GCSE P.E Revision notes 2020/2021 - S-cool

GCSE P.E

Revision notes 2020/2021

All copyright and publishing rights are owned by S-cool. First created in 2000 and updated in 2013, 2015 & 2020

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Contents How the Body is Controlled ................................................................................................................. 2

How the Body Moves ........................................................................................................................... 5

How the Body Obtains its Energy .................................................................................................... 10

Taking Part in Sport ........................................................................................................................... 18

Health and Fitness .............................................................................................................................. 22

Skill in Sport......................................................................................................................................... 28

Personal Factors that Affect Participation in Sport ........................................................................ 32

Training for Sport ............................................................................................................................... 34

Training for Sport ............................................................................................................................... 41

Sports Psychology ............................................................................................................................... 48

Sport and Injury .................................................................................................................................. 51

Organisations in Sport ....................................................................................................................... 55

Sport, Business and Finance ............................................................................................................. 60

Classification of Sport ......................................................................................................................... 64

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How the Body is controlled

The Nervous System

The nervous system controls all body functions.

It receives information from inside and outside the body.

The organs of the body that receive such information are known as receptor organs.

Parts of the Nervous System

The nervous system has three main parts:

The brain

The spinal cord

The nerves

The Brain

The brain is the control centre for every activity of the body.

The Spinal Cord

It is made up of nerve cells and fibres and carries messages to and from all parts of the body.

The Nerves

Nerves are thread-like substances made up of a large number of neurones, which are enclosed in an outer coat.

Neurones consist of three parts:

1. nucleus - the main cell body

2. dendrites - pick up and receive messages or impulses

3. axons - transmit messages or impulses

Neurones can be divided into two types:

Sensory neurones carry information to the brain and central nervous system.

Motor neurones carry information from the brain or the central nervous system to other parts of the body.


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Sensory or Receptor Organs

There are three types of receptor or sense organs.

Exteroceptors. Interoceptors. Proprioceptors.

The Autonomic Nervous System

Many of the body's activities are controlled automatically.

Actions such as breathing and digestion occur without us thinking about them.

Each organ is provided with two sets of nerves that work in opposing ways. These are known as sympathetic and

parasympathetic nerves.

Reflexes

There are two types of reflex responses.

There are reflex actions that are rapid responses to a stimulus by one or more organs.

There are also conditioned reflexes.

The major difference between reflex actions and consciously thought out actions is the speed of the action.

A reflex response bi-passes the brain and goes via the central nervous system.

The Nervous System and Muscle Control

The brain can control the skeletal muscles.

It sends a message or impulse to the appropriate muscles to contract in a certain way.

When performing a movement, other factors become important too.

Information from senses + How shot should be played = Message sent to muscles

The more experience the player has, the more able the player is to interpret the information from the senses.

Reaction, Response and Movement Time

Most sports require athletes to react quickly to situations. This reaction time is the time taken to respond to a

stimulus.

Movement time is the speed and accuracy of the muscle action. The time taken in responding to a situation

can be equated:

Response time = Reaction time + Movement time


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The Endocrine System

Not all co-ordination and control of the body is carried out by the nervous system. There is a system of control

that uses chemicals in its mechanism.

This system is called the endocrine system.

The endocrine system is made up of a series of hormone glands that produce hormones.

Hormones are the chemical messengers of the body.

The hormone glands produce and release their own hormone that affects particular organs of the body.

The bloodstream receives the hormones directly from the glands and carries them to their particular organ.

The Endocrine Glands

The endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the pancreas, the ovaries - in females, the

testes - in males and the adrenal glands.

The adrenal gland plays a significant part in the preparation for a sporting activity, secreting a hormone called

adrenalin.

As soon as adrenalin is secreted into the bloodstream the body responds by:

1. using up more oxygen

2. releasing more energy

3. increasing the rate of breathing

4. increasing the heart rate

5. diverting blood away from areas such as the digestive system towards the muscles

The body is then prepared for instant action.


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How the Body Moves

The Skeleton

Functions of the Skeleton:

The Skeleton is a framework of bones that is held together by ligaments and joints, and has the following four

functions:

movement, protection, support and blood production.

Parts of the Skeleton:

There are two parts to the skeleton; the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the rib cage and the vertebral column.

The appendicular skeleton is made up from the pelvic girdle and the shoulder girdle. Both these girdles are quite

rigid but they are attached to legs and arms that are free to move.

Bones:

There are four types of bone and each type is given a name dependant of its shape or size:

1. Long bones, for example, the Humerus.

2. Short bones, for example, the Phalanges.

3. Flat bones, for example, the Scapula.

4. Irregular bones, for example, vertebrae.

Joints

Classification of Joints:

There are three kinds of joint and their classification is dependent upon how the bones are joined together.

1. Fibrous joints, where fibrous tissue holds the bones together.

2. Cartilaginous joints, these joints are linked by cartilage there is some movement, but it is very slight.

3. Synovial joints allow for greater ranges of movement and the type of movement will depend upon the type of

joint between the bones.

Types of Synovial Joints

A ball and socket joint: found in the shoulder and hip allows the greatest range of movement.


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A hinge joint: found at the elbow and knee where movement is limited to one plane just like a door hinge.

A condyloid joint: found at the wrist and ankle. Movement is in two planes but not as great as the ball and

socket.

A pivot joint: found in the neck where part of the bone fits into another ring of bone as in the atlas and axis,

allowing rotation of the head.

A saddle joint: found at the base of the thumb allows the thumb to be moved in two directions.

A gliding joint: found in the wrist and vertebral column.

Levers

Parts of the Lever

It is due to muscles acting upon a system of levers; the skeleton that movement of some part of the body

occurs. There are three types of lever, but all levers have three parts:

1. The Fulcrum. Is the point of movement or pivot, generally at the centre of a joint.

2. A Load. The load is the body's weight or some external object.

3. An Effort. An effort is a muscular force to move the load.

Classification of Levers

There are three classes of lever and each is classified depending upon where in relation to each other

the fulcrum, the load and the effort are.

First Order Levers:

The fulcrum is between the effort and the load.

Both effort and load are in the same direction.

An example of this is the head where the head pivots on the atlas (fulcrum).

The load is the weight of the head going down.

The effort is the muscles at the back of the neck pulling down.

Second Order Levers:

The fulcrum is at one end of the lever.

The load is in the middle of the lever.


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The effort is at the opposite end of the lever to the fulcrum with the direction of effort opposite the load.

An example of this is stepping up onto your toes. The fulcrum is at the toes. The load is that of the body going

through the middle of the foot and the effort is in the calf muscles pulling the body up onto the toes.

This is the most effective lever as a relatively small force can move a large weight.

Third Order Levers:

Like second order levers, the fulcrum and load are at opposite ends of the lever but the effort is off-centre of the

lever towards the fulcrum. This is not as efficient as second order levers but small muscle movement creates

long lever movement.

An example of this is a biceps curl. The load is in the hand, the fulcrum is at the elbow and the biceps make the

effort.

Muscles

Types of Muscle:

There are three main types of muscles in the body. Each type has a special purpose that is vital to the normal

functioning of the body:

1. Smooth or Involuntary Muscle. Found in the bowel, the gut and internal organs. There is no direct control of this

muscle, that is, it works automatically.

2. Cardiac or heart muscle is specialised muscle that contracts constantly and automatically. Some factors can affect

the speed of the contractions such as exercise and the release of hormones such as adrenaline. Further details of

the heart can be found in the Circulatory System.

3. Skeletal muscles are the ones that can easily be seen as a shape under the skin. Unlike smooth muscle or cardiac

muscle, we can control skeletal muscles and because of this it is sometimes known as voluntary muscle.

Muscle Fibre Types:

There are two types of muscle fibre, slow and fast twitch.

They are physiologically different and the percentage of each in a muscle is determined genetically.

The amounts of fast twitch or slow twitch fires in the muscle will determine their suitability to certain sporting

activities.

This is why there are people who are 'natural' endurance athletes; they have greater amounts of slow twitch fibre

which contracts slowly with little force but do not tire easily.

Other people have greater amounts of fast twitch fibres and are 'naturally' good at sprinting and throwing. These

fibres produce larger forces but tire quickly.


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Contraction of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscle contractions are stimulated by electrical signals transmitted along motor nerve fibres that have

been sent from the central nervous system (see Nervous System).

Cross-bridges are formed between the myosin and actin molecules. The cross-bridges originate on the myosin

molecule and attach themselves to the actin molecule. They then drag the actin molecule towards the origin of

the muscle. It is the actin molecule that is active and moves the myosin molecules are fixed.

Muscle Contraction and Energy

Duration of the nervous stimulus will determine the duration of the muscle contraction.

The strength of the stimulus will determine the force that the muscle contraction exerts.

There is a limited quantity of ATP in the muscle and for muscle contraction to continue over a long period of

time.

ATP has to be re-built from ADP + P. The re-building of ATP is known as muscle respiration.

Muscles and Movement

Antagonistic Muscle Action

Muscles can only contract and pull. Therefore, joints have to have two or more muscles working opposite each

other. This is known as antagonistic muscle action.

For this to occur, one end of the muscle must be fixed. This is known as the origin. When the muscle contracts,

the other end of the muscle then moves towards the origin.

The end that moves is known as the insertion.

A good example of this is the upper arm where the triceps and biceps are on opposite sides of the humerus.

The origins of both the triceps and the biceps are at the top of the humerus near the shoulder joint.

As the bicep contracts the lower arm (radius and ulna) moves up towards the shoulder. The triceps relax to allow

this movement to happen.

The bicep is the prime mover or agonist, while the tricep is the secondary mover or antagonist.

Muscles are attached to bones at either side of the joints by tendons.

Muscle Contraction for Movement:

There are three types of muscle contraction.

1. Isometric: muscle remains the same length.


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2. Isokinetic: the speed of the contraction remains constant throughout the movement.

3. Isotonic contraction can be divided into two types:

Concentric: the muscle shortens as it contracts.

Eccentric: the muscle lengthens but is still under tension.

Types of Body Movement:

Due to the range of movements required in sport, it is useful to be able to describe them technically.

Flexion: bringing two parts of a limb together - bending at the joint.

Extension: moving two parts of a limb away from each other - straightening at the joint.

Abduction: moving limbs away from the centre of the body.

Adduction: Moving limbs towards the centre of the body.

Circumduction: the movement of a limb around a joint.


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How the Body Obtains its Energy

The Heart's Structure

The heart is a muscular pump that continuously and rhythmically beats to pump blood and its contents around

the body and is made of cardiac muscle. It is divided into four chambers.

The two upper chambers are called atria and receive blood into the heart.

The two lower chambers are known as ventricles, again one on the left and one on the right and pump blood

from the heart.

Both ventricle walls are thick and muscular especially the left ventricle wall as their contraction pushes the blood

to the lungs and heart.

All four chambers are connected to their own blood vessel:

The right atrium - the vena cava

The left atrium - the pulmonary vein

The right ventricle - the pulmonary artery

The left ventricle - the aorta

Blood Flow

Blood flows into the heart from the body and head into the right atrium through the vena cava. Blood from the

lungs flows into the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. Blood from the right ventricle goes out through

the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Blood from the left ventricle goes out through the aorta to the head and body.

Heart Rate

When the body is at rest the heart can beat at between 50 to 80 times a minute, pumping the 4.7 litres or so of

blood around the body.

The heart can respond immediately to any extra demands, for example, during exercise. Heart rate can increase

to over 200 beats per minute, pumping 45 litres around the body in a minute.

Heart rate can be used to measure if the intensity of exercise is sufficient to improve fitness levels. This is

dependent on the age of the person exercising and can be calculated in the following way:

75% of maximum heart rate

maximum heart rate = 220 - age

For example, a person who is 30 years old has a maximum heart rate of 220 - 30 = 190. 75% of 190 = 142.


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Blood Vessels

Arteries carry freshly oxygenated blood from the heart to the capillary system.

One exception to this rule is the pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood.

Most arteries lie deep in the body, but some are nearer the surface and it is these places that a pulse can be felt.

Artery walls are thicker than the walls of veins because they have a thicker layer of smooth muscle and elastic

fibres between the protective covering and connective tissue.

Veins are often near the surface. Being near the surface allows any excess heat that is generated during exercise

to be lost to the atmosphere. Veins have valves to prevent blood flowing backwards.

Capillaries are minute vessels with walls of only one cell thick. This allows food and oxygen to pass out to the

body cells and carbon dioxide and other waste products to pass into the bloodstream.

The Functions of Blood

Blood is a fluid tissue which provides a link between all the other tissues and organs of the body. It has the

capacity to carry essential items around the body. Some of these items are:

1. oxygen from lungs to body cells

2. carbon dioxide from body to lungs

3. waste products and water from cells to kidneys

Blood Pressure

Blood is pumped out of the heart under pressure.

Pressure is calculated by measuring the pressure needed to stop the flow of blood through an artery.

Two readings are taken, the systolic pressure when the heart contracts and the diastolic pressure when the heart

relaxes.

Constant high blood pressure is known as hypertension.

Blood Composition

Red Blood Cells:

1. Contain haemoglobin that is a compound of protein and iron.

2. Combine readily with oxygen to form a compound called oxyhaemoglobin.

3. Combine with oxygen where oxygen is plentiful.


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4. Lose oxygen where oxygen is scarce, as in the body tissue.

5. Are produced in the red marrow of long bones.

6. Have no nuclei and wear out in 3 - 4 months.

White Blood Cells:

1. Form a mobile guard and repair system to keep disease from the body.

2. Are made in the bone marrow, the lymph nodes and the spleen.

3. Are 3 - 4 times the size of red cells.

4. Can change shape, move against the blood flow and squeeze through the walls of blood vessels into the

surrounding tissue.

Platelets:

1. Are tiny structures that do not have nuclei.

2. Are formed from detached lining cells if blood vessels.

3. Help to produce clotting when a blood vessel is damaged.

There is also a substance called fibrinogen in the blood. When bleeding occurs a chemical reaction changes

fibrinogen into fibrin - thread like strands that help to form a clot.

Plasma:

1. Is a pale, straw coloured, liquid.

2. Is 92% water.

3. 8% consists of food substances.

4. Is the transportation system.

5. Maintains the correct balance of chemicals, water content and temperature levels within the body.

The Respiratory System

The human body needs a constant supply of oxygen to enable energy to be released.

The respiratory system brings air (with oxygen) into the body via the lungs.

The respiratory system is made up of air passages, the lungs and the diaphragm.


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When breathing in (inspiration):

1. Muscles across the ribs contract and pull the ribs upwards.

2. The muscles of the diaphragm also contract and flatten out the floor of the rib cage.

3. The lungs increase in size and so suck in air through the nose and mouth.

When breathing out (expiration):

1. Muscles of diaphragm and rib cage relax

2. The diaphragm pushes back into a domed position by the organs beneath it under pressure from the muscular

abdominal wall.

3. The ribs move down under their own weight. The space the lungs occupy is now smaller and so air is forced out

again.

How Food is Digested

The digestive system makes food soluble and able to pass into the bloodstream and be transported to the

muscles and organs.

1. In the mouth, where food is ground up by the teeth to form a pellet of food called a bolus.

2. While in the mouth, an enzyme released from the salivary gland called ptyalin begins to turn starch into sugar.

3. Food is pushed down the oesophagus (gullet) by a wave like action called peristalsis.

4. When reaching the stomach, foods are mixed with gastric juices containing more enzymes and dilute hydrochloric

acid.

5. Food is released into the duodenum in small amounts with the relaxation of the pyloric sphincter. It spends

approximately 6 hours here.

6. Food is further digested by the action of a large number of alkaline enzymes. They break down food into a

mixture of simple amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.

7. Undigested waste food passes into the colon (the large intestine) where it remains for 12 hours while more

nutrients and water are absorbed into the bloodstream.

8. The solid remains pass through the last part of the system where they leave the body through the anus.

9. Waste fluids are taken to the kidneys. Here they are filtered off and pass as urine through the ureters to the

bladder.

10. The urine is expelled from the body through the urethra.


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Muscle Respiration

For muscles to contract, energy is required.

This energy can only be provided by the breakdown of a chemical called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP):

During this reaction, energy is released and two new chemicals are formed: Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and

a phosphate (P).

There is a limited quantity of ATP in the muscle cells.

For muscle contraction to continue ATP has to be re-built from ADP and P:

ADP + P = ATP

This re-building of ATP is known as Muscle Respiration.

There are two pathways by which ATP can be reformed:

The Anaerobic Pathway

The Aerobic Pathway

Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic is without oxygen.

This means there is no oxygen present when ATP is reformed.

There are two methods of Anaerobic Respiration:

1. The Alactic or Creatine Phosphate (CP) System.

There is another chemical present in the muscle cell called Creatine Phosphate (CP).

When there is a demand, due to muscle contraction, for ATP to be re-built CP breaks down, giving up its P to

add to ADP to form ATP + C.

ADP + CP = ATP + C.

Like ADP, the cell has a limited quantity of CP in it, so this method of muscle respiration can only be used when

short bursts of energy are required such as in shot-putt or sprint starting.

If further muscle contractions are required then another method of muscle respiration is necessary.

2. The Lactic Acid System.


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Present in all cells of the body is a food substance called glycogen, which is made from glucose obtained from

digested food.

When glycogen breaks down in the cell, it releases energy. This energy is then used to re-build ATP from ADP

and P.

ADP + P + glycogen = ATP + pyruvic acid

As the lactic acid system is anaerobic, there is no oxygen present. Pyruvic acid without the presence of oxygen

forms lactic acid.

It is the build-up of lactic acid in the muscle that causes pain, discomfort and fatigue.

Consequently, this method of muscle respiration can only be used for events lasting short periods of time, from

between two to two and a half minutes.

Examples of this are the longer sprints or the final part of longer events.

For longer events, the body muscles must work with oxygen present, that is, aerobically.

Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic is with oxygen.

This pathway begins like the lactic acid system.

ADP + P + glycogen = ATP + pyruvic acid

However, because oxygen is present pyruvic acid is not converted into lactic acid but goes on to form another 34

molecules of ATP.

34 ADP + lactic acid + oxygen + 34 P = 34 ATP + water + carbon dioxide

The Effects of Exercise on the Circulatory System

Short term effects:

Heart rate increases rapidly providing the muscles with the necessary oxygen and nutrients to provide the

muscles with energy.

During exercise, cardiac output is increased and stroke volume increases because:

1. More blood is sent back to the heart due to the muscles squeezing blood in the veins.

2. As the heart fills up, it stretches.

3. As the muscle fibres stretch, they contract more strongly, pumping out more blood.


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Long term effects:

The heart muscle will grow and strengthen becoming more efficient in heart rate and stroke volume.

Stroke volume is the amount of blood leaving each ventricle on each beat.

The Effects of Exercise on the Respiratory System

Short term effects:

Respiration increases to provide that oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.

This is done by:

1. Increasing breathing rate by about three times the normal rate

2. Increasing tidal volume by five times the normal rate

3. Increasing blood supply to and through the lungs

4. Increasing oxygen up take.

Tidal Volume is the amount of air taken in or out with each breath.

Long term effects:

The body becomes more efficient at using oxygen with an improvement in VO2 max a significant indicator of an

athlete's physical fitness that can be accurately tested.

The Effects of Exercise on the Digestive System

Blood is diverted to the heart, lungs and working muscles, away from parts of the digestive system.

The Effects of Exercise on the Body

Short term effects:

During intense exercise the body's temperature rises. Sweat is formed by sweat glands under the skin to help

cool the body through evaporation.

Blood is diverted to the capillaries just below the skin. This causes the skin to redden.

Long term effects:

Exercise improves the general health and well-being of the body.

It is kept toned and helps to prevent heart disease in later life.


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It provides positive mental and social contributions to a person's life as well as positive physical contributions.


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Taking Part in Sport

Sports Facilities

There are two providers of sports facilities: the public provision made by the local councils, county councils

and local government and the private provision made by hotels, sports clubs and private clubs.

The public sector aims to provide facilities that are accessible to everyone and are based on a pay-and-play

policy where anyone can pay their money and play the sport.

These facilities include the local village hall, leisure and arts centres, sports halls, playing fields, athletics tracks,

golf courses, bowling greens, swimming pools and tennis courts.

The private sector, in providing sports facilities, usually has a commercial aim, that is, they are trying to make

money from the people using their facility.

There is also a growth in private health clubs that provide weight and aerobic gyms and usually have private

instructors.

There are other famous private clubs such as the Wimbledon Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club and other

major sports clubs own and develop their own facilities such as football clubs, rugby clubs and golf clubs.

Youth Sport

Today sport in school and physical education are seen as playing a major role in the development of a child and

the foundation for encouraging youngsters into sport who may be champions of the future.

Public School Sport:

The foundations of most of our sports rest in the history of the British public school, for example rugby.

Many sports developed further at the universities of Cambridge and Oxford and graduates often returned from

there to their old public schools where they promoted sport with further vigour and energy.

Education acts and the National Curriculum

1902: The War Department drew up a syllabus for physical education based on military drill. There was

continued development on this theme until 1933.

1933: The syllabus contained some gymnastics.

1944 Education Act: Free education for all. Physical Education included more team games.

1988 The Education Reform Act: This reinforced the position of Physical Education on the school's

curriculum, making it a compulsory subject.

1992: The first Physical Education, National Curriculum was introduced by the government.


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1995 Dearing Report: Further revision of the National Curriculum with the publishing of this report. Physical

Education based upon a child's ability to plan, perform and evaluate within an activity.

September 2000: New National Curricula for Key Stage 3 in all subject areas.

The Physical Education Curriculum 2000, consists of six activity areas:

Games such as rugby, netball, badminton and basketball

Gymnastics such as trampolining, gymnastics and diving

Athletic activities such as running, jumping and throwing

Dance

Swimming

Outdoor and Adventurous activities such as orienteering, climbing and sailing.

Extra-curricular Activities

Although school children are entitled to approximately two hours of Physical Education per week, there are

usually organised sports activities during most lunchtimes and after the school day has ended.

These are known as extra-curricular activities as they take place outside normal school time.

Physical education and sport

Physical Education is involved in learning for and through the physical.

The differences however between Physical Education teachers and coaches.

Coaches:

1. Spend more time on one activity.

2. Coach youngsters who are usually there by choice.

3. Coach groups who are usually of the same ability.

Physical Education is also an examination subject that extends from GCSE Physical Education into 'A' Level

Physical Education and associated GNVQs.

What the Government Wants

Since the start of Education for all, the government of the day, as the Education Acts show, has always had an

interest in physical education.


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However, it had rarely intervened in policy making until 1995 when John Major announced the government policy

There were four central aims:

1. To put sport back into the heart of the weekly life in every school

2. To bring every child in every school within reach of adequate sporting facilities by the year 2000 and to protect

the nation's playing fields

3. To enable sporting opportunities to continue after school in colleges and universities and to provide a better link

with school and club sport

4. To develop excellence among the most talented of British sportspeople by creating a new British Academy of

Sport.

Sports College Status

The selection for Sports College Status is based upon numerous criteria one of these criteria being the production

of a three year development plan from the school showing how they would enhance the teaching and coaching

of sport and the provision of sports facilities to the school community, the local community and the extended

community.

The Youth Sport Trust

Youth Sport Trust (YST) is a registered charity set up in 1994 to improve sporting provision for all children in

the UK.

Champion Coaching

Launched by the National Coaching Foundation (NCF) in 1990 with the aim of improving the performances of

school elected, 11 - 14 year-olds in specified sports.

The Sports Councils

The Sports Council, as an advisory body, was organised by the government in 1966 and was based on the

existing Central Council for Physical Recreation (CCPR).

Its aims were:

1. To increase participation in sport and physical recreation

2. To increase the quality and quantity of sports facilities

3. To raise standards in performance

4. To provide information for and about sport.


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The Sports Council Campaigns

'Sport for All' (1972)

This campaign set out to encourage all members of the community to participate in sport.

'Sport for All - Disabled People' (1981)

During the International Year of the Disabled in 1981, the Sports Council launched this campaign.

'Fifty Plus - All to Play For' (1983)

This was aimed at older people, particularly the 50 - 60 years age group.

'Ever Thought of Sport?' (1985)

This campaign was targeted at 13 - 24 years age group and coincided with the International Year of the Youth.

'What's Your Sport?' (1987)

This campaign was sponsored by the Milk Marketing Board to raise awareness of where and how to take part in

sport.

'Milk in Action for Women' (1989)

This was launched to encourage women to participate in sporting activities with taster sessions set up all over

the country.

'Year of Sport'(1991)

This campaign coincided with the world student games, which were staged in Sheffield during 1991.

Facilities

The Sports Council has set up a number of world-class facilities throughout the country to help raise the levels of

performance in a variety of sports.


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Health and Fitness

Aspects of Fitness

The World Health Organisation (WHO) have identified three aspects of fitness that affect a person's ability to

complete those everyday tasks of life effectively and efficiently:

1. Physical Health

With good physical health, a body can cope with the physical demands of everyday living.

2. Mental Health

Good mental health allows people to cope with the emotional demands of everyday life.

3. Social Health

Being socially healthy includes having friends and help from others, making a contribution to society and being

valued by it.

Health-Related Fitness

There is a close relationship between health and fitness but sports-related fitness is much higher and more

specific and can be divided into different components:

Speed:

Speed is the ability to move the body and limbs quickly.

Stamina:

Stamina can be defined as the ability to keep going for long periods of time and can be sub-divided into two

areas:

1. Cardiovascular Stamina

Cardiovascular endurance or stamina depends on the ability of the heart and lungs to deliver oxygen to where it

is needed.

Together the heart and lungs are known as the cadiorespiratory system.

The ability of these two systems to keep going for long periods of time under stress is known as

cardiorespiratory endurance.

2. Muscular Stamina and Endurance

This is the ability of the muscles to contract over long periods of time.


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Both cardiovascular stamina and muscular stamina are interrelated, as the muscles need a good, constant supply

of oxygen in order to produce the energy for contraction.

Strength:

Strength is the ability to exert a force on an object as the muscles contract.

Dynamic strength is required to start and maintain a movement.

Explosive strength is required to move the body or an object quickly. It is also known as power, which is a

combination of speed and strength.

Static strength is the strength applied by muscles to a fixed object.

Flexibility:

Flexibility is the range of movement of a limb around its joint. It may also be referred to as mobility or

suppleness.

Skill-Related Fitness

There are five aspects of skill-related fitness.

1. Agility

The ability to change direction quickly and accurately.

2. Balance

Static balance is the ability to hold the body in a position of stillness.

Dynamic balance is the ability to maintain a balanced position while moving.

3. Co-ordination

To perform many of the body action sequences in sport co-ordination of limbs and body in important.

4. Reactions

Reactions are measured in time taken to start the movement, that is, reaction time, and it is the time taken from

receiving information to acting on it.

There are two types of reaction time. They are simple reaction time and choice reaction time.

5. Timing

This is the ability to perform the skill at the exact moment it is needed.


24

Testing Fitness

Careful measurements of fitness can help to improve performance and ability.

Speed:

To measure speed the time is taken to do a short sprint of between 30-50m.

Cardiovascular (CV) System:

Tests to measure cardiovascular fitness include The Harvard Step Test and the Multistage Fitness Test (Bleep

Test). This test measures VO2 Max.

Strength:

There are several tests for different parts of the body.

1. The NCF sit up test measures abdominal strength.

2. Grip strength is measured by a handgrip dynamometer.

3. Explosive strength can be measured in one of two ways: the standing broad jump or the sargant jump.

Flexibility

The Sit and Reach Test measures the flexibility at the hip joint, which is generally restricted in movement by the

hamstring in the back of the leg.

Other Tests

1. The Illinois Agility Run is used to test a person's agility.

2. The Stork Stand is used to test a person's balance.

3. The Alternative Hand Wall Throw is used to test a person's co-ordination.

4. The Ruler Drop Test is used to test a person's reaction time.

Diet and Exercise

Food is the body's source of energy, enabling muscles movement, growth and repair. The food we eat should

contain seven essential items:

1. Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates, when broken down, provide the body with glucose and glycogen the main sources of energy.


25

There are two types of carbohydrates. Simple carbohydrates and Complex carbohydrates, which are starches

found in vegetables, cereals, rice, pasta and bread.

2. Fats:

Fats can release high levels of energy but require large amounts of oxygen to do so.

There are two types of fat: saturated fat, which contains cholesterol, and polyunsaturated fats. Fats are broken

down into fatty acids and glycerol during digestion.

3. Proteins:

Proteins are made of amino acids and are the building blocks of the body repairing and replacing damaged tissue

and building new tissue for growth.

Some amino acids cannot be produced by the body and therefore have to be taken in the food eaten. These are

known as essential amino acids.

There are others that can be produced by the body known as non-essential amino acids.

4. Vitamins:

Vitamins are found as traces in food substances mainly fresh fruit and vegetables.

5. Minerals:

Are inorganic chemicals found in most fresh food.

6. Fibre:

Fibre plays an important part in the process of digestion and is the non-digestible part of fruit, vegetables and

cereals.

7. Water:

Water makes up two thirds of our body contents and a constant loss of water throughout the day and this must

be replaced to prevent dehydration.

Balanced Diet

Food is required by the body in correct proportions so that the essential elements are included. A good balanced

diet will be 10% to 15% protein, 25% to 30% fat and 50% to 60% carbohydrate. This will give the necessary

amounts of vitamins, minerals and fibre.

Diet and Energy


26

Energy for the body to function is acquired from the food eaten. Energy requirements differ between people due

to their age, their sex and their lifestyle, active people need more energy.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):

This is the lowest level of energy required by the body for normal healthy living.

Physical Activity (PAL):

Any activity requires a further amount of energy. The higher the activity level, the higher the energy input and

output needed.

Measuring Energy

Energy is measured in joules or kilojoules and the exact amount of energy available in food is usually marked on

the packet.

Diet for Sport

A planned diet is essential for top sports people and is part of their training programme.

In endurance sports athletes increase the amount of carbohydrates they eat. This is known as carbohydrate

loading.

A heavy meal should not be eaten within two hours of physical activity as blood is moved to the gut to aid

digestion.

Drugs and Sport

Drugs are chemical substances that can affect the body chemistry and how it works.

Since 1879 drugs have been reported for enhancing the performance of athletes. It is the performance

enhancing drugs that concern sporting bodies throughout the world.

Athletes using such drugs are judged to be cheating, that is, they are performing outside the rule structure of the

sport.

There are several categories and lists of band substances and this list is revised on an almost monthly basis as

new drugs are developed.

Most performance enhancing drugs as with any other form of drug abuse produce harmful side effects.

Drugs: Their Effect

Stimulants:


27

These raise the heart rate and stimulate the nervous system improving reaction times and making a person feel

more confident in their ability.

Narcotic Analgesics:

These suppress pain allowing the athlete to train and perform when injured.

Anabolic Agents:

Generally known as anabolic steroids, they were developed to do the job of naturally occurring hormones in the

body that build up soft tissue and muscles.

Beta Blockers:

Beta-blockers slow down the heart and breathing rates, counteracting the adrenaline release that occurs before

an event.

Diuretics:

Diuretics increase the amount of water in the urine.

Blood Doping:

Blood doping increases the number of red blood cells enabling more oxygen to be carried to the muscles.

Other Drugs:

Two drugs widely available to adults over 18 years of age are nicotine and alcohol.

Nicotine is taken into the bloodstream through smoking. It is a highly addictive drug, which raises the heart rate

and blood pressure.

It is the chemical ethanol in the alcohol that can affect sports performance as it acts on the part of the brain

responsible for balance, speech and co-ordination.

Drugs have no place in sport.

Controlling Drugs in Sport

Apart from the fact that taking performance-enhancing drugs is cheating many of these drugs are illegal and

produce harmful side effects.

International governing bodies of sport want to stop the use of drugs and in most sporting events there are

procedures for checking athletes for drugs.


28

Skill in Sport

Defining Skill in Sport

What is a Skill?

When explaining or defining a skill, the explanation or definition must contain the following key words and ideas:

learned ability; pre-determined results; maximum certainty and maximum efficiency.

A learned ability - the basketball player has to learn how to perform a lay-up shot.

Pre-determined results - the basketball player sets out to put the ball in the basket.

Maximum certainty - the basketball player expects to put the ball into the basket every time.

Maximum efficiency - the basketball player will appear to make the lay-up look effortless, with little energy

required and apparently lots of time to do it.

A suitable quote to put these four ideas into was written by Barbara Knapp in 1963 and states that:

"A skill is the learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty; often with the

minimum outlay of time or energy or both."

Classifying Skills

Physical Skills

Also known as motor skills form the basis of all sports and can in tern be sub-divided into two types:

Simple Motor Skills that require very little intricate body movement and are similar in most sports.

Complex Motor Skills that require intricate body movements with finer control of many body parts.

Mental Skills

Most performances in sport require some form of mental activity. The simple motor skills require little mental

input, whereas activities such as orienteering require the performer to mentally assess the situation before

making a decision about the next move.

Mental input is required to 'read the game' and work out why errors occurred during a performance. Top

performers will therefore, have as high a level of mental agility as physical.

Transfer of Skills

The learning of one skill may help in the learning of another skill sometimes in a different activity. This is known

as positive transfer.


29

A previously learned skill may hinder the learning and the way in which another skill in a different activity is

performed. This is known as negative transfer.

Skill Classification

Open and Closed Skills

The environment, for example, wind and rain or the terrain can affect the performance of a skill. Skills affected

by the environment are known as Open Skills.

Wherever there is an element of unpredictability then the skills can be classified as open.

In sports where an opponent’s actions play very little or no part in the performance of a skill and skills where the

athlete is in almost total control of their performance and the skill is not affected by the environment then these

skills are known as Closed Skills.

Some skills will fall between these extremes and therefore there is what is known as a continuum between Open

Skills and Closed Skills.

The Pacing Continuum

At either end of the continuum there is external pacing and self-pacing.

External pacing is when external factors determine when the skill or performance is carried out, for example, a

shot at goal and when the goalkeeper makes the save.

Self-pacing is when the performer decides when they are going to perform the skill, for example, hitting a golf

ball.

The Serial Continuum

This continuum describes skills that range from continuous to discrete.

Continuous skills describe activities such as cycling and walking.

Discrete skills describe those skills that have a distinct start and finish such as a high dive.

Learning Skills in Sport

There are three widely recognised phases to learning a new skill.

The cognitive phase

The associative phase

The autonomous phase

Cognitive Phase


30

This is the first stage of learning where the beginner begins to understand what has to be done.

They are shown the actions and shown what the expected outcome of the actions is.

Associative Phase

The performance of the skill improves.

There are fewer mistakes.

The beginner has some ability to understand and correct mistakes.

More use is made of information received from the senses.

Autonomous Phase

The skills are performed without much thought or attention.

Greater attention is made to strategies and tactics in the activity.

Few errors occur and only minor adjustments are needed to improve performance.

Practicing and Learning Skills in Sport

Repeating skills over and over again is the key to improving newly learned skills, but some skills are complex on

their required movement patens and to aid learning they are broken down into constituent parts that are then

repeated individually.

This is known as the part method.

An example of this is triple jump where all three phases of triple jump can be learned and practised separately.

Some skills do not have separate parts to them and therefore the whole skill has to be practised.

This is known as whole learning.

The type of practice a beginner participates in will depend on the physical and mental demands placed upon the

athlete when performing the skill.

Basketball players may practise the set shot for a fairly long period of time, as there is no great physical or

mental demand made of them.

This is known as massed practice.

If the basketball players were practising the lay-up shot then, because of the physical demand of this skill, there

would be a short practice session, a rest and then repeated practise.

This is known as spaced practice.


31

Guidance

To assist in the learning of new skills the teacher or coach will often give guidance.

There are three different types of guidance:

1. Visual

2. Verbal

3. Manual

Visual guidance often comes in the form of demonstrations from the teacher/coach or from a video recording of

other athletes performing that particular skill.

Verbal guidance is a spoken explanation of the skill that can occur before, during or after the skill has been

performed.

Manual guidance can take the form of the teacher/coach helping someone by holding them while doing the

movement or, where the skill is particularly dangerous or difficult; the performer may be in a belt or sling to give


32

Personal Factors that Affect Participation in Sport

Physique

A person's size, weight and shape (somatotype) can be a contributing factor as to which sports they participate

in.

The tree types are endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph.

Endomorph - Narrow shoulders, wide hips, large head, fat on arms and legs, lots of body fat.

Mesomorph - Broad shoulders, narrow hips, square head, muscular arms and legs, small amounts of body fat.

Ectomorph - Narrow shoulders and hips thin face, high forehead, thin arms and legs little muscle, small amounts

of body fat.

Height and Weight

Being tall is important for volleyball players and high-jumpers but a disadvantage in high diving. There are

numerous examples of where height and weight are distinct advantages when participating in certain sports or

playing a positional role in certain team games.

Body Composition

Body composition is concerned with the ratios of body fat to body muscle to bone to connective tissue. People in

sport tend to have a higher muscle to fat ratio and this can be measured using skin fold callipers that measure

different amounts of fat in different parts of the body.

Other Factors

Age

The sport and leisure pursuits in which people take part are closely related to their age and local tradition.

Activities with high-energy requirements and output such as rugby are generally associated with younger players

while activities that rely on skill rather than physical fitness such as lawn bowls are associated with older people.

There are activities where age does not affect participation such as swimming, walking and playing golf. Age only

limits the type of activity.

Ability

Ability will limit the level at which an activity is pursued.

Having a high ability in any sport means that there could be increased participation, which in itself can lead to

improvement in performance.

Disability


33

Sport for people with disabilities has changed considerably, with governing bodies devising rules and activities

suitable for all disabilities.

Gender

Fewer females pro rata take part in sport than males.

Reasons for Low Participation:

All the profile of women's sport has continued to grow over the past two or three decades, there are still obvious

reasons why sport participation by women still falls short of that of men.

Physique

Women are still viewed as the fairer, weaker sex and some sports are deemed too dangerous for them.

Social Attitudes

Victorian attitudes that a woman's place is in the home continue to be prevalent even in today's society.

Role Models

For boys there are many role models in a wide range of sports. There are fewer role models for women.

Finance

Sportswomen receive only a fraction of the sponsorship that sportsmen receive.

Media Coverage

There is less media coverage of women's sport than there is of men's sport and so the profile of women in sport

continues to remain low.


34

Training for Sport

The Principles of Training

If physical fitness and skills are to be maintained or improved, then training has to take place.

There are four recognised principles that have to be applied to training schedules if training is to be effective.

Specificity

Different sports make different demands of the performer and so the training should take into account those

demands.

Overload

Overloading body systems with higher work rates and increased loads causes the body to respond to these extra

demands by improving its performance.

There are three ways in which overload can be attained:

1. Frequency is the number of times training occurs.

2. Raising the workload increases intensity.

3. Duration, or how long training takes place, is determined by the activity and the fitness of the performer.

Progression

Although overload is necessary to improve physical fitness and skills level, this overload has to be progressive.

The chances are that the performer will fail in the attempt and become de-motivated or injure them self in the

attempt.

Reversibility

This is the reverse of progression.

Once training and performances are reduced, the body naturally adapts to new circumstances.

Methods of Training

Different sports require different training methods to meet the demands of the sport.

Speed Training

The speed needed in the majority of sports activities tends to be over short distances.

Effects


35

The heart walls grow stronger and are therefore more able to pump blood effectively.

There is a faster dispersal of lactic acid in the muscles, enabling muscle action to continue for a longer time.

Cardiorespiratory Endurance (Stamina)

This is dependent on the aerobic energy system and there are a variety of methods to improve it.

Interval training

This is a combination of periods of high intensity work and low intensity work.

Interval training needs to be carefully planned, as the duration, intensity of work and rest periods need to be

carefully matched to the level of fitness of the athlete.

Continuous Training

Continuous training is training without a rest and can only be done at moderate intensity. Heart rate and

breathing rate are maintained at a high level over a sustained period of time. Activity of the correct intensity

needs to be maintained for at least 15 minutes.

Fartlek ('speed play') Training

Fartlek is a Swedish word that means 'speed play' and is based on Swedish training methods.

Both aerobics and anaerobic energy systems can be trained as the athlete pushes through the anaerobic

threshold.

The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the energy demands of the body exceed that available using the

aerobic system and therefore the body has to begin using the anaerobic energy system.

Effects of Cardiorespiratory Training

1. The heart becomes more efficient.

2. Recovery after exercise becomes quicker.

3. Blood volume, red cells and haemoglobin increase.

4. Arteries grow larger.

5. Diaphragm grows stronger.

6. Lungs become more expandable increasing in volume.

Strength Training


36

Dynamic, explosive and static strength are all dependent on the force exerted by the muscles. Weight or

resistance training is an effective way to improve muscular strength.

The general principles of weight training are:

1. A light weight moved many times improves muscular endurance

2. A medium weight moved very fast will improve explosive strength

3. And a heavy weight moved a few times will improve static strength.

Repetitions ('reps') and Sets

When planning a resistance-training programme, the number of repetitions and sets must be determined.

1. Repetitions are the number of times an exercise is repeated.

2. Sets are the number of times an activity is taken in a training session.

Training Different Muscle actions

The three types of muscle action require special weight training programmes.

Isometric training can be practised with heavy, immovable weights.

Isokinetic training requires the use of weights that provide resistance through the full range of

movement.

Isotonic training involves the same resistance or weight as the muscle both shortens (concentric

contraction) and lengthens (eccentric contraction).

Plyometrics

An effective way of improving and developing explosive strength are plyometrics.

It involves rapidly stretching a muscle and using the energy generated in the elastic part of the muscle.

Plyometrics can improve endurance strength, explosive strength and also develop static strength as muscles

increase in size, as fibres grow thicker.

Flexibility ('suppleness') Training

Maintaining and improving flexibility is an essential part of physical and there are four widely recognised methods

of improving flexibility.

Static Stretching

A muscle is held in a stretched position for a short time.


37

Passive Stretching

An external force is applied to a limb or joint and held for a number of seconds.

Active Stretching

The limbs and the body are moved vigorously, stretching the appropriate muscles.

Proprioceptor Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

This is a method of tricking the receptor organs in the muscles and joints allowing the limbs to increase their

range of movement.

Effects of Flexibility Training

The muscles and tendons can be stretched more easily, thus increasing the range of movement at the joint. The

result of this is a less likely chance of injury and improved execution of skills.

Skill-Related Training

Agility Training

Strength, speed and balance are important elements of agility and any training of these will result in improved

agility.

Effects of Training

Body movements can be made quicker. More unpredictable movements can be made to beat an opponent.

Balance Training

Balance requires delicate control and good static strength in relation to body weight.

There are two types of balances, static balances, which are positions of stillness and dynamic balances, which

are maintained while the athlete is moving.

Effects of Training

Static balance - fine muscle control and stability balance.

Dynamic balance - better control in more extreme conditions.

Co-ordination Training

Practice is the best form of training co-ordination and specific practice for individual sports.

Effects of Training


38

Movements appear smooth and flowing. Movements become more effective.

Reaction Training

It is highly unlikely that reaction times can be improved; however response time can be improved.

Response time is the total time taken to complete a response to a given stimulus.

Response time = reaction time + movement time.

Response time can only improve with experience where situations become more familiar and the athletes are

able to think and act more quickly to a given situation.

Effects of Training

Faster muscle responses. There are fewer movement errors. There is improved decision making in choice

reaction situations - giving improved performance.

Training for Timing

Training to improve timing involves repetition of activities until speed and distance have been learned.

Training Sessions

All training sessions, irrespective of the sport or activity, tend to follow the same patterns.

Training programmes are carefully designed to ensure the athlete reaches their peak performance in time for a

major event such as the Olympic games.

Training Programmes

Training programmes can be planned over a one to two year period.

Irrespective of the sport, planning a programme involves the use of the FITT principles.

Frequency - Training sessions should be sufficient to bring about improvements, but there should also be

enough recovery time, particularly in physically intense activities.

Intensity - Training must be set at a sufficient level to bring about changes in the body systems.

Time - Training time for each session should be judged in accordance with fitness levels. For the same intensity,

this should be gradually increased (See Principles of Training - Progression) as cardiorespiratory and muscular

endurance increases.

Type - The type of training activities included in the training programme must be the same as, or closely

associated with, the particular sport or activity.

A Typical Training Session


39

There are clear allocations of time during a training session that consist of warm up, fitness session, skills

session which could involve small-sided games and cool down.

Warm Up

The body needs to be correctly prepared for any activity.

Fitness Session

The amount of fitness and its importance depends on the activity and the level at which the activity is been

played be it local level, regional level, national level, etc.

Skills Session

The skills sessions have to be a closely related to the 'real' situation as possible so that transfer from practice to

'real' is easily accomplished.

Cool Down

This part of the training session allows the body to start its recovery process by starting to remove the lactate

build-up.

Circuit Training

There are many advantages to using circuit training as part of a training programme. Some of these advantages

include improving fitness levels of a large number of people, it can be accomplished in a relatively small space

and it requires a minimum amount of equipment as the performers body provides the 'weight'.

Circuit Training Design

When designing a circuit there are several things that have to be considered a number of considerations have to

be made some of these include the purpose of the circuit, the types of activities to achieve the purpose and the

number of stations in the circuit.

Intensity and Overload

For any training session to be effective, it should be of high enough intensity to overload the body systems of an

individual and individual fitness levels must be taken into account. This will require testing and re-testing at

future intervals.

Skills Circuits

Circuit training in games such as rugby, football, netball and hockey can easily be planned but usually require

more space than fitness circuits.

Basic skills such as passing, dribbling and shooting are performed at various stations.


40


41

Training for Sport

The Principles of Training

If physical fitness and skills are to be maintained or improved, then training has to take place.

There are four recognised principles that have to be applied to training schedules if training is to be effective.

Specificity

Different sports make different demands of the performer and so the training should take into account those

demands.

Overload

Overloading body systems with higher work rates and increased loads causes the body to respond to these extra

demands by improving its performance.

There are three ways in which overload can be attained:

1. Frequency is the number of times training occurs.

2. Raising the workload increases intensity.

3. Duration, or how long training takes place, is determined by the activity and the fitness of the performer.

Progression

Although overload is necessary to improve physical fitness and skills level, this overload has to be progressive.

The chances are that the performer will fail in the attempt and become de-motivated or injure them self in the

attempt.

Reversibility

This is the reverse of progression.

Once training and performances are reduced, the body naturally adapts to new circumstances.

Methods of Training

Different sports require different training methods to meet the demands of the sport.

Speed Training

The speed needed in the majority of sports activities tends to be over short distances.

Effects


42

The heart walls grow stronger and are therefore more able to pump blood effectively.

There is a faster dispersal of lactic acid in the muscles, enabling muscle action to continue for a longer time.

Cardiorespiratory Endurance (Stamina)

This is dependent on the aerobic energy system and there are a variety of methods to improve it.

Interval training

This is a combination of periods of high intensity work and low intensity work.

Interval training needs to be carefully planned, as the duration, intensity of work and rest periods need to be

carefully matched to the level of fitness of the athlete.

Continuous Training

Continuous training is training without a rest and can only be done at moderate intensity. Heart rate and

breathing rate are maintained at a high level over a sustained period of time. Activity of the correct intensity

needs to be maintained for at least 15 minutes.

Fartlek ('speed play') Training

Fartlek is a Swedish word that means 'speed play' and is based on Swedish training methods.

Both aerobics and anaerobic energy systems can be trained as the athlete pushes through the anaerobic

threshold.

The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the energy demands of the body exceed that available using the

aerobic system and therefore the body has to begin using the anaerobic energy system.

Effects of Cardiorespiratory Training

1. The heart becomes more efficient.

2. Recovery after exercise becomes quicker.

3. Blood volume, red cells and haemoglobin increase.

4. Arteries grow larger.

5. Diaphragm grows stronger.

6. Lungs become more expandable increasing in volume.

Strength Training


43

Dynamic, explosive and static strength are all dependent on the force exerted by the muscles. Weight or

resistance training is an effective way to improve muscular strength.

The general principles of weight training are:

1. A light weight moved many times improves muscular endurance

2. A medium weight moved very fast will improve explosive strength

3. And a heavy weight moved a few times will improve static strength.

Repetitions ('reps') and Sets

When planning a resistance-training programme, the number of repetitions and sets must be determined.

1. Repetitions are the number of times an exercise is repeated.

2. Sets are the number of times an activity is taken in a training session.

Training Different Muscle actions

The three types of muscle action require special weight training programmes.

Isometric training can be practised with heavy, immovable weights.

Isokinetic training requires the use of weights that provide resistance through the full range of

movement.

Isotonic training involves the same resistance or weight as the muscle both shortens (concentric

contraction) and lengthens (eccentric contraction).

Plyometrics

An effective way of improving and developing explosive strength are plyometrics.

It involves rapidly stretching a muscle and using the energy generated in the elastic part of the muscle.

Plyometrics can improve endurance strength, explosive strength and also develop static strength as muscles

increase in size, as fibres grow thicker.

Flexibility ('suppleness') Training

Maintaining and improving flexibility is an essential part of physical and there are four widely recognised methods

of improving flexibility.

Static Stretching

A muscle is held in a stretched position for a short time.


44

Passive Stretching

An external force is applied to a limb or joint and held for a number of seconds.

Active Stretching

The limbs and the body are moved vigorously, stretching the appropriate muscles.

Proprioceptor Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

This is a method of tricking the receptor organs in the muscles and joints allowing the limbs to increase their

range of movement.

Effects of Flexibility Training

The muscles and tendons can be stretched more easily, thus increasing the range of movement at the joint. The

result of this is a less likely chance of injury and improved execution of skills.

Skill-Related Training

Agility Training

Strength, speed and balance are important elements of agility and any training of these will result in improved

agility.

Effects of Training

Body movements can be made quicker. More unpredictable movements can be made to beat an opponent.

Balance Training

Balance requires delicate control and good static strength in relation to body weight.

There are two types of balances, static balances, which are positions of stillness and dynamic balances, which

are maintained while the athlete is moving.

Effects of Training

Static balance - fine muscle control and stability balance.

Dynamic balance - better control in more extreme conditions.

Co-ordination Training

Practice is the best form of training co-ordination and specific practice for individual sports.

Effects of Training


45

Movements appear smooth and flowing. Movements become more effective.

Reaction Training

It is highly unlikely that reaction times can be improved; however response time can be improved.

Response time is the total time taken to complete a response to a given stimulus.

Response time = reaction time + movement time.

Response time can only improve with experience where situations become more familiar and the athletes are

able to think and act more quickly to a given situation.

Effects of Training

Faster muscle responses. There are fewer movement errors. There is improved decision making in choice

reaction situations - giving improved performance.

Training for Timing

Training to improve timing involves repetition of activities until speed and distance have been learned.

Training Sessions

All training sessions, irrespective of the sport or activity, tend to follow the same patterns.

Training programmes are carefully designed to ensure the athlete reaches their peak performance in time for a

major event such as the Olympic games.

Training Programmes

Training programmes can be planned over a one to two year period.

Irrespective of the sport, planning a programme involves the use of the FITT principles.

Frequency - Training sessions should be sufficient to bring about improvements, but there should also be

enough recovery time, particularly in physically intense activities.

Intensity - Training must be set at a sufficient level to bring about changes in the body systems.

Time - Training time for each session should be judged in accordance with fitness levels. For the same intensity,

this should be gradually increased (See Principles of Training - Progression) as cardiorespiratory and muscular

endurance increases.

Type - The type of training activities included in the training programme must be the same as, or closely

associated with, the particular sport or activity.

A Typical Training Session


46

There are clear allocations of time during a training session that consist of warm up, fitness session, skills

session which could involve small-sided games and cool down.

Warm Up

The body needs to be correctly prepared for any activity.

Fitness Session

The amount of fitness and its importance depends on the activity and the level at which the activity is been

played be it local level, regional level, national level, etc.

Skills Session

The skills sessions have to be a closely related to the 'real' situation as possible so that transfer from practice to

'real' is easily accomplished.

Cool Down

This part of the training session allows the body to start its recovery process by starting to remove the lactate

build-up.

Circuit Training

There are many advantages to using circuit training as part of a training programme. Some of these advantages

include improving fitness levels of a large number of people, it can be accomplished in a relatively small space

and it requires a minimum amount of equipment as the performers body provides the 'weight'.

Circuit Training Design

When designing a circuit there are several things that have to be considered a number of considerations have to

be made some of these include the purpose of the circuit, the types of activities to achieve the purpose and the

number of stations in the circuit.

Intensity and Overload

For any training session to be effective, it should be of high enough intensity to overload the body systems of an

individual and individual fitness levels must be taken into account. This will require testing and re-testing at

future intervals.

Skills Circuits

Circuit training in games such as rugby, football, netball and hockey can easily be planned but usually require

more space than fitness circuits.

Basic skills such as passing, dribbling and shooting are performed at various stations.


47


48

Sports Psychology

Information Processing and Feedback

Whether learning new skills or performing previously learned skills, the brain controls all thoughts and actions

and will use information received from the sensory organs and information stored in the memory to decide the

action to be taken.

An Information Processing Model consists of four sections:

1. Input

This is the information sent by the sensory organs to the brain.

2. Decision Making

The brain makes decisions based upon the information received as to what cause of action is required.

The speed of decision making is restricted by Limited Channel Capacity and Selective Attention.

Making decisions requires perception and memory to make sense of this information. Perception allows some

anticipation to be made.

There are two forms of memory

Short-term memory (STM), where information is stored for a short time.

Important information coming into STM will be transferred to the long-term memory.

Long-term memory (LTM) has a huge capacity to store all kinds of information that can be quickly retrieved at

any given time.

3. Output

Messages are sent to the muscles, via motor neurones, that stimulate them into co-ordinated contractions

producing the action for the desired response.

As a result of the action the brain receives further information. This is known as the feedback loop and enables

further decisions to be made.

4. Feedback

It is through feedback that progress and learning occur. There are two main forms of feedback.

Internal Feedback

The proprioceptors are the organs that provide internal information and feedback about a movement. This

information is relayed back to the brain.


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External Feedback

This comes from outside the body through sound and vision and will provide information about the

performance this is known as knowledge of performance and the result this is known as knowledge of

result.

External feedback provides valuable information during, after and for the next time the sequence of body

movements will be performed.

Positive and Negative Feedback

Any good performance has a positive effect for next time. A good word from the teacher/coach, peer or any

significant other will have a very positive effect.

Failure to succeed could give negative feedback and have the opposite effect of a next performance.

Other Psychological Aspects

Motivation

Irrespective of whether a person is being taught or coached with the best facilities available, learning will not

take place unless the learner is motivated.

Motivation is the driving force that compels people to do something.

Intrinsic Motivation

It is the challenges, satisfaction, sense of achievement and a desire to maintain a healthy, active lifestyle that

drives many people to take part in physical activities and sport.

Extrinsic Motivation

Some people are driven by the rewards: financial gains, trophies and medals and other award schemes such as

those seen in schools, peer groups and family.

Arousal

Arousal levels in sport are important.

Too little arousal causes the level of involvement to be low.

Too higher level of arousal could cause control of behaviour to be lost.

Studies have shown that there is an optimum level of arousal and this has produced the inverted 'U' theory and

clearly links levels of performance with levels of arousal.

Different sports and sportspeople require different arousal levels


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Goal Setting

To continue developing and improving as a performer, setting targets and gaols can provide an aim to the

necessary training and therefore enhance motivation.

The National Coaching Foundation (NCF) believes in setting goals in sport is important and use the SMARTER

system.

Specific - goals should be focused and specific

Measurable - there must be some assessment that so that progress can be judged

Accepted - the goals must be jointly set between performer and coach

Realistic - the performer must be able to achieve the goals

Time phased - target dates should be set for goals to be achieved

Exciting - the performer should see the goals as challenging and rewarding

Recorded - goals should be written so that coach and performer can judge progress

Personality

Eysenck suggests there are two main personality traits.

Answering the questions of Eysenck's personality test can determine where an individual falls in this two

dimensional model.

Sports psychologists have tried to link personality types with different sport types in order to identify the best

people for the sport.

There has been little success with this approach.


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Sport and Injury

How Injuries Occur

Sports injuries occur as either a result of sudden or persistent stress on a particular part of the body with which

the body cannot cope or as a result of damage to the body tissues because of long-term stresses placed on

particular parts of the body within a sport.

Accidents:

Most injuries are caused through accidents. Tripping, slipping, being hit with and bumping into are all routes to

injury.

Injuries may also occur because of the nature of the sport such as:

1. In contact sports where making contact in certain sports is part of the game.

2. Foul play where players can be injured in games when the rules are broken.

3. Rules are very often there to prevent injury.

4. Overuse of body parts can cause damage to muscles, tendons, ligaments and bones.

5. Poor, incorrect or ill-fitting equipment.

Treatments

There are many types of sporting injuries that can often be treated quickly and effectively.

RICE

A common treatment for many soft tissue injuries is the RICE method.

R - Rest; continued use of the damaged muscle will cause even more damage and make the recovery time

longer

I - Ice applied will reduce swelling and pain

C - Compressing the area will provide support

E - Elevating the part of the body injured will decrease the circulation and enable blood and other fluids that

cause swelling to be removed from the injured area.

Skin Injuries

Skin injuries, also known as abrasions, may be painful but not dangerous.

Treatment


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Assess the damage and in most cases clean and dress.

Larger and deeper cuts may need treatment at a hospital where stitching of the injury may be required. When

blood is strongly pumping out of a cut, it is important that the flow of blood is stopped and medical help found.

Muscle Tears and Pulls

Muscles can be damaged internally by applying too much force when moving the body or an external object.

Treatment

Carryout RICE procedure. Damaged muscle repairs itself, usually within seven days.

Ligaments and Tendons

Ligaments hold joints together and tendons attach muscles to bones and both can be injured when

excessive force is applied to them.

Treatment

RICE can be used for minor injuries of both tendons and ligaments.

Dislocation

Dislocation is the joint of a limb breaking apart soft tissue may also be damaged.

Treatment

Medical treatment is needed for this injury.

Bones

Bones, because of their rigid structure can be broken.

There are different types of fracture:

Simple fractures - the bone is broken cleanly and does not pierce the skin

Compound fractures - parts if the bone comes through the surface of the skin

Greenstick fractures - this often occurs in young children where the bones are soft and do not break cleanly

Treatment

If a fracture is suspected, the person should be kept warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

Head Injuries


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These can range from cuts and bruises to more serious skull fractures.

Treatment

Medical help must be sought for all head injuries.

Other Conditions

In sports, certain conditions can occur which are not classified as injuries but still need to be attended to;

1. Hyperventilation

2. Shock

3. Hypothermia

4. Hyperthermia and heat stroke

5. Exhaustion

6. Asthma attack

Emergency Treatment

Being able to give treatment in such an emergency could save the person’s life or prevent further damage.

One system is to follow the DRABC routine.

The DRABC Routine:

Danger: Assess the danger to the casualty and to yourself.

Response: Check if the casualty is conscious, ask name and gently shake.

Airway: Loosen tight clothing. Put the casualty into the recovery position.

Breathing: Check: is casualty breathing? Is the chest rising and falling? Are there breathing sounds?

Circulation: Check for a pulse at the neck.

Health and Hygiene

Hygiene is an important part of maintaining good health. There are two important factors that are important to

everyone and particularly people who take part in sport.

Keeping the Body Clean

Skin


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Keeping the skin clean is not only an important way of resisting disease and infection but also in preventing body

odour.

Hair

Hair should be washed regularly and long hair tied back so as not to restrict vision, or get pulled.

Nails

Should be kept clean and short.

Teeth

Should be brushed regularly after eating.

In many sports gum shields are often worn to protect teeth.

Feet

Must be kept healthy.

Correct fitting footwear is important for sport and activity.

There are two common infections of the feet:

1. Athlete's foot

It is easily spread to other people by contact from floors or shared towels.

2. Verrucas are warts on the feet.

They spread easily through a virus, are difficult to get rid of and are painful.

Keeping feet clean and drying them well helps to minimise the chance of contracting these diseases.

Clothing and Equipment

Clothing should be washed regularly as it absorbs body sweat and bacteria from the skin.

Equipment should be cleaned and maintained.

Look after your equipment and your equipment will look after you.


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Organisations in Sport

The Governing Bodies of Sport

Recognised sports and related activities need organisation on a large scale. They need a body of people

to administer all aspects of that activity.

Such a body of people are known as the Governing Body of that sport or activity.

All sports have a National Governing Body and new sport and governing bodies are developing all the time.

Examples of these are the Football Association (FA), Rugby Football Union (RFU), English Volleyball Association

(EVA), English Netball Association (ENA) and the Lawn Tennis Association (LTA).

Any Sport involved in international competition will also have an International Governing Body that administers

the sport at an international level.

Governing Bodies are involved in a range of administrative activities that help develop, promote and organise the

sport.

These activities include:

1. Administering the Rule Structures

2. Administering Competitions

3. Team Selection

4. Clubs and Players

5. Finance

6. The Distribution of Finance

7. Promotion

8. Developing Coaching

The Central Council for Physical Recreation

The CCPR is made up of all the governing bodies (over 300) in sport.

The CCPR has two objectives:

1. To encourage as many people as possible to take part in sport and physical recreation.

2. To provide the separate governing bodies of the individual sports with a central organisation that represents and

promotes their individual and collective interests.


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Funding and Control

The governing bodies control it and it is funded by fees from the governing bodies and sponsorship from

commercial bodies.

What does the CCPR do?

The CCPR represents its members' interests.

It campaigns on issues such as drugs in sport and fair play in sport.

It liaises with central government, local authorities and the media.

It has also created two popular youth awards that have encouraged youngsters to take an active role in the

development of youth sport.

They are: The Community Sports Leader Award (CSLA) and The Junior Sports Leader Award (JSLA).

Local and National Organisation of Sport

The Local Sports Club

Local sport generally involves local clubs, the basic unit of any sport.

Sports clubs require members, people who are going to take part in the activity.

For the club to run efficiently, it has to have a committee; a body of people that look after the affairs of the club.

Four key people are the chairperson, the vice-chairperson, the secretary and the treasurer.

The chairperson controls committee meetings and represents the club at official functions.

The vice-chairperson substitutes for the chairperson on occasions.

The secretary takes minutes of meetings and organises any other club correspondence.

The treasurer is responsible for looking after the financial matters of the club.

Each club will be affiliated to the local or regional branch of their respective governing body.

National Sports Organisations

There are numerous national sports organisations in the United Kingdom.

Examples of these are:

The Sports Aid Foundation (SAF):


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The SAF was set up in 1976 to raise money for sport through sponsorship from companies and local authorities.

The SAF gives money to the governing bodies who then administer the funds.

The Countryside Commission (CC):

The CC looks after the English countryside and is funded by the Department of the Environment.

It is an important organisation for all those that enjoy outdoor recreation such as rambling, climbing, mountain

biking, etc.

It has a number of key roles and some of these roles involve maintaining the countryside, developing and

maintaining national trails for walkers, hikers and cyclists and enabling access for all those taking part in outdoor

pursuits.

The National Trust:

Is the largest landowner in Britain, owning over 570,000 acres.

It controls access to areas such as the Lake District where recreational activities such as climbing, hill walking,

sailing and canoeing go on.

The Olympic Games

The Olympic Logo was first seen on a flag in Antwerp in 1920.

Historically, the Olympic Games go back as far as the Ancient Greeks.

These games were abolished in AD 393 because the Romans saw them as a pagan festival.

Pierre de Coubertin is recognised as the founder of the Modern Olympic Games who, while visiting England

attended the Wenlock Games and this inspired him to revive the Olympic Games.

As a result the first Modern Games took place in Athens in 1896.

Since 1896 the games have followed a four-year cycle that was broken in 1914, 1918, 1940 and 1944 because of

the First and Second World Wars.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC):

The IOC is the organising body for the Olympic Games with the responsibility for:

1. Selecting the venue for both summer and winter games.

2. Deciding which sports should be included in the games.

3. Working with the host city and country in the planning of the games.


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Politics and Sport

Since the early days of international sporting events the success of the team has affected the recognition and

profile of the team’s country.

Hosting International Events

Advantages: Disadvantages:

More and better sports facilities.

Access transport and hotels improved.

Increased tourism and business.

More jobs created for building facilities

and staffing the events.

The city or country will become well

known.

It could help national unity.

The increased number of people visiting the area could cause major

disruption to the everyday life of the local population.

Finance to build new facilities may be taken from budgets destined for

education and health.

Security to control crowds and prevent terrorist attacks is expensive.

Extra staff may be unfamiliar with the city that may disrupt the

organisation plans.

Politics in International and National Sport

As can be seen from the above reading, sport and politics are often linked.

The Olympics and other international sporting events often become the targets for protests or are linked to some

form of world politics.

This link between sport and politics is not always negative. Teams have been sent from one country to another

to help restore diplomatic relations.

A marathon held in Berlin on New Year’s Day in 1990, followed a route through East and West Berlin, reflecting

the unification of the country after the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989.

Political Attitudes

In 1964, the Labour government made moves to raise the profile and importance of sport within the

government.

Dennis Howell MP, became responsible for sport as part of the Ministry of Education and in 1997, he became the

first minister for sport.


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Most countries treat their successful sportspeople with considerable respect and some very special sportspeople

in this country have been knighted for their services to sport.


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Sport, Business and Finance

The Media

Images of sport can be founding in any entertainment medium of modern day life.

All media coverage's have one thing in common...money... and the media coverage of sport has become a multi-

million pound business.

Newspapers, magazines and books

Sensational headlines about sporting events encourage people to buy newspapers.

Newspapers influence the popularity of sport related icons.

Newspapers can build up images and damage images of sport related icons.

Books are usually biographies or autobiographies of famous sporting personalities.

Television, videos and the cinema

Television rights to sporting events are huge business.

The competition between TV providers has been a financial benefit to sport.

Channel 4 has popularised minority sports.

Video has enabled elements of sport to be recorded and viewed on future occasions.

Performance analysis using videos is common in most sports.

The Relationship between Sport and the Media

Advantages Examples

Minority sports popularised Beach volleyball and American Football on Channel 4

New events Indoors windsurfing

New technology Glass sided squash courts and specially treated squash balls

Miniature cameras giving good action shots Cameras in cricket stumps and on racing cars


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Raising awareness and promoting the image of

sport

Could encourage young people to take up sport, leading to

new sporting talent and healthy lifestyles

Expense and access

Some sporting events are expensive to attend because of

admission fees and travelling distance. Tickets are often in

short supply for top events. TV allows fans to watch their

favourite sporting events

Better coverage as more can be seen on TV; the

viewer at home is enabled to see much more of

the whole event that the spectator at the event

Golf on TV gives the viewer at home coverage of the whole

course

Disadvantages Examples

Negative effects on

individuals and teams

Media coverage can give individuals and teams bad publicity that might affect

performances and careers

Rules and the timing of

events

Events have been arranged to suit the TV companies. Often large-scale events such as

the Olympic Games are scheduled to coincide with the best viewing times for the USA

TV companies. The rules of volleyball have been changed to make a more spectator

friendly game

Television equipment The placing of TV cameras and bright lights may interfere with play. Bright overhead

lights in badminton can hinder players' performances

Contradiction of

decisions

The replay of an event may show that the referee has missed something, or made a

wrong decision. This could lead to the referee's authority being undermined

Media influence The media may only promote certain sports, making other sports less popular

Sponsorship

Dennis Howell as defines sponsorship in sport as:

The support for a sport, sports event, sports organisation or competitor by an outside body or person for the

mutual benefit for both parties.

from The Sports Business, Neil Wilson (Piatkus, 1988)


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Advantages for a Sport and its

Players Disadvantages for a Sport and its Players

Young and new rising sports stars will

be able to train and compete in their

sport without having to worry about

money and equipment

Young players may have their sponsorship withdrawn if their

performance does not show improvement

It can increase the income of a top

athlete Players in less well-known games may not be able to get sponsorship

Sport can promoted by sponsors

through the staging of special events

Sponsors may want more control over the sport. They may want to

schedule events to coincide with peak television viewing time to get

maximum publicity, or even alter the time of the year when

competitions are held. Rugby league is now played in the summer

Money can be paid to a sport to

improve facilities, provide more

coaching and encourage participation

Governing bodies of sport may come to rely on sponsorship

New sports can be promoted

Advantages of Sponsorship for the

Sponsors Disadvantages of Sponsorship for the Sponsors

Sponsorship is powerful advertising

Sponsoring unsuccessful events or teams will not be beneficial to

the sponsor, particularly if the team loses a lot of matches or an

individual is injured or unable to play

Popular and televised sponsored events make

brand names well known

Sponsorship deals over long periods of time may not be valuable

if media coverage is reduced

Successful individuals and teams are well

supported and sponsors' names are linked

with these

The company or product associated with a sport may not be

appropriate

For certain sponsors, the image of healthy

lifestyles and high level performances are

The money paid in sponsorship may be very high compared with

the money the company gets back in increased sales


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important for their product

Sponsors can pay less tax by giving money to

sports

Professional Sportspeople

The Advantages and Disadvantages of becoming a Professional Sportsperson

Advantages Disadvantages

Professional sportspeople can become

celebrities and live a lavish lifestyle

Injury can ruin a sporting career, thereby cutting off the person's source

of income

They can perfect their game A stable lifestyle is difficult, as international competitions require

competitors to travel for weeks or months at a time

They can travel the world to compete

at the highest level

There are always new, young competitors challenging for a top place,

which can impose increasing stress levels on individuals to keep their

place at the top

They are paid to do something they

enjoy

The ability to maintain fitness and performance usually decreases with

age; the sportspersons career may not be very long

They can normally afford to retire

early

Once their sporting career is over, they may have few qualifications to do

another job


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Classification of Sport

Sport Family: Examples: Principles of Performance:

Games:

Invasion Football, netball, hockey, water polo, rugby,

basketball, ice hockey.

Maintaining possession. Positions and set

roles. Tactical principles.

Net/wall/racket Squash, tennis badminton, volleyball. Out manoeuvre the opponent.

Fielding/striking Cricket, baseball, softball, rounders. Set fields to prevent scoring.

Athletic

activities:

Track and field, swimming, motor racing,

downhill skiing, bicycle racing. They vary depending upon the activity.

Gymnastics Floor work, apparatus work, trampolining, high

board diving.

Movement replication, high or low tariff

performances.

Outdoor pursuits Sailing, climbing, orienteering, canoeing. They vary depending upon the activity.

Dance Figure skating, ballroom. Choreographed movement.

Target sports Golf, bowls, archery. Getting object closest.

Combat Fencing, judo, boxing. Hitting opponent's body.


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GCSE P.E Revision notes 2020/2021 - S-cool

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