Frascara - Graphic Design - Fine Art or Social Science

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Graphic Design: Fine Art or Social Science?

Jorge Frascara

Design Issues , Vol. 5, No. 1. (Autumn, 1988), pp. 18-29.

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J o r g e F r a s c a r a

Graphic Design Fine rt

or Social Science?

o r r o s ~ v c N o 0o.n F I m lI thank the editors of D e s i g n I s s u e sand particularly VictorMargolin, for their useful comm ents to m y initial manuscript. T he

a present version has very much benefited from their advice.

Fig. 1 Sym bols for safety, an area left

aside when grap hic design is onlyviewed as an esthetic activity.

Fig. 2) St ruc tu r ing comm unica tion bydesign: design of forms based onhum an factors has been shown tomake a difference that conventionaldesigners traine d in a rt schools hadnot achieved before applie dpsychologists took the lead. A user-performance-based approach where theanalysis of the communication processis at the center.

Fig. 3) Design beyond esthetics:a lphabet for the learning disabled byJ.

Frascara and T. M. Nelson. Widelytested, it has proved to out performoth er initial reading alphabets as alearning tool.

oward a theoretical backbone for graphic designGraphic design has existed long en ough fo r its role in society to beeasily unde rstood . How ever, unlike architecture, l i terature, o r thefine arts, i t has developed withou t m uch theoretical reflection. Ithas evolved into a sophisticated practice in a piecemeal fashion,with s catte red efforts aimed at the developm ent of subareas, suchas posters or books, b ut wi thou t ei ther the cr i t ical apparatus inliteratu re or the discussion present in architecture.

T h e aspect of graphic design that has attra cted some discussionis visual style. But this discussion of style has several flaws:

It overemphasizes the importance of the visual structurewithin an esthetic con text.It om its problems of appropriateness.It leaves o u t certain areas of gra phic design, such as signage,form s, timetables, maps, and educational materialFigs . 1 2

3 .It omits the importance of ideas in the communicationprocess, not distinguishing between visual creation andvisual m anipulation.It avoids problems of performance related to visual per-ception.It omits problems related to the impact that graphiccommunication has on the public s atti tud es and ideas.

The se flaws have led to several distortions, th e m ost im porta ntbrou ght ab ou t by the praise of modern avant-garde typography .H o w long will the praise of El Lissitzky continue? Tr ue , he made astrong impact on a few typographic designers whose work ingraphic design was closely related t o th e practice of art a nd lookedvery similar to their paintings or the paintings of avant-garde

artists of the time. H ow eve r, was Lissitzky s co ntribu tion reallypositive? H is visual language was tremendo usly abstra ctFig 4 asinappropriate t o mass comm unication as Schwitters s graphics


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Fig. 4 El Lissitzky, Of w quares,1920. Abstract language directed atchildren.

using Pelikan ink motives were inappropriate for the product

nFigs. and 6 .

Pelikan ink used for line drawing and calligraphywas presented surrounded by geom etric typography black andFig. 5 Th e pre-modem Pelikanlogo: appropriateness of language,

red bars and rectangles. N o t only did that imagery no t expressthewith rderence o the drawing product bu t it did not even relate to the logo o r the label. Why didink medium.

Fig. 6 Kurt Schwitters: Design w ithPelikan ink. A case where the createdimage has nothing to do with theproduct or its label.

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Design Issues: Vol. V Nu mber 1 Fall 988 9


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[chwitters's designs include Pelikan ink bottles when th e designs

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really related t o constructivism, no t t o Pelikan.Lissitzky was interested in improving communication, as his

writing shows. This article, however, questions the apparentsuccess of his works reproduced in design history books. H e andother avant-garde artists made a major impact in the visualdevelopment of graphic design, bu t they also raised the impor-tance of th eir esthetic approach t o a point where the communi-cation link with th e comm on denom inator they were addressingbroke down. T hey seem not t o have been aware that com muni-cation requ ires the sharing of codes. Although designers need no trely totally on the stereotypes, they cannot disregard the codes ofthe public; they should work w ith the public and improve its visualand conceptua l language as much as possible, with out breaking thecomm unication link.

Lissitzky worked on a wide range of projects, some of thempossibly less flashy and more useful than others, b ut the Lissitzkyworshiped by many contemporary designers and design historiansis the person w ho produced t he quasi-abstract, constructivist, redand black pieces.

Fig ) Kurt Schwitten: ExpmsiOn Although the quality of Lissitzky's, Schwitters's, and vanthat is ap propriate on the cover ofthe first issue of ~ m Doesburg's designs in their own exhib itions Figs. 7 and 8 , deas,

and publ ationican be praised, the fact that they failed t o realizetha t their visual language was n ot appropriate inall possible casesmust be acknowledged. T he same is applicable to other artists who

did some graph ic design. Joan Miro was perfectly skillful in th eprom otion of his own exhibition Fig. 9 , bu t Albers's prom otionfor a Lincoln Center Film Festival says a lot about Albers andlittle, if anything , about a film festival Fig. 10 .

T he excessive importance given t o th e avant-garde movem entin the c onte xt of graphic design history is based bn the failure oftheory t o recognize graphic design as something othe r than an a nform. F urtherm ore, as an a rt form, graphic design is viewed only

1 1 4 11 i: 2 1 1 :I from an esthe tic perspective, without enough consideration ofcommunication and social significance. Surely, esthetics is impor-

Fig 8 Vilmas Huszar: Logo for De tan t, but it is by no means the sole measure for quality.Stijl journal A case of spontaneou saDDroDriateness n visual st le usual Discussion should start with a working definition. Graphic.. .amo ng artists who express ;heir ow n designis the ac tivi ty that organizes visual communication in society.ideas It is concerned with the efficiency of communication, the

technology used fo r its implementation, and the social impact iteffects, in o ther words, with social responsibility. T he need fo rcomm unicative efficiency is a response t o the main reason for t heexis tence of any piece of g raph ic design:someone has something tocommunicate to someone else.This involves, t o a greater o r lesserextent, a perceptual and a behavioral concern.

The perceptual concern involves visual detection problemssometimes and comm unication problems all the time. Problems of


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Fig. 11 A case of lack of professionalresponsibility: actu al size of a labelfor a contact cement containershowing directions for use andwarnings abo ut toxicity black typeon red ground in the original).

Fig. 12 Edward Johnston: railwaytype, 1916. A no-nonsensetypograph y for signage.A step aheadin communication at a tim e whenornam ent and self-expression werethe com mon alternatives.

Fig. 13 Jan Tschichold: Die neuetypographic. A new approach totypographic design that combinedesthetics with a stro ng concern forthe organiza tion of information.

Th e impact that all visual communication has in the com-munity and the way in which its content influences people.Th e impact that all visual communication has in the visualenvironment.The need to ensure that communications related to thesafety of the community are properly implemented F i g .11) .

This brief summary shows that the practice of graphic designtranscends the realm of esthetics. Pursuing the identification ofthe pioneers of graphic design in this context and seeing in whatway El Lissitzky compares to Edward Johnston F i g .12) or to JanTschichold F ig . 13) is therefore worthwhile. Interesting resultsmight also be derived from comparisons between t he contri-butions of Armin Hofmann and Giovanni Pintori when the focusof attention moves from a specific esthetic conception t o commu-nication efficiency. Although Hofmann created a beautiful styleFigs . 14 and l l i ) , Pintori had a greater flexibility and a better

understanding of the importance of appropriateness and created afeeling for Olivetti tha t still exists after 30 years Fig . 16) .

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Although the concepts of communication and technologicalefficiency are common denominators for all areas of graphicdesign several internal differences depending on the subareaneed developing. The things graphic designers should know topromote the sale of cookies are very different from those they needto know t o teach a five-year-old how to read. Every time a graphicdesigner really wishes to achieve the objectives of the communi-cation proposed the cross-disciplinary nature of the professionbecomes apparent.

Graphic designers are always in need of active dialogue withtheir clients and with other professionals e it with an editor amanager a marketing expert or an educator o really make the

Ibest of their Dractice. This certainlv has immrtant imDiications in

Fig. 14) Armin Hofmann:Advertisement for Hermann M iller, relation t o the evaluation of graphic design quality and t o the1962. Coincidence between the education of graphic designers.graphic designer's stylo and the

product announced.Fig. 15) Armin Hofmann: An The problem of quali ty in graphic designabstracornpositionintenMt ~ ur t h e r o the working definition of graphic design advancedrepresent insects. A strong estheticparadigm does not allow above a definition for quality in graphic design is also necessary:communication efficiency. Qua lity in graphic design is measuredby the changes it produces inFig. 16) G iovanni Pintori: Poster forOlivetti 82 Diaspron. 1958. the audience The movement away from esthetics and stylisticTechnological precision and modern innovation as determinants of quality started when investigationselegance in the developm ent of aSUCCCSS~UIcorporate identity . related to perceptual psychology particularly the Gestalt school

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Design Issues: Vol. V Number Fall 988 23


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provided some theoretical concepts for visual fundamentalscourses in art schools. These concepts replaced intuitive rules forwhat was calledcomposition. This involved a rationalization ofpart of the design process and was parallel t o developmen ts in thestudy of legibility. T he stud ies in legibility were the express ion ofan interest tha t went beyond th e esthetic struc ture of th e visualfield and stepped i nto a concern fo r com munication efficiency.

Th is concern represented a new factor in the m easurement ofquality in design. T he 1950s and 1960s saw a growing inte rest incommunication throu ghou t th e field. Th e works of Paul Randand Josef Miiller-Brockman are two different expressions of thisconcern Figs. 7 and 18 . Research on labeling of equipmentinstruction strategies; and information panels developed by theUnited States armed forces since World War I1 introduced aconcern for communication efficiency simultaneous with thedevelopment of information theory comm unication theory andsemiotics. Signs became signage systems and logos becamecorpo rate identities. Buildings fashion and life-styles started t obe analyzed in communication terms. In addition the receivers ofgraphic design messages were then discovered as an active par t ofthe comm unication process. However these receivers initiallywere perceived basically as decoders.

T he objective of graphic designers was t o produce clear

Fig. 17) Paul Rand: Cover design forthe American Institute of GraphicArts. Th e rebus as a way ofcommu nicating to graphic designers.Fig. 18) Joseph Miiller-Brodtmann:Poster for a camp aign against noisepollution. Th e strength of form as a

vehicle for commun icationtypography in red in the original

version).

; On ly designers in theadvertising business were


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concerned with other elements in the performance of theirdesigns: namely, sales. A t least as far back as th e 1950s, it becameclear tha t clients accounts depended on clients success and thatadvertising design was a contr ibu ting factor t o the success of abusiness. T h e concer n for sales and persuasion in the advertisingfield led to th e const itut ion of multidisciplinary teams of mana-

gers, writers, sociologists, psychologists, and designers whocon trib ute d to th e establishment of m arketing as an indispensablecomponent of the advertising field.

Altho ugh unde rstanding th e imp ortanc e of changes in publicattitudes as a consequence of design has so far been limited toadvertising, a closer look at t he w hole field of graphic design m ightsuggest th at specific changes in attitud es and cond uct are, indeed,th e final aim of graphic design in mos t areas. It has been said manytimes th at the designer is a proble m solver of visual commun i-cat ions and of clien ts needs. Bu t the solution to a client s need is notthe produc tio n of the visual comm unication ; it is the modification ofpeople s attitudes o r abilities in one w ay or another. T hi s m odifi-cation can be a change, as in switching from one prod uct t o ano thero r in qui tti ng sm oking; a reinforcement, as in th e case of exercisingmore, giving m ore m oney t o chari t ies , or dr inking more m ilk; or afacilitation, as in the case of reducing th e comp lexity of reading,opera ting a machine, o r orienting oneself in a new place.

T h e quality of th e designs produc ed in relation to t he aboveexamples will be determ ined by the num ber of people who switch

t o the desired product , w ho qu it smoking, and so forth. Clar i tyand be auty d o no t necessarily determine objective achievement,whereas they usually contr ibu te t o success. If graphic designerswish t o be recognized as problem solvers, i t is indispensable th atthey concern themselves with the results of their work m easuredby achievement of th e objectives that generated th e need for theprodu ction of the visual comm unication in question.

I am n ot advocating the demise of esthetics. Esth etic appropri-ateness and quality are certainly of high importance, both asfactors that affect performance and as responsibilities designershave t o the com munity. My proposi t ion is t o place the co ncept ofquality in co nt ex t and t o establish its relativity, as well as t o clarifytha t the esthetic quality of a design does no t determine its overallquality.

Th is thesis has wide implications bo th in term s of th e practiceof th e profession a nd of ed ucatio n for it . I n th e case of practice,specialists ot he r tha n graphic designers are required t o interp retpublic responses, t o evaluate design performance, and t o adviseregarding appropriate modification of the communication stra-

tegies when bette r results are desired. T h e experts required forthis task m ay vary from one professional area t o an other, b ut , ingeneral, they should presumably come from the fields of mar-

Design Issues: Vol . V, Number Fall 988


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keting, sociology, psychology, and education, disciplines whosemain concerns are th e behavior of individuals and grou ps, and theproblem s of interpreting , quantifying, and qualifying informa-tion, as well as to a greater or a lesser extent, applying theinformation t o practical ends.

The implications for graphic design education are just as

obvious: the traditional a rt school cann ot provide a full answer.Obviously, th e thesis here contend s tha t the designer s job is no tfinished when the design is produced and delivered, but thatevaluation must be an integral part of the design process. In asafety symbols project, for example, th e design problem is not th eproduction of symbols but the development of an effectivecomm unication strategy for the prevention of accidents. It is no tenou gh for the symbols t o be beautiful, clear, and visible; these areuseful factors, bu t th e real measure of the quality of the design liesin its contrib ution t o the reduction of accidents.

A t best, these con sideratio ns will mak e the evaluation of designquality clearer and will better equip designers t o con tribute moreefficiently to the solution of clients problems. And not justcommunication problems, because as already indicated, the finalobjective of every communication design is some kind of beha-vioral change in a target population that occurs fter thecommunication has taken place.

he education of graphic designers

A basic duality of graphic design becomes apparent when theforma tion of practitioners is considered: what skills do they need t odevelop? Graphic design is both a rational and an artistic activity.T h e decision-making process in graphic design alternates betweenthe consideration of objective information and intuitive leaps. Th egoal of prac titioners should be t o base thei r decisions as much aspossible on objective informa tion, bu t th e nature of the field alwaysrequires a certain degree of artistic intuition, that is, of decisionsmade by designers on the basis of experience that is difficult toquantify or explain rationally. (Graphic design in this case is

comparable to marketing or psychoanalysis. All are activities inwhich a body of knowledge has t o be applied to specific situationstha t relate t o hum an behavior.)

T h e balance between artistic and rational elements in th e practiceof graphic design poses an interesting challenge to design educators,a challenge tha t calls for th e developmen t of visual sophistica tion andintuitive abilities t o express con cepts visually, along with a rationalcapac ity fo r processes of analysis and synthesis. In ad ditio n, graphicdesigners need skills t o listen a nd interp ret the needs and concepts ofpeople in other fields and enough flexibility of mind and visualresources t o produ ce efficient communications.

N o school could atte mpt t o deal with all of these requirements in


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every area of professional practice. Advertising, information, illus-tration, editorial, signage, and education design are areas thatdemand different backgrounds, training, and aptitud es and requireboth specialized instructors and motivated students for each.Reducing the scope of a program t o include only some of th eprofessional areas would be admissible.A school might choose no t

t o deal with three-dimensional design, tha t is, packaging, signage,and exhibitions; another might concentrate on advertising, whichmight be excluded by still another.

Wh ereas, mak ing the above choices wou ld be desirable, removingany of t he concerns th at should be p resent in all graphic design workwould no t be advisable. T h e teaching should represent all levels ofthe activity, tha t is, the emo tional and the rational, th e comm uni-cative, the technological, and the awareness of the social context.

In most cases, emphasis has been placed on the visual aspect ineduc ation. Th ere has also been a focus on ed ucation as a process oftransmission of inform ation and th e develo pme nt of personal skillsand style. This trend has led to a reduction of the concernsapprop riate t o graphic design.

In this con text, an im portant distinction can be made betweenundergraduate and graduate education in graphic design. Under-graduate education must be centered on developing individualstuden t s skills; graduate education should d o the same at a higherand more conceptual level, while also contributing to the ad-vancement of knowledge in the field.

Research and advancem ent of knowledge in graphic design requireth e su ppo rt of senior educational institutions. Professional practicedoes not usually allow for research time, and, when research isdeveloped, practitioners d o no t share informa tion with others.Ma rket research in advertising is very co mm on, b ut it is case specificand difficult t o apply to different situations. Perception psycho-logists develop basic and applied research of wider application, butmany times psychological research is so removed fro m reality t ha tplacing its results in applied contexts requires additional researchefforts.

I am no t suppo rting the idea tha t universities should directly serveindustry, bu t th at those interested in the advancement of knowledgecannot expect from industry inquiries othe r than those connected t oits immediate benefit. It therefore follows th at visual com mun icationproblems th at relate to noncommercial hum an needs have only theuniversity as a resource for developing solution s. The re is a need t owork on several fronts:

Reference centers where existing information can be storedand retrieved should be developed.More information should be generated through two kinds ofresearch activities: experimental, and critical discussion ofbot h present and past work.

Design Issues: Vol. V, Nu mb er 1 Fall 1988


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takes place.My emphasis o n this aspect shifts the designer s cente r of

attention from the interrelation of visual components to thatbetween the audience and the design, recognizing the receiver asactive participant in the co nstruc tion of the message. It follows thatdecisions relating t o visual aspects of the design should be based not

only on compositional concerns, bu t also, and chiefly, on the studyof hum an com munication. Th is emphasis on th e receiver within theconventional scheme of transmitter- receiver opposition placesvisual comm unication design opposite t o th e romantic conceptionof a rt as self-expression, thus avoiding one of the distortingconceptions of the profession.

Given the above, the time has come to understand that theeduc ation designers cann ot be satisfied by the resources of traditionalart schools and that several branches of psychology, verbalcomm unication, sociology, com putin g science, marketing, and o the rdisciplines should be called upon t o develop in studen ts th e requiredawareness. Th is seems to be the on ly choice if a theoreticalund ers tan ding of graphic design is to develop and if th e field is totake on the responsibility for the conception and production ofeffective and conscientious comm unications and for the education ofgraphic designers. This specific operational dimension must bequalified by a conce rn for professional and social responsibility th a tincludes ethics and esthetics.

Design Issues: Vol. V, Number 1 Fall 1988

Frascara - Graphic Design - Fine Art or Social Science

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