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ABSTRACT

Now I am throwing some light on the very new and innovative concept i.e.

GENERATING ELECTRICITY FROM A SPEED BREAKER. Producing electricity

from a speed breaker is a new concept that is undergoing research. The number of

vehicles on road is increasing rapidly and if we convert some of the kinetic energy of

these vehicle into the rotational motion of roller then we can produce considerable

amount of electricity, this is the main concept of this project. In this project, a roller

is fitted in between a speed breaker and some kind of a grip is provided on the speed

breaker so that when a vehicle passes over speed breaker it rotates the roller. This

movement of roller is used to rotate the shaft of D.C. generator by the help of chain

drive which is there to provide 1:5 speed ratios. As the shaft of D.C. generator

rotates, it produces electricity. This electricity is stored in a battery. Then the output

of the battery is used to lighten the street lamps on the road. Now during daytime we

don‘t need electricity for lightening the street lamps so we are using a control switch

which is manually operated .The control switch is connected by wire to the output of

the battery. The control switch has ON/OFF mechanism which allows the current to

flow when needed.

Before starting I have one question to you all who is really very happy with the

current situation of the electricity in India? I suppose no one. So this is my step to

improve the situation of electricity with an innovative and useful concept i.e.

Generating Electricity from a Speed breaker First of all what is electricity means to

us? Electricity is the form of energy.

It is the flow of electrical Power. Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of

our most widely used forms of energy. We get electricity, which is a secondary

energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas,

oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. Many

cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls that turned water wheels to perform

work. Before electricity generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houses were lit

with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by

wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Direct current (DC) electricity had been used

in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the

generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be

transmitted over much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used

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electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines.

How is electricity generated?

Electricity generation was first developed in the 1800's using Faradays dynamo

generator. Almost 200 years later we are still using the same basic principles to

generate electricity, only on a much larger scale.

The rotor (rotating shaft) is directly connected to the prime mover and rotates as the

prime mover turns. The rotor contains a magnet that, when turned, produces a

moving or rotating magnetic field. The rotor is surrounded by a stationary casing

called the stator, which contains the wound copper coils or windings. When the

moving magnetic field passes by these windings, electricity is produced in them. By

controlling the speed at which the rotor is turned, a steady flow of electricity is

produced in the windings. These windings are connected to the electricity network

via transmission lines.

One question that u all are thinking is why I have apply this on the speed breaker and

not on the rough road or plane road where the kinetic energy of the vehicle is more

then what I m getting on the speed breaker I m giving u one example, just think over

it.

A car or any heavy vehicle is coming with a speed of 100 mph on the road and

passing over this roller which is fitted at the level of the road then this roller is

gaining the speed nearly somewhere 90 mph (due to losses). So now suppose a cycle

is coming with a speed of 20 mph and is going to pass this roller (which is moving at

a speed of 90 mph) due to this difference in the speed there will be a collision that is

the main reason for using this concept on the speed breaker.

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Fig - Block Diagram of Project ―Generation of Electricity using Speed Breakers‖

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Fig – Actual Photo Of The Project

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Fig- Circuit diagram of Project

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OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The non-renewable resources like coal, natural oil, natural gas are limited in nature.

They are using widely for energy production. The rate of consumption is quite

higher. Thus after some time they will remove from the earth. The government works

to save these resources.

The major objectives of this project is given below-

1. Saving the non-renewable resources of energy.

2. Utilization of kinetic energy of vehicle.

3. Produce electricity at lower cost.

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INTRODUCTION

The word energy from the Greek energeia, "activity, operation", from energos,

"active, working" is a scalar physical quantity that is a property of objects and

systems which is conserved by nature. Energy is defined as the ability to do work.

We use energy to do work and make all movements. When we eat, our bodies

transform the food into energy to do work. When we run or walk or do some work,

we ‗burn‘ energy in our bodies. Cars, planes, trolleys, boats, and machinery also

transform energy into work. Work means moving or lifting something, warming or

lighting something. There are many sources of energy that help to run the various

machines invented by man.

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But it can be converted from one form

to another form. This law is known as conservation of energy. Total energy of a

system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference.

For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative

to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the earth.

1.1- Types of energy

In the nature, energy can be found in many forms. Most of the energy can be first

converted into electricity (i.e. electrical energy). Then it can be easily used various

purpose such as lighting, cooling, cooking and to running other various equipments.

The major form can be listed as below-

1. Mechanical energy

2. Electric energy

3. Magnetic energy

4. Chemical energy

5. Nuclear energy

6. Sound energy

7. Surface energy

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1.2- Mechanical energy

The energy which is used to do some mechanical work is known as mechanical

energy. Mechanical energy has two components i.e. potential energy and kinetic

energy present in a mechanical system. These components can be described as

follows-

1.2.1- Potential energy

Potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object. Potential energy exists

when there is a force that tends to pull an object back towards some original position

when the object is displaced. This force is called a restoring force. The simple

example is stretching the rubber. It stores the energy is known as the potential

energy. When the rubber is released, the potential energy is concerted into kinetic

energy. In the mathematical form, potential energy is-

PE = mgh Where-

PE = Energy (in Joules)

m = mass (in kilograms)

g = gravitational acceleration of the earth (9.8 m/sec2)

h = height above earth's surface (in meters)

1.2.2- Kinetic Energy

The energy which is due to the motion of a body. It is defined as the work needed to

accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its current velocity. It is the energy of

motion. An object which has motion whether it is vertical or horizontal motion has

kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object in this case is given by the relation:-

KE = (1/2) mv2

Where-

KE = Energy (in Joules)

m = mass (in kilograms)

v = velocity (in meters/sec)

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1.3- Electrical energy

The electric energy is defined as the work which must be done against the Coulomb

force to rearrange charges from infinite separation to this configuration (or the work

done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this configuration to

infinity). The electricity is produced by flowing the electron in an conductor. In many

applications, electrical energy is used. This is the simplest form of energy which is

easy to use.

If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if

the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be

converted into other forms of energy). The amount of electric energy due to an

electric current can be expressed in a number of different ways-

E = UQ = UIt = Pt = U2t / R

Where-

U = The electric potential difference (in volts)

Q = The charge (in coulombs)

I = The current (in amperes)

t = The time for which the current flows (in seconds)

P = The power (in watts)

R = The electric resistance (in ohms).

1.4- Law of conservation of energy

Isolated system remains constant but cannot be recreated. In this case, energy can

only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space.

The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in any

According to energy conservation law the total inflow of energy into a system must

equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy

contained within the system.

In thermodynamics, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the

conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems, It states that ―Energy can neither

be created nor be destroyed. But it can be transformed from one form to another form

of energy.‖

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The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept of physics along with the

conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum.

The mathematical form of the first law of thermodynamics can be given by following

equation-

δQ = dU+ δW

Where-

δQ = The amount of energy added to the system by a heating process,

δW = The amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the

system on its surroundings,

dU = The increase in the internal energy of the system.

In this project the energy transform from mechanical to electrical. The mechanical

energy is generating from moving vehicle and electricity is produced by dynamo. It

will store in the battery bank and will be used for various purpose such as street

lighting, signal control lighting etc.

At present we are facing shortage of electricity. Electricity can be generated using

speed breakers, strange, isn't it? The benefits from this idea will be to generate

electricity for the streetlights, hoardings and then for other use. The functioning will

be as follows: 1.The speed breaker on a busy road will be lifted from one side and

fixed on other side( on one way road) 2. There will be a crankshaft mechanism below

the speed breaker. The shaft of the generator will be attached to the disc and the rod

connected to the disc from the speed breaker. This arrangement will make 1 rotation

as soon as the vehicle moves over the speed breaker.(rotations can be increased using

gears) 4. There will be electricity storing unit to store the generated electricity during

the day and will be used during the night. The manufacturing cost is low. But the

installation might be bit expensive but still affordable. Research: the prototype made

using a simple dc motor gave an unbelievable output of 12 volts and the cost of the

prototype was just 400 Rs. This proves the feasibility of this project. The idea can be

applied on heavy traffic roads.

This device functions by attaching the generator to the disc and the rod connected to

the disc from the speed breaker. The machine self-levels on any surface up to a 4

degree slope. The unit may be transported to any emergency site where it then begins

to process.

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Currently, propeller pitch control uses three approaches: it is based upon either

hydraulic oil pressure, mechanical control using lateral motion along the axis of the

drive shaft, or electric motor control with the drive motor embedded in the hub. All

three of these techniques are either expensive to manufacture and install, or

expensive to maintain due to high wear rates or the close machine tolerances

required. Thus we use electric gear motor arrangement for this.

Safe Speed is a software solution that limits the speed a vehicle can attain but cannot

surpass. The program can be run on any device that has a windows based operating

system, available COM port or USB port (also considering Wireless and Bluetooth

connections). The device connects to the OBD II (On-Board Diagnostic Systems)

usually within 1 meter of the steering wheel. (All cars built since January 1, 1996

have OBD-II systems) When the device (laptop/desktop/pad) is,

At present we are facing shortage of electricity. Electricity can be generated using

speed breakers, strange, isn't it? The benefits from this idea will be to generate

electricity for the streetlights, hoardings and then for other use. The functioning will

be as follows: 1.The speed breaker on a busy road will be lifted from one side and

fixed on other side( on one way road) 2. There will be a crankshaft mechanism below

the speed breaker.

1.5-Speed Breaker

Our range of speed bumps and rambler‘s are made from superior quality rubber.

These humps are highly resistant to various impacts and brutal weather conditions.

The modular and compact design makes them easy to install. We have affixed night

vision reflectors and glass metals on both sides of humps.

Silent features are - These are available with

both yellow and black color, which enhances

visibility, Moisture, UV and temperature

resistant. Speed bumpers are grooved for

proper drainage. Road Humps are available in

different size:

1. Rubber Road Hump: 500X425X75.

2. Plastic Road Hump: 250x300x50.

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List of Mechanical Components

TABLE- 1

S. No. Name of Components Material Dimensions

1). Wooden Sheet Plywood 59‖x35.5‖

2). Cylindrical roller Cast iron L= 12‖, D= 6.2‖

3). Transmission Shaft Cast iron D=12 mm

4). Bearing High-Carbon Steel -----------

2.1- Wooden Sheet

The wooden sheet is made of plywood. It is used to make the base and tapper part of

the project. Plywood is a type of engineered wood made from thin sheets of wood

veneer, called plies or veneers. The layers are glued together, each with its grain at

right angles to adjacent layers for greater strength. There are an odd number of plies.

A common reason for using plywood instead of plain wood is its resistance to

cracking, shrinkage, twisting/warping, and its general high degree of strength. It has

replaced many dimensional lumbers on construction applications for these reasons. A

vast number of varieties of plywood exist for different applications-

1. Softwood plywood- It is made either of Douglas fir or spruce, pine, and fir,

and is used for construction and industrial purposes.

2. Hardwood plywood- It is made of red oak, birch, maple, lacuna (Philippine

mahogany) and a large number of other hardwoods.

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Fig 1- Plywood

2.2- Cylindrical Roller

The cylinder is used to transform the linear kinetic energy into rotational kinetic

energy. It makes a contact with the tyres of the moving vehicles. Thus the

acceleration of the vehicle is converted into the rotational torque. It is made of cast

iron and can also be made of any other material as per economy and applications

consideration. The cast iron is quite cheap and it has higher load carrying capacity.

1. The surface area of the cylinder is-

2. The volume of the cylinder is-

Fig - Cylinder Geometry

V= πr²h

A= 2πr (r + h)

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Where-

r = Radius of cylinder

h = Height of cylinder

2.3- Transmission Shaft

Roller shaft is used to support the roller cylinder. It has bearings at its both ends. The

bearing is holds the roller cylinder and transfers the motion from cylinder to shaft. It

is made of cast iron. The roller shaft is subjected to the high variable loads. The one

end of the shaft is coupled with the shaft of dynamo. It transfers the rotation from

roller cylinder to the dynamo which will generate the magnetic flux. This will cause

to generate the electricity. It is subjected to various stresses such as bending stress,

tensional shear stress, tensile stress etc. The design consideration of the shaft is

described as follows-

1. Design against static load

The transmission shaft supporting gears and pulleys are subjected to a

combined load of banding and tensional moments. The shaft materials are ductile and

the principle stress theory of failure is used to determine the shaft diameter. When the

shaft is subjected to bending moment and tensional moment, the bending stress and

tensional shear stress are given by-

Where-

Mb= Bending moment,

Mt= Tensional moment,

y= d/2

σb = Mb. y/I = 32 Mb./πd³

τ= Mt. r/J = 16 Mt./πd³

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I= Moment of inertia

J= Polar moment of inertia

d= Diameter of shaft

The maximum shear stress in the shaft can be determined-

Now, according to maximum shear stress theory of failure-

Where,

Syt = Yield strength of the material in tensile

Ssy = Yield strength of the material in shear

Therefore,

Where, FOS = Factor of safety

2.4- Bearing

A bearing is a device to permit constrained relative motion between two parts, i.e.

rotation or linear movement. Bearing is used to reduce the friction and increases the

frictionless rotation of the shaft. There is a rolling contact bearing is used. A rolling

contact bearing consists of four parts-

τ max= √ (σb/2)² + τ²

Ssy = 0.5Syt

τ max = Ssy /FOS = 0.5 Syt/FOS

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1. Inner race

2. Outer race

3. A rolling element (ball, roller, needle etc.)

4. Cage (which hold the rolling element and spaces the rolling element evenly

around the periphery)

Depending upon the type of rolling contact, the bearing may be classified as follows-

2.4.1- Ball Bearing

A ball bearing is the type in which the balls are used as a rolling element. The balls

are placed inside the gap between the inner and outer race.

The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and

axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to contain the balls and

transmit the loads through the balls. One of the races is held fixed. As one of the

bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling

they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were rotating

on each other.

Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of

rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races.

However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

Compared to other bearing types, the ball bearing is the least expensive, primarily

because of the low cost of producing the balls used in the bearing.

2.4.2- Roller Bearing

A roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length than diameter in the gap

between outer and inner races.

Roller bearings have higher radial load capacity than ball bearings, but a low axial

capacity and higher friction under axial loads. If the inner and outer races are

misaligned, the bearing capacity drops quickly compared to either a ball bearing or a

spherical roller bearing.

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Fig 3- Ball Bearing Fig 4- Roller Bearing

2.4.3- Needle bearing

Needle roller bearings use very long and thin cylinders in the gap between inner and

outer races. Radial needle bearings are cylindrical and use rollers parallel to the axis

of the shaft.

Needle bearing have a large surface area that is in contact with the bearing outer

surfaces compared to ball bearings. Thus there is less added clearance (difference

between the diameter of the shaft and the diameter of the bearing) so they are much

more compact. Since the rollers are thin, the outside diameter of the bearing is only

slightly larger than the hole in the middle. However, the small-diameter rollers must

bend sharply where they contact the races, and thus the bearing fatigues relatively

quickly.

2.4.4- Tapered roller bearing

Tapered roller bearings use conical rollers that run on conical races. Most roller

bearings only take radial loads, but tapered roller bearings support both radial and

axial loads, and generally can carry higher loads than ball bearings due to greater

contact area. Taper roller bearings are used, for example, as the wheel bearings of

most cars, trucks, buses, and so on.

Tapered roller bearings are usually more expensive than ball bearings; and under

heavy loads the tapered roller is like a wedge and bearing loads tend to try to eject the

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roller; the force from the collar which keeps the roller in the bearing adds to bearing

friction compared to ball bearings.

Fig - Needle Roller Bearing Fig - Tapered Roller Bearing

2.4.5- Spherical roller bearings

Spherical roller bearings use rollers that are thicker in the middle and thinner at the

ends (i.e. the spherical shaped roller). Spherical roller bearings can adjust to support

misaligned loads and have higher load carrying capacity. However, spherical rollers

are difficult to produce and thus expensive, and the bearings have higher friction than

a comparable ball bearing since different parts of the spherical rollers run at different

speeds on the rounded race and thus there are opposing forces along the bearing/race

contact.

2.4.6- Thrust bearing

An axial load is supported by thrust bearing. It is used to support a vertical shaft

against gravitational loads. Spherical, conical or cylindrical rollers are used as a

rolling element in this bearing. It can support larger thrust loads than the ball bearing

due to the larger contact area, but are more expensive to manufacture.

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Fig - Spherical Roller Bearing Fig - Thrust Bearing

2.4.7- Selection Procedure of Bearing

The basic procedure for the selection of bearing from the manufacturer‘s catalogue

consists of the following steps-

1. Calculate the radial and axial force acting on the bearing and determine the

diameter of shaft where the bearing id to be fitted.

2. Select the type of bearing for the giving application.

3. Determine the value of X and Y, the radial and thrust factor, from the

catalogue. The value of X and Y for single row deep groove ball bearing are

given in the table-3. The values depend upon two ratio, (Fa/ Fr) and (Fa/Co),

where Co is static load capacity. The selection of the bearing is, therefore, done

by trail and error. The static and dynamic load capacity of single row deep

groove ball bearing of different series. To begin with a bearing of light series,

such as 60, is selected for the given diameter of the shaft and the value of Co is

found.

4. Calculate the equivalent dynamic load from the equation-

5. Make decision about the expected bearing life and express the life in million

revolutions.

P = X.Fr + Y.Fa

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TABLE-2: X and Y factor

Fa/Co (Fa/ Fr)≤ e (Fa/ Fr) ≥ e e

X Y X Y

0.025 1 0 0.56 2.0 0.22

0.040 1 0 0.56 1.8 0.24

0.070 1 0 0.56 1.6 0.27

0.130 1 0 0.56 1.4 0.31

0.250 1 0 0.56 1.2 0.37

0.500 1 0 0.56 1.0 0.44

Calculate the dynamic load capacity from the equation-

Check whether the selected bearing of series 60 has the required Dynamic

capacity. If not select the bearing of the next series and go back to step 3 and

continue.

2.4.8- Life of Bearing

The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity, the bearing load and

the bearing life is given by

Where,

L= Bearing Life (in million revolution)

C= Dynamic load capacity (N)

a= 3 (for ball bearing)

a= 10/3 (for roller bearing)

L= (C/P)ª

L= (C/P)ª

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The relationship between life in million revolutions and in working hours is given by-

Where,

Lh = Bearing Life (in hours)

n= Speed of revolution (r.p.m.)

L= 60nLh/106

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List of Electrical Components

TABLE- 4

ELECTRICAL COMPONENT QUALITY QUANTITY

89S51 Micro controller Family member of 8051 1

Photo Diode 5 mm 2

Infra-Red Led 5 mm 2

7805 ic regulator 5 volt 1

Resistance

10 kΩ 3

470 Ω 2

270 Ω 6

1 kΩ 1

Crystal Oscillator 12 MHz 1

Transistor NPN Type

LDR 1

Dynamo 6 volt 1

LED 6

Capacitor 21pf 2

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3.1- D.C. Generator

A DC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

by using the principle of magnetic induction. This principle is explained as follows-

1. Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the

conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the

conductor. The dc generator will be discussed later.

2. An elementary generator consists of a wire loop placed so that it can be

rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an induced e.m.f. in

the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load

in order to pick up or use the induced e.m.f.

The two main parts of a generator can be described in either mechanical or electrical

terms:

Mechanical

1. Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

2. Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

Electrical

1. Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator,

dynamo or motor.

2. Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or

motor.

3.1.1- Construction of DC Generator

The generator has two main parts i.e. Stator and Rotor. The stator is the stationary

part and rotor is the rotating part. The armature is present between the magnetic

poles. These poles are in even number. The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide

the magnetic field. The pole pieces are shaped and positioned to concentrate the

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magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates

through the field is called the ARMATURE. The ends of the armature loop are

connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature. The brushes,

usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride against the rings. The

generated voltage appears across these brushes. A single-turn rectangular copper coil

moving about its axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or

electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined to two split-rings which are

insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes (of

carbon or copper) press against the slip rings.

A DC generator has following basic parts:

1. A magnetic field

2. Pole Shoe

3. Pole piece

4. Armature

5. A commutator

6. Brushes

7. Housing

The fig of dc generator is shown as follows-

Fig - Parts of DC generator

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3.1.2- Working Principle

DC generator is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced e.m.f

(Electromotive Force). Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically

induced e.m.f. is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic

Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

A magnet creates magnetic lines of force on either side of it that moves in opposite

directions. As the metal coil passes through the magnetic field in a generator, the

electrical power that is produced constantly changes. At first, the generated electric

current moves in one direction (as from left to right). Then, when the coil reaches a

position where it is parallel to the magnetic lines of force, no current at all is

produced. As the coil continues to rotate, it cuts through magnetic lines of force in

the opposite direction, and the electrical current generated travels in the opposite

direction (as from right to left). The ends of the coil are attached to metal slip rings

that collect the electrical current. Each slip ring, in turn, is attached to a metal brush,

which transfers the current to an external circuit.

Thus, a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an alternating current,

one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. Commutator is a slip

ring that has been cut in half, with both halves insulated from each other. The brushes

attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment the

direction of the current in the coil reverses. The current that flows into the external

circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. This results in a steadier

current. The rotating armature cuts the magnetic flux at an angle 90o, 180

o, 270

o and

0o can be showing by following figure A, B, C and D respectively-

Fig - Functioning of Generator

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3.1.3- Types of DC generator

The DC generator has following types-

1. DC shunt generator

2. DC series generator

3. DC compound generator-

a. Long shunt compound generator

b. Short shunt compound generator

3.2- Microcontroller

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small computer on

a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and

programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR

flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount

of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to

the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose

applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls,

office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By

reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor,

memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally

control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common,

integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

A micro-controller can be compared to a small stand alone computer; it is a very

powerful device, which is capable of executing a series of pre-programmed tasks and

interacting with other hardware devices. Being packed in a tiny integrated circuit (IC)

whose size and weight is usually negligible, it is becoming the perfect controller for

robots or any machines requiring some kind of intelligent automation. A single

microcontroller can be sufficient to control a small mobile robot, an automatic

washer machine or a security system. Any microcontroller contains a memory to

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store the program to be executed, and a number of input/output lines that can be used

to interact with other devices, like reading the state of a sensor or controlling a motor.

Nowadays, microcontrollers are so cheap and easily available that it is common to

use them instead of simple logic circuits like counters for the sole purpose of gaining

some design flexibility and saving some space. Some machines and robots will even

rely on a multitude of microcontrollers, each one dedicated to a certain task. Most

recent microcontrollers are ‗In System Programmable‘, meaning that you can modify

the program being executed, without removing the microcontroller from its place.

Today, microcontrollers are an indispensable tool for the robotics hobbyist as well as

for the engineer. Starting in this field can be a little difficult, because you usually

can‘t understand how everything works inside that integrated circuit, so you have to

study the system gradually, a small part at a time, until you can figure out the whole

image and understand how the system works

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies

as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (mill watts or microwatts). They will

generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a

button press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and

most peripherals off) may be just nano watts, making many of them well suited for

long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-

critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP),

with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

3.2.1- The 8051 micro-controller architecture

The 8051 is the name of a big family of microcontrollers. The device which we are

going to use along this tutorial is the ‗AT89S52‗which is a typical 8051

microcontroller manufactured by Atmel™. Note that this part doesn‘t aim to explain

the functioning of the different components of a 89S52 microcontroller, but rather to

give you a general idea of the organization of the chip and the available features,

which shall be explained in detail along this tutorial.

The block diagram provided by Atmel™ in their datasheet showing the architecture

the 89S52 device can seem very complicated, and since we are going to use the C

high level language to program it, a simpler architecture can be represented.

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Fig- 8051 micro-controller architecture

This figure shows the main features and components that the designer can interact

with. You can notice that the 89S52 has four different ports, each one having eight

Input/output lines providing a total of 32 I/O lines. Those ports can be used to output

DATA and orders do other devices, or to read the state of a sensor, or a switch. Most

of the ports of the 89S52 have ‗dual function‘ meaning that they can be used for two

different functions: the first one is to perform input/output operations and the second

one is used to implement special features of the microcontroller like counting

external pulses, interrupting the execution of the program according to external

events, performing serial data transfer or connecting the chip to a computer to update

the software

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3.2.2- Pin Description

Each port has eight pins, and will be treated from the software point of view as an 8-

bit variable called ‗register‘, each bit being connected to a different Input/output pin.

You can also notice two different memory types: RAM and EEPROM. Shortly, RAM

is used to store variable during program execution, while the EEPROM memory is

used to store the program itself, that‘s why it is often referred to as the ‗program

memory‘. The memory organization will be discussed in detail later.

The special features of the 89S52 microcontroller are grouped in the blue box at the

bottom of figure. At this stage of the tutorial, it is just important to note that the

89S52 incorporates hardware circuits that can be used to prevent the processor from

executing various repetitive tasks and save processing power for more complex

calculations. Those simple tasks can be counting the number of external pulses on a

pin, or generating precise timing sequences.

It is clear that the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the heart of the microcontrollers;

it is the CPU that will Read the program from the FLASH memory and execute it by

interacting with the different peripherals discussed above.

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Fig- pin diagram of 98s52 microcontroller

Figure shows the pin configuration of the 89S52, where the function of each pin is

written next to it, and, if it exists, the dual function is written between brackets. The

pins are written in the same order as in the block diagram of figure, except for the

VCC and GND pins which I usually note at the top and the bottom of any device.

Most of the function of the pins of the 89S52 microcontroller will be discussed in

detail, except for the pins required to control an external memory, which are the pins

number 29, 30 and 31. Since we are not going to use any external memory, pins 29

and 30 will be ignored through all the tutorial, and pin 31 (EA) always connected to

VCC (5 Volts) to enable the micro-controller to use the internal on chip memory

rather than an external one (connecting the pin 31 to ground would indicate to the

microcontroller that an external memory is to be used instead of the internal one).

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1. VCC Supply voltage.

2. GND Ground.

3. Port 0 - Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port,

each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the

pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be

the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external

program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also

receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes

during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program

verification.

4. Port 1- Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port

1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port

1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs.

As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current

(IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be

configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the

timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the

following table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash

programming and verification.

5. Port 2- Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port

2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port

2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs.

As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current

(IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte

during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external

data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this

application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During

accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI),

Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also

receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash

programming and verification. Port Pin Alternate Functions P1.0 T2 (external

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count input to Timer/Counter 2), clock-out P1.1 T2EX (Timer/Counter 2

capture/reload trigger and direction control) P1.5 MOSI (used for In-System

Programming) P1.6 MISO (used for In-System Programming) P1.7 SCK

(used for In-System Programming)5 1919D–MICRO–6/08

6. Port 3 - Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The

Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to

Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as

inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source

current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control signals for

Flash programming and verification. Port 3 also serves the functions of

various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the fol-lowing table.

7. RST - Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the

oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator

periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR

(address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit

DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

8. ALE/PROG - Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the

low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also

the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal

operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and

may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one

ALE pulse is skipped dur-ing each access to external data memory. If desired,

ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the

bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise,

the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the

microcontroller is in external execution mode. Port Pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD (serial input port) P3.1 TXD (serial output port) P3.2 INT0

(external interrupt 0) P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1) P3.4 T0 (timer 0

external input) P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input) P3.6 WR (external data

memory write strobe) P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)6 1919D–

MICRO–6/08

9. PSEN- Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program

memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program

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memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN

activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.

10. EA/VPP - External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to

enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations

starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is

programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to

VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt

programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

11. XTAL 1- Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal

clock operating circuit.

12. XTAL2 - Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

3.2.3-Memory organization

A RAM stands for Random Access Memory, it has basically the same purpose of the

RAM in a desktop computer, which is to store some data required during the

execution time of different programs. While an EEPROM, also called FLASH

memory is a more elaborated ROM (Read Only Memory) which is the memory

where the program being executed is stored. Even if that‘s not exactly true, you can

compare an EEPROM to the Hard-Disk of a desktop computer from a general point

of view. The EEPROM term stands for Electronically Erasable and Programmable

Read Only Memory.

In microcontrollers, like in any digital system, memory is organized in Registers,

Which is the basic unit of construction of a memory. Each register is composed of a

number of bits (usually eight) where the data can be stored. In the 8051 family of

microcontrollers for example, most registers are 8-bit register, capable of storing

values ranging from 0 to 255. In order to use bigger values, various register can be

used simultaneously. Figure 1.3.Ashows a typical 8-bit registers, where the notation

D0 to D7 stands for the 8 DATA bits of the register.

Fig- Data Register

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As you shall see, the RAM memory of the 89S52, which contains 256 registers, is

divided into to main parts, the GPR part, and the SFR part. GPR stands for ‗General

Purpose Register‘ and are the registers that you can use to store any data during the

execution of your program. SFRs (Special function Register) are registers used to

control the functioning of the microcontroller and to assist the processor through the

various operations being executed. For example, SFRs can be used to control

Input/output lines, to retrieve data transmitted through the serial port of a desktop

computer, or to configure one of the on-chip counters and timers.

In a memory each register has a specific address which is used by the processor to

read and write from specific memory location. Figure 1.3.B shows the memory

organization of the 256 registers of the RAM of the 89S52 microcontroller. The

address is noted in Hexadecimal format as this notation simplifies digital logic

calculations for the designers, 00 corresponds to the first location and FF which is

equal to 256 corresponds to the last location.

Figure - memory organization of the 256 registers

A programmer that would use the assembly language, have to take this memory

organization into consideration while choosing the locations where his variables are

stored, as writing general purpose data into special function registers could prevent

the microcontroller from working correctly, but since we will use the C language

using the KEIL IDE (integrated development environment), this part will be totally

handled by the compiler.

MCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to

64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.

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3.2.3.1- Program Memory

If the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external

memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses

0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses

2000H through FFFFH are to external memory.

3.2.3.2- Data Memory

The AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a

parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper

128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from

SFR space. When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the

address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper

128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access

the SFR space.

3.2.4- Special Function Registers

A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special Function Register (SFR) space

is shown in Table 5-1. Note that not all of the addresses are occupied, and

unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these

addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an

indeterminate effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations,

since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the

reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.

3.2.5- Other microcontroller features

Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose

input/output pins (GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or

an output state. When GPIO pins are configured to an input state, they are often used

to read sensors or external signals. Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can

drive external devices such as LEDs or motors.

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Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the

purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to

interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with

the analog signals that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter

is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A

less common feature on some microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC)

that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage levels.

In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of

timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval

Timer (PIT). A PIT may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the

capacity of the count register, overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an

interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for

devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to

see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc.

A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to

control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU

resources in tight timer loops.

Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to

receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU.

Dedicated on-chip hardware also often includes capabilities to communicate with

other devices (chips) in digital formats such as I²C and Serial Peripheral

Interface (SPI).

3.2.6- Description

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with

8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured

using Atmel‘s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with

the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the

program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile

memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system

programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful

microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many

embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard

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features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two

data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt

architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In

addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero

frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode

stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt

system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but

freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or

hardware reset.

3.3-LDR

A photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance

decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits

photoconductivity. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor or CdS device, from

"cadmium sulfide," which is the material from which the device is made and that

actually exhibits the variation in resistance with light level. Note that although CdS is

a semiconductor, it is not doped silicon.

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the

device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give

bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free

electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor

has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In

intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the

photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire band gap.

Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called do pants, added whose ground state

energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to

jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are

sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced

by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for

conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor. Photo resistors are

basically photocells.

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Fig- light dependent resistor (LDR) and Symbol

3.4 - LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as

indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.

Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[early LEDs emitted low-

intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet,

and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to

recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of

photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light

(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the

semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical

components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many

advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,

longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs

powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise

current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable

output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,

automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have

allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high

switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared

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LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products

including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Fig – LED

3.5- Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal

with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of

time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated

circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most

common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator

circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators."

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens

of megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually.

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Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers,

and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement

equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

3.5.1- Operation

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a

regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.

Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with

appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of

vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was

often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on

size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals

are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals,

such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork.

For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is

often used in place of a quartz crystal.

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an

electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This

property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will

generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a

voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an

inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. (See RLC circuit.)

Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a

way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific

characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz

is cut (relative to its crystallographic axes).[8]

Therefore, the resonant frequency of the

plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a

quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the

quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal

oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external

mechanical vibrations.

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Fig – Crystal oscillator, circuit diagram & symbol

3.5.2- Commonly used crystal frequencies

Crystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively few standard

frequencies, such as 3.579545 MHz, 4.433619 MHz, 10 MHz, 14.318182 MHz,

17.734475 MHz, 20 MHz, 33.33 MHz, and 40 MHz. The popularity of the

3.579545 MHz crystals is due to low cost since they are used for NTSC color

television receivers. Using frequency dividers, frequency multipliers and phase

locked loop circuits, it is practical to derive a wide range of frequencies from one

reference frequency. 14.318182 MHz (four times 3.579545 MHz) is used in computer

video displays to generate a bitmapped video display for NTSC color monitors, such

as the CGA used with the original IBM PC. (The IBM PC used 14.318182 MHz,

divided by three, as its 4.77 MHz clock source, using one crystal for two purposes.)

The 4.433619 MHz and 17.734475 MHz values are used in PAL color television

equipment and devices intended to produce PAL signals.

Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of frequencies, from a

few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz. Many applications call for a crystal

oscillator frequency conveniently related to some other desired frequency, so

hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in large quantities and stocked by

electronics distributors.

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3.6- 555ic timer

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse

generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays,

as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing

circuits in one package.

Introduced in 1971 by Signe tics, the 555 is still in widespread use, thanks to its ease

of use, low price and good stability, and is now made by many companies in the

original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003, it was estimated

that 1 billion units are manufactured every year. The LM 555 a highly stable device

for generating accurate time delays or oscillation. Additional terminals are provided

for triggering or resetting if desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is

precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For astable operation as an

oscillator, the free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with

two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on

falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or sink up to 200mA or drive

TTL circuits.

Fig- LM555 IC timer

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Fig-internal architecture of LM555 IC timer

3.7- TRANSISTOR

A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed

of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching

applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both

electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge

carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations.

This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors, such as field-effect

transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to drift. By

design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a

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high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority carriers that diffuse

toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.

Fig- transistor and symbol (a) npn (b) pnp

An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical

operation, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction

is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is

applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated

carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes unbalanced,

allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons

wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the

emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in

the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would

make holes the majority carrier in the base.

To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–

base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can

diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime.

In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the diffusion length of

the electrons. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron

injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the

base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the

depletion region of the collector–base junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric

collector–emitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate

and oppositely biased diodes connected in series.

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Fig- Mechanism of Transistor

3.8- Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or

may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical

mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to

regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies

where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In

automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators

control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage

regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all

customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the

line.

The 7805 is a VOLTAGE REGULATOR. It looks like a transistor but it is actually

an integrated circuit with 3 legs. Turn it into a nice, smooth 5 volts DC. You need to

feed it at least 8 volts and no more than 30 volts to do this. It can handle around .5 to

.75 amps, but it gets hot. Use a heat sink. Run off of 5 volts. It can take a higher,

crappy DC voltage and Use it to power circuits than need to use or run off of 5 volts.

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Fig- Schematic diagram 7805 voltage regulator

3.9- RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to

the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across

a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance.

This relation is represented by Ohm's law:

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Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential

difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of

the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this

relation is constant, independent of the current. Resistors are common elements of

electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment.

Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance

wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also

implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be

integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of

magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required

precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the

chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of

the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical

resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the

anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of

concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are

physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must

sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these

specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise

amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The

unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent

on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified

individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular

technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form

factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which

is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

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Fig- Resistor

3.9.1- Color Coding

Fig- Color Coding of Resistor

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3.10- CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors

vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric

(insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated

by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical

circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric

field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate

and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An

ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in

farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential

difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of

conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early

means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small

amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a

breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired

inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while

allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of

power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in

electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for

many other purposes.

Fig-capacitor symbol

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The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the

ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its

capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental

changes:

Fig- internal and external structure of capacitor

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3.10.1- Color Coding of Capacitor

Colour Significant

digits Multiplier

Capacitance

tolerance Characteristic

DC working

voltage

Operating

temperature EIA/vibration

Black 0 1 ±20% — — −55 °C to +70 °C 10 to 55 Hz

Brown 1 10 ±1% B 100 — —

Red 2 100 ±2% C — −55 °C to +85 °C —

Orange 3 1000 — D 300 — —

Yellow 4 10000 — E —

−55 °C to +125

°C 10 to 2000 Hz

Green 5 — ±0.5% F 500 — —

Blue 6 — — — —

−55 °C to +150

°C —

Violet 7 — — — — — —

Grey 8 — — — — — —

White 9 — — — — — EIA

Gold — — ±5%* — 1000 — —

Silver — — ±10% — — — —

*Or ±0.5 pF, whichever is greater.

Fig-Types of Capacitor

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3.11- Photodiode

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either

current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.[1]

The common, traditional

solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.

Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be

either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or

optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many

diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a

p-n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate

in reverse bias.

3.11.1- Principle of operation

A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy

strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a

positively charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the inner

photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one

diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-

in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons

toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. This photocurrent is the sum of

both the dark current (without light) and the light current, so the dark current must be

minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device.

Fig- Photodiode and its Circuit diagram

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3.12- GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the

copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the

help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the

connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the

component and circuit tracks. After completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry.

3.12.1-DRILLING

After completion of painting work, holes of 1/23 inch (1mm) diameter are drilled at

desired points where we have to fix the components.

3.12.2- ETCHING

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known

as etching. From this process the copper clad board with printed circuit is placed in

the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15

minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the PCB.

After etching, the PCB is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get

PCB away from acidic field, which may cause poor performance of the circuit. After

the PCB has been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped

in thinner or turbine. Then PCB is checked as per the layout, now the PCB is ready

for use.

3.12.3- SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors the joint where two metal

conductor are to be jointed or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and

then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the

joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and durable

connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also present

oxidation.

3.12.4- SOLDERING & DESOLDERING TECHNIQUES

There are basically two soldering techniques:

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1. Manual soldering with iron.

2. Mass soldering.

The iron consists of an insulated handle connected via a metal shank to the bit the

function of bit is to:

1. Stare host & convey it to the component

2. To store and deliver molten solder 7 flux

3. To remove surplus solder from joints.

Soldering bit is made of copper because it has good heat capacity & thermal

conductivity. It may erode after long term use to avoid it coating of nickel or tin is

used.

3.12.4- SOLDERING WITH IRON

The surface to be soldering must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron switched on

& bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in form of wire is allied hear

the component to be soldered & b heated with iron. The surface to be soldered is

filled, iron is removed & the joint is cold without disturbing.

Solder joint are supposed to:

1. Provide permanent low resistance path.

2. Make a robust mechanical link between PCB & leads of components.

3. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements & PCB.

4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.

The following precaution should be taken while soldering:

1. The tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply.

2. Clean component lead & copper pad before soldering.

3. Use proper tool for component handling instead of direct handling.

4. Apply solder between component leads, PCB pattern & tip of soldering iron.

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5. Iron should be kept in contact with the joints for 2-3 seconds only instead of

keeping for very long or very small time.

6. Use optimum quantity of solder.

7. Use multi Use always an iron plate copper core tip for soldering iron.

8. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold.

9. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of

asking the iron.

10. Tighten storied wire instead of single strands solvent like isopropyl alcohol.

11. Every time soldering is over, put a little clean solder on the tip.

3.13-Multimeter

A multi meter or a multi tester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an

electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A

standard multi meter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage,

current and resistance. There are two categories of multi meters-

1. Analogue Multi Meter

2. Digital Multi Meter

A multi meter is a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service

work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy.

They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and

household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and

wiring systems.

3.13.1-Analog Multi meter

Resolution of analog Multi Meter is limited by the width of the scale pointer,

vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of

ranges, and errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of

readings obtained are compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in

mental arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight.

Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and

a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and may be adequate for the

limited precision actually necessary for most measurements).

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3.13.2-Digital Multi meter

The digital multi meter is the type of multi meter which shows the output values in

the digital form. The Digital Multi Meter is presented in four series of Flash

Presentations. These are used to measuring the current and voltage. These are

designed to understand the functions and settings needed for taking different

measurements of a circuit. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from

0 to 199,999. A digital display can easily be extended in precision, the extra digits are

of no value if not accompanied by care in the design and calibration of the analog

portions of the multi meter. Meaningful high-resolution measurements require a good

understanding of the instrument specifications, good control of the measurement

conditions, and traceability of the calibration of the instrument.

The figure of both multi meters is shown as follows-

Fig- Analog and Digital Multi meter

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Assembly Of The Components

The mechanical and electrical components of the project can be assembled together

to achieve the desired objective. The assembling of various components have been

done as per the following points-

1. First, cutting the wooden sheet as per dimensions. For the base, the plywood is

cut in the length of 59 inches and width of 35.5 inches. After selecting the

base, the taper part (speed breaker shape) is made. The angle of the taper with

the base is kept 25o. The peak of the taper part is cut to fix the roller cylinder at

that place. This taper part will then fixed on the base.

2. Now the shaft of 12 mm diameter is taken. On the both ends of the shaft, fixing

the roller bearing. The cylindrical roller is mounted on the bearings. The shaft

is fixed in the inner race of the bearing.

3. Then cylindrical roller with shaft and bearing is then assembled within the

peak (cut section) of the breaker. The cylinder having 12 inch length and 6.2

inch diameter is fixing at the peak. For cutting the roller, the high carbon steel,

high speed steel blades or other cutting machine is used. The roller should be

fixed in such a way that the top surface of the roller should be above the peak

of breaker. This surface makes the contact with the tires of moving vehicles.

4. The one end of the shaft is coupled with rotor shaft of a DC generator. The

gear box is placed between the both shafts. This gear box transfers rotations to

generator shaft. Thus due to rotation of generator armature, electricity will

generate. This electricity is alternating in nature. Commutator is placed at the

armature shaft. Commutator is a slip ring that has been cut in half, with both

halves insulated from each other. The brushes attached to each half of the

commutator are arranged so that at the moment the direction of the current in

the coil reverses, they slip from one half of the commutator to the other. The

current that flows into the external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the

same direction. This results in a steadier current.

5. The one end of the wires is connected at the brushes and other with the load

(i.e. LED Light). Thus the power from the generator is supplied to the LED

Light.

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Working Of The Assembly

The basic concept is based upon the transformation of the mechanical energy (kinetic

energy) of the moving vehicle into the electrical energy (i.e. electricity). There is a

large amount of the kinetic energy in a vehicle when it is in motion. This energy is

utilized by the speed breaker. The working of the assembly can be easily understood

as the following way.

The small part of cylindrical roller is kept above the surface of the road. When the

weighted vehicle having kinetic energy, came upon the roller surface and passing it,

the roller starts to rotate in the same direction as the wheel of the vehicle. This gives

the prime rotation to the cylindrical roller. The cylindrical roller has a transmission

shaft. The one end of transmission shaft is coupled with the armature shaft of the

dynamo by compound gear train.

The rotation of the transmission shaft is transferred to armature shaft. Now the

armature rotates at a rated r.p.m. between the magnetic poles. There is magnetic field

between the poles. Thus a spinning coil in a fixed magnetic field will produce an

alternating current, one that travels first in one direction and then in the opposite. The

brushes attached to each half of the commutator are arranged so that at the moment

the direction of the current in the coil reverses. The current that flows into the

external circuit, therefore, is always traveling in the same direction. The functioning

can be shown by following figure-

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Fig 25- Current Generation Process

This current is stored in the battery bank. These batteries can be used for either

directly at the place where the electricity is generated or other places easily.

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Conclusion

The non-renewable resources like coal, natural oil, natural gas are limited in nature.

They are using widely for energy production. The rate of consumption is quite

higher. Thus after some time they will remove from the earth. The government works

to save these resources. But in the future, the energy is necessary for the various

applications. There are many applications and devices which are necessary for the

human being in daily life. They consume lot of energy for their working. They are the

part of the life. Thus for running of these applications, the energy is required in

future. So the option of the non-renewable resources is necessary.

―A vehicle weighing 1,000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on such a rumble strip

produces approximately 0.98 kilowatt power. So one such speed-breaker on a busy

highway, where about 100 vehicles pass every minute, about one kilo watt of

electricity can be produced every single minute. The figure will be huge at the end of

the day‖.

Now in the daily life, there are lots of vehicles running on the roads. They have

kinetic energy. But during the braking all kinetic energy is lost. It means all the

generated energy due to such vehicles is going to waste. So we need to have a

mechanism that could able to utilize the energy of the vehicles. Their kinetic energy

is used to generate the electricity. This energy can be utilized to give the additional

rotation to the dynamo. Hence causes to generate electricity. This energy can be

stored in battery bank and used for further use.

The major advantages of this project as given below:-

1. Generation of electricity at low cost.

2. Operating cost is less.

3. Stored electricity can be used for other purposes.

4. Convert the totally waste energy in some useful work.

5. For government economic consideration.

6. Saving the other energy resources.

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On the basis of above discussion and advantages of this project, we can conclude

that, it is very necessary for the future use for electricity production at low cost and

from totally wastage energy.

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Future Scope

The future scope of this project is for street lighting and road applications which

consume the electricity. During the day period, the battery charged and at night it will

use for lighting. The government provides the electricity for lighting purpose. That

will eliminate and the government‘s electricity can be saved. The street lighting is

flashes by batteries. This will help the government for economic purpose and give the

way to utilize their energy for other purposes. This is a non conventional energy

resource.

The no. of vehicles increases as the days goes on increasing. Higher no. of vehicle

passing through the road will cause of large amount of energy generated. Thus it is an

efficient and effective way to generate the electricity in the future at minimum cost.

The various application of this project in future are listed below-

1. For home appliances

2. For street lighting

3. For signal lighting

4. For small industry applications

5. For other application on the roads like loud speaker, signal light, road

indicator, direction indicator etc.

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FEATURES OF THE PROJECT

There major features of this project as given below:-

1. Generation of electricity at low cost.

2. Operating cost is less.

3. Stored electricity can be used for other purposes.

4. Convert the totally waste energy in some useful work.

5. For government economic consideration.

6. Saving the other energy resources.

7. It can also work in night as we have provided a storage battery.

8. It can generate electricity in forward as well as in reverse direction.

9. Light in weight.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Websites:-

1. http://www.en.wikipedia.org

2. http://www.google.com

3. http://www.physlink.com

4. http://www.youtube.com

5. http://www.woodshell.com

6. http://www.eia.doe.gov

Books:-

A. Theory of Machines - Dr. R.K. Bansal

B. Design of Machine elements - V.B. Bhandari

C. Electrical Engineering - B.L. Thareja