Gestalt_etg2004

GESTALT GESTALT PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

“The whole is different “The whole is different than the sum of its parts.”than the sum of its parts.”

A report by Eden GallardoA report by Eden Gallardo

• AntecedentsAntecedents• The Nazi PeriodThe Nazi Period• The ZeitgeistThe Zeitgeist• Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. Nurture• Mind-Body ProblemMind-Body Problem• The Triumvirate (Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler)The Triumvirate (Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler)

– Phi PhenomenonPhi Phenomenon– Gestalt Laws of OrganizationGestalt Laws of Organization– Insightful LearningInsightful Learning– Productive ThinkingProductive Thinking– Memory TraceMemory Trace

• Kurt Lewin’s Field TheoryKurt Lewin’s Field Theory• The Spread of Gestalt PsychologyThe Spread of Gestalt Psychology• Gestalt Psychology: Concept MapGestalt Psychology: Concept Map• Lesser Known Gestalt PsychologistsLesser Known Gestalt Psychologists• ContributionsContributions• CriticismsCriticisms

““Gestalt”Gestalt”

configurationconfiguration

arrangement of parts in a arrangement of parts in a wholewhole

formform

shapeshape

ANTECEDENTSANTECEDENTSImmanuel Kant (1724-1804) Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – nativist – nativist • the world as we perceived it was not the same as the the world as we perceived it was not the same as the

real worldreal world• our perception of objects come naturally as primitive our perception of objects come naturally as primitive

organizations quite independent of learningorganizations quite independent of learning

John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873) – associationist – associationist• mental chemistry - ideas were not merely the sum of mental chemistry - ideas were not merely the sum of

the individual elements, but could evolve into a new the individual elements, but could evolve into a new whole which was more than the sum of its partswhole which was more than the sum of its parts

Franz Brentano (1838 – 1917) and Franz Brentano (1838 – 1917) and Carl Stumpf (1848 - 1936) Carl Stumpf (1848 - 1936) – structuralists– structuralists• opposed the idea of a passive mind that merely opposed the idea of a passive mind that merely

received experiences, and stressed the act of received experiences, and stressed the act of perceiving and sensing rather than the analysis of the perceiving and sensing rather than the analysis of the various elementsvarious elements

ANTECEDENTSANTECEDENTSErnst Mach (1838-1916)Ernst Mach (1838-1916) – positivist – positivist • insisted that sensations served as the insisted that sensations served as the

basis for all sciencebasis for all science• a triangle could be blue or white, large or a triangle could be blue or white, large or

small, but it still retained its quality of small, but it still retained its quality of being a trianglebeing a triangle

• a melody was the same melody regardless a melody was the same melody regardless of the key in which it was played, and it of the key in which it was played, and it did not lose its time-form dimension in the did not lose its time-form dimension in the transpositiontransposition

Christian von Ehrenfels (1859 – 1932)Christian von Ehrenfels (1859 – 1932) – – • qualities in experience which went beyond qualities in experience which went beyond

those generally recognized in our those generally recognized in our sensations; called these sensations; called these “Gestaltqualitaten”“Gestaltqualitaten” or form-qualities; the or form-qualities; the new elements were present in the mind new elements were present in the mind but were not in physical thingsbut were not in physical things

Max Max Wertheimer Wertheimer studied with studied with

him at him at PraguePrague

ANTECEDENTSANTECEDENTS

William James (1842 – 1910) – William James (1842 – 1910) – • opposed the trend toward elementism in opposed the trend toward elementism in

psychology; regarded elements of psychology; regarded elements of consciousness as artificial abstraction’ consciousness as artificial abstraction’ “people see objects as wholes, not as “people see objects as wholes, not as bundles of sensations”; bundles of sensations”;

phenomenologyphenomenology – a doctrine based on an – a doctrine based on an unbiased description of immediate unbiased description of immediate experience just as it occurs; the experience just as it occurs; the experience is not analyzed or reduced to experience is not analyzed or reduced to elements or otherwise artificially elements or otherwise artificially abstractedabstracted

Koffka and Kohler

learned of James’ work when they

were students of

Stumpf

THE NAZI PERIODTHE NAZI PERIOD• The Nazi regime was interested in its The Nazi regime was interested in its

ideological legitimization and at the same ideological legitimization and at the same time, it was also interested in a science that time, it was also interested in a science that was highly effective in a technological and was highly effective in a technological and socio-technological sense (Jurgen Habermas).socio-technological sense (Jurgen Habermas).

• Psychology’s professionalization largely Psychology’s professionalization largely shaped its development throughout the Nazi shaped its development throughout the Nazi period. period.

• The psychologists, like most experts, did not The psychologists, like most experts, did not reflect on the ends which their knowledge reflect on the ends which their knowledge was used, even when the German army, for was used, even when the German army, for which they were working, spread war and which they were working, spread war and terror over Europe. terror over Europe.

THE NAZI PERIODTHE NAZI PERIOD• The great importance of psychology in the The great importance of psychology in the

military and the accelerating role of war in military and the accelerating role of war in psychology’s professionalization was an psychology’s professionalization was an international phenomenon. international phenomenon.

• Following dismissals due to anti-Semitism, Following dismissals due to anti-Semitism, several German psychologists emigrated several German psychologists emigrated to the United States.to the United States.

• Disciples/adherents to the Gestalt position Disciples/adherents to the Gestalt position continued to conduct research in Germany continued to conduct research in Germany during the Nazi era, focusing on studies in during the Nazi era, focusing on studies in vision and depth perception.vision and depth perception.

THE ZEITGEISTTHE ZEITGEIST

• In the closing decades of the 19th century In the closing decades of the 19th century ideas in physics were becoming less atomistic ideas in physics were becoming less atomistic with the recognition and acceptance of fields of with the recognition and acceptance of fields of force (e.g. magnetism, light and electricity force (e.g. magnetism, light and electricity were believed to operate similarly)were believed to operate similarly)

• In chemistry most everything was thought to In chemistry most everything was thought to be divided into combinations of various be divided into combinations of various elements: for example, water is a combination elements: for example, water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen.of hydrogen and oxygen.

• Around 1910 in Germany was called the Crisis Around 1910 in Germany was called the Crisis of Science. Not only science, but academic of Science. Not only science, but academic knowledge in general, was losing the knowledge in general, was losing the confidence of more and more people, confidence of more and more people, intellectuals included, because it could not deal intellectuals included, because it could not deal with major human concerns. It was time to deal with major human concerns. It was time to deal with central human issues outside the natural with central human issues outside the natural science tradition. (practical science vs. science tradition. (practical science vs. speculative psychology)speculative psychology)

Kohler studied Kohler studied with Max with Max

Planck, one of Planck, one of the architects the architects

of modern of modern physicsphysics

On Nature vs. NurtureOn Nature vs. NurtureBehaviorists Gestaltists

The brain as the passive receiver of sensation that, in turn, produce responses; a complex switchboard

Human nature is determined by what we experience.

The contents of the “mind” as the synthesis of our experiences.

The brain acts on incoming sensory information in such a way as to make it more meaningful and organized; not a learned function but is the result of the brain’s structure (the brain’s organizational abilities were not inherited; rather, such abilities characterized any physical system

Passive brain that responded to and stored sensory information [British empiricists]

Active brain [rationalists] that transformed sensory information [nativistic, Kantian tradition]

On the Mind-Body On the Mind-Body ProblemProblem

Voluntarists

Structuralists Behaviorists

Gestaltists

An active mind profoundly influenced behavior.The mind could willfully arrange the elements of thought into any number of configurations; behavior was instigated by the resultant configurations

Body sensations passively give rise to, or caused, mental images.

Epiphenomenalism - belief that the contents of the mind vary passively as a function of sensory experience and have no causal relationship to behavior

Ignored the issue; concentrated their investigations on behavior

Isomorphism between psychological experiences and the processes that exist in the brain

The phenomenal world (consciousness) is an accurate expression of the circumstances, that is, field forces that exist in the brain.

The Founding of The Founding of Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology

• The Wurzburg LegacyThe Wurzburg Legacy

• German PhenomenologyGerman Phenomenology

• Originated and nurtured by Max Wertheimer, Originated and nurtured by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt KoffkaWolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffkao Wertheimer studied with Stumpf before joining Wertheimer studied with Stumpf before joining

Kulpe in WurzburgKulpe in Wurzburgo Kohler and Koffka were both educated at the Kohler and Koffka were both educated at the

University of Berlin under the direction of University of Berlin under the direction of StumpfStumpf

o All three later fled to the United States during All three later fled to the United States during Nazi periodNazi period

Max Max Wertheimer Wertheimer (1880 – 1943)(1880 – 1943)considered to be Gestalt psychology’s founder; gifted with an inspirational quality; warm and friendly

worked closely with Koffka and Kohler, who acted as subjects in the first experiments conducted by Wertheimer

He became aware of a form of apparent motion, known as the phi phenomenon while on a train at Frankfurt.

His book Productive Thinking was published after his death.

Wolfgang Wolfgang Kohler (1887 – Kohler (1887 –

1967)1967)Gifted with a thoughtful, systematic

capacity; always a physicist in his thinking; cold and aloof

the only psychologist in Germany to protest publicly the dismissals of Jewish scholars

His most significant work on insightful learning was done in 1913 - 1917 at the University of Berlin Anthropoid Station on

Tenerife, Canary Islands. His findings were summarized in The Mentality of the Apes

(1917).

He also developed the concept of isomorphism.

Kurt Koffka Kurt Koffka (1886 – (1886 – 1941)1941)

the most prolific writer of Gestalt psychology’s founders; charismatic and charming man

brought the teachings of the Gestalt movement to a great number of psychologists, especially in the United States.

He attempted to link the past with the present through his concept of the memory trace.

The Principles of Gestalt Psychology, became the bible for Gestalt psychologists.

The Phi PhenomenonThe Phi Phenomenon

The phi phenomenon, then, was just a means of The phi phenomenon, then, was just a means of displaying the essential premise of Gestalt displaying the essential premise of Gestalt psychology: psychology:

Perception is the result of an interaction Perception is the result of an interaction between the physical characteristics of between the physical characteristics of stimulation and the mental laws governing stimulation and the mental laws governing the experiences of the observer. the experiences of the observer.

In the demonstration of the phi phenomenon, In the demonstration of the phi phenomenon, there is no physical feature of the environment there is no physical feature of the environment that permits the prediction of the effect. that permits the prediction of the effect.

• Insert demonstration of phiInsert demonstration of phi

The Phi PhenomenonThe Phi Phenomenon

It is one’s perception of motion, It is one’s perception of motion, not one’s response to motion not one’s response to motion that is the object of study. In that is the object of study. In short, it is the study of a mental short, it is the study of a mental as opposed to sensory or as opposed to sensory or behavior state.behavior state.

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of OrganizationOrganization

The Law of The Law of PragnanzPragnanz::

A psychological condition will always A psychological condition will always be as ‘good’ as the prevailing be as ‘good’ as the prevailing conditions allow.conditions allow.

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of OrganizationOrganization

• Figure/GroundFigure/Ground• ClosureClosure• ProximityProximity• ContinuityContinuity• SimilaritySimilarity

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of Organization: Organization: Figure/GroundFigure/Ground

• We tend to organize perceptions into the object being looked at (the We tend to organize perceptions into the object being looked at (the figure) and the background against which it appears (the ground).figure) and the background against which it appears (the ground).

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of Organization: Organization: ClosureClosure

• There is a tendency in our perception to There is a tendency in our perception to complete incomplete figures, to fill in gaps.complete incomplete figures, to fill in gaps.

B

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of Organization:Organization:

ProximityProximity

• Parts that are close together in time or space appear to Parts that are close together in time or space appear to belong together and tend to be perceived togetherbelong together and tend to be perceived together

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of Organization: Organization: ContinuityContinuity

• There is a tendency in our There is a tendency in our perception to follow a perception to follow a direction, to connect the direction, to connect the elements in a way that makes elements in a way that makes them seem continuous or them seem continuous or flowing in a particular flowing in a particular direction.direction.

Gestalt Laws of Gestalt Laws of Organization: Organization: SimilaritySimilarity

• Similar parts tend to be seen together as forming Similar parts tend to be seen together as forming a group.a group.

IsomorphismIsomorphism

For every perception, there is a corresponding physiological activity in the brain which is isomorphic to the mental experience (e.g. When we perceive a triangle, there exists in the brain a physiological representation of a triangle which maintains certain aspects of triangularity).

IsomorphismIsomorphism

The Muller-Lyer illusion. The two horizontal lines are the same length, although the one on the right in the figure clearly seems to be longer.

The Gestalt movement explains perception on the basis of the physical characteristics of forms found in electrical fields in the brain, meaning our perceptions correspond to the final electrical form in the brain.

Isomorphism: Isomorphism: How does the mind organize sensory How does the mind organize sensory

information and make it more information and make it more meaningful?meaningful?

External Stimulation

S1

S2

S3

S4

S5

S6

S7

Brain transforms

sensory data in

accordance with law of Pragnanz

Conscious experience is

determined by the interaction

of external stimulation

and the field forces in

the brain

Insightful LearningInsightful Learning

In In The Mentality of Apes,The Mentality of Apes, Kohler describes five types Kohler describes five types of problems which he employed to test the of problems which he employed to test the apes’ ability to solve complex problems: apes’ ability to solve complex problems:

1)1) detour problems; detour problems; 2)2) problems involving the use of implements; problems involving the use of implements; 3)3) problems in which the animal had to make problems in which the animal had to make

implements; implements; 4)4) building problems; and building problems; and 5)5) problems involving imitation.problems involving imitation.

Insightful Learning :Insightful Learning :The Detour ProblemThe Detour Problem

A detour problem requires the subject to turn away from the A detour problem requires the subject to turn away from the goal in order to reach it. In order to be credited with insight goal in order to reach it. In order to be credited with insight the animal must show evidence of perceiving the the animal must show evidence of perceiving the relationships involved by quickly and smoothly adopting the relationships involved by quickly and smoothly adopting the detour route. detour route.

Door

Door

Window

O (Objective)

X (Subject)

The Use of Implements: The Use of Implements: Chica using a pole to obtain foodChica using a pole to obtain food

The Making The Making of of

Implements:Implements: Sultan Sultan

putting two putting two sticks sticks

togethertogether

In either case, the successful solution to the problems involves the animal’s understanding of the implement as a tool.

Building Building Problems:Problems: Konsul, Konsul, Sultan, Sultan, Chica and Chica and Grande Grande buildingbuilding

Building Problems: Building Problems: Grande using a stack of Grande using a stack of boxes to obtain food as boxes to obtain food as Sultan watchesSultan watches

Building Problems: Building Problems: Grande creating an even Grande creating an even more elaborate structuremore elaborate structure

Kohler concluded that:

• the building problem was solved only by trial-and-error,

• but that the perceptual problem was solved by insight.

Kohler’s Conclusions Kohler’s Conclusions

• An important condition of insight is the nature of the An important condition of insight is the nature of the experimental situation. The animal must be able to experimental situation. The animal must be able to see the relationship among all parts of the problem see the relationship among all parts of the problem before insight can occur. before insight can occur.

• Second, these experiments clearly point out that Second, these experiments clearly point out that insight follows a period of “trial-and-error” behavior. insight follows a period of “trial-and-error” behavior.

• Third, once the animal solves the problem by Third, once the animal solves the problem by insight, there is a high degree of transfer to similar insight, there is a high degree of transfer to similar problems. problems.

• Finally, insight is closely related to the animal’s Finally, insight is closely related to the animal’s capacity. capacity.

Characteristics of Characteristics of Insightful LearningInsightful Learning

• the the transpositiontransposition from pre-solution to solution is from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete;sudden and complete;

• performance based on a solution gained by performance based on a solution gained by insight is usually smooth and free of errors;insight is usually smooth and free of errors;

• a solution to a problem gained by insight is a solution to a problem gained by insight is retained for a considerable length of time; andretained for a considerable length of time; and

• a principle gained by insight is easily applied to a principle gained by insight is easily applied to other problemsother problems

TranspositionTransposition

the process when a principle learned in the process when a principle learned in one problem solving situation is one problem solving situation is applied to the solution of another applied to the solution of another problemproblem

• Experiment involving training an animal to approach one of two shades of gray paper

Stimuli: Used during Preliminary Training

Stimuli: Used during the Transposition Test

First the animal (chicken) is taught to approach a dark gray stimulus and then is offered a choice between the dark gray stimulus and a still darker gray stimulus. If the animal chooses the darker of the two, transposition is said to have been demonstrated.



absolute theory absolute theory (behaviorists) – (behaviorists) – learning of specific learning of specific S-R connections; S-R connections; would predict that would predict that the animal will the animal will choose same shade choose same shade of gray as used in of gray as used in the preliminary the preliminary trainingtraining

relational theoryrelational theory (Gestaltists point of (Gestaltists point of view) – emphasizes view) – emphasizes the comparison the comparison between the two between the two stimuli; predicted stimuli; predicted that the animal that the animal would choose the would choose the darker of the two darker of the two objects in the objects in the Transposition test; Transposition test; prediction is prediction is accurateaccurate

VS.

Productive ThinkingProductive Thinking

by Max Wertheimer, published in 1945, two years by Max Wertheimer, published in 1945, two years after his death, expanded and re-published in after his death, expanded and re-published in 1959 under the editorship of his son Michael1959 under the editorship of his son Michael

explored the nature of problem solving and the explored the nature of problem solving and the techniques that could be used to teach it; techniques that could be used to teach it; conclusions reached were based on personal conclusions reached were based on personal experience, experimentation, and personal experience, experimentation, and personal interviews with individuals such as Albert Einsteininterviews with individuals such as Albert Einstein


Two traditional approaches to teaching Two traditional approaches to teaching which inhibit the development of which inhibit the development of understanding:understanding:

• teaching that emphasizes the teaching that emphasizes the importance of logic importance of logic

• the doctrine of associationismthe doctrine of associationism


a c

b e d

Finding the area of a parallelogram: 1) formula, area of rectangle= altitude X base; 2) draw parallelogram; 3) pupils shown how to drop perpendicular lines; 4) formula same as rectangle, since the parallelogram had been transferred into a rectangle

Same idea as first figure; pupils had no difficulty in solving the problem


B – responses:

A – responses:

Problems and solutions involving trapezoidal figures. In the A-responses the subjects change the figures into rectangles by shifting the triangles. In B-responses previously learned operations are applied indiscriminately.

Productive ThinkingProductive ThinkingA B

The areas of the forms in Column A can be found using the strategy of balancing excesses and discrepancies, whereas the forms in Column B cannot be.

Problem SolvingProblem Solving

Karl Duncker studies of problem solving among Karl Duncker studies of problem solving among college students:college students:

Given an inoperable stomach tumor and Given an inoperable stomach tumor and rays (which at high intensity will destroy rays (which at high intensity will destroy tissue both healthy and diseased), how can tissue both healthy and diseased), how can the tumor be destroyed without damaging the tumor be destroyed without damaging surrounding tissue? surrounding tissue?

Typically, the subjects were also shown a schematic Typically, the subjects were also shown a schematic sketch of the problem while it was being presented sketch of the problem while it was being presented verbally. verbally.


A schematic representation of Duncker’s tumor problem. The ellipse represents the cross section of the diseased area with the tumor in the middle. If the body is rotated, the radiation will be maximal in the center and minimal on the periphery.


Duncker’s analysis on the stages undergone Duncker’s analysis on the stages undergone by the subjects during the process:by the subjects during the process:

• Discovery of the “general or essential Discovery of the “general or essential properties of a solution”properties of a solution”

• Functional solutionsFunctional solutions

• Specific solutionsSpecific solutions


rote memorizationrote memorization - - learner learns facts learner learns facts or rules without truly or rules without truly understanding them; understanding them; learning is rigid, learning is rigid, forgotten easily, and forgotten easily, and can be applied only can be applied only to limited to limited circumstancescircumstances

problem solving problem solving based on Gestalt based on Gestalt principlesprinciples – – based on based on an understanding of an understanding of the underlying nature the underlying nature of the problem; of the problem; learning comes from learning comes from within the individual, within the individual, not imposed by not imposed by someone else; easily someone else; easily generalizable and generalizable and remembered for a remembered for a long timelong time

VS.


Proposed that thinking is done in Proposed that thinking is done in terms of wholes. The learner terms of wholes. The learner regards the situation as a whole, regards the situation as a whole, and the teacher must present and the teacher must present the situation as a whole.the situation as a whole.

Problem solving should proceed Problem solving should proceed from the whole problem from the whole problem downward to the parts, not the downward to the parts, not the reversereverse

Trial-and-error method:

A solution to a problem is hidden, in a sense, and the learner may make mistakes before hitting on the correct answer

Memory TraceMemory Trace

• A current experience gives rise to a memory A current experience gives rise to a memory process process

• Memory processMemory process– the activity in the brain caused by an the activity in the brain caused by an

environmental experienceenvironmental experience– the process could be simple or complex, the process could be simple or complex,

depending on the experience it is based ondepending on the experience it is based on– when a process is terminated, a trace of its when a process is terminated, a trace of its

effect remains in the braineffect remains in the brain– the trace will influence all similar processes the trace will influence all similar processes

that occur in the futurethat occur in the future

Memory TraceMemory Trace• a process, which is caused by an a process, which is caused by an

experience, can occur only once in “pure” experience, can occur only once in “pure” form; thereafter, similar experiences form; thereafter, similar experiences result from the interaction between the result from the interaction between the process and the memory traceprocess and the memory trace

• a trace exerts an influence on the process a trace exerts an influence on the process in the direction of making it similar to the in the direction of making it similar to the process which originally produced the process which originally produced the trace trace

e.g. If the last thing one did in a e.g. If the last thing one did in a problem-solving situation was to solve the problem-solving situation was to solve the problem, the solution becomes “etched” problem, the solution becomes “etched” in one’s mind, making the problem easier in one’s mind, making the problem easier to solve; improvement in a skill as the to solve; improvement in a skill as the result of the increasing influence of the result of the increasing influence of the trace on the processtrace on the process

[in essential [in essential agreement with agreement with

Guthrie]:Guthrie]:•An act is a An act is a

movement or movement or series of series of

movements movements that brings that brings about some about some

result.result.• “… “…learning learning the entire act the entire act

calls for calls for repeated repeated practice”practice”

Memory TraceMemory Trace

trace systemtrace system – numerous – numerous interrelated individual tracesinterrelated individual traces

• through repetition the trace through repetition the trace system becomes more important system becomes more important than the individual traces that than the individual traces that make it upmake it up

• a kind of neurological summation a kind of neurological summation of all our experiences with objects of all our experiences with objects in a certain classin a certain class

Memory TraceMemory TraceTraditionally, one theory of memory was that when we Traditionally, one theory of memory was that when we

perceived an object and subsequently were able to recall it, perceived an object and subsequently were able to recall it, the reason was that a “trace” had been left in the brain. As the reason was that a “trace” had been left in the brain. As we forgot, this “trace” gradually died out.we forgot, this “trace” gradually died out.

Memory was a dynamic process in which traces underwent Memory was a dynamic process in which traces underwent progressive changes as time passed; these changes were in progressive changes as time passed; these changes were in accordance with the principles of organization that accordance with the principles of organization that governed the original perceptionsgoverned the original perceptions

• Wuff’s study on geometric figures – where the original figure was Wuff’s study on geometric figures – where the original figure was “weak” (very ambiguous), the subjects tended to sharpen and “weak” (very ambiguous), the subjects tended to sharpen and make it a better figure (good form)make it a better figure (good form)

• Gibson and Bartlett’s study on serial reproduction – distortions Gibson and Bartlett’s study on serial reproduction – distortions tended to occur, but in the direction of good formtended to occur, but in the direction of good form

• Allport and Postman’s study on rumors – shortening and Allport and Postman’s study on rumors – shortening and simplifying of the resultssimplifying of the results

Memory Trace:Memory Trace: Gibson and Bartlett’s Gibson and Bartlett’s

Study Study on Serial Reproductionon Serial Reproduction

Original

Reproduction 1Reproduction 2 Reproduction

3

Reproduction 8

Reproduction 9

Reproduction 10

Reproduction 15

Reproduction 18

Memory TraceMemory Trace““bundle hypothesis”bundle hypothesis”- complex thoughts are - complex thoughts are

made up of simpler made up of simpler ideas bound ideas bound together by together by contiguity, similarity, contiguity, similarity, or contrast or contrast [associationists; also [associationists; also accepted by the accepted by the behaviorists];behaviorists];

- memory occurs when - memory occurs when one element in the one element in the bundle causes the bundle causes the recall of the other recall of the other elements (trigger)elements (trigger)

Law of PragnanzLaw of Pragnanz - the wholeness of the wholeness of

experience and the experience and the recollection of recollection of experience; experience;

- memories tend to memories tend to be complete and be complete and meaningful, even meaningful, even when the original when the original experience was not; experience was not;

- irregular irregular experiences tend to experiences tend to be remembered as be remembered as regular, unique regular, unique events remembered events remembered in terms of in terms of something familiarsomething familiar

VS.

Kurt Lewin (1890-Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)1947)a famous, charismatic psychologist who is now viewed as the father of social psychology

His famous formula for framing behavior, that behavior is a function of the person and the environment, seems self-evident, but in fact is an attempt to reconcile two competing strains of modern psychology. He worked with brilliant and influential minds, yet was unable to obtain a prestigious position in the United States until 1945.

He was energetic, congenial and hopeful, yet suffered terrible personal hardships, including his experience as a soldier in World War I, his failed first marriage, the distress of German reconstruction, and finally Nazism.

“There is nothing so practical as a good theory."

The Life SpaceThe Life Space

C Movie

+++++

-

-

-

-

-

Field TheoryField Theory

““Human behavior at any given time is Human behavior at any given time is determined by the total number of determined by the total number of psychological factspsychological facts being experienced at being experienced at that time.”that time.”

Psychological fact: Psychological fact: anything of which a person is anything of which a person is conscious, including conscious, including • being hungry, being hungry, • a memory of a past event, a memory of a past event, • being in a certain physical location, being in a certain physical location, • the presence of certain other people, the presence of certain other people, • or having a certain amount of moneyor having a certain amount of money

[all these make up the person’s life space][all these make up the person’s life space]

Field TheoryField Theory

some of these facts will exert a some of these facts will exert a positive influence on the person’s positive influence on the person’s behavior and some a negative behavior and some a negative influence; influence;

a change in any psychological fact a change in any psychological fact rearranges the entire life space rearranges the entire life space →→ the the causes of behavior are continually causes of behavior are continually changing; they are dynamicchanging; they are dynamic

A Handbook of Child A Handbook of Child Psychology:Psychology:

Three Types of Three Types of ConflictConflict

Lewin’s ThreeLewin’s ThreeTypes of Conflict:Types of Conflict:

(a) Approach-(a) Approach-approach conflict; approach conflict; (b) Approach-(b) Approach-avoidance conflict; avoidance conflict; and (c) Avoidance-and (c) Avoidance-avoidance conflict.avoidance conflict.

C+P

+Pl

(a)

CTr+-

(b)

T-

-P

(c)

C

VT

VP

R

Motivation and Motivation and the Zeigarnick Effectthe Zeigarnick Effect

Lewin proposed a basic state of balance or Lewin proposed a basic state of balance or equilibrium between the person and the equilibrium between the person and the environment; environment; believed that behavior involves a cycle of tension believed that behavior involves a cycle of tension states or need-states followed by activity and reliefstates or need-states followed by activity and relief

• Bluma Zeigarnick’s 1927 experiment concluded:Bluma Zeigarnick’s 1927 experiment concluded:

The subjects remembered the uncompleted The subjects remembered the uncompleted tasks more readily than they recalled the tasks more readily than they recalled the completed tasks. (Zeigarnick effect)completed tasks. (Zeigarnick effect)

• E.g. waiters, bus conductorsE.g. waiters, bus conductors

Social PsychologySocial Psychology

• Group dynamics – application of Group dynamics – application of psychological concepts to individual and psychological concepts to individual and group behaviorgroup behavior

• Social action research – study of relevant Social action research – study of relevant social problems with a view to introducing social problems with a view to introducing changechange

• Sensitivity training for educators and Sensitivity training for educators and business leaders to reduce inter-group business leaders to reduce inter-group conflict and develop individual potentialconflict and develop individual potential

LESSER KNOWN GESTALT LESSER KNOWN GESTALT PSYCHOLOGISTSPSYCHOLOGISTS

• Kurt Goldstein (1878 -1965) – pioneer in clinical Kurt Goldstein (1878 -1965) – pioneer in clinical neuroscienceneuroscience

• Karl Buhler (1879 – 1963) – forerunner of modern Karl Buhler (1879 – 1963) – forerunner of modern cognitive psychologycognitive psychology

• Karl Duncker (1903 – 1940) – functional fixednessKarl Duncker (1903 – 1940) – functional fixedness

• Mary Henle (1913 - ) – “chronicler of Gestalt Mary Henle (1913 - ) – “chronicler of Gestalt psychology”psychology”

• Rudolph Arnheim (1904 – ) – critic of Rudolph Arnheim (1904 – ) – critic of misconceptions of Gestalt psychologymisconceptions of Gestalt psychology

THE SPREAD OF THE SPREAD OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGYGESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

• Mid-1920s a forceful school of thought in Germany, centered Mid-1920s a forceful school of thought in Germany, centered at the Psychological Institute of the University of Berlinat the Psychological Institute of the University of Berlin

• 1933 when Nazi seized power, many scholars including 1933 when Nazi seized power, many scholars including founders left for the USfounders left for the US

• personal connections (e.g. Herbert Langfield of Princeton personal connections (e.g. Herbert Langfield of Princeton University met Koffka in Berlin and sent his student E.C. University met Koffka in Berlin and sent his student E.C. Tolman to Germany; Tolman served as a subject in Koffka’s Tolman to Germany; Tolman served as a subject in Koffka’s research program)research program)

• articles by American psychologist Harry Helson, published in articles by American psychologist Harry Helson, published in the American Journal of Psychology, also helped spread the American Journal of Psychology, also helped spread Gestalt theoryGestalt theory

• Koffka and Kohler visited the US for lectures and Koffka and Kohler visited the US for lectures and conferencesconferences

THE SPREAD OF THE SPREAD OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGYGESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Reasons its acceptance as a school of thought came slowly: Reasons its acceptance as a school of thought came slowly:

• Behaviorism was at its peak of popularity; Behaviorism was at its peak of popularity;

• There was a language barrier, translation delayed full and There was a language barrier, translation delayed full and accurate dissemination of the Gestalt viewpoint; accurate dissemination of the Gestalt viewpoint;

• Misconception that Gestalt psychology dealt only with Misconception that Gestalt psychology dealt only with perception; perception;

• The founders settled at small colleges in the US that did not The founders settled at small colleges in the US that did not have graduate programs, so it was difficult for them to attract have graduate programs, so it was difficult for them to attract disciples to carry on their ideas; disciples to carry on their ideas;

• American psychology has advanced far beyond the ideas of American psychology has advanced far beyond the ideas of Wundt and Titchener than was German psychology, so that it Wundt and Titchener than was German psychology, so that it seemed like the German psychologists came to America seemed like the German psychologists came to America protesting something that was no longer of any concern.protesting something that was no longer of any concern.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY:GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY:CONCEPT MAPCONCEPT MAP

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Max Wertheimer

Kurt Koffka

Phi Phenomenon

Wolfgang Kohler

Organizational Principles

(e.g.Pragnanz)

Perceptual Principles

Figure Ground Continuity Proximity

Similarity Closure

Productive Thinking

Dunker and others

Rise of Cognitive Psychology

Learning Research

Kurt Lewin

Bluma Zeigarnik

Zeigarnik Effect

Advances in Social Psychology

CONTRIBUTIONSCONTRIBUTIONS• Gestalt movement left an indelible imprint on Gestalt movement left an indelible imprint on

psychology and influenced work on perception, psychology and influenced work on perception, learning, thinking, personality, social psychology, learning, thinking, personality, social psychology, and motivation.and motivation.

Some of Gestalt’s effect on social psychology is Some of Gestalt’s effect on social psychology is found in the following concepts:found in the following concepts:

o The Zeigarnik Effect The Zeigarnik Effect o Group Dynamics Group Dynamics o Social CognitionSocial Cognition

CONTRIBUTIONSCONTRIBUTIONS• The Gestalt focus on conscious experience The Gestalt focus on conscious experience

centered on a modern version of phenomenology.centered on a modern version of phenomenology.

• Many aspects of contemporary cognitive Many aspects of contemporary cognitive psychology owe their origins to Gestalt psychology.psychology owe their origins to Gestalt psychology.

E.C. Tolman’s interesting attempt to wed Gestalt E.C. Tolman’s interesting attempt to wed Gestalt theory with the behavioristic point of view theory with the behavioristic point of view ((Purposive Behavior in Men and AnimalsPurposive Behavior in Men and Animals). … It is ). … It is worth noting that despite its emphasis on worth noting that despite its emphasis on behavioristic studies of learning, it is a cognitive behavioristic studies of learning, it is a cognitive theory of how learning occurs. This cognitive theory of how learning occurs. This cognitive approach again emphasizes the perceptual approach again emphasizes the perceptual orientation of Gestalt psychology even when orientation of Gestalt psychology even when dealing with behavioral processes.dealing with behavioral processes.

CRITICISMSCRITICISMS• Gestalt psychology had been too dependent on theory, Gestalt psychology had been too dependent on theory,

and lacked positive empirical evidence to support the and lacked positive empirical evidence to support the theory (e.g. the “aha” experience was hard to define).theory (e.g. the “aha” experience was hard to define).

• Although Gestalt psychologists had used experimentation Although Gestalt psychologists had used experimentation in their studies, these experiments were poorly controlled in their studies, these experiments were poorly controlled and lacked any real predictive power. Too often and lacked any real predictive power. Too often introspection was depended upon as the prime method, introspection was depended upon as the prime method, one which was hard to replicate. one which was hard to replicate.

• The phenomenological approach was subjective and The phenomenological approach was subjective and

dualistic. dualistic.

• The isomorphic principle of a map in the brain The isomorphic principle of a map in the brain corresponding to what once experienced was a pure corresponding to what once experienced was a pure physiological assumption. It was a unique explanation, physiological assumption. It was a unique explanation, but any proof was entirely indirect.but any proof was entirely indirect.

ReferencesReferences• Benjafield, J.G., (1996). The developmental point of view. Benjafield, J.G., (1996). The developmental point of view. A history of psychologyA history of psychology (pp.171-193). (pp.171-193).

Needham Heights. MA: Simon & Schuster Company.Needham Heights. MA: Simon & Schuster Company.

• Brennan, J. F. (1995). Readings in the history and systems of psychology. Englewood, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Brennan, J. F. (1995). Readings in the history and systems of psychology. Englewood, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.Inc.

• Carlson, N.R. (1990). Psychology: The science of behavior (3Carlson, N.R. (1990). Psychology: The science of behavior (3rdrd edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon. edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

• Chaplin, J.P. & Krawiec, T.S. Systems and theories of psychology. NY: Rinehart and Winston.Chaplin, J.P. & Krawiec, T.S. Systems and theories of psychology. NY: Rinehart and Winston.

• Geuter, Ulfried. German psychology during the Nazi period. p. 165-182 in Geuter, Ulfried. German psychology during the Nazi period. p. 165-182 in Psychology in 20th century Psychology in 20th century thought and society.thought and society. NY: Cambridge University Press. NY: Cambridge University Press.

• Henle, M. (1986). 1879 and all that, essays in the theory and history of psychology. NY: Columbia Henle, M. (1986). 1879 and all that, essays in the theory and history of psychology. NY: Columbia University Press.University Press.

• Lundin, R.W. (1985). Theories and systems of psychology (3Lundin, R.W. (1985). Theories and systems of psychology (3rdrd edition). D.C. Heath and Company. edition). D.C. Heath and Company.

• McMahon, F.B. & McMahon, J.W. (1982). Psychology: The hybrid science (4McMahon, F.B. & McMahon, J.W. (1982). Psychology: The hybrid science (4thth edition). The Dorsey Press. edition). The Dorsey Press.

• Robinson, D.N. (1986). An intellectual history of psychology. Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press. Robinson, D.N. (1986). An intellectual history of psychology. Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.

• Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, S.E. (2000). A history of modern psychology 7Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, S.E. (2000). A history of modern psychology 7thth ed.). Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth. ed.). Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth.

• Thorne, B.M. & Henley, T.B. (1997). Connections in the history and systems of psychology. Boston: Thorne, B.M. & Henley, T.B. (1997). Connections in the history and systems of psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.Houghton Mifflin Company.

• Zusne, L. (1975). Names in the history of psychology. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Zusne, L. (1975). Names in the history of psychology. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.Corporation.

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