Fuel Consumption Improvement Study over combinations of ...

Fuel Consumption Improvement Study

over combinations of technologies [Rev. 2]

VOLPE vs. Autonomie (ANL)

For DOT/VOLPE

Jul 25th, 2015

Ehsan Sabri Islam, Ayman Moawad, Aymeric RousseauArgonne National Laboratory

Table of Contents

Introduction & Background

Calculation

Technology Decision Trees

– Engine Technology Tree

– Transmission Technology Tree

– Vehicle Technology Tree

– Hybridization Technology Tree

IAV Engines

Engine Technology Descriptions

Results Summary & Comparison [Part 1]

– Engine Technologies (ABS)

– Engine Technologies (INC)

– Transmission Technologies (ABS)

– Transmission Technologies (INC)

– Vehicle Technologies (ABS)

– Vehicle Technologies (INC)

– Hybridization Technology (ABS)

– Hybridization Technology (INC)

Plot Comparison Results [Part 2]

– Absolute Improvement Result

• Engine Technology

• Transmission Technology2

• Vehicle Technology

• Hybridization Technology

– Incremental Improvement Result

• Engine Technology

• Transmission Technology

• Vehicle Technology

• Hybridization Technology

Summary of Plot Results [Part 3]

– Engine Technology

• Absolute Improvement Result

• Incremental Improvement Result

– Transmission Technology



– Vehicle Technology



– Hybridization Technology


• Incremental Improvement Result 2

Introduction & Background

The objective of this report is to evaluate the impact ofdifferent technological advancements on fuel consumptionimprovements. The report further analyses the comparisonbetween the results from VOLPE and Argonne NationalLaboratories (Autonomie).

Calculation

Following is the detailed calculation process considered duringthis study:

The reference technology was considered to be the root ofeach of the respective technology trees from VOLPE and IAV

The reference fuel consumption was computed to be the fuelconsumption corresponding to the reference technology

Each of the fuel consumptions corresponding to theadvanced technologies were computed to be compared tothe reference fuel consumption.

Absolute % increase in fuel consumption:

Reference Fuel Consumption −Current Fuel Consumption

Reference Fuel Consumption%

Incremental % increase in fuel consumption:

Previous Tech. Fuel Consumption −Current Tech. Fuel Consumption

Previous Tech. Fuel Consumption%

3

TECHNOLOGY

DECISION TREES

4

Engine Technology Tree

Single Cam VVT[eng5a]

Reduced friction VVT

[eng5b]

Discrete VVL (DVVLS) [eng6a]

Direct Injection (GDI) [eng7a]

Cylinder Deactivation

(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]

Discrete VVL (DVVLS) [eng6b]

Direct Injection (GDI) [eng7b]


(DEACS) [eng8b]

Turbocharging and Downsizing

# 1 (TRBDD1) [eng12]



Cooled EGR # 1 (CEGRD1) [eng14]



Advanced Diesel (ADSLD)

[eng17]

Dual Cam Phasing (DCP)

[eng01]

Discrete VVL (DVVLD) [eng02]

Direct Injection (GDID) [eng03]


(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC

Reduced friction – Stage 1

Reduced friction - Stage 2


# 1 (TRBDS1) [eng12]



Cooled EGR # 1 (CEGRS1) [eng14]


Cooled EGR (CEGRS3) [eng16]

Advanced Diesel (ADSLS)

[eng17]





Cooled EGR # 1 (CEGRS1)

[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

5

Transmission Technology Tree

6

5-spd Trans (AUTO)

(no early lockup)

6-spd Trans w/Improved

Internals (Auto) (6AUTO)

6-spd DCT (DCT)



8-spd DCT (DCT)

5-spd Manual/Improved

Internals (5MAN)


Internals (6MAN)


Internals (8MAN)

Auto / DCT / CVT

Manual (MAN)



CVT Transmission

Vehicle Technology Tree

Mass Reduction # 0 (MR0)





Low Rolling Resistance Tires # 0 (ROLL0)



Aerodynamic Drag Reduction # 0 (AERO0)




7

Hybridization Technology Tree

8

12 V Micro-Hybrid (MHEV)

Integrated Starter Generator (BISG)

Strong Hybrid # 1 (SHEV1)

Powersplit

Plug-in Hybrid – 30m Range

(PHEV1)

Electric Vehicle – 100m Range

(EV2)

Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV)

Conventional Powertrain

(CONV)

Pre Transmission (PAR HEV)

IAV Engines

9

Engine Technology Descriptions

Eng1 - gasoline, 2.0l, 4 cyl, NA, PFI, DOHC, dual cam VVT

– Calibrations fully optimized for best bsfc and maximum torque (comb. phasing, valve timing, lambda, etc)

Eng2 - VVL system was added to the intake valves on Eng1

– Valve lift and timing optimized

Eng3 - Eng2 (PFI) converted to direct injection

– Comp ratio raised from 10.2 to 11.0 and injection timing optimized

Eng4 - Cylinder deactivation added to engine Eng3

– Engine fires only 2 cylinders at low loads and at speeds below 3000 RPM by deactivating valves on 2 cylinders

Eng5a - Eng1 converted to SOHC (gasoline, 2.0l, 4 cyl, NA, PFI, single cam VVT)

– Valve timing optimized for fixed overlap camshaft with standard friction model from DOHC concepts

Eng5b/ Eng6a/ Eng7a/ Eng8a - Reduced friction from Eng5a/ Eng2/ Eng3/ Eng4 respectively

– Engine FMEP reduced by 0.1 bar over entire operation range to understand friction benefit from SOHC

Eng5c/ Eng6b/ Eng7b/ Eng8b - Reduced friction from Eng5a/ Eng2/ Eng3/ Eng4 respectively

– Engine FMEP reduced by 25% over entire operation range to understand potential of ‘extreme’ friction reduction (this is a “what if” study which doesn’t necessary represent what is currently possible)

Eng12 - gasoline, 1.6l, 4 cyl, turbocharged, DI, DOHC, dual cam VVT, intake VVL

– Calibrations fully optimized for best bsfc (comb. phasing, valve timing, lambda, etc)

Eng13 - Eng12 downsized to 1.2l

– Turbocharger maps scaled to improve torque at low engine speeds

Eng14 - High pressure cooled EGR added to Eng13

– Cooled EGR target set points optimized

Eng15 - Eng14 downsized to 1.0l

– Cooled EGR target set points re-optimized and turbocharger maps re-scaled

Eng16 - Eng15 converted to 3cyl, 1.0l concept

– Intake and exhaust piping scaled to account for larger mass flows through each cylinder and cooled EGR target set points re-optimized

10

RESULTS SUMMARY

&

COMPARISON

[Part 1]

12

Engine Technologies (ABS)

Technology Maximum Value (%)

MinimumValue (%)

Baselinevehicle (ANL) %

VOLPE Result, %

[eng02] 5.1733 1.72 4.20 3.6

[eng03] 7.0291 3.66 6.30 5.2

[eng04] 15.3143 1.18 12.57 N/A

[eng05a] -0.6146 -3.37 -2.01 N/A

[eng05b] 1.6319 -0.82 0.97 N/A

[eng05c] 4.5855 0.99 3.78 N/A

[eng06a] 8.4759 4.00 7.07 3.6

[eng06b] 11.0201 6.89 9.66 3.6

[eng07a] 10.0811 5.82 9.08 5.2

[eng07b] 12.61 8.05 11.51 5.2

[eng08a] 18.61 4.79 15.36 N/A

[eng08b] 20.44 5.86 17.08 N/A

[eng12] 20.14 11.99 16.48 11.6

[eng13] 23.35 10.74 19.81 14.4

[eng14] 23.52 11.87 19.78 17.1

[eng15] 25.27 13.67 19.28 18.1

[eng16] 26.11 14.65 20.26 N/A

[eng17] 28.03 18.76 22.33 20.1

13

Engine Technologies (INC)


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPEResult, %

[eng02]_DOHC 5.17 1.72 4.20 3.6

[eng03]_DOHC 3.63 0.27 2.19 2.2

[eng04]_DOHC 9.33 -4.62 6.69 N/A

[eng12]_DOHC 14.15 3.33 4.47 7.5

[eng13]_DOHC 4.78 -2.76 3.98 3.5

[eng14]_DOHC 2.60 -1.40 -0.04 3.5

[eng15]_DOHC 3.49 -2.11 -0.62 1.4

[eng16]_DOHC 2.82 -1.76 1.21 N/A

[eng17]_DOHC 10.24 -0.05 2.59 2.8

[eng5a]_SOHC_01 -0.61 -3.37 -2.01 N/A

[eng5b] _SOHC_01 3.87 1.03 2.92 N/A

[eng6a] _SOHC_01 7.39 3.00 6.16 3.6

[eng7a] _SOHC_01 3.91 0.02 2.15 2.2

[eng8a] _SOHC_01 9.84 -3.41 6.91 N/A

[eng12] _SOHC_01 10.90 0.17 1.33 7.5

[eng13] _SOHC_01 4.73 -2.76 3.98 3.5

[eng14] _SOHC_01 2.60 -1.40 -0.04 3.5

[eng15] _SOHC_01 3.49 -2.11 -0.62 1.4

[eng16] _SOHC_01 2.82 -1.76 1.21 N/A

[eng17] _SOHC_01 10.24 -0.05 2.59 2.8

14

Engine Technologies (INC) [Continued]


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPEResult, %

[eng5c] _SOHC_02 6.65 2.73 5.68 N/A

[eng6b] _SOHC_02 7.09 3.62 6.11 3.6

[eng7b] _SOHC_02 3.53 -0.27 2.05 2.2

[eng8b] _SOHC_02 9.02 -3.9 6.29 N/A

[eng12] _SOHC_02 9.42 -1.77 -0.72 7.5

[eng13] _SOHC_02 4.73 -2.76 3.98 3.5

[eng14] _SOHC_02 2.60 -1.41 -0.04 3.5

[eng15] _SOHC_02 3.49 -2.10 -0.62 1.4

[eng16] _SOHC_02 2.82 -1.755 1.21 N/A

[eng17] _SOHC_02 10.24 -0.05 2.59 2.8

15

Transmission Technologies (ABS)


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPE Result, %

6-spd AUTO 8.22 -1.31 4.91 2

8-spd AUTO 11.14 -4.70 7.44 5.8

6-spd DCT 15.27 6.23 8.74 10

8-spd DCT 18.13 6.76 2.88 N/A

6-spd DM 3.71 0.87 3.25 2.4

8-spd DM 6.46 0.23 5.67 N/A

CVT 9.15 1.35 5.86 N/A


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPE Result, %

6-spd AUTO 8.22 -1.31 4.91 2

8-spd AUTO 3.52 -5.32 2.66 4.6

6-spd DCT 15.27 6.23 8.74 4.1

8-spd DCT 5.06 -2.38 2.88 N/A

6-spd DM 3.71 0.87 3.26 2.4

8-spd DM 2.90 -1.13 2.49 N/A

CVT 5.97 -2.62 1.00 N/A

Transmission Technologies (INC)

16

Vehicle Technologies (ABS)


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPE Result, %

MR1 2.64 -0.70 0.73 0.53

MR2 4.76 0.05 345 2.6

MR3 6.06 1.26 5.08 2.6

MR4 10.68 3.98 9.23 2.6

ROLL1 3.65 -1.11 0.72 1.9

ROLL2 4.70 -0.63 1.40 3.9

ROLL3 6.92 1.50 2.84 3.9

AERO1 5.81 0.66 1.99 2.3

AERO2 10.75 3.29 3.92 4.7

Vehicle Technologies (INC)


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPE Result, %

MR1 2.64 -0.70 0.73 0.5

MR2 4.03 -0.33 2.74 2.0

MR3 3.29 -0.98 1.69 0

MR4 6.68 0.68 4.37 0

ROLL1 3.38 0.64 0.72 1.9

ROLL2 4.07 0.25 0.69 2.0

ROLL3 3.89 0.80 1.45 0

AERO1 5.81 0.66 1.99 2.3

AERO2 5.86 0.72 1.97 2.517

Hybridization Technology (ABS)


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPE Result, %

Micro Hybrid (MHEV)

6.38 -2.17 5.05 6.80

BISG 14.52 2.84 9.76 6.80

Par HEV 35.70 11.56 35.00 N/A

SHEV1 48.23 43.90 44.75 48.60

PHEV1 76.14 71.86 72.75 69.5

EV2 80.9 78.44 79.01 90.4

FCV 65.16 61.58 62.24 90.4

Hybridization Technology (INC)


MinimumValue (%)


VOLPE Result, %

Micro-Hybrid (MHEV)

5.53 4.70 5.05 2.10

BISG 5.81 4.24 4.96 0.00

Par HEV 33.73 27.84 28.95 N/A

SHEV1 14.87 12.54 13.83 6.5

PHEV1 53.91 49.78 50.67 40.7

EV2 24.27 19.66 23.00 0

FCV -78.20 -82.35 -79.92 0

18

PLOT COMPARISON

RESULTS

[Part 2]

20

ABSOLUTE

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

21

ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES

22



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

23

24

1 2 3 4 5 60

100

200

Fuel Consumption Improvement (ABS), %

Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng02-Discrete VVL (DVVLD)

Absolute percentage compared with: Dual Cam Phasing(DCP) [eng01]

Standard Deviation 0.5:

0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]

Number of occurences - all tech. combined

Average value = 3.7

Baseline vehicle (ANL) = 4.2

VOLPE result = 3.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

25

26

3 4 5 6 7 80

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng03-Direct Injection (GDID)



0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.8


VOLPE result = 5.2

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

27

28

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 200

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng04-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACD)



0

0.1

0.2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 9.9


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

29

30

-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.50

100

200

300


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05a-Single Over head cam



0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = -2.1

Baseline vehicle (ANL) = -2.0

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

31

32

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 20

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05b-Reduced Friction VVT



0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.7


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

33

34

0 1 2 3 4 50

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05c-Reduced Friction VVT



0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.4


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

35

36

3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9

0

20

40

60

80

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng06a-Dicrete VVL (DVVLS)



0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 6.5


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

37

38

6 7 8 9 10 11 120

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng06b-Discrete VVL (DVVLS)



0

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 8.9


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

39

40

5 6 7 8 9 10 110

20

40

60

80

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng07a-Direct Injection (GDIS)



0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 8.4


VOLPE result = 5.2

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

41

42

8 9 10 11 12 130

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng07b-Direct Injection (GDIS)



0

0.2

0.4

0.6

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 10.7


VOLPE result = 5.2

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

43

44

0 5 10 15 200

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng08a-Cylinder Deactivation(DEACS)



0

0.1

0.2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

45

46

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 240

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng08b-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACS)



0

0.1

0.2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

47

48

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 220

20

40

60

80


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)



0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 11.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

49

50

10 15 20 250

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)



0

0.1

0.2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 17.1

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

51

52

10 15 20 250

50

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)



0

0.1

0.2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 16.0

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

53

54

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

0

20

40

60

80

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)



0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 18.1

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

55

56

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 300

20

40

60

80

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)



0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

57

58

18 20 22 24 26 28 300

20

40

60

80


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng17-Advanced Diesel(ADLS)



0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 20.1

Density of data

TRANSMISSION

TECHNOLOGY

59

5-spd Trans (AUTO)

6-spd Trans w/Improved Internals (Auto) (NAUTO)

8-spd Trans (AUTO)

60

61

-2 0 2 4 6 8 100

200

400

600

800

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Transmission-AUTO-(early lockup)-6-spd

Absolute percentage compared with: AUTO-5spd (no early lockup)


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.8


VOLPE result = 2.0

Density of data

5-spd Trans (AUTO)


8-spd Trans (AUTO)

62

63

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 140

500

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.6


VOLPE result = 10.0

Density of data

5-spd Trans (AUTO)

6-spd DCT (DCT)

8-spd DCT (DCT)

64

65

6 8 10 12 14 160

500

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Transmission-DCT-6-spd



0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 9.3


VOLPE result = 5.8

Density of data

5-spd Trans (AUTO)

6-spd DCT (DCT)

8-spd DCT (DCT)

66

67

5 10 15 200

200

400

600

800


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data

5-spd Manual/Improved Internals (5MAN)



68

69

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Transmission-DM-6-spd

Absolute percentage compared with: DM-5spd


0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.4


VOLPE result = 2.4

Density of data




70

71

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0

20

40

60

80

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces


Absolute percentage compared with: DM-5spd


0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.5


Density of data

72

5-spd Trans (AUTO)(no early lockup)

6-spd Trans w/Improved Internals

(Auto) (6AUTO)

CVT Transmission

73

-2 0 2 4 6 8 100

200

400

600

800

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.8


VOLPE result = 2.0

Density of data

74



(Auto) (6AUTO)

CVT Transmission

VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES

76







77

78

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500


Nu

mb

er

of

Occ

ure

nc

es

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Vehicle Technology-Mass Reduction#1 (MR1)

Absolute percentage compared with: Mass Reduction#0 (MR0)


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.7


VOLPE result = 0.5

Density of data







79

80

0 1 2 3 4 50

1000

2000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.1


VOLPE result = 2.5

Density of data







81

82

1 2 3 4 5 6 70

1000

2000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.2


VOLPE result = 2.5

Density of data







83

84

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 120

200

400

600

800

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 8.3


VOLPE result = 2.5

Density of data





85

86

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 40

1000

2000

3000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Vehicle Technology-Low Rolling Resistance Tires#1(ROLL1)

Absolute percentage compared with: Low Rolling Resistance Tires#0(ROLL0)


0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.9


VOLPE result = 1.9

Density of data





87

88

-1 0 1 2 3 4 50

1000

2000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.8


VOLPE result = 3.9

Density of data





89

90

1 2 3 4 5 6 70

500

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.6


VOLPE result = 3.9

Density of data




91

92

0 1 2 3 4 5 60

2000

4000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Vehicle Technology-Aerodynamic Drag Reduction#1 (AERO1)

Absolute percentage compared with: Aerodynamic Drag Reduction#0 (AERO0)


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


VOLPE result = 2.3

Density of data




93

94

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 120

500

1000

1500

2000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s


Absolute percentage compared with: Aerodynamic Drag Reduction#0 (AERO0)


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.3


VOLPE result = 4.7

Density of data

HYBRIDIZATION

TECHNOLOGY

95

96



Strong Hybrid # 1 (SHEV1) Powersplit

Plug-in Hybrid – 30m Range (PHEV1)

Electric Vehicle – 100m Range (EV2)


Conventional Powertrain (CONV)


97

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 80

500

1000

1500

2000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-12V Micro-Hybrid(MHEV)

Absolute percentage compared with: Conventional Powertrain


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.1


VOLPE result = 6.8

Density of data

98









99

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 160

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Integrated Starter Generator (BISG)



0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 8.8


VOLPE result = 6.8

Density of data

100









101

10 15 20 25 30 35 400

200

400


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Pretransmission Hybrid



0

0.05

0.1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data

102









103

43 44 45 46 47 48 490

2

4

6

8


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Strong Hybrid#1 (SHEV1)



0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 48.6

Density of data

104









105

71 72 73 74 75 76 770

5

10


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Plug-in Hybrid 30m Range (PHEV1)



0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 69.5

Density of data

106









107

78 78.5 79 79.5 80 80.5 810

5

10


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Electric Vehicle - 100m Range (EV2)



0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 90.4

Density of data

108









109

61 61.5 62 62.5 63 63.5 64 64.5 65 65.5 660

1

2

3

4

5

6

7


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV)



0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 90.4

Density of data

INCREMENTAL

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

111

ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES

112



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

113

114

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 60

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Fuel Consumption Improvement (INC), %

Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng02-Discrete VVL (DVVLD)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 01-Dual Cam Phasing(DCP)-DOHC


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.7


VOLPE result = 3.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

115

116

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

200

400


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng03-Direct Injection (GDID)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 02-Discrete VVL (DVVLD)-DOHC


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.2


VOLPE result = 2.2

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

117

118

-5 0 5 100

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng04-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACD)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 03-Direct Injection (GDID)-DOHC


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.3


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

119

120

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 160

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Occ

ure

nc

es

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 04-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACD)-DOHC


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 6.8


VOLPE result = 7.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

121

122

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 60

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)-DOHC


0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


VOLPE result = 3.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

123

124

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30

200

400

600


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)-DOHC


0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.3


VOLPE result = 3.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

125

126

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

0

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)-DOHC


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.4


VOLPE result = 1.4

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

127

128

-2 -1 0 1 2 30

200

400


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)-DOHC


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.1


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

129

130

-5 0 5 10 150

50

100

150

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng17-Advanced Diesel(ADLS)-DOHC

Incremental percentage compared with: 16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)-DOHC


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.8


VOLPE result = 2.8

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

131

132

-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.50

100

200

300


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05a-Single Cam VVT (SCVVT)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 01-Dual Cam Phasing(DCP)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

133

134

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05b-Reduced Friction VVT-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 05a-Single Cam VVT (SCVVT)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

135

136

2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 80

50

100

150

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng06a-Dicrete VVL (DVVLS)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 05b-Reduced Friction VVT-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.8


VOLPE result = 3.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

137

138

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

100

200

300

400

500


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng07a-Direct Injection (GDIS)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 06a-Dicrete VVL (DVVLS)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.1


VOLPE result = 2.2

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

139

140

-5 0 5 100

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng08a-Cylinder Deactivation(DEACS)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 07a-Direct Injection (GDIS)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.0


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

141

142

0 2 4 6 8 10 120

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng12-Turbocharging and Downsizing#1 (TRBD1)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 08a-Cylinder Deactivation(DEACS)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 3.5


VOLPE result = 7.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

143

144

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 60

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng13-Turbocharging and Downsizing#2 (TRBD2)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 12-Turbocharging and Downsizing#1 (TRBD1)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


VOLPE result = 3.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

145

146

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30

200

400

600


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 13-Turbocharging and Downsizing#2 (TRBD2)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.3


VOLPE result = 3.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

147

148

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 40

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.4


VOLPE result = 1.4

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

149

150

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30

200

400


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.1


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

151

152

-5 0 5 10 150

50

100

150

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng17-Advanced Diesel(ADLS)-SOHC-RedFric01

Incremental percentage compared with: 16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)-SOHC-RedFric01


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.8


VOLPE result = 2.8

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

153

154

-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.50

100

200

300


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05a-Single Cam VVT (SCVVT)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 01-Dual Cam Phasing(DCP)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

155

156

2 3 4 5 6 70

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng05c-Reduced Friction VVT-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 05a-Single Cam VVT (SCVVT)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.4


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

157

158

3 4 5 6 7 80

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng06b-Discrete VVL (DVVLS)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 05c-Reduced Friction VVT-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.7


VOLPE result = 3.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

159

160

-1 0 1 2 3 40

200

400


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng07b-Direct Injection (GDIS)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 06b-Discrete VVL (DVVLS)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.0


VOLPE result = 2.2

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

161

162

-5 0 5 100

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng08b-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACS)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 07b-Direct Injection (GDIS)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.4


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

163

164

-2 0 2 4 6 8 100

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 08b-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACS)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.6


VOLPE result = 7.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

165

166

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 60

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


VOLPE result = 3.5

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

167

168

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30

200

400

600


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.5

1

1.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.3


VOLPE result = 3.6

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

169

170

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 40

50

100

150


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.4


VOLPE result = 1.4

Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

171

172

-2 -1 0 1 2 30

200

400


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.1


Density of data



[eng5b]




(DEACS) [eng8a]


[eng5c]




(DEACS) [eng8b]









[eng17]


[eng01]




(DEACD) [eng04]

SOHC

DOHC











[eng17]






[eng14]


[eng15]



[eng17]

173

174

-5 0 5 10 150

50

100

150

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Eng17-Advanced Diesel(ADLS)-SOHC-RedFric02

Incremental percentage compared with: 16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)-SOHC-RedFric02


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.8


VOLPE result = 2.8

Density of data

TRANSMISSION

TECHNOLOGY

175

5-spd Trans (AUTO)


8-spd Trans (AUTO)

176

177

-2 0 2 4 6 8 100

200

400

600

800

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Transmission-AUTO-6-spd

Incremental percentage compared with: 5-spd


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.8


VOLPE result = 2.0

Density of data

5-spd Trans (AUTO)


8-spd Trans (AUTO)

178

179

-6 -4 -2 0 2 40

500

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Transmission-AUTO-8-spd



0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.9


VOLPE result = 4.6

Density of data

5-spd Trans (AUTO)

6-spd DCT (DCT)

8-spd DCT (DCT)

180

181

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 160

500

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s



Average : 9.3093


0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 9.3


VOLPE result = 5.8

Density of data

5-spd Trans (AUTO)

6-spd DCT (DCT)

8-spd DCT (DCT)

182

183

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 60

500

1000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s



Average : 1.6636


0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.7


Density of data




184

185

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

100


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.5

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.3


VOLPE result = 2.4

Density of data




186

187

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

0

20

40

60

80


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.1


Density of data

188



(Auto) (6AUTO)

CVT Transmission

190



(Auto) (6AUTO)

CVT Transmission

VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES

192







193

194

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 30

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces


Incremental percentage compared with: Mass Reduction#0 (MR0)

Standard Deviation : 0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 0.7


VOLPE result = 0.5

Density of data







195

196

-1 0 1 2 3 4 50

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.5


VOLPE result = 2.0

Density of data







197

198

-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

2000

4000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.1


VOLPE result = 0.0

Density of data







199

200

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 4.3


VOLPE result = 0.0

Density of data





201

202

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.50

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces


Incremental percentage compared with: Low Rolling Resistance Tires#0(ROLL0)


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.8


VOLPE result = 1.9

Density of data





203

204

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 50

50

100

150

200

250


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces




0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.8


VOLPE result = 2.0

Density of data





205

206

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 40

100

200


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s




0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 1.9


VOLPE result = 0.0

Density of data




207

208

0 1 2 3 4 5 60

2000

4000


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s


Incremental percentage compared with: Aerodynamic Drag Reduction#0 (AERO0)


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


VOLPE result = 2.3

Density of data




209

210

0 1 2 3 4 5 60

2000

4000


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces


Incremental percentage compared with: Aerodynamic Drag Reduction#1 (AERO1)


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 2.7


VOLPE result = 2.5

Density of data

HYBRIDIZATION

TECHNOLOGY

211

212









213

4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.60

5

10


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-12V Micro-Hybrid(MHEV)

Incremental percentage compared with: Conventional Powertrain

Average : 5.2045


0

1

2

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.2


VOLPE result = 2.1

Density of data

214









215

4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 60

10

20


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Integrated Starter Generator (BISG)

Incremental percentage compared with: 12V Micro-Hybrid(MHEV)

Average : 5.0519


0

0.5

1

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]


Average value = 5.1


VOLPE result = 0.0

Density of data

216









217

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 340

5

10


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Pretransmission Hybrid

Incremental percentage compared with: Integrated Starter Generator (BISG)

Average : 30.6879


0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




Density of data

218









219

12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 150

2

4

6

8


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Strong Hybrid#1 (SHEV1)

Incremental percentage compared with: Pretransmission Hybrid

Average : 13.5932


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 6.5

Density of data

220









221

49 49.5 50 50.5 51 51.5 52 52.5 53 53.5 540

10

20


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Plug-in Hybrid 30m Range (PHEV1)

Incremental percentage compared with: Strong Hybrid#1 (SHEV1)

Average : 51.7559


0

0.2

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 40.7

Density of data

222









223

19 20 21 22 23 24 250

5

10

15


Nu

mb

er

of

Occu

ren

ces

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Electric Vehicle - 100m Range (EV2)

Incremental percentage compared with: Plug-in Hybrid 30m Range (PHEV1)

Average : 21.8204


0

0.2

0.4

0.6

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 68.5

Density of data

224









225

-83 -82.5 -82 -81.5 -81 -80.5 -80 -79.5 -79 -78.5 -78

0

2

4

6

8


Nu

mb

er

of

Oc

cu

ren

ce

s

Distribution of Fuel Consumption for Hybrid-Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV)

Incremental percentage compared with: Electric Vehicle - 100m Range (EV2)

Average : -80.2945


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]




VOLPE result = 0.0

Density of data

SUMMARY

OF

PLOT RESULTS

[Part 3]

227

ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

228

ABSOLUTE

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

229

230

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

Engine Technology Map

Av

g. Im

pro

ve

d %

(A

BS

)

General trendline on engine technologiesAbsolute percentage compared with: Dual Cam Phasing(DCP)[eng01]

eng02

eng03

eng04

eng05

a

eng05

b

eng05

c

eng06

a

eng06

b

eng07

a

eng07

b

eng08

a

eng08

b

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

Dual Over Head Cam (DOHC)

Single Over Head Cam (SOHC)

Turbo Downsizing

231

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

Fuel Consumption Improvement (ABS)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

Density profile of different engine technologiesAbsolute density profile compared with: Dual Cam Phasing (DCP) [eng01]

02-Discrete VVL (DVVLD)

03-Direct Injection (GDID)

04-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACD)

05a-Single Over head cam

05b-Reduced Friction VVT

05c-Reduced Friction VVT

06a-Dicrete VVL (DVVLS)

06b-Discrete VVL (DVVLS)

07a-Direct Injection (GDIS)

07b-Direct Injection (GDIS)

08a-Cylinder Deactivation(DEACS)

08b-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACS)

12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)

13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)

14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)

15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)

16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)

17-Advanced Diesel(ADLS)

232

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Fuel Consumption Improvement (ABS) (DOHC)

De

ns

ity

[0,1

]

Density profile of different engine technologiesAbsolute density profile compared with: Dual Cam Phasing (DCP) [eng01]

02-Discrete VVL (DVVLD)

03-Direct Injection (GDID)

04-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACD)

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0

0.5

1

1.5

Fuel Consumption Improvement (ABS) (SOHC)

De

ns

ity

[0,1

]

05a-Single Over head cam

05b-Reduced Friction VVT

05c-Reduced Friction VVT

06a-Dicrete VVL (DVVLS)

06b-Discrete VVL (DVVLS)

07a-Direct Injection (GDIS)

07b-Direct Injection (GDIS)

08a-Cylinder Deactivation(DEACS)

08b-Cylinder Deactivation (DEACS)

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Fuel Consumption Improvement (ABS) (Turbo Downsizing)

De

ns

ity

[0,1

]

12-Turbocharging and Downsizing # 1 (TRBD1)

13-Turbocharging and Downsizing #2 (TRBD2)

14-Cooled EGR#1 (CEGR1)

15-Cooloed EGR#2 (CEGR2)

16-Cooled EGR (CEGR3)

17-Advanced Diesel(ADLS)

INCREMENTAL

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

233

234

0

2

4

6

8

Engine Technology Map (Incremental)

Avg

. %

FC

Im

pro

ved

(IN

C)

General Incremental trendline on engine technologiesIncremental percentages compared with preceding technology, [eng01] is the baseline

eng02

eng03

eng04

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

Dual Over Head Cam Map

-5

0

5

10


Avg

. %

FC

Im

pro

ved

(IN

C)

eng5a

eng5b

eng6a

eng7a

eng8a

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

Single Over Head Cam-ReducedFriction-01

-5

0

5

10


Avg

. %

FC

Im

pro

ved

(IN

C)

eng5a

eng5c

eng6b

eng7b

eng8b

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

Single Over Head Cam-ReducedFriction-02

235

-5 0 5 10 15

0

0.5

1

1.5

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (INC)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

Density profile of different engine technologiesIncremental density profile compared with preceding technology, [eng01] is the baseline

eng02

eng03

eng04

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

0

0.5

1

1.5


De

ns

ity

[0,1

]

eng5a

eng5b

eng6a

eng7a

eng8a

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

0

0.5

1

1.5


De

nsit

y [

0,1

]

eng5a

eng5c

eng6b

eng7b

eng8b

eng12

eng13

eng14

eng15

eng16

eng17

TRANSMISSION

TECHNOLOGY

236

ABSOLUTE

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

237

238

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Number of Gears

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

AB

S)

General trendline on transmission technologiesAbsolute percentages compared with: 5-spd transmission

6-sp

d

8-sp

d (/CVT)

Auto Transmission

DM Transmission

DCT Transmission

CVT Transmission

239

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 120

0.5

1

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (ABS) (AUTO)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

Density profile of transmission technologiesAbsolute density profile compared with: 5-spd transmission

6-spd

8-spd

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70

0.5

1

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (ABS) (DM)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

6-spd

8-spd

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 200

0.2

0.4

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (ABS) (DCT)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

6-spd

8-spd

-2 0 2 4 6 8 100

0.5

1

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (ABS) (CVT)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

Auto-6spd

CVT Transmission

INCREMENTAL

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

240

242

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 100

0.5

1

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (INC) (AUTO)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

Density profile of transmission technologiesIncremental density profile compared with preceding technology,

5-spd is the baseline

6-spd

8-spd

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 40

0.5

1

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (INC) (DM)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

6-spd

8-spd

-5 0 5 10 15 200

0.2

0.4

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (INC) (DCT)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

6-spd

8-spd

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 100

0.5

1

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (INC) (CVT)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

AUTO-6spd

CVT Transmission

VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY

243

ABSOLUTE

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

244

245

0

5

10

Mass Reduction Technology

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

AB

S)

General trendline on different vehicle technologiesAbsolute percentages compared with: MR0/AERO0/ROLL0

MR1

MR2

MR3

MR4

Mass Reduction

2

3

4

5

6

Aero Reduction Technology

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

AB

S)

AERO1

AERO2

Aero Reduction

0

1

2

3

4

Rolling Resistance Reduction Technology

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

AB

S)

ROLL1

ROLL2

ROLL3

Rolling Resistance Reduction

246

-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 120

0.5

1

1.5

Fuel Consumption Improvement % (ABS)

De

ns

ity

[0

,1]

Density profile of vehicle technologiesAbsolute density profile compared with: MR0/AERO0/ROLL0

Mass Reduction#1 (MR1)




-2 0 2 4 6 80

0.5

1

1.5


De

ns

ity

[0

,1]

Low Rolling Resistance Tires#1(ROLL1)



0 2 4 6 8 10 120

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8


De

ns

ity

[0

,1]

Aerodynamic Drag Reduction#1 (AERO1)


INCREMENTAL

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

247

248

0

2

4

6

Mass Reduction Technology

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

INC

)

General trendline on different vehicle technologiesIncremental percentages compared with preceding technology,

MR0/AERO0/ROLL0 is the baseline

MR1

MR2

MR3

MR4

Mass Reduction

2.6

2.65

2.7

2.75

Aero Reduction Technology

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

INC

)

AERO1

AERO2

Aero Reduction

1.8

1.82

1.84

1.86

1.88

Rolling Resistance Reduction Technology

Avg

. Im

pro

ved

% (

INC

)

ROLL1

ROLL2

ROLL3

Rolling Resistance Reduction

249

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70

0.5

1

1.5


De

ns

ity [

0,1

]

Density profile of vehicle technologiesIncremental density profile compared with preceding technology,

MR0/AERO0/ROLL0 is the baseline





0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.50

0.5

1


De

ns

ity [

0,1

]




0 1 2 3 4 5 60

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8


De

ns

ity [

0,1

]



HYBRIDIZATION

TECHNOLOGY

250

ABSOLUTE

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

251

252

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hybrid Technology

Av

g.

Imp

rov

ed

% (

AB

S)

General trendline on hybridization technologiesAbsolute percentage compared with: Conventional Powertrain (CONV)

12V M

icro

-Hyb

rid

Bel

t ISG

Par

HEV

SHEV

PHEV1

EV2

FCV

Hybrid engine technologies

253

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 900

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Fuel Consumption Improvement (ABS)

Den

sit

y [

0,1

]

Density profile of different hybrid technologiesAbsolute density profile compared with: Conventional Powertrain (CONV)

12V Micro-Hybrid(MHEV)


Pretransmission Hybrid

Strong Hybrid#1 (SHEV1)

Plug-in Hybrid 30m Range (PHEV1)

Electric Vehicle - 100m Range (EV2)


INCREMENTAL

IMPROVEMENT

RESULTS

254

255

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

40

60

Hybrid Technology

Av

g.

Imp

rov

ed

% (

INC

)

General trendline on hybridization technologiesIncremental percentages compared with preceding technology,

Conventional Powertrain (CONV) is the baseline

12V M

icro

-Hyb

rid

Bel

t ISG

Par

HEV

SHEV

PHEV1

EV2

FCV

Hybrid engine technologies

256

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 600

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4


De

ns

ity

[0

,1]

Density profile of different hybrid technologiesIncremental density profile compared with preceding technology,

Conventional Powertrain (CONV) is the baseline

12V Micro-Hybrid(MHEV)


Pretransmission Hybrid

Strong Hybrid#1 (SHEV1)

Plug-in Hybrid 30m Range (PHEV1)

Electric Vehicle - 100m Range (EV2)


THANK YOU

257

Fuel Consumption Improvement Study over combinations of ...

Documents

Transcript of Fuel Consumption Improvement Study over combinations of ...