedicated to following female deities. But the inscriptions

found in given temples do not reveal their names such as Sakambhari,

Kevya, Khimel etc. It is missing. Sakrai Stone Inscription, found in the

temple of Sakambharimata, reveals two of the goddesses like Chandika and

Sankara. Their names are referred to in verses 2 and 14.205 Kinsariya

2031. F. Fleet, "Gangdhar Stone Inscription of Vi svav annan, the Year, 480", Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3: 78 204 Shivaji K. Panikkar, Saptamatrka Worship and Sculpture, 1997, p. 22 205 B. CH. Chhabra, E.J. vol. 27, Sakrai Stone Inscription, V.S. 699, pp. 27-33

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Inscription found in the temple of Kevyamata invokes blessings from

Katyayani and from Kali in verses no. 3 and nos. 4,5, respectively. Verse 23

also states that 'this' (Kevyamata) temple is dedicated to goddess Bhavani.

The Vasantgarh Inscription of the Varmalata linked to the temple of

Khimelmata invokes blessings from the Brahmanic goddesses in its opening

verses for the auspiciousness of the temple. Verse no. 1 invokes goddess

Durga and no. 2 Kshemarya.206 At Osian in Jodhpur in the vicinity of

Sachiyamata temple, there is a temple dedicated to Pipladevi.207 In the

central shrine of the temple of Pipladevi there is an image of

Mahasasuramardini, but this image is worshipped in the name of Piplamata.

Very rarely people call the image by the name of Mahishasuramardini, but in

no case, people call the temple by the name of Mahishasuramardini. In the

temple of Khokrimata also, that is situated in the north of Jodhpur, an image

of Gajalakshmi is installed but both the temple and the image are called by

the name of Khokrimata. The given temples contain revealing discrepancies

between the worshipped image and the name used.

The construction of cult centres witnessed a new dimension in this phase

of history. Quite a reasonable number of temples, well developed and

refined, came into being. A systematic growth of the temple construction

originated in a particular space that is Mandore from where the cult centres

gradually spread all through Rajasthan. Till the close of the ninth century

temples spread beyond Mondore' s periphery stretching toward its north and

north-east parallel to the foot of the Aravalli hill. Temple construction took

place beyond Aravalli on the eastern part of Rajasthan also. But, in no case,

temple construction in this phase had extended towards the Marusthali area

206 R.R. Halder, EI, XX, Dabok lnscrption of the Time of Dhavalappadeva; [Harsha -] Samvat 207, pp. 122-125

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lying in the deep western part of Rajasthan. In fact, the process of temple

construction came into being in Marusthali area after the tenth century,

which we shall discuss in the next chapter. ,

'07 " D.R. Bhandarkar, AS] Annual Report, 1908-09, pp. 100-25