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A Review of Contemporary Gathering Practices of Pacific Island People’s in Preservation of Bio-cultural Diversity Keywords: Pacific, Oceania, harvest, gather, Indigenous Knowledge, Indigenous Ecosystem, Traditional Ecological Harvest, subsistence, sustainable harvest, biodiversity IS750: Bio-cultural Diversity Studies Katie L. Kamelamela University of Hawaii at Manoa Botany Department MS
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Worldwide there is limited data on contemporary gathering practices (Berkes, 1999;
Wehi & Wehi, 2010). Harvesting of wild and naturalized resources plays a vital role in
supplementing incomes as well as providing social, ecological, economic and cultural
services (Figure 1) for millions (Ticktin, 2004). Understanding what resources (ex: flora,
fauna) are currently gathered and what species various communities would like to
gather more of can provide insight for bio-cultural diversity conservation efforts as
well as identify potential collaborations with local community members. Oceania is a
region expanding larger than any continent on earth (Picture 1, cover page) and
currently there is no synthesis of what harvesting practices are occurring in this vast
area. The main objective of this paper is to understand the scope of research
conducted on gathering of resources in the islands of the Pacific Ocean from New
Guinea eastward.
It is critical for indigenous people and academics to communicate an understanding, or
world views, of how a society conceptualizes the environment they depend on for
living, and what the society considers valuable in their ecological system (Nazarea,
1999; McGregor, 1995; Aiona et al., 2007). Needs of local communities and
technology of resource managers have been married around the world through
actions such as synthesizing species lists (Handy and Handy, 1991; Te Rangi Hiroa,
1957), plant matrices (Ticktin, 2004), and integrating global information systems to
map locations of local cultural priority (Hunnington, 2000). In this indigenous
perspective the conservation of biological and cultural diversity are intimately
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connected: the perpetuation of traditional knowledge, cultural traditions and practices
necessitates the long-term availability of culturally important plants, habitats and
landscapes. Identifying contemporary societal needs, to perpetuate customary
gathering practices, can create support for both cultural and conservation
management goals (Ticktin, 2004; Wehi & Wehi, 2010). These results can also serve to
benefit both native and non-native resource managers in the understanding of Pacific
ethnoecological conservation and the solutions indigenous communities can provide.
In response to the 1992 Science of Pacific Island Peoples Conference in Suva, Fiji,
where the many island nations of the Pacific Ocean, including representatives from
Australia and New Zealand, met three recommendations rising from the conference
include:
i) indigenous peoples of the Pacific Islands should be encouraged to tell their
own stories, the sources of indigenous knowledge should be recognized,
and the voices of indigenous peoples should be included in the stories
about the Pacific told by non indigenous peoples,
ii) environmental impact assessment and national development plans must
recognize and acknowledge that wild foods and other wild land resources
are important economic and social assets of indigenous Pacific Islanders,
and
iii) the University of the South Pacific and other Pacific Island universities are
urged to promote the legitimization of indigenous knowledge and pedagogy
in science to stand along-side Western curricula and pedagogy (Morrison et
al., 1994).
4
In Mere Roberts’ (1995) Indigenous knowledge and Western science: perspectives
from the Pacific points i) and iii) are addressed, identifying and illustrating “issues
raised by the teaching of indigenous knowledge and Western science as distinct but
not totally dissimilar knowledge systems within a single curriculum framework”. In
this paper I seek to locate studies that integrate both indigenous knowledge and
western science in research project results, as described by Roberts (1995), to the best
of the principal investigator(s) ability. Almost ten years after the meeting in Suva, Fiji a
literature review would be appropriate to identify where integrations have been made
between i) indigenous Pacific Island peoples voices, ii) recognition of wild gathered
resources as social and economic benefits and iii) where various Universities have
contributed in these capacities. This research seeks to empower other academics,
Pacific Islander communities and students who are interested in the sustainability of
gathering wild and naturalized resources throughout Oceania.
Natural History of Oceania Oceania is 1/3 the size of earth and larger than any continent on the planet. The liquid
continent of Oceania is framed by the Americas in the west and, Japan, China, Russia
and Australia in the east, reaching far to the North Arctic and Southern Antarctic seas.
With 42 nations and 23 territories within the Pacific plate, Oceania represents an even
greater diversity of languages, dialects, cultures and oral traditions. The Pacific plays
an integral role in international trade with its more than 86 major ports and harbors
(Moana Nui, 2011; APEC, 2011). Along with its importance to international trade the
position of the Pacific region is politically charged with its location between and
current occupation by, historical, current and future world powers.
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Three regions within Oceania are wider known as Melanesia, Micronesia and
Polynesia. These areas consist of “high”, mostly volcanic islands, “low,” coral
limestone islands, and mostly ring like structures called “atolls” (Cox & Banack, 1991)
in tropical to subtropical, and sometimes temperate climate in the case of New
Zealand and outlying islands. Before contact with any humans these land masses were
originally colonized by flora and fauna brought either by wind, waves or on the wings
of birds. The isolation of these many islands created a natural filter for what plants,
animals and even what humans are able to live here. Many of the areas colonized by
Pacific Islanders were successful because voyagers brought necessary domesticated
plants, animals and technologies (navigation, house building, fishing, cultivation, rope
making, medicine skills etc.) with them (Figure 1). Along with familiarizing themselves
with the local environment for over 10,000 years (Howe, 2007) Melanesians,
Micronesians and Polynesians are still equipped to inhabit these islands through a
mixture of cultivation and wild gathering skills, in most cases with exposure to the
global market.
The Pacific Islands were the most difficult and therefore the last places on earth to be
reached by humans. Besides Pacific Islander oral traditions, to trace human migration
movements through Oceania modern scientific techniques have closely observed
technological, linguistic and botanical trails which delineate Pacific peoples’ ancestral
routes from Southeast Asia (Howe, 2007). Today many island nations in Oceania,
which were most successfully traveled and documented during the three Pacific
voyages of Captain Cook, have been colonized by imperial powers (United States,
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Colonization (flora, fauna,
human)
Voyaging
Medicine
Cultivation
Religion
Fishing, Gathering,
Hunting
Oral tradition (dance, music)
France, Great Britain, Japan, and Chile)
as security and tourism outposts in the
Pacific. The introduction of imported
processed foods, customs and beliefs
has impacted traditional lifestyles,
landscapes and practices of Pacific
Islanders (Gewertz and Errington,
2011). Due to the limited landmass of
many island nations’ impacts of
environmental contamination and
over exploitation of harvesting resources directly affects food security more so than in
continental areas and mentalities. The aim of this paper is to explore some of the
harvested natural resources and issues raised by the researchers and peoples of the
Pacific Islands in preservation of bio-cultural diversity.
Main questions included in this study are:
1) Where are gathering practices being recorded in the Pacific?
2) What types of gathering practices in Pacific have been recorded?
3) How do these studies inform future research in Oceania?
Because Oceania is about 1/3 the size of earth I anticipate that:
1) Most gathering practices will be recorded from urbanized areas (i.e. Polynesia;
Hawaii and New Zealand) of Oceania that have University infrastructure,
2) Due to the large amount of water in the region fishing will dominate as the
primary form of studies, and
Figure 1. Knowledge domains in the Pacific Islands necessary
for survival.
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3) A broad idea of what type of research and where it is being conducted will help
inform academics and communities where work is to be continued or who to
partner with, potentially.
METHODS
Research Criteria & Extended Keyword Search
Biological Abstracts has “an expansive index to the world’s life sciences journal
literature, with topics ranging from botany to microbiology to pharmacology”. A
literature review was conducted online in the Biological Abstracts database, which is
housed within the Web of Science, utilizing keywords which fit criteria of:
i) Research conducted in Oceania (specifically the Pacific Islands within
Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia), and
ii) Contemporary harvest or gather.
Keyword searches were further refined by utilizing Pacific Islands instead of Pacific, by
itself. Keywords utilized were also region specific with Melanesia, Micronesia or
Polynesia. Note that the word contemporary was not used in keyword searches only
harvest or gather both key terms were not searched for simultaneously. Although the
word contemporary was never utilized in a keyword search all papers relating strictly
to historical or previous gathering practices (prior to the arrival of Europeans, 1700s)
were not included in final results of this study.
The piqued interest of this paper is within traditional knowledge systems of Pacific
Islanders, to attain a broader range of results key phrases such as Indigenous
Knowledge, Indigenous Ecosystem, Ethnoecology and biodiversity were also input. All
general searches were further refined with criteria of i) and ii) stated. Due to the
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limited amount of refined search returns it was necessary to review the original papers
which fit the criteria and input keywords that overlapped with this study including
phrases such as subsistence, sustainable harvest, and traditional ecological harvest.
Again each keyword search was refined utilizing criteria i) and ii).
Paper Cataloging
Each article that contained sufficient criteria was cataloged by downloading a pdf and
scanning literature for data material. Using Microsoft Xcel, all criteria fitting papers
were reviewed for:
1) Research location,
2) Item being harvested,
3) Scientific name (if available),
4) What institution(s) conducted the research? (if available), and
5) Keywords relating to this project were recorded (if available), as well as all
other keywords attached to each article for future search reference.
Data Management
Each research paper was unique in its location and objective so general categories
were generated to gain greater insight as to where research is being conducted
(Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Oceania), what researchers and/or communities
are interested in (bird, crab, fish, limpet, mammal, marine mammal, mineral, plant,
prawn, reptile, sea cucumber, sponge, turtle) and where researchers are traveling
from to conduct these projects (United States, Australia, Guam, Fiji, Canada,
Micronesia, Japan, France, American Samoa).
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RESULTS
For the entire Pacific Island region 24 articles (Appendix I) was recovered relevant to
contemporary harvest or gathering of wild resources ranging from terrestrial, aquatic
and marine ecosystems. In general limited results were retrieved thus the reason for
needing to revisit original papers for more search words to expand result returns.
Locations of Harvesting Studies Conducted
Four regions were decided for categorizing locations where studies occurred. Three
areas named are Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (Picture 2) with the fourth
representing the pan-Pacific region, Oceania. Studies under Oceania were generally
review papers that went over more than one region of the Pacific Islands. Only one
paper in the Oceania category included migration patterns of the gray whale that was
not restricted to the area under review but was shown to affect general carbon cycling
in the Pacific due to harvesting (Pershing et al., 2010). Locations where studies took
place include Melanesia (New Caledonia; Solomon Islands: Roviana, Roviana Lagoon,
Marovo; Fiji: Navakavu, Oni i Lau), Micronesia (Palau Islands, Pohnpei), and Polynesia
(Hawaii; New Zealand; American Samoa). Specific locations were not given for all
studies.
10
Picture 2: Map of the Pacific Ocean with delineations of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.
Types of Items Harvested
Studies conducted within the Pacific Islands were recorded to have researched or
mentioned the harvest of fish, plants (seaweed, timber, ferns), birds, bats, lizards,
nickel, prawns, limpets, crab, whales, turtle and sea cucumbers within a contemporary
context (Appendix I). Scientific names were provided for some but not all species
under harvest. Traditional names were provided for a couple species. Means of
collecting resources ranged from traditional methods, with little or no equipment, to
commercialization of items (i.e. sea cucumber). Many of the items harvested were
consumed for nutritional or utilized for cultural purposes (Ticktin et al., 2007; Lyver,
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2002; McCoy, 2008) at a local level and some for international consumption (Buckius,
2010).
Origin of Contributing Authors
Institutions that were found to contribute to the research arena of contemporary
harvesting in the Pacific islands include universities, government agencies, cultural
advisory groups and a consulting firm from the Pacific area. Traditional peoples, as
recognized as cultural advisory groups in this context, were included as authors in the
Solomon Islands (2), Fiji (1), and New Zealand (2). Government agencies in the Palau
Islands, New Caledonia, American Samoa, Hawaii and Kosrae, Micronesia were
included in reports as authors where the research was conducted. University
institutions that contributed to papers in their local area include University of South
Pacific (Fiji), University of Hawaii at Manoa, Victoria University of Wellington (New
Zealand), University of Otago (New Zealand), College of Micronesia, and University of
Waikato (New Zealand). It is possible that indigenous voices were contributing as
faculty or students (Ticktin et al., 2007) at Universities or as a government employees
but there is no way to tell in the capacity of article titles and contact information.
Many institutions traveled to the Pacific Islands to carry out research including
Australia, Canada, the United States (ex: California, Arizona, Montana, New Jersey,
etc.), Japan and Guam. All of these countries have the Pacific Ocean as a border on one
side or are surrounded by the Pacific themselves. All of these countries have an
economic stake within the Pacific Ocean and its’ resources.
DISCUSSION
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Many result returns were received for general search words (traditional ecological
harvest, ethnoecology, subsistence, sustainable harvest and traditional ecological
harvest) but when criteria were applied, especially Pacific Island or terms related to
Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, these left limited to no search results left to sift
through the second point of criteria, gather or harvest. In general there are limited
research articles which review activities in the Pacific Islands. Also there are limited
research articles relevant to harvesting practices. This finding of limited harvesting
research being conducted in the Pacific Islands is consistent as in other regions of the
world (Ticktin, 2004).
Despite limited findings of 24 articles, between the 4 regions, diverse research was
conducted in 3 various ecosystems, of 12 different life forms, by 11 countries, between
continental and island nations, and 43 authoring representatives of scientific or
traditional knowledge systems. In a couple of cases local informants were included as
authors who provided for the integration of traditional ecological and scientific
knowledge into reports (Leopold et al., 2009; Ramstad et al., 2007), but in most cases
marrying of the systems did not occur to such a great extent.
Locations of Harvest
By categorizing research locations into 4 regions it is clearer as to what has been
studied for harvest and where (Table 1). I hypothesized that more urbanized areas
such as those in Polynesia would receive greater research attention but in reviewing
where article studies occurred an equal percentage (33%) of investigations were
13
published from Polynesia and Melanesia. Both regions are home to four year
universities, together Polynesia and Melanesia, account for 66% of research conducted
in the Pacific related to harvesting practices. Although not an official region Oceania
interests researchers specifically for fish and whale species, the greatest economic
opportunity and subsistence reliance. Micronesia seems to have the least research
focus as far as a region. The reason research is less than in other regions of Oceania
may be in part to limited higher educational institutions as well as great linguistic
diversity. Unique studies are still occurring in Micronesia such as bat and prawn
harvest which increases research diversity of the Pacific Islands.
Ecosystem Harvest Focus
More than anticipated, findings revealed a range of terrestrial, aquatic and marine
research conducted in the area (Table 1) with 12 life forms recorded in the Pacific for
harvest. I hypothesized that fish inquiries would be dominate in harvesting studies but
found that fish investigations comprise only 64% of marine and 38% of total
investigations followed by plants at 21% with all other species and minerals occurring
just once. Half of the life forms and 58% of the studies were found in marine locations.
Terrestrial research accounts for 38% of total studies completed in the region, which
includes gathering of plant, animal and mineral resources. Plant studies accounted for
56% of terrestrial investigations but this represents members from dicots (Drew et al.,
2005), monocots (Lauer and Aswani, 2010) and fern allies’ families (Ticktin, 2007).
14
Terrestrial habitat provides for 38% of all life forms recorded as well as for aquatic
resources to surface above ground. Aquatic or fresh water ecosystems, in the islands
received 4% of the research focus and 8% of life forms accounted for, the introduced
freshwater prawn (Buden et al., 2001). Although a small amount of research has
occurred in streams and freshwater bodies of the Pacific Islands it is known that
harvesting still occurs in these locations and that studies, what limited they are, are
being conducted.
Table 1. Contemporary Harvesting Studies Conducted in the Pacific Islands, N=23
articles
Region Terrestrial Aquatic Marine
# ST
UD
IES
IN R
EGIO
N
% O
F TO
TAL
STU
DIE
S
CT’
Bir
d
Mam
mal
Rep
tile
Pla
nt
Min
eral
Pra
wn
Fish
Lim
pet
Cra
b
Mar
ine
Mam
mal
Turt
le
Sea
cucu
mb
er
12
Melanesia 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 8 33% 5
Micronesia 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 13% 3
Polynesia 1 0 1 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 8 33% 6
Oceania 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 5 21% 2
Subtotal 1 1 1 5 1 1 9 1 1 1 1 1
TOTAL 9 1 14 24
% 38% 4% 58% 100% CT’= Biodiversity count, number of life forms recorded for harvest in each region, 0 = the exclusion of research recorded in a region or for harvest does not mean that gathering does not occur for items in areas, % = rounded to the nearest whole number.
Locations and Visiting Researchers
A mix of visiting as well as local researchers conducted studies in the Pacific region
(Table 2). In all 43 authors represented universities, government agencies, cultural
advisory groups and a consulting firm interested in resources harvested from the
Pacific. Of the 11 countries identified as contributing knowledge of gathering practices
15
7 are actually part of the Pacific Islands and each location (as indicated in yellow, Table
2) has been able to contribute as an author in their home region. Continental
countries are interested in the general resources of Oceania more so than those of
Micronesia and Polynesia and Pacific Island nations are interested in local issues more
so than cross oceanic areas. Although the interests of harvested resource types are
equal between Melanesia and Polynesia twice as many countries invested in research
in Melanesia, than in Polynesia. In addition more local Melanesian knowledge
resources were integrated into reports as authors than in any other region but Pacific
Island region was able to integrate some indigenous knowledge of ecosystems into
some reports.
Table 2. Contemporary Harvesting Studies Conducted by Various Countries in the Pacific
Reg
ion
un
der
inve
stig
atio
n
Researching Countries
# O
F A
UT
HO
RS
FOR
REG
ION
% O
F TO
TAL
AU
THO
RS
CT” Continental Island
AU
STR
ALI
A
USA
CA
NA
DA
FIJI
GU
AM
MIC
RO
NES
IA
JAP
AN
A. S
AM
OA
SOLO
MO
N IS
.
NEW
ZEA
LAN
D
NEW
CA
LED
ON
IA
11
Melanesia 4 2 0 4 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 16 37% 8
Micronesia 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 7 16% 4
Polynesia 2 4* 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 11 26% 4
Oceania 4 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 9 21% 5
Subtotal 11 10 1 4 3 2 2 2 2 5 1
TOTAL 22 21 43
% 51% 49% 100% CT”= Country count, number of countries recorded to research harvest in each region, Yellow= indicate research being conducted by home regional institution(s), *= Hawaii, a Pacific archipelago, is part of the United States of America; 1 of 4 studies were completed in Hawaii, 0 = the exclusion of researchers recorded in a region does not mean that investigation does not occur by countries in areas, % = rounded to the nearest whole number.
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Overall institutions from Australia represented the greatest amount of authors
contributing research of harvesting practices in the Pacific, with most interest in
Melanesia, Oceania, Polynesia and then Micronesia. The United States of America
(USA) is the only other country that completed studies in all four regions with a priority
of Polynesia followed by all other regions equally. The USA is the only country that
conducted research in all regions as well as contributed a piece which integrates voices
of Pacific Island peoples (Hawaiian) and acknowledges wild resources gathered as both
an economic and social asset to the community (Ticktin et al., 2007).
Future implications for Research of Harvesting in the Pacific Islands
Harvesting of fish, plants, animals and minerals occurs across the Pacific by humans,
both by native and non-native resource users. The obstacle is to ensure that future
generations, who choose to live in the Pacific Islands, are also able to partake in the
same or similar resource abundance in order to sustain a good quality of life. Island
nations within the Pacific are interested in local resources whereas Continental nations
are focused on resources available throughout Oceania. As suggested in Suva, Fiji
1992 it is imperative that Pacific Island nations and universities take greater
participation in resource management and the integration of local voices into stories
told by indigenous and non-indigenous peoples (Morrison et al, 1994).
Melanesia turned out to be the focus of more countries, authors and harvest of
biologically diverse species than all other regions. As far a species in the Ocean fish
were the priority and on land plants dominated studies. Although limited research
17
results were obtained that integrates local knowledge into studies at least
investigations where local voices are being integrated will impact Pacific Islander
populations and customs. Despite information available there is still little research
being conducted on plant harvesting, even with the high dependency in tropical
islands for food security. More research is necessary in the area of plant harvesting
and future applications of where local and conservation concerns cross in all regions of
the Pacific Islands. Culture changes landscapes and culture is embodied by landscapes
(Nassauer, 1995).
18
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22
APPENDIX I
RESULTS OF KEYWORD SEARCH
1. RESEARCH LOCATION
2. HARVEST
3. SCIENTIFIC NAME
4. RESEARCH INSTITUTION
5. JOURNAL
6. PUBLICATION YEAR
23
Location Harvest Scientific name Institution(s) of Research Journal Author(s) Year
1 Oceania Fish CSIRO Marine Laboratories Ambio Johannes, R. 1982
2 Oceania Fish University of Queensland Human Ecology Chapman, M. 1987
3 Micronesia Mammal
Pteropus pilosus, P. mariannus pelewensis,
Emballonura semicaudata palauensis
Guam division of Aquatic and Wildlife resources,
US Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Conservation and
Entomology
J. of Zoology London Wiles et al. 1997
4 Polynesia Fish Hawaii Cooperative Fishery
Research Unit, Biological Resources Division
Fisheries Research Friedlander and Parrish
1997
5 Melanesia Crab Cardisoma hirtipes University of Melbourne Pacific Science Foale, S. 1999
6 Micronesia Prawn Machobrachium spp.
College of Micronesia, Queensland Center for
Biodiversity, Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of
Aquatic and Wildlife Resources Guam
Pacific Science Buden et al. 2001
7 Polynesia Bird Puffinus griseus University of Otago Wildlife Society Bulletin Lyver, P. 2002
8 Micronesia Plant Terminalia carolinensis
Standford University, USDA Forest Service,
University of Hawaii at Hilo, Standford University
Wetlands Ecology and Management
Drew et al. 2005
9 Melanesia Fish Southern Cross University,
University of Guam, University of the South Pacific
Fisheries Research Kuster et al. 2005
10 Polynesia Plant Microlepia strigosa,
Sphenomeris chinensis University of Hawaii at Manoa
Biodiversity & Conservation
Ticktin et al. 2007
11 Melanesia Fish
University of California Santa Barbara,
University of Queensland, James Cook University,
University of Tokyo
Coral reefs
Aswani et al. 2007
24
Location Harvest Scientific name Institution(s) of Research Journal Author(s) Year
12 Polynesia Turtle Chelonia mydas University of Queensland,
IUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Group
Ecological Modeling Milani et al. 2007
13 Polynesia Reptile Sphenodon sp.
University of Montana, Victoria University of
Wellington, Waikawa Marae,
Ngati Koata no Rangitoto kit e Tonga Trust
Conservation Biology Ramstad et al. 2007
14 Polynesia Fish National Park of American
Samoa, The Nature Conservancy
Fisheries Research Craig et al. 2008
15 Polynesia Limpet Cellana spp. San Jose State University Pacific Science McCoy, M. 2008
16 Oceania Fish
University of the South Pacific, Chief and master fisherman,
Master fisherman and former magistrate,
University of the South Pacific
Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography
Thaman et al. 2009
17 Oceania Fish
University of New South Wales, University of Queensland,
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Macquarie University,
Conservation International Pacific Islands Program,
Guam Environmental Protection Agency,
Australian National University, The Nature Conservancy, Edith Cowen University,
University of Queensland, Department of Conservation
Kauri Coast Area
Conservation Biology Kingsford et al. 2009
25
Location Harvest Scientific name Institution(s) of Research Journal Author(s) Year
18 Melanesia Fish
Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement,
University for the South Pacific, Fiji Locally-Manages Marine
Area Network
Biodiversity and Conservation
Leopold et al. 2009
19 Melanesia Plant University of Tokyo Human Ecology Fusuwara, T. 2009
20 Melanesia Plant seagrass San Diego State University,
University of California-Santa Barbara
Environment Management
Lauer and Aswani
2010
21 Melanesia Mineral Nickel The State University of New
Jersey Geoforum Horowitz, L. 2010
22 Oceania Marine
Mammal
University of Maine, Gulf of Maine Research
Institute, University of British Columbia
PLoS one Pershing et al. 2010
23 Melanesia
Sea cucumbe
r Holothurians
University of Queensland, Hawken Building University,
University of Queensland
Environmental Management
Buckius, C. 2010
24 Polynesia Plant University of Waikato Conservation Biology Wehi and Wehi 2010