Gender Chapter 12: Human Adjustment John W. Santrock McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill...
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Transcript of Gender Chapter 12: Human Adjustment John W. Santrock McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill...
Gender
Chapter 12:
Human AdjustmentJohn W. Santrock
McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-2
Chapter Outline
Perspectives on Gender
Gender Comparisons
Women’s and Men’s Lives
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-3
Learning Goals
1. Define gender and explain evolutionary, social, and cognitive theories of gender
2. Discuss gender comparisons and classifications
3. Characterize women’s and men’s lives
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-4
PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER
Defining Gender
Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Social Theories
Cognitive Theories
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-5
Defining Gender
Gender = the psychological and social dimension of being female or male
Gender roles = sets of expectations that prescribe how females or males should act, think, or feel
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-6
Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Evolutionary psychology theory - because of their differing roles in reproduction, adaptation during the evolution of humans produced psychological differences between males and females–Multiple sexual liaisons improves likelihood males will pass
on their genes
–Females’ contributions to gene pool was improved by securing resources for offspring
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-7
Social Theories of Gender
Social role theory - gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men– In most cultures, women have less power and status than
men and they control fewer resources
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-8
Social Theories of Gender
Psychoanalytic theory - preschool children develop sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent, then renounce attraction because of anxious feelings, and subsequently identify with same-sex parent
Social cognitive theory - children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation, and through rewards and punishments for gender appropriate and inappropriate behavior
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-9
Cognitive Theories of Gender
Cognitive developmental theory - children’s gender typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls
Gender schema theory - gender typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-10
Review - Learning Goal 1
–How can these two terms be defined: gender and gender roles?
–What is the evolutionary psychology theory of gender differences?
–What are three social theories of gender?
–What are two cognitive theories of gender?
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-11
GENDER COMPARISONS
Gender Stereotypes
Gender Similarities and Differences
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-12
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes = general beliefs about females and males
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-13
Gender Stereotypes
Broverman looked at traits that college students in the 1970s believed were characteristic of males and females
Instrumental traits were associated with males - independent, aggressive, power-oriented
Expressive traits were associated with females - being warm and sensitive–These traits are unequal in terms of social states and power
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-14
Stereotyping and Culture
Research study in 1982 found stereotyping of females and males prevalent in thirty countries–Males were believed to be dominant, independent,
aggressive, achievement oriented, and enduring
–Females were believed to be nurturing, affiliative, less esteemed, and more helpful in times of distress
More recently, traditional gender stereotypes and gender roles have been challenged, and social inequalities between men and women have diminished
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-15
Gender Stereotypes and Ethnicity
We have stereotypes of age as well as gender We have stereotypes of gender and ethnicity
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12-16
Sexism
Prejudice and discrimination against women has a long history
Sexism = prejudice and discrimination against an individual because of his or her sex
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-17
Physical Similarities and Differences
There are many physical differences between males and females–Females have a longer life expectancy than males
–Males have higher levels of stress hormones
–Some brain differences have been found between males and females
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-18
Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Some research suggests boys are better at math and science
Girls are better students, and significantly better in reading
Janet Hyde (2004) argues that cognitive differences between females and males are exaggerated
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-19
Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Boys are more physically aggressive than girls Girls are as verbally aggressive as boys Girls show more relational aggression (behaviors such
as spreading rumors) Males usually show less self-regulation of emotions
and behavior than females
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-20
Interpretation of Gender Differences
Traditionally, differences between males and females were interpreted as biologically-based deficiencies in females
Feminists fear research finding differences will promote stereotypes that women are inferior to men
Alice Eagly argues this fear has biased research interpretation
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-21
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Sandra Bem (1974) developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory to measure androgyny
Androgyny = presence of a high degree of feminine and masculine characteristics in the same individual
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-22
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Individuals can be classified as having one of four gender-role orientations on Bem’s scale:–androgynous
– feminine
–masculine
–undifferentiated
Androgynous women and men are more flexible and more mentally healthy than either masculine or feminine individuals
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-23
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Gender-role transcendence = thinking about ourselves and others as people, not as masculine, feminine, or androgynous
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-24
Review - Learning Goal 2
–What is gender stereotyping and how extensive is it?
–What are some physical, cognitive, and socioemotional differences in gender?
–What are some alternatives to classifying behavior and traits as masculine or feminine?
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-25
WOMEN’S AND MEN’S LIVES
Women’s Lives
Men’s Lives
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-26
Women’s Lives
In much of the world, people’s lives are governed by traditional gender roles that assign a subordinate status to women– In politics, especially in developing countries, women are
treated as burdens rather than assets
–Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrow than men’s
Canada, the United States, and Russia have the highest percentages of educated women
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-27
Ethnic Minority Women in the United States
For Asian-American women, gender roles found in the mainstream clash with traditions of ancestors
African-American women take time for consideration before solving problems
Mexican women assume the expressive role of homemaker and caretaker of children
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12-28
Psychological Health
U.S. women face some special stressors because they are women:–domestic violence
– rape
– sexism
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12-29
Psychological Health
Although men have increased involvement in family roles, women still bear the largest burden for housework and childcare, even when they work outside the home
Women have more dissatisfaction with their bodies
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-30Adjustment Strategies
for Women
1. Recognize your competencies
2. Pay attention to developing your self as well as your relationship
3. Don’t put up with sexism
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-31
Men’s Lives - Ethnic Minority Males
African-American men are more likely to live in poverty Asian cultural values are reflected in traditional,
patriarchal Chinese and Japanese families Mexican men traditionally assume role of provider, with
exaggerated masculinity and aggression Some Native American tribes are patriarchal
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-32
Role Strain
Men face role strain because male roles are contradictory and inconsistent
Men’s roles can cause strain in areas such as:–health
–male-female relationships
–male-male relationships
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-33
Adjustment Strategies for Men
1. Understand yourself and your emotions
2. Improve your social relationships
3. Lower your health risks
McGraw-Hill ©2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
12-34
Review - Learning Goal 3
–What are characteristics of women’s lives?
–What are characteristics of men’s lives?