Francisco José de Caldas and the early development of ...

PERSPECTIVE Francisco Jos�e de Caldas and the earlydevelopment of plant geographyCarlos E. Gonz�alez-Orozco1*, Malte C. Ebach2 and Regina Varona3

1Institute for Applied Ecology and

Collaborative Research Network for Murray-

Darling Basin Futures, University of

Canberra, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia,2School of Biological, Earth and

Environmental Sciences, UNSW, Kensington,

NSW 2052, Australia, 3Fundacion “Amigos

del Sabio Francisco Jos�e de Caldas”, Popay�an,

Cauca, Colombia

*Correspondence: Carlos E. Gonz�alez-Orozco,Institute for Applied Ecology and Collaborative

Research Network for Murray-Darling Basin

Futures, University of Canberra, ACT 2601,

Australia.

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Between 1801 and 1810, the Colombian cartographer, astronomer and botanist

Francisco Jos�e de Caldas (1768–1816) produced a series of maps showing phy-

togeographical regions of taxon distributions drawn in three-dimensions across

landscapes in the Andean region of present-day Ecuador. However, until the

late 1990s, his phytogeographical maps remained unpublished and his methods

largely unknown. To create his maps, Caldas generated three-dimensional

topographic profiles showing the elevation, maximum and minimum limits of

distribution for single species and taxon regions delimited according to lati-

tude, illustrating the geographical extent of each phytogeographical region.

Here, we provide evidence to argue that Caldas’ scientific work is important

for understanding the development of plant geography in late 18th century

Latin America.

Keywords

bioregionalization, Colombia, Ecuador, Francisco Jos�e de Caldas, history of

biogeography, phytogeography, plants, Popay�an, Quito, von Humboldt

INTRODUCTION

The history of plant geography, or phytogeography, is well

understood by many scientists (Nelson, 1978; Browne, 1983;

Camerini, 1993; Ebach & Goujet, 2006; Ebach, 2015). How-

ever, the contribution of scientists living in Spanish colonies

such as New Granada in the late 18th century are poorly

understood (Appel, 1994). Nieto Olarte (2006) published re-

discovered phytogeographical maps developed in the early

1800s by an unknown Colombian cartographer, Francisco

Jos�e de Caldas (1768–1816) (Fig. 1). Until Nieto Olarte’s

book was made public, no other publication had illustrated

the full extent of Caldas’ phytogeographical maps. Here, we

discuss a previously unknown historical perspective to

demonstrate that during the late 18th and early 19th cen-

turies, Caldas developed a systematic method for drawing

three-dimensional phytogeographical maps independent of

European naturalists. We highlight the scientific contribution

that Caldas’ phytogeographical maps made to biogeography.

While Caldas’ cartographical work is well illustrated in

Nieto Olarte’s (2006) book, it fails to highlight the impor-

tance of Caldas’ work in relation to his European counter-

parts. Caldas’ maps differed from the work of European

naturalists, such as Jean-Louis Giraud Soulavie, Alexander

von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland, in a number of ways.

Caldas applied a systematic approach to draw, characterize

and define plant regions accurately across the Andean regions

of Ecuador based on taxon distributions. The maps of plant

regions published by Nieto Olarte show a detailed topograph-

ical contour of the Andes in a three-dimensional view. For

example, Caldas mapped individual species which, when

combined in a latitudinal gradient, showed the complete phy-

togeographical regions of Cocos butyracca and Cinchona dis-

similiflora across coastal and Andean areas of Ecuador (see

Appendix S1 in Supporting Information). Unlike the two-di-

mensional profiles of mountains depicted by Giraud Soulavie

in 1783 (Bourguet, 2002) and von Humboldt & Bonpland

(1805), Caldas’ more sophisticated three-dimensional maps

depict whole mountain ranges and show the location of spe-

cies in relation to the surrounding geography.

CALDAS’ EARLY LIFE

Caldas was born in 1768 in Popay�an (Fern�andez-P�erez,

1955), a province in the Spanish colony of New Granada

(present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Panama).

As a young man, Caldas had a keen interest in physics and

mathematics. However, at his father’s insistence, he studied

law at the Colegio Mayor del Rosario in the capital Santaf�e

de Bogot�a. In 1784, Caldas fell ill soon after finishing his

ª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jbi 1doi:10.1111/jbi.12586

Journal of Biogeography (J. Biogeogr.) (2015)

university studies, and he returned home to Popay�an. Once

his health was restored, he began to work as a merchant (Jar-

amillo Gonz�alez, 2010). During 1795, Caldas travelled to the

east of Popay�an across the central mountain range, trading

fabric in the towns between Popay�an, Timan�a and La Plata

(Appel, 1994). It was during these trips that Caldas devel-

oped an interest in plant geography, which extended to

understanding and mapping the complex topography and

plant distribution. One year before Caldas first encountered

the European naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, he

reflected on the geography of the plants that he had observed

during a trip to the Coconucos volcano located near

Popay�an:

In 1800, during my field trips to the Coconucos volcano, a

mountain at a high elevation and permanently covered with

snow, I began my botanical collections and my first observations

about the geography of the plants. This trip, dictated by my love

for these topics, resulted in a discovery. I found, after testing

many times, a method to measure the mountains using the tem-

perature at which water boils.

(Caldas, 1 July 1809, p. 214; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias,

1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and

M.C.E.)

Unfortunately, it appears that there is no documentation

of his first observations from these earlier trips. His earliest

documented maps date back to 1802, when he produced

phytogeographical maps of the Ecuadorean Andes depicting

precise plant distributions.

THE ROYAL BOTANICAL EXPEDITION AND

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

Caldas first personally met von Humboldt on 31 December

1801 in Ibarra, Ecuador (Jaramillo Gonz�alez, 2010). von

Humboldt invited Caldas to spend a few days in Hacienda

‘El Chillo’, where von Humboldt and Bonpland were staying

during their time in Quito, Ecuador. It was on that visit that

Caldas learnt about Linnaeus’ classification and plant geogra-

phic theory from von Humboldt. Caldas applied this knowl-

edge in his work documenting aspects of plant taxonomy

(Fig. 2a) on expeditions in Ecuador. In a letter to his friend

Santiago Arroyo, he wrote that soon after meeting von Hum-

boldt, he invited Caldas to join him on a trip to Peru. To

Caldas’ great disappointment, von Humboldt withdrew his

offer because of pressure from the Marques de Selva Alegre

to take his son Carlos Montufar on the expedition (Appel,

1994, p. 147). However, in 1802, Caldas was presented with

an opportunity to participate in the Royal Botanical Expedi-

tion of New Granada led by the Spanish botanist Jos�e Celes-

tino Mutis (Diaz-Piedrahita, 1984). This expedition gave

Caldas the chance to work with a well-known botanist who

had connections with important European naturalists, such

as Linnaeus, and royalty, such as King Charles III of Spain.

The objective of the expedition was to catalogue the flora of

New Granada, in particular to document the geographical

distribution and taxonomy of Cinchona species (commonly

known as quinine) in Ecuador (Fig. 2b) because these species

had an important medicinal use in preventing malaria. Cal-

das discovered that the natural distribution of Cinchona spe-

cies was mainly between 1000 and 3000 m a.s.l., which he

would later represent in his three-dimensional phytogeo-

graphical maps. Caldas collected extensive botanical and geo-

graphical data on Cinchona species, which he reported in a

letter to Mutis:

The biological and geographical data I collected during my field

trips between 1802 and 1805 were five to six thousand botanical

vouchers stored in a herbarium, two volumes of botanical

descriptions, and numerous handmade sketches of the most rele-

vant plants. I made the sketches myself because the expedition

did not pay for a painter to illustrate the plants. I collected min-

erals, as well as seeds and the bark of cultivated plants. All this

information will allow me to develop a geographical atlas of the

Viceroyalty, including a series of botanical and zoogeographical

monographs. I also created profiles of the Andes, including the

elevation of the most prominent Andean peaks, covering a dis-

tance of more than 9 degrees latitude. I recorded more than

1,500 elevation records for towns and mountains around the

region, as well as their barometric pressure. I collected numerous

data on meteorology and astronomy, which were used to write

two volumes of various observations and calculations. I even

sampled some specimens of mammals and birds. I presented this

Figure 1 Portrait of Francisco Jos�e de Caldas (1768–1816): thefather of plant geography in Latin America. The portrait was

painted by Antoine Maurin (1793–1860) and published in the

journal Semanario de la Nueva Granada: miscel�anea de ciencias,literatura, artes e industrias. Printed by Armand Godar (publication

date unknown; in Museo Nacional de Colombia, 2002).

Journal of Biogeographyª 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

2

C. E. Gonz�alez-Orozco et al.

information in 16 letters to Mutis, but unfortunately, he did not

respond as positively as I had expected.

(Caldas, 1808, p. 351; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias, 1978;

quote translated from Spanish to English by C.E.G-O. and

M.C.E.)

Caldas’ studies of the geography of the Cinchona species

provided him with the opportunity to further develop and

apply his knowledge of phytogeography and plant distribu-

tion mapping. It was indeed a valuable experience for Caldas,

and he believed that this early work would make a significant

contribution to plant geography, as stated in a letter to

Mutis:

I started my Ecuador field trip in July 1802. I left Quito and

travelled to Ibarra and Otavalo. I explored both areas and made

a number of cartographic and astronomical maps whilst there. I

also went to the Cotacache, Mojanda and Imbabura volcanoes

and measured their elevation. I descended to the mouth of the

Imbabura volcano and collected samples of its numerous plants.

I described the taxonomy of each plant specimen and illustrated

each one in drawings. Here was where I believe I began to collect

the information necessary to fulfil my greatest work, which I will

title ‘Plant Geography of the Santaf�e Viceroyalty’. This was chal-

lenging work that required experience in different fields, such as

geography, astronomy and, more importantly, the science of

barometric measurements. That is why it is important to master

the barometer, because my questions and perhaps my discoveries

depend on it. It is the reason why I carried it with me every-

where I went and used it to record each place where the plants

grow. . .

. . .If I get the support and the time necessary to finish my work,

my nation will see a botanical atlas of New Granada with profiles

of the Andes from 40 degrees of austral latitude to 91/2 degrees

of boreal latitude showing the location and elevation where each

plant grows, descriptions of the climate they need, and the most

suitable conditions. Neither Mutis nor anyone else can deny that

my way of looking at vegetation was not conceived in Europe

where they do not deviate from common knowledge.

(Caldas, 1808, pp. 345–346; Academia Colombiana de Ciencias,


M.C.E.)

PROFILES AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL MAPS

Caldas created a complete profile map of the Imbabura vol-

cano and the surrounding mountains in 1802 (Fig. 3). In

one single map, Caldas was able to represent the distribution

(a) (b)

Figure 2 Unpublished samples of Caldas’ scientific work. (a) A sketch of a botanical collection (no. 39; Asteraceae) by Caldas, probably

collected on his field trips to the Imbabura volcano, Ecuador in 1802. (b) Original hand-written description of his economic botanywork on the medicinal properties and human uses of four species of Cinchona (C. longifolia, C. oblongifolia, C. coxoifolia and

C. ovalifolia) in Ecuador. Each column represents a Cinchona species, its medicinal use and morphological features. Images publishedwith permission of Jose Bolivar Mosquera, Popay�an.


3

Origins of plant geography

of 30 native plant species on the western slopes of the Imba-

bura volcano. For this purpose, Caldas drew a profile of the

volcano and each of the surrounding mountains, which

included the elevation, atmospheric pressure and location of

taxa. Each profile map also included the location of the taxa

represented in the map with a collection number that

referred to a botanical voucher stored in a herbarium and a

sketch of the plants. Caldas employed his knowledge of

astronomy and climatology to estimate the elevation at

which each plant grew. He developed a method to calculate

the elevation of mountains by measuring the temperature of

boiling water (Pombo et al., 1958; Appel, 1994). Caldas

noted his discovery in his diary in 1801, referring to it as the

‘Caldas hypsometric thermometer’ (Arias de Greiff, 1996;

Jaramillo Gonz�alez, 2010). Caldas was isolated from the

European naturalists and hence had no support from any

scientific community, except for Mutis’s botanical expedition

collaboration. Despite this, Caldas’ hypsometric thermometer

is considered a significant contribution to science, made by a

scientist in isolation and for which he is most widely known

(see appendix A in Appel, 1994). In a letter to King Charles

III of Spain, who had funded the expedition, Caldas

described his discovery:

In 1799 and the early 1800s, I tested the temperature at which

water boils at different elevations. I collected barometric and

temperature variations at different elevations while climbing the

Andean mountains around Popay�an. I came to the conclusion

that the elevation of the mountains can be measured using the

thermometer in the same way as a barometer is used.

(Caldas, 30 September 1808, p 347; Academia Colombiana de

Ciencias, 1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by

C.E.G-O. and M.C.E.)

Once individual profile maps were completed (Fig. 3),

Caldas combined them into a single regional three-

dimensional map (Fig. 4a) and phyto-regions (Fig. 4b),

giving the observer a sense of space and the geographical

location of the objects in the landscape. Caldas’ collections

of the Cinchona species and other native flora in the entire

Andean region of Ecuador were documented in a full series

of phytogeographical maps (Appendix S1). Caldas’ phytogeo-

graphical maps are possibly the first attempt to develop an

elegant and systematic approach to mapping plant distribu-

tions across regions and elevational gradients using detailed

cartography in a multi-dimensional space. In a letter to King

Charles III of Spain, Caldas described his three-dimensional

maps:

I mapped the geographical location of towns, villages, mountains

and rivers that can be found in the middle of the exuberant veg-

etation of the colony. I did not conform by just locating the spa-

tial distribution of plants, which is a major aim in my project. I

managed to make cross sections of the Andean mountains from

4°300 austral to 40°300 boreal latitude. The profiles are projected

east–west with a blue background simulating the sky. The profiles

allow us to see the peak shapes, volcanoes, villages, major towns,

valleys and the plant distribution with the corresponding eleva-

tion where they are located. Just by looking at the profiles, it is

also possible to identify the latitude of each locality. I also

mapped the maximum and minimum elevation limit for each

plant, the region, the width of the region and the middle point

in respect to the vegetation type. There are 18 sheets with moun-

tain profiles that I mapped using astronomical, geographic and

barometric measurements. Each profile has a particular topogra-

phy that represents parts of the Andes, when put together they

roughly illustrate the cartography of the equatorial Andes.



M.C.E.)

The complete phytogeographical work consisted of 18

regional profile maps, of which, unfortunately, only nine

were fully completed (Appendix S1). Caldas wrote to King

Charles III of Spain in one of his letters:

As I already mentioned to you, the profiles of the Andes cover

4°300 austral to 40°300 boreal latitude. These profiles are really

important and provide the foundations of phytogeography,

which ceased because of our beloved Director’s [Mutis] death.

This work deserves your Excellency’s order that it be concluded.

The development of these profiles was stopped due to Mutis’s

sudden death. There are 18 profiles that make up this regional

Figure 3 Caldas’ first profile map made in1802. The Imbabura volcano in Ecuador,

showing the spatial location of 30 nativeplant species and their elevation. (Published

in 1804 by Francisco Jos�e de Caldas;Biblioteca Ecuatoriana Aurelio Espinosa

P€olit; in Gonz�alez Su�arez, 1907.)


4


map of which only 9 have been completed and it would be pain-

ful to abandon this work at this stage.



M.C.E.)

RELEVANCE TO BIOGEOGRAPHY

While Caldas is most known for his discovery of the hypso-

metric thermometer, his work on phytogeography is

undoubtedly his greatest intellectual contribution (Diaz-Pie-

drahita, 1992; Appel, 1994). It was not until 2006, when

Nieto Olarte first published Caldas’ cartographical work that

greater attention was given to his studies of phytogeography.

Caldas’ method was unique because his maps provided

greater visual detail and technical sophistication than other

maps drawn at that time. He achieved this despite his lim-

ited resources compared to those of his European peers.

Much of Caldas’ phytogeography was influenced by von

Humboldt (Nicolson, 1987). However, Caldas’ ideas on plant

geography were different from those of von Humboldt. Caldas

was most interested in researching the use of plants (i.e. medi-

cine, agriculture), identifying the optimal environmental con-

ditions for crops to grow (Diaz-Piedrahita, 1997) and

mapping local plant regions. von Humboldt, on the other

hand, was more interested in documenting the natural history

and ecological aspects of the organisms in ecosystems. Such

fundamental differences led both men to generate methods to

create maps that, whilst complementary, are best suited to

their particular purposes. Specifically, von Humboldt’s maps

contained multiple layers of geographical information describ-

ing broad plant assemblages (Nicolson, 1996). His maps cov-

ered entire biomes and vegetation types based on large and

extensive collections of data, but as a result, they lacked detail

about individual species. Caldas’ maps covered relatively small

areas of the Andes and focused on individual plant distribu-

tions and their relationship with topographic features across

landscapes.

Consequently, Caldas’ phytogeographical method is simpler

than von Humboldt’s and uses smaller data sets (i.e. location,

elevation and species name). Caldas explained to King Charles

III of Spain some of his principles of plant geography:

The plants that we cultivate, that serve us in the arts and that

cure us, are those that deserve our attention. Humboldt is lim-

ited to elevation, whereas we establish the precise limits to deter-

mine the location of each species below the equator; we even

dare to establish the latitude as far as it extends, and as it were,

determine the location of all the plants in the tropics that we

have studied. We define principles and general laws about the

(a)

(b)

Figure 4 Examples of Caldas’phytogeographical work in Ecuador (maps

completed between 1801 and 1810). (a)Topographical map of one of the regions

between Loja and Quito (ArchivoCartogr�afico y de Estudios Geogr�aficos delCentro Geogr�afico del Ejercito, Ministeriode Defensa, Madrid, Espa~na -SGE-,

Cartograf�ıa Iberoamericana, Serie 2, Lamina4; Code: X.SG-a-11; in Nieto Olarte, 2006).

(b) Phytogeographical map of regionnumber 7. This phytogeographical map of

region number 7 shows the Chimborazovolcano on the top right, the names and

descriptions of the phytogeographicalregions, the dominant taxonomic group (i.e.

cultivated or native plants), elevation,latitude and three taxon regions described at

the bottom of the map: Spondias region (ingreen), Cinchona dissimiflora region (in red)

and Cocos butyracca region (in blue). Today,

Cinchona dissimiflora is known asFernandusia dissimiliflora, and Cocos

butyracea is known as Attalea butyraceae.(Archivo Cartogr�afico y de Estudios

Geogr�aficos del Centro Geogr�afico delEj�ercito, Ministerio de Defensa, Madrid,

Espa~na -SGE-, Lamina 7. Cartograf�ıaIberoamericana, Code: X.SG-a-11. Latitude:

1°–1°300; in Nieto Olarte, 2006).


5


geography of the vegetation, and we believe we have made a con-

tribution to this science, which, as confessed by Humboldt, is in

its infancy.

(Caldas, 30 September 1808, p. 385; Academia Colombiana de

Ciencias, 1978; quote translated from Spanish to English by

C.E.G-O. and M.C.E.)

In Europe, von Humboldt’s work in ecological biogeogra-

phy and de Candolle’s in historical biogeography established

new scientific frontiers in their own right. von Humboldt

published his essay on the geography of plants (von Hum-

boldt & Bonpland, 1805), focusing on the geophysical fac-

tors, vegetation types, plant forms, animals, geology and

(a)

(b)

Figure 5 The European maps most similar to Caldas’ phytogeographical work. (a) von Humboldt’s Tableau Physique showing a cross

section of Mount Chimborazo and Mount Cotopaxi in the Andes (von Humboldt & Bonpland, 1805). (b) Vertical cross–section of theVivaroises Mountains and its respective limits of plants by Giraud Soulavie (1783; in Bourguet, 2002).


6


climate (Fig. 5a). At the same time, Candolle (in de Lamarck

& de Candolle, 1805) published the first biogeographical

map of the French flora (Ebach & Goujet, 2006). The French

naturalist Jean-Louis Giraud Soulavie (Bourguet, 2002) also

developed profiles of plant distributions (Fig. 5b), but they

did not provide the same level of geographical detail as those

depicted by Caldas. Caldas’ approach involved mapping

phyto-regions as taxic distributions unlike the plant assem-

blages that were mapped by von Humboldt or the vertical

climate profiles mapped by Soulavie (Bourguet, 2002). Cal-

das, therefore, introduced a specific method with a strong

cartographic perspective to map individual species, for exam-

ple, the species found in the Chimborazo volcano region.

The combination of aesthetics and geographical accuracy of

the taxon regions across latitudinal gradients also differenti-

ated Caldas’ work. Another unique element of Caldas’ plant

geography was the grid sketched on top of the topographical

profiles and regions of taxon distribution showing the precise

location of single species in a region (see map of Cinchona

officinalis; Nieto Olarte, 2006, p. 71, fig. 3.9). This concept of

gridded maps is used in today’s digital mapping.

Caldas’ maps provided a high level of spatial detail utiliz-

ing botanical collections at the species level to infer phyto-

geographical regions. The fact that Caldas focused on local

in situ collections of individual plants allowed him to map

species distributions in detail. If Caldas’ maps had not been

lost and had been published once they were completed in

the late 18th century, they could have provided a wealth of

insight and knowledge to the further development of plant

geography.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Julia de Raadt, Anthony C. Gill and Peter Unmack

for their constructive comments on an earlier draft of the

manuscript. This paper is dedicated in memory of the

Colombian historian and botanist Santiago D�ıaz-Piedrahita,

who extensively documented Caldas’ life and work.

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alidad y su obra. El descubrimiento de la Hipsometr�ıa, pp.

67–93. Suplemento de la Revista de la Academia Colom-

biana de Ciencias Exactas, F�ısicas y Naturales. Librer�ıa

Voluntad, Bogot�a.

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Additional Supporting Information may be found in the

online version of this article:

Appendix S1 Caldas’ phytogeographical maps, Quito to

Loja, Ecuador.

BIOSKETCHES

Carlos E. Gonz�alez-Orozco is a research fellow at the

Institute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra (Aus-

tralia) and is interested in biogeography, evolution, phyloge-

netics, conservation, agronomical ecology, climate change

and the history of science. His research aims to explain the

relationship between evolutionary processes, environment,

agriculture, biodiversity and human populations.

Ebach Malte is a senior lecturer at the University of New

South Wales UNSW (Australia) who is working in a research

program on Australasian biogeography and natural classifica-

tion.

Regina Varona is a lawyer based in Popay�an (Colombia)

who takes a keen interest in documenting Caldas’ life and

work. She is currently the director of the Fundaci�on Amigos

del S�abio Caldas ‘FUNDACALDAS’.

Editor: Hans-Peter Comes


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