This study guide is a companion to the Psychology of Learning for Instruction by Marcy P. Driscoll.

Foundational Definitions

Instructional psychologists are concerned with how best to enhance learning. They rely on the findings of psychological and instructional research to solve instructional problems and make decisions about instructional practice.

Instructional theory is identifying methods that will best provide the conditions under which learning goals will most likely be attained.

Instruction refers to the deliberate arrangement of learning conditions to promote attainment of some intended goal.

A theory is a set of hypotheses that apply to all instances of a particular phenomenon

Instructional strategy continuum (expository instruction at one end and discovery instruction at the other). Looking at the same issue from another perspective, there are three levels of guidance in instruction: Pure discovery - The student receives

representative problems to solve with minimal teacher guidance (Mayer, 2003).

Guided Discovery - The student receives problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints and directions about how to solve the problem to keep the student on track (Mayer, 2003).

Expository - all information is laid out in front of the learner. The final answer or rule is presented to the student

Four General Knowledge Categories Factual knowledge Conceptual knowledge Procedural knowledge Metacognitive knowledge

Behaviorism / Objectivism

Theorists: Bandura, Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike

Views human mind as a black box of complex, poorly-understood mental processes that ultimately are manifested in outward behaviors

Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus

Learning can be detected by observing an organism over a period of time

Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors

Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors

Believes behavior is guided by purpose Cues are antecedents to behavior and set

the conditions for its occurrence Objectivism – knowledge comes about

through experience. Through empirical evidence. Knowledge is represented in a learners mind as an ever-closer approximation of the real world.

Embedded Theories

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Skinner's Operant Conditioning Stimulus-Response Theory Thorndike's Laws and Connectionism Information Processing

Representations of the Learning Process

Stimulus-Response Reinforced Behavior Antecendent Behavior Consequence (ABC) Sequenced knowledge and skills presented

in logical limited steps

Goals of Instruction

Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner (does not consider mental processing)

Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus

Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made

Instructional Models

Computer-based instruction Contract learning Individualized instruction (e.g., Personalized

System of Instruction) Programmed instruction Information processing model Systems approach

Implications for Instructional Design

Behavioral objectives Dick & Carey instructional design model Performance-based assessment Systems models Events of Instruction

Instructional / Learning Strategies

Behaviorism Instructional cues to elicit correct response Practice paired with target stimuli Reinforcement for correct responses Building fluency (get responses closer and

closer to correct response) Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and

practice) Discrimmination (recalling facts) Generalization (defining and illustrating

concepts) Associations (applying explanations) Chaining (automatically performing a

specified procedure)

> THEORY: Radical Behaviorism

Learner outcomes – observable behavior Role of the learner – active in the

environment, consequences that follow behavior determine whether it is repeated

Role of the instructor – identify learning goals. Determine contingencies of reinforcements, implement program of behavior change. Negotiate all of these with the learner’s input

Inputs or preconditions to learning – environmental conditions serve as discriminative stimuli, cueing which behavior is appropriate to perform

Process of learning – not specifically addressed in this theory. All learning is assumed to be explained in terms of observable behavior and environmental events surrounding its occurrence

> STRATEGY: Behavior Modification

Only observable events and behaviors are considered

Basic Concepts: Eliciting stimulus Response Positive reinforcer Negative reinforcer Target behavior Contingency Desensitization Counterconditioning Modeling

Phases:1. Specify a Target Behavior

Identify the desired behavior Precisely and explicitly describe the

behavior Determine how it can best be

observed and measured2. Establish a Baseline

Systematically observe the current behavior

Measure current behavior or competing behaviors

Assess antecedent conditions and reinforcing stimuli

3. Design the Contingencies Identify reinforcers (pos or neg)

that are appropriate to the target Determine how often

reinforcement will be provided Select other appropriate aspects of

the intervention, such environmental conditions, punishments, counterconditioning, desensitization, or modeling

4. Institute the Program (Intervention) Inform the learner of the conditions Structure the environment for

success where possible Reinforce the desired behavior Continue to measure and chart

behavior5. Evaluate the Program

Compare intervention phase data to baseline data

Use reversal to check for internalization of new behavior

Withdraw reinforcement, but continue to monitor during maintenance phase

Best Uses: In children’s classrooms to teach

socially desirable behavior To deal with workplace problems as

tardiness and poor work habits To increase the use of a new method or

procedure By groups and individuals to modify

their own behaviors By health-related areas for changing

behavior in adults (exercise, smoking cessation, alcohol/drug abstinence, weight-loss programs, stress reduction)

> STRATEGY: Behavior Modeling

Attempts to change behavior directly Components:

1. Prescribed Critical Steps/Behaviors Designer identifies critical

steps/behaviors that competent practitioners use

when they successfully carry out specific job tasks (can use Critical Incident Technique)

2. Credible Model The trainees are shown a video

model of the critical steps/behaviors being used effectively in a typical and realistic problem situation

3. Skill Practice Exercises Trainees repeatedly rehearse and

practice the critical steps/behaviors in realistic problem situations

4. Specific Feedback and Social Reinforcement As trainees are successful in using

the critical steps/behaviors, the instructor facilitates feedback from their peers that is specific and positively reinforcing

5. Transfer Strategies Transfer to the workplace is greatly

enhanced by progressively increasing the difficulty and reality of the skill practice exercise

6. On-the-job Reinforcement The supervisors of the trainees are

also trained in how to use the same skills, how to coach trainees, and how to reinforce their subordinates’ attempts to use the critical steps/behaviors

Best uses: Most effective, robust method currently

known for training people in interpersonal or “soft” skills

Enables trainees to learn to transfer and adjust their skills to the similar but different situation

Can be used for technical training When the following conditions are

present: an experienced instructor, a clear set of behavior skills to learn, repeated practice and feedback (social reinforcement) from other trainees, and on-the-job reinforcement by the trainees’ managers

Cognitivism / Pragmatism

Theorists: Anderson, Ausubel, Gardner, Gagne, Merrill, Normal, Novak, Reigeluth, Rummelhart

Learner is viewed as an information processor

Learning is a change of knowledge state Knowledge acquisition is described as a

mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner

Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing

Focus is on how learners remember, retrieve, and store information in memory

Examines the mental structure and processes related to learning

Learning is viewed as an active process that occurs within the learner and which can be influenced by the learner

The outcome of learning is not only dependent on what the teacher presents but also on what the learner does to process this information.

Basic Concepts: Recall vs. recognition Automaticity Encoding specificity Metacognition Rote vs. meaningful learning Cognitive structure Anchoring ideas Cognitive load Advance organizer vs. comparative

organizers Schema signals Transfer

Embedded Theories

Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Component Display Theory Dual Coding Theory Elaboration Theory Gestalt Theory Mental Models Schema Theory Assimilation Theory Subsumption Theory

Representations of the Learning Process

Cognitivist Learning Perspective Information Processing Schema Mental Models

Goals of Instruction

Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner (mind-independent, can be mapped onto learners)

Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies

Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way

Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated

Instructional Models

Collins & Stevens Inquiry Teaching Model Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation Merrill’s Component Display Model

Prescriptive Design Models

ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation)

ASSURE ARCS Criterion Referenced Instruction Dick and Carey Model 4C-ID Gagne’s Nine Events Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Organizational Elements Model (Systems

Theory) Rapid Prototyping

Implications for Instructional Design

Cognitive objectives Learning strategies Learning taxonomies (Gagné's intellectual

skills) Prerequisite skills Task analysis

Instructional / Learning Strategies

Information Processing Model Explanations Demonstrations Illustrative examples Gestalt Theory Matched non-examples Corrective feedback Outlining Mneumonics Dual-Coding Theory Chunking Information Repetition Concept Mapping Advanced Organizers Analogies Summaries Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation Interactivity Synthesis Schema Theory Metaphor Generative Learning Organizational strategies Elaboration Theory Links to prior knowledge

> THEORY: Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Learner outcomes – declarative knowledge,

procedural knowledge, memory Role of the learner – attend to and process

incoming information, relating it to what is already in memory

Role of the instructor – organize information, direct attention, enhance encoding and retrieval, provide practice

opportunities, and help learners monitor their learning

Inputs or preconditions to learning – sensory information in the environment

Process of learning – processing information and storing it in memory (including processes of attention, pattern recognition, encoding, chunking, rehearsal, and retrieval)

Memory StagesStages

Properties Sensory Register

Short-term memory (short-

Long-term memory(long-

term store)

term store)

Capacity Large Small LargeCode Literal

copy of physical stimulus

Dual code verbal & visual

Episodic / Semantic

Permanence 0.5 seconds

20-30 seconds

Permanent

Source Environment

Environment and prior knowledge

Effective encoding from STS

Loss Decay Displacement or decay

Irretrievability

> THEORY: Meaningful Reception Learning

Learner outcomes – organized conceptual knowledge that involves understanding

Role of the learner – make connections between prior knowledge and to-be-learned information that results in elaborated cognitive structure

Role of the instructor – make materials meaningful to learner. Activate prior knowledge, and organize instruction to help them make meaningful connections to what they already know

Inputs or preconditions to learning – potentially meaningful materials, an orientation toward meaningful (as opposed to rote) learning, relevant prior knowledge

Process of learning – incorporating new information into cognitive structure by attaching it to anchoring ideas through

processes of subsumption, superordinate and combinatorial learning

> THEORY: Schema Theory

Learner outcomes – organized conceptual knowledge and mental models that can be used to interpret events and solve problems

Role of the learner – construct schemata and mental models (concept mapping)

Role of the instructor – activate learners existing schemata. Help learners develop and refine appropriate mental models, manage cognitive load, use thought demanding activities to facilitate understanding

Inputs or preconditions to learning – preexisting schemata that can be modified or reconstructed by analogy to account for new knowledge. Materials and problems that do not overload working memory

Process of learning – accretion, tuning, and restructuring of schemata. Automation of schemata

> STRATEGIES: Memory and Encoding

Basic Methods: Chunking Rehearsal, automaticity Imagery Self questioning Encoding specificity Elaboration in encoding

Mnemonics

Techniques that help us remember things like names, dates, lists, or numbers

Use existing knowledge and associations to organize or encode new verbal knowledge

Not a stand-alone design model, can easily be incorporated into most ISD models

Effective for rote memorization but require effort

Methods:1. Loci

Requires memorizing a set of locations, real or imaginary, to which one can attach associations

2. Pegwords Objects that are common enough

and distinct enough to form vivid images

To place these mental objects in order, the most common technique has them rhyme with numbers (1 is a bun, 2 is a shoe, 3 is a tree, etc.)

3. First Letters Acronym - group of initials that can

be pronounced as a word Acrostic - Learners can try to form a

sentence in which the first letter of each word is the same as the first letter of each item to be remembered

4. Rhymes and Alliteration5. Keyword

For learning foreign words - consists of an acoustic link and imagery link

6. Digit-Consonant (Phonetic) Generalized system for turning

numbers into words

Implementation:

1. Identify opportunities2. Select technique3. Create mnemonic4. Insert in lesson design5. Encourage rehearsal

Best Uses: For learning verbal information - things

that must be recalled

Advance Organizer

Very general ideas, concepts, relationships, or structures that combine and associate the material about to be learned

An instructor uses the advance organizer to arrange material in a lesson so the most general concepts are presented first

Must connect to the learner’s existing cognitive structure (to help bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and the new material being learned)

Must be at a higher level of abstraction than the new content itself

May be represented visually or verbally by a picture, diagram, story, chart, or oral description.

Must fit both the content and the learner

Components:1. Conduct a needs assessment to

determine existing knowledge of learners that is relevant to the new knowledge

2. Based on the results, select type of organizer Comparative organizer – if new

material resembles existing knowledge

Expository organizer – if material is unfamiliar to the learner

3. Present Advance Organizer Identify defining attributes Give examples Provide context

4. Present Learning Content Present material Use progressive differentiation Maintain attention Make organization explicit Make logical order of learning

material explicit5. Strengthen Cognitive Organization

Anchor the new learning material in the learner’s existing cognitive structure

Use integrative reconciliation Promote active reception learning Elicit critical approach in subject

matter

Best Uses: Verbal information and concepts Because it’s focused on learning

through presentation, ideal for training both groups and individuals, whether by live lecture, video or computer

Useful when introducing very new information or very large amounts of information

Useful in both technical training and “soft skills” training

Helpful for transition training to a new system, policy or procedure

Use this model to summarize steps required to perform a specific skill

>Gagne’s Theory of Instruction

Three components: A taxonomy of learning outcomes Conditions of learning Nine events of instruction

Schott and Driscoll believe designers must consider The learner The learning task (including desired

learning outcomes) The learning environment (learning

conditions and instructional methods) The frame of reference (or the context

in which learning is to occur)

Taxonomy of learning outcomes

Three types of knowledge (cognitive, affective, psychomotor): Cognitive domain (cognitive strategies,

intellectual skills, verbal information) Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge Conditional knowledge - metacognitive knowledge that enables learners to determine when and how to apply declarative or procedural knowledge These forms of knowledge are undetectable in the learner purely by observation. Such knowledge must be inferred from some behavior that is observable Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive outcomes: Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation

Categories of learning outcomes: (Verbal, intellectual, cognitive)

Affective domain (attitudes) Psychomotor domain (motor skills)

Learning outcomes according to Gagne Verbal

Declarative knowledge Intellectual skills

Equivalent of procedural knowledge Discriminations, Concrete concepts, Defined concepts, Rules, Higher order rules

Cognitive strategies Ways in which learners guide their own learning, thinking, acting, and feeling.

Attitudes Acquired internal states that influence the choice of personal action toward some class of things, persons, or events

Motor skills

Conditions for learning

Objectives categorized into type of learning outcome

Certain critical conditions can influence learning (p.367 of Driscoll)

> STRATEGY: Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media

Routine instructional steps that stimulate the various stages of the learning process

Gagné believes all lessons should include this sequence of events

Sequence of Instruction

1. Gaining attention (reception) Orient attention to incoming

information Accomplished through abrupt stimulus

change2. Informing learners of the objective

(expectancy) Tell learners what they will be able to

do after learning3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval

to working memory) As simple as reminding learners of what

they did prior (quick review) Reinstating the prereq knowledge or

skills through practice activity4. Presenting the stimulus (selective

perception) Present content and create flow or

connections, for encoding the information into meaningful chunks

5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

6. Eliciting performance (responding)7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)8. Assessing performance (retrieval &

reinforcement)9. Enhancing retention and transfer (retrieval

& generalization)

> STRATEGY: ARCS Model

A motivational theory

Not a stand-alone model, but rather a model designed to supplement models of instructional design

Attention and Relevance - ways to make instruction stimulating, to meet learner needs, and to build on the learner’s experiences

Confidence and Satisfaction - ways of creating positive expectancies of success and rewards with the amount and the quality of effort expended

Conditions & Strategies:A. Attention

Perceptual arousal Inquiry arousal Variability

R. Relevance Goal orientation Motive matching Familiarity

C. Confidence Learning Requirements Opportunities for Success Personal Responsibility

S. Satisfaction Intrinsic Reinforcement Extrinsic Rewards Equity

Four Phases of Implementation:1. Perform an Audience Analysis2. Develop Motivational Objectives3. Select Appropriate Strategies4. Design the Evaluation Mechanism

Best Uses: When motivation is lacking or low Key elements: Maintain a balance

between motivational strategies and

instructional strategies, maintain a balance among motivational strategies, match strategies to learner needs

> Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains

Domains: Cognitive (knowledge) Affective (attitude) Psychomotor (skills)

Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. A description of the six levels as well as verb examples that represent intellectual activity are listed here. The cognitive domain was revised in mid-nineties. The new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking.

Knowledge is defined as remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.

Verbs: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.

Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be

shown by translating material from one form to another (words to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of understanding.

Verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate.

Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension.

Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.

Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.

Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate,

discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.

Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structures.

Verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.

Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgments are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria(organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria.

Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.

Constructivism / Interpretivism

Theorists: Bradsford and the CTGV, Bruner, Dewey, Grabinger, Lave & Wenger, Papert, Piaget, Spiro, Vygotsky, Cunningham, Jonassen, Perkins

Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions

knowledge is constructed through active exploration, observation, processing and interpretation

Learners need to build their own understanding of new ideas http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/nasaeclips/5eteachingmodels/index.html

Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic settings)

Create novel and situation-specific understandings by "assembling" knowledge from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge)

Believes that there are many ways (multiple perspectives) of structuring the world and its entities

Believes that meaning is imposed by the individual rather than existing in the world independently

Learners construct knowledge as they try to make sense of their experiences

Constructivism theory is a psychological theory of knowledge (epistemology) that argues that humans construct knowledge and meaning from their experiences. Learners structure and restructure knowledge.

Embedded Theories

Situated Cognition Cognitive Flexibility Theory Generative Learning Theory Knowledge as Tools Social-Cultural Learning

Representations of the Learning Process

Inquiry-based Discovery learning

>Epistemology: Constructivism

Goals of Instruction

Primarily: Reasoning, critical thinking, understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, mindful reflection

Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions (constantly open to change, cannot achieve a predetermined, "correct" meaning, knowledge emerges in relevant contexts)

Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge

Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge

Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the tools in real world situations

Learning activities should be authentic and should center around the “problematic” or “puzzlement” as perceived by the learner

The focus is on the process not the product Role of teacher is a mentor not a “teller”

Encourage reflective thinking, higher-order learning skills

Encourage testing viability of ideas and seeking alternative views

Instructional Models

Action Learning Anchored Instruction Authentic Learning Case-Based Learning Cognitive Apprenticeship Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext Collaborative Learning Communities of Practice Computer-Supported Intentional Learning

Environments (CSILEs) Discovery Learning Distributed Learning Epistemic Games Generative learning Goal-Based Scenarios (GBSs) Inquiry-Based Learning Microworlds/Simulations/hypermedia MOOs and MUDs Problem-Based Learning (PBL) REALs Reciprocal Teaching Situated Learning WebQuest(s)

Constructivist Conditions for Learning

Checklist Complex, realistic, and relevant learning

environments Provide social negotiation as an integral

part of learning Learner control

Support multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of representation

Encourage ownership in learning Metacognition and nurturing self-

awareness of the knowledge construction process – the ability of learners to be aware of their own role in the knowledge construction process

Teachers as coaches Scaffolding/authentic

assessment/exploration/student directed goals

Constructivist Instructional Principles

Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem. This principle focuses on the relevance of a learning activity to the learner. The purpose of the learning activity or lesson must be relevant to the learner. Further, in order for the learning task to be successful, its purpose must be clear to the learner and accepted by the learner.

Designing an authentic task. Learning should occur in environments and under conditions that present the learner with the same type of cognitive challenges and demands as the authentic real-world environment. In other words, learning tasks should be authentic in their cognitive demands. This principle is similar to Design the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity of the environment they should be able to function in at the end of learning.

Give the learner ownership of the process used to develop a solution. By having the learners set goals and regulate their learning they will become responsible for

their own learning. Further, the learner should be provided with ownership over the learning and problem solving without great restrictions. Apparently, it is believed that too much direction on an assignment will not engage the learner in authentic thinking and problem solving.

Design the learning environment to support and challenge the learner's thinking. Learning environments should be designed to promote immersion and engagement while supporting and also challenging a learner’s thinking. Instructors play a primary role by encouraging critical thinking and coaching.

Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts. Learning is a social condition and an active process, and knowledge is acquired through social interaction. Instructors should support the formation of social environments conducive to the learning task; thus, creating collaboration and supporting the construction of knowledge. Learning communities support the process of learning through the sharing of ideas.

Implications for Instructional Design

Authentic assessment methods Learning through exploration Problem-oriented activities "Rich" environments Visual formats and mental models

Instructional / Learning Strategies

Modeling Collaborative Learning

Computer-supported collaborative learning environments - Blogs, wikis, LMS&CMS, video sharing, virtual whiteboards and worlds. Provide problem scaffolding through virtual access to experts.

Coaching Scaffolding Fading Problem-Based Learning & goal-based

scenarios Authentic Learning REALs Anchored Instruction Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts Object-based Learning Open software and course management

tools

Instructional goals Conditions of learning

Methods of instruction

Reasoning &Critical thinking

Complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments

Microworlds, problem-based learning

Retention, understanding, and use

Social negotiation Collaborative learning, bubble dialogue

Cognitive flexibility Multiple perspectives and multiple modes of learning

Hypermedia

Self-regulation Ownership in learning

Open-ended learning environments, collaborative learning, problem-based learning

Mindful reflection, epistemic flexibility

Self-awareness in knowledge construction

Bubble dialogue, role plays, debates, collaborative learning

Concerns with constructivism

Not all learners are capable or have the entry skills to pursue independent projects and open-ended learning environments.

> THEORY: Genetic Epistemology

Cognitive development theory presented by J. Piaget

Learner outcomes – physical knowledge, logical-mathematical knowledge, social knowledge

Role of the learner – actively manipulate objects. Experience cognitive conflict. Invent and reinvent knowledge through interaction with the world and people surrounding him or her

Role of the instructor – provide a rich learning environment that supports activity of the learner and encourages interactions with peers. Ask probing questions to make children aware of conflicts and inconsistencies in their thinking

Inputs or preconditions to learning – concrete materials to manipulate, cognitive conflicts to stimulate disequilibrium

Process of learning – development of cognitive structuring process through 4 stages (sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational) involving processes of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibriation. Global restructuring occurs through cognitive conflict

Alternative theories to Cognitive Development:

Neo-Pieagentian (Case) Computational Model (Klahr)

Componential Analysis (Sternberg) Framework Theory (Carey) Variability, Choice, and Change (Siegler)

> THEORY: Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development

Cognitive development theories put forward by Bruner and Vygotsky

Learner outcomes – thinking, conceptual knowledge, ability to use the tools of one’s culture, awareness of one’s own thinking

Role of the learner – interact with the instructor, peers, and sociocultural environment to solve problems

Role of the instructor – involve learners in a process of inquiry and problem solving (discovery and problem-solving learning). Ask medium-level questions to provoke cognitive conflict. Engage learners in socially organized labor activities relevant to their culture and learning partners appropriate for the desired goals of instruction

Inputs or preconditions to learning – a “well-prepared mind”, culturally relevant tools and prior knowledge

Process of learning – for burner, a progression through successively more sophisticated modes of thinking (enactive [tactile], iconic [images], and symbolic [symbols]). For Vygotsky, mediation to apprehend tools of the culture, internalization of socially-mediated understanding to become personal knowledge. For both, learning serves to pull development along

> THEORY: Situated Cognition (or Situated Learning)

Learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded within activity, context and culture

Usually unintentional rather than deliberate. Lave and Wenger (1991) call this a process of “legitimate peripheral participation.”

Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts — settings and situations that would normally involve that knowledge.

Social interaction and collaboration are essential component — learners become involved in a “community of practice” which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired (a joint enterprise, a shared repertoire, mutual engagement).

As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its center, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture and eventually assumes the role of an expert.

Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship: “Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and use cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge.”

Learner outcomes – ability to use the

concepts and tools of a community of practice. Contribute to invention of new tools and practices within the community

Role of the learner – participate increasingly in the activities of a community of practice

Role of the instructor – model appropriate practices as a “senior partner” in the learning enterprise. Nurture semiosis and promote reflexivity in learning. Help learners value participation in a community of practice

Inputs or preconditions to learning – materials and activities of the culture or community of practice

Process of learning – Semiosis, or sign activity (the process of interpreting and creating signs and sign systems); legitimate peripheral participation

>STRATEGY: Discovery Learning

Discovery learning is inquiry-based learning where learners are presented with problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned

Discovery learning continuum

From guided discovery to pure discovery Pure Discovery - The student receives

representative problems to solve with minimal teacher guidance

Guided Discovery - The student receives problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints and directions about how to solve the problem to keep the student on track

>STRATEGY: Constructivism as a Strategy

Objectives:1. Anchor all learning activities to a larger

task2. Support the learner in developing

ownership of the task3. Design an authentic task4. Design the task to reflect the

complexity of the environment the learner will face

5. Support and challenge the learner’s thinking

6. Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts

7. Provide opportunity for reflection on the content learned and the learning process

Design Steps:1. Observation

Students make observations of authentic artifacts anchored in authentic situations

2. Interpretation Construction Students construct interpretations of observations and arguments for the validity of their interpretations

3. Contextualization Students access background and contextual materials of various sorts to aid interpretation and argumentation

4. Cognitive Apprenticeship Students serve as apprentices to teachers to master observation, interpretation, and contextualization

5. Collaboration Students collaborate in observation, interpretation, and contextualization

6. Multiple Interpretation Students gain cognitive flexibility by being exposed to multiple interpretations

7. Multiple Manifestations Students gain transferability by seeing multiple manifestations of the same interpretations

Best Uses: Best practices involve use of advanced

technologies – distance learning, distance collaboration projects, computer simulation environments, and hypermedia searches

It is possible to merge objectivist and constructivist theory in creating course

> STRATEGY: Adult Learning Principles

Andragogy - the art and science of helping adults learn

Pedagogy - the art and science of teaching children

Adults are active participants in their own learning

The role of the instructor is that of facilitator and resource

A learning contract can be part of the process

Basic Assumptions that Distinguish Adult Learners from Children:1. Need to Know

Children depend on the teacher’s direction; adults need to know why they need to learn something

2. Self-concept Children are naturally dependent; adults have a deep need to be self-directing

3. Experience Children’s experience is limited; adults’ broad experience is a valuable learning resources

4. Readiness to Learn Children’s readiness is more subject centered; adult’s readiness is more related to skills and knowledge needed to fulfill their roles in society

5. Orientation to Learning Children’s orientation is subject centered; adults are problem-centered

6. Motivation Children’s motivations are external; adults have some external motivators (pay, raises, promotions) but they respond more to internal motivators (job satisfaction, better quality of life)

Principles:1. Prepare the learner2. Set the climate3. Involve learners in mutual planning4. Involve learners in diagnosing their own

learning needs5. Involve learners in formulating their

own learning objectives6. Involve learners in designing learning

plans

7. Help learners carry out their learning plans

8. Involve learning in evaluating learning

>Definitions of terms

Microworlds are small but complete subsets of real environments that promote discovery and exploration. Different than simulations because they embody the simplest working model of a domain or system.

>Strategy: 5E

1. Engage – to peak interest2. Explore – involve learners3. Explain – learners communicate what they

have learned and figure out what it means4. Elaborate – use knowledge to continue to

explore5. Evaluate – determine how much learning

and understanding has taken place

Informal and Postmodernist Theories

Informal theories of education may attempt to break down the learning process in pursuit of practicality.

> Theory: Informal Learning

Learning in an informal setting outside of the classroom

Tools: Podcasts / netcasts / vidcasts Blogs Social networking RSS Wikis Search tools Widgets

Biological Basis for Learning

Cognitive competence depends partly on biological capacity and partly upon experience

A multimodal approach to instruction that includes activities that draw upon different sensory modes is optimal

Enriched environments and time for practice

Brain researchers stress cooperative interaction between the two hemispheres of the brain

Brain researchers stress cooperative interaction between the two hemispheres of the brain.

Learners having difficulty understanding instructional presentation in one mode may benefit from the same presentation in an alternative mode. Meaning can be conveyed differently in different modes can also be valuable for learning

>Model of the brain (Triune)

The brain stem Known as the “reptilian brain” “Subconscious” control over body &

“fight or flight” “Downshift” into this area of the brain

when responding to perceived life-threatening conditions, when this occurs learning cannot take place

The limbic system Related to emotions Has visual memory, language is limited

to yells, screams, and expletives Threats cause “downshift” but not

“blanking out” stage of brain stem The cerebral cortex

Information processor of brain Slowest of three levels Learners must be in this level for

learning to take place; thus, learning environment must be absent of threats

>Brain/Mind-Based Learning Theories

Multiple, complex, and concrete experiences are essential for meaningful learning and teaching

Principles The brain is a complex adaptive system The brain is a social brain The search for meaning is innate The search for meaning occurs through

patterning Emotions are critical to patterning Every brain simultaneously perceives

and creates parts and wholes Learning involves both focused

attention and peripheral perception Learning always involves conscious and

unconscious processes We have at least two ways of organizing

memory Learning is developmental Complex learning is enhanced by

challenge and inhibited by threat Every brain is uniquely organized

Seven stages to planning brain-based learning. They match fairly well with Gagne’s Nine Events.1. Pre-exposure2. Preparation – curiosity and excitement3. Initiation and acquisition – overwhelm

learner with information and give them time to figure it out

4. Elaboration – help learner refine and process information

5. Incubation and memory encoding6. Verification and confidence checking7. Celebration and interpretation

>Brain-Based Education

Melds many theories into one (a conglomerate) based on how the brain learns (neuroscience applied to teaching)

Primary principles

Uniqueness – every single brain is totally unique

Impact of threat or high stress can alter and impair learning and even kill brain cells

Information is stored and retrieved through multiple memory and neural pathways

All learning is mind-body – movement, foods, attentional cycles, drugs and chemicals all have powerful modulating effects on learning

The brain is a complex and adaptive system – effective change involves the entire complex system

Patterns and programs drive our understanding – intelligence is the ability to elicit and to construct useful patterns

The brain is meaning-driven – meaning is more important to the brain than information.

Learning is often rich and non-conscious – we process both parts and wholes simultaneously and are affected a great deal by peripheral influences.

The brain develops better in concert with other brains – intelligence is valued in the context of the society in which we live.

The brain develops with various stages of readiness.

Enrichment – the brain can grow new connections at any age. Complex, challenging experiences with feedback are best. Cognitive skills develop better with music and motor skills.

Primary strategies:

Orchestrated immersion & rich simulating environments make a subject matter a part of their world

Creating relaxed alertness reduces stress and create a peak learning state

Active processing – get learner activated and involved in learning

Group learning and conversation Flexibility, novelty, and variation Active/passive places where students

can go for reflection and retreat away from others

Humanist (Confluent Education)

>Theory: Humanism

Theorists: Maslow, Rogers, Knowles

Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill one’s potential

Focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential

A central assumption of humanism is that people act with intentionality and values

This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning

A primary purpose of humanism could be described as the development of self-actualized, autonomous people

Self-actualization, teacher as facilitator, affect Learning is student centered and

personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key, and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment

>Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A theory of motivation

In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchical pyramid with five levels. The four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level is considered growth needs

The lower level needs need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior Self-actualization (highest) – morality,

creativity, problem solving, etc Esteem – includes confidence, self-

esteem, achievement, respect, etc Belongingness – includes love,

friendship, intimacy, family, etc Safety – includes security of

environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc.

Physiological (lowest) – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc

>Theory: Experiential Learning

A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. concrete experience (or “DO”) reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”) abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”) active experimentation (or “PLAN”)

Four learning styles which correspond to these stages: assimilators, who learn better when

presented with sound logical theories to consider

convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories

accommodators, who learn better when provided with “hands-on” experiences

divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information

Goals and preconditions

Experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner. A learner that is motivated to achieve a specific goal will be more likely to learn than an individual assigned to read for a grade.

Principles

1.Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student

2.Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum

3.Learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low

4.Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive.

Condition of learning

1. Setting a positive climate for learning2. Clarifying the purposes of the learner(s)3. Organizing and making available learning resources,4. Balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning5. Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating

Role of facilitator

To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning

Instructional strategies

1. The student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction2. Learning is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems3. Self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.

Assessment method

Student engages in self-assessment. The teacher provides guidance as needed.

Cooperative learning

A cooperative group has a sense of individual accountability that means that all students need to know the material or spell well for the whole group to be successful

Putting students into groups does not necessarily gain a cooperative relationship; it has to be structured and managed by the teacher or professor

Conditions of cooperative learning (elements of positive cooperative learning

Clearly perceived positive interdependence Considerable promotive (face-to-face)

interaction Clearly perceived individual accountability

and personal responsibility to achieve the group’s goals

Frequent use of the relevant interpersonal and small-group skills

Frequent and regular group processing of current functioning to improve the group’s future effectiveness

Learning Styles

Every human has a mixture of learning styles and preferences

Whether or not learning personalities and preferences can be categorized as learning styles is highly debatable and so far

unproven. There are more important issues to consider than unproven individual learning styles

Learning styles are generally considered to be situational and based partly on individuals’ past experiences with different styles of learning and on their physiological makeup (neural and otherwise)

> Theory: Multiple Intelligences Theory

Seven intelligences are noted, but Garder has stated that the theory of multiple intelligences is not limited to the original seven. Other suggested intelligences are naturalist (natural environment), spiritual/existential, and moral (ethics, humanity, value of life)

Learners have preferred learning styles, as well as their behavioral and working styles, and natural strengths

A person’s strength is also a learning channel. A person’s weakness is not a good learning channel

Developing a person's strengths will increase their response to the learning experience, which helps them to develop their weaknesses as well as their strengths

Intelligence types and capabilities:1. Linguistic – words and language2. Logical/mathematical – logic and

numbers3. Musical – music, sound, rhythm4. Bodily/kinesthetic – body movement

control5. Visual/spatial – images and space

6. Interpersonal – other people’s feelings7. Intrapersonal – self awareness

> Model: VAK (VARK or VACT)

Model and accompanying tests to understand and explain people’s preferred ways of learning

Good companion to the Multiple Intelligences Theory

Refers to visual-auditory-kinesthetic, but other common terms are visual-auditory-tactile/kinesthetic or visual-auditory-physical

Does not overlay the multiple intelligences theory, rather provides a different perspective

According to the model, most people possess a dominant preferred learning style, though some are mixed and some are balanced

VARK learning styles Visual (V) learners prefer to read/write

(R), see, follow, and look Auditory/aural (A ) learners prefer to

listen, ask, call, verbally explain, and discuss

Kinesthetic/physical/tactile (K) learners like to have a go, do, try, play, imagine, test-drive, demonstrate, and follow

Multimodal are individuals with multiple preferences

VARK questionnaire Active learners learn best by doing Sensing and intuitive learners prefer

discovering possibilities and relationships

Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps

Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator "MBTI" Introverts tend to prefer to focus on

inward thoughts and feelings Extroverts tend to prefer to talk aloud

and discuss with others Eight ways of knowing

Verbal/linguistic Logical mathematical Visual/spatial Bodily kinesthetic Musical/rhythmic Naturalist Interpersonal Intrapersonal Multiple intelligences

Connectivism

Unlike other learning theories that are primarily concerned with the actual process of learning connectivism is concerned with the value of what is being learned

A need to evaluate the worthiness of learning something

Competence is derived from forming connections Stronger connections and more well

developed networks equate to greater competence

Weaker connections and less well developed networks equate to lesser competence

Decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations

Principles of connectivism

Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions

Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources

Learning may reside in non-human appliances

Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known

Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning

Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.

Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities

Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate affecting the decision

Conscious Competence Learning Matrix

Four primary stages:

Competence Incompetence

Cons

ciou

s

Learner achieves 'conscious competence' in a skill when they can perform it reliably at will.The person will need to concentrate and think in order to perform the skill.The person can perform the skill without assistance.The person will not reliably perform the skill unless thinking about it - the skill is not yet 'second nature' or 'automatic'.The person should be able to demonstrate the skill to another, but is unlikely to be able to teach it well to another person.The person should ideally continue to practice the new skill, and if appropriate commit to becoming 'unconsciously competent' at the new skill.Practice is the single most effective way to move from stage 3 to 4.

The person becomes aware of the existence and relevance of the skill.The person is therefore also aware of their deficiency in this area, ideally by attempting or trying to use the skill.The person realizes that by improving their skill or ability in this area their effectiveness will improve.Ideally the person has a measure of the extent of their deficiency in the relevant skill, and a measure of what level of skill is required for their own competence.The person ideally makes a commitment to learn and practice the new skill, and to move to the 'conscious competence' stage.

Unc

onsc

ious

The skill becomes so practiced that it enters the unconscious parts of the brain - it becomes 'second nature'.Common examples are driving, sports activities, typing, manual dexterity tasks, listening and communicating.It becomes possible for certain skills to be performed while doing something else, for example, knitting while reading a book.The person might now be able to teach others in the skill concerned, although after some time of being unconsciously competent the person might actually have difficulty in explaining exactly how they do it - the skill has become largely instinctual.This arguably gives rise to the need for long-standing unconscious competence to be checked periodically against new standards.

The person is not aware of the existence or relevance of the skill area.The person is not aware that they have a particular deficiency in the area concerned.The person might deny the relevance or usefulness of the new skill.The person must become conscious of their incompetence before development of the new skill or learning can begin.The aim of the trainee or learner and the trainer or teacher is to move the person into the 'conscious competence' stage, by demonstrating the skill or ability and the benefit that it will bring to the person's effectiveness.

Possible fifth stage: ‘Conscious competence of unconscious competence', which describes a person's ability to recognize and develop unconscious incompetence in others

SOURCES:

(2009). Cognitive apprenticeship. Retrieved from: http://web.cortland.edu/frieda/ID/IDtheories/7.html

(2009). Index of learning theories and models. Retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com

(2009). Instructional Technology Connections. Retrieved from http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html

(2009). Learning theories and instructional strategies matrix. Retrieved from http://www.elizabethstps.vic.edu.au/learningtheoriesmatrix.htm

(2009). Learning theories and strategies. Retrieved from: http://www.ksquareddesign.com/kim/media/pdf/KimKelly-JobAid.pdf

Chapman, A. (2009). Howard garder’s multiple intelligences. Retrieved from: http://www.businessballs.com

Dabbagh, N. (date retrieved). The Instructional Design Knowledge Base. Retrieved month, day, year from Nada Dabbagh's Homepage, George Mason University,

Instructional Technology Program. Website: http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/index.htm

Driscoll, Marcy P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston: Pearson.

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Medsker, Karen L., and Holdsworth, Kristina M. (2001). Models and Strategies for Training Design. Silver Spring: ISPI.

Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved from: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

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Retrieved from http://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/32079/1/32079_drugmemo.pdf

Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social and situational

Learning theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner

Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne

Maslow, Rogers Bandura, Lave and Wenger, Salomon

View of the learning process

Change in behaviour Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception

A personal act to fulfil potential.

Interaction /observation in social contexts. Movement from the periphery to the centre of a community of practice

Locus of learning Stimuli in external environment

Internal cognitive structuring

Affective and cognitive needs

Learning is in relationship between people and environment.

Purpose in education

Produce behavioural change in desired direction

Develop capacity and skills to learn better

Become self-actualized, autonomous

Full participation in communities of practice and utilization of resources

Educator's role Arranges environment to elicit desired response

Structures content of learning activity

Facilitates development of the whole person

Works to establish communities of practice in which conversation and participation can occur.

Manifestations in adult learning

Behavioural objectives

Competency -based education

Skill development and training

Cognitive development

Intelligence, learning and memory as function of age

Learning how to learn

AndragogySelf-directed learning

Socialization

Social participation

Associationalism

Conversation