Fish Defense Mechanisms

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Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfish, are afamilyof mostlymarinefishthat includes many of the world's

mostvenomousspecies. As the name suggests, scorpionfish have a type of "sting" in the form of sharp

spines coated with venomousmucus. The family is a large one, with hundreds of members.[2]

They are

widespread in tropical and temperate seas, but mostly found in theIndo-Pacific. They should not be

confused with thecabezones, of the genusScorpaenichthys, which belong to a separate, though related

family,Cottidae.

ome types, such as thelionfish, are attractive as well as dangerous, and highly desired foraquaria. In

addition to the name scorpionfish, informal names for family members include "firefish", "turkeyfish",

"dragonfish", and "stingfish", usually with adjectives added.

General characteristics of family members include a compressed body, ridges and/or spines on the head,

one or two spines on theoperculum, and three to five spines on the preopercle. Thedorsal finwill have

11 to 17 spines, often long and separated from each other, and the pectoral finswill be well-developed,

with 11 to 25 rays. The spines of the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins all have venom glands at their bases .[3]

Most species are bottom-dwellers that feed oncrustaceansand smaller fish. Many inhabit shallow waters,

but a few live as deep as 2,200 metres (7,200 ft).[2]

Most Scorpionfish, such as thestonefish, wait in

disguise for prey to pass them by before swallowing, whilelionfishoften ambush their prey. When not

ambushing, lionfish may herd the fish, shrimp, or crab in to a corner before swallowing. Scorpionfish feed

by opening their mouth, then their gills a fraction of a second apart, creating suction. Stripers, grouper,

bass, snook, frogfish, toadfish, sculpin, etc., also feed this way, but the scorpionfish, toadfish and sculpins

are the only members of this group that have jaw teeth.

Staying Alive

The Amazing Survival Strategies of Marine Creatures

Story and photos by Marty Snyderman

Somewhere around the time most of us began to see cartoons on televisionwe became aware of the hunting skills and fierce reputations of some of theoceans" more notable predators, creatures such as great white sharks, tigersharks, killer whales, giant squid and barracudas. As we grew older and ourknowledge of marine life expanded we became aware of hundreds of otherspecies that survive alongside the oceans" "biggest and baddest," and werealized that creatures lower on the food chain do not live their livescompletely at the mercy of the appetites of the top-end predators. Every

species has its own bag of survival tricks, adaptations that empower at leastsome members of each species to live long enough to reproduce beforeending up in the bellies of predators in the real-life game of staying alive.

As you spend more and more time diving, you will inevitably learn about thenatural history of various marine creatures you encounter, and you willbecome increasingly aware of the amazing variety of adaptations they use to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venomoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venomoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venomoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pacifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pacifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pacifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabezonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabezonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabezonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenichthyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenichthyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenichthyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(fish)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(fish)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(fish)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectoral_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectoral_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonefishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonefishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonefishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonefishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectoral_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_finhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operculum_(fish)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenichthyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabezonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pacifichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpaenidae#cite_note-EoF-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venomoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)


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avoid predation. Even though there are far too many predator-avoidingmethods to list, much less discuss in a single article, learning the ways thatmarine animals avoid predation will help you gain insight into the lives of themany creatures you are likely to see when you dive.Survival StrategiesLet's start by examiningsome methods fishes use toavoid predators. Manyfishes, a group that includessilversides, mackerels,anchovies, herrings, tunas,

jacks and snappers, andmany other species, live inlarge schools. Several

theories support theadvantage of schooling.First, there is the concept ofsafety in numbers, meaningthat the odds of a single fishgetting captured by ahungry predator are lesswhen a fish schools than ifthat same fish swims alonein a predator-filled sea.Many specialists suggest that a position nearest the center of a school

maximizes the protective benefit of schooling. Second, in schools there are alot more eyes and other sensory systems on the lookout for possiblepredators. Third, some specialists also believe that a school might be seenby some predators as a being bigger than the predators. Attacking a singlecreature that appears to be as big as the school would mean taking too big ofa risk.Form and FunctionOf course, not all fishes live in schools. Solitary species use other ways tohelp them avoid predators. For example, when danger threatens thin-bodiedspecies such as angelfishes and butterflyfishes, their thin bodies allow themto escape into the narrow cracks and crevices of reefs, places that theirthicker-bodied predators cannot enter. When feeling threatened, razorfishesdisappear into the sand, while species such as jawfishes, tilefishes and avariety of blennies seek shelter in their self-made burrows.Flatfishes such as flounders, halibut, turbots and sanddabs camouflagethemselves to go sight unseen by predators and prey alike. These amazing


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creatures use cells in their skin known as chromatophores to help themmatch the hue and pattern of their surroundings with remarkable accuracy.Other masters of camouflage, such as sculpins and stonefishes, use their

coloration, patterning and facial appendages to blend with their surroundings.Frogfishes and leaffishes can resemble their surroundings and sit almostmotionless for long periods, enabling them to go undetected.The greatly flattened shape of rays, skates and sharks such as angelsharkshelps them blend with the substrate. Many flattened animals bury themselvesin the substrate at times to go undetected by predators and prey alike.When frightened, balloonfishes and pufferfishes swallow water and inflatetheir bodies, increasing their apparent size and erecting numerous sharpspines that deter many potential threats. Some smaller fishes, such as hornsharks and Port Jackson sharks, possess sharp spines next to their dorsal

fins that can be raised to puncture the mouths of animals that try to bitethem. The spines of the juveniles are considerably sharper than those of thelarger adults, and the juveniles are often spit out to live another day bypredators that mistake them for an easy meal.Triggerfishes use a modified triggerlike dorsal fin to help them lodge intocrevices when danger is present. Their dorsal fin contains three spines withthe most forward being the largest. When the first spine is erected during amoment of fear, the second spine moves forward to "lock" the first spine intoposition, and the fish positions itself in a way that the erect spine prevents itfrom being pulled out of its hiding place.Venomous DefenseSpines in the dorsal fins of scorpionfishes and stonefishes enable thesefishes to deliver a painful, and in some cases toxic, puncture wound towould-be predators.The beautiful species commonly called lion or turkeyfishes are close relativesof the stonefishes and, not surprisingly, they too are armed with a venomousdefense system. Being slow to give ground when approached and ratherbelligerent by nature, these fishes can inflict potent, poisonous stings withtheir long, dorsal spines.Other AdaptationsMany species of parrotfishes are wary and very difficult to approach duringthe day. At night, however, they enter a sleep-like state known as torpor,zonking out on the sea floor. Sometimes they squeeze into cracks orcrevices, but amazingly members of several species routinely "sleep" out inthe open inside of self-spun cocoons created from the combination of sand


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and their own mucus. The cocoons are believed to mask their odor,preventing predators such as moray eels that rely upon their olfactory systemto find prey from detecting their presence.Some butterflyfishes use a false eyespot to fool predators. Near the tail, thefalse eyespot stands out prominently, while their eyes are often masked byfacial stripes and other markings. Seeing the false eyespot, a predator mightbe deceived about which end of the butterflyfish is the head and which is thetail. The theory is that the predator will often think the butterflyfish will try toescape by going the opposite direction of the course it actually chooses.

Anemonefishes are well-documented to hide among the potent, stingingtentacles of sea anemones. Anemonefishes are able to protect themselvesfrom the powerful stings of their host anemones, but the bright colors andattention-getting antics of the anemonefishes can lure other fishes into a fataltrap, one that is believed to provide food for the host anemone and for the

anemonefish.Fishes known as sharksuckers, remoras and many other small fishes eitherattach themselves or swim close to a larger animal such as a shark, turtle,grouper or barracuda. The idea here is that no other predator is likely tocome close to their large predatory host, so these relatively small fishes onlyhave to keep a watchful eye out for a single predator.Fishes Aren"t the OnlyClever OnesOf course, it is not just

fishes that are equippedwith adaptations thatenable them to foilpredators.Octopuses and squids emitclouds of ink to evadepredators. While the inkobscures the predator"svision, anesthetizing theolfactory systems of

predators such as morayeels is thought to be theink"s primary purpose.Many species of nudibranchs are extremely colorful and stand out in theirsurroundings. Slow crawlers, nudibranchs seem easy prey. However, variousspecies of nudibranchs secrete noxious chemicals that repel predators.


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Other species are able to transfer the unfired stinging cells from soft coralsand anemones into the cerata on their backs, and the nudibranchs use thestinging cells as part of their own defense.Sponges might appear to be an easy meal for an uneducated predator, buttheir tough, fibrous bodies are laced with sharp, silica-based spicules thatonce nibbled upon repel many fishes. Some species of sponges harborzoanthids, small, stinging creatures described in the phylum Cnidaria that liveon the sponges. Their presence helps to deter some fishes such as Frenchangelfishes that have adapted to feed on the sponges.Colorful worms known as fire, or bristle, look harmless, but their coloration isa warning that packs a punch. The hairy-looking tufts that border their bodiesare composed of numerous fiberglasslike bristles that can easily penetratethe skin of many animals that try to bite them, and once they penetrate, thebristles break off and cause significant pain (at least in the case of humans).In other instances the best defense is a quick retreat, and few species are asadept at retreat as tubeworms. When relaxed and not feeling threatened,tubeworms extend their featherlike gill plumes to trap food and to extractoxygen from the water. But the instant a tubeworm senses danger, the gillplumes are drawn into their tube, in acts that occur in the blink of an eye. Immobile animals and others that are rather poor swimmers face a significantproblem when it comes to escaping predators and capturing food. With flightand pursuit being unavailable, animals such as corals, anemones, hydroidsand jellyfishes need instant results. So it should come as no surprise that thelegendary stings of these creatures are both potent and fast-acting. In fact, itis believed that the firing of their stinging cells is one of the fastest cellularresponses in all of nature. The firing process is entirely mechanical, beingcaused by touch or pressure waves, and no thought process is involved. The echinoderms known as sea cucumbers are rather unattractive creatures.They might be considered an easy meal if sea cucumbers could not expeltheir stomachs. The sticky, foul organ can be regenerated, and in the shortterm when regurgitated it repels predators.I could go on and on listing and discussing various ways marine animalsavoid and escape predators. While the adaptations mentioned in this piece

certainly are not all-inclusive, I do hope that the variety provides you withvaluable insights into the marine kingdom. It is an interesting exercise after adive to consider the creatures you saw acquire food while avoiding beingeaten. Understanding how that real-life game is played will add to your ownappreciation of the clever ways of Mother Nature, the most amazing lady anyof us will ever know.


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Fly AwaySeveral species of fishes known as flying fishes can glide over the surface ofthe sea to escape predators such as billfishes, dorado, tunas and sharks.

Flying fishes have been documented to soar at speeds of up to 35 mph (56kmph) for distances up to 750 feet (227 m) in a single glide. Flying fishes usethe powerful side-to-side motion of their tails to propel themselves forwardthrough the water, and once they break free of the water these fishes extendtheir enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins, using them to help the fishes glideover the surface. So, technically these fishes glide as opposed to havingwings that enable them to fly. But when you see them gliding across thesurface, the name flying fishes certainly seems apropos.Take That

A number of invertebrates, most notably sea urchins, use sharp spines todefend themselves against predators. The barbed spines of most sea urchinslack venom, but create a formidable defense nonetheless. Known for eatingcorals, the crown of thorns sea star is another invertebrate that is armed withsharp, protective spines.Give A Little, Gain A LotOver time, many sea stars can regenerate lost body parts, and "lost parts"can regenerate a new body in some instances as long as a portion of theanimal"s central disc remains attached. So when attacked, sea stars oftensacrifice one arm to escape, regenerate and live another day.

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In the marine world, one of the fundamental challenges for many creatur

Early on in life most children learn that a variety of very capable apex pr

sharks and barracudas roam the worlds oceans and that the oceans can be

that drop their guard.

But as we grow older and learn more about the oceans and marine wi

that there are a lot more marine creatures that are not top-end pred

continue to flourish. For any species to thrive over long periods, suffi

must live long enough to reach adulthood and reproduce. For this to

be able to defend themselves from the onslaught of marine predators

more than to have them for their next meal.
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In this piece I will examine some of the ways that various species of fishes d

in a world filled with a variety of very capable predators.

Staying in School

Schooling is one of the primary ways many fishes help defend themselves fro

80 percent of all fish species school as juveniles and roughly 20 percent scho

ichthyologists say that the concept of safety in numbers plays a fundament

behavior. The adage big fish eat little fish is generally true, so to overcome

caused by their diminutive size, many small fishes gather in schools. It is bel

schools look like a single large creature, and many predators tend to leave la

Another aspect of the safety in numbers theory revolves around the fact th

predator attacks a school, the odds are low that any one fish will be the one t

captures. In essence, each member of the school operates under the premise

hiding among the school than it is to roam the waters alone.

In a school each fish near the edge of the school serves as a lookout, thus he

rest of the school. Many schooling fishes are able to quickly react to the escap

fish, at least in part because of their lateral line system. Specialized receptorssides of the body can detect minute changes in water pressure that might be

another nearby fish suddenly changes speed or direction. Anyone who has wa

fishes has seen the amazing speed with which all of the fish in a school can s

simultaneously react to the sudden movement of animals nearby.

Blending In

Many fishes rely heavily upon their ability to blend into their surroundings so

might go undetected by predators. Certainly this is the case for flatfishes suc

flounders, turbots and soles. These fishes are masters of the art of cryptic co

routinely alter the hue and pattern of their skin to closely match that of their

These fishes also often bury themselves in sand to further disguise their pres


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such as sculpins and scorpionfishes can also alter the color and pattern of the

the surrounding reef or seafloor. In addition, the bodies of many sculpins and

adorned with numerous fleshy appendages that break up their outline and he

the seafloor and other nearby organisms.In California waters giant kelpfish do an amazing job of altering their color an

blend with the aquatic algae known as kelp. But when it comes to looking like

kelp, Australias leafy sea dragon is the clear winner. This master of camoufla

that has fins, eyes and a snout.

Countershading is another oft-used form of camouflage. A wide range of spec

variety of smaller mackerel as well as larger fishes such as manta rays have d

whitish bellies. When viewed from above, their darkly hued backs help them b

hued bottoms or with the darkness of the abyss below, while their whitish un

them blend with more lightly hued surface waters when seen from below.

Colors and patterns that break up the outlines of fishes serve as yet another

camouflage. Vertical bars on the bodies of fishes are a common pattern often

fishes that live in or near beds of aquatic plants. The vertical stripes blend wi

orientation of the plant stems, making the fishes hard to distinguish. Dark lat

along the sides of many fishes are often seen in schooling fishes. Specialists t

bands appear to run together, making it difficult for predators to distinguish o

next.

Using Speed and Maneuverability

Reaction time and speed are extremely valuable assets for any fish trying to e

While most people tend to think of sharks as predators they are also prey, es

are young and small. A burst of speed from a juvenile lemon shark, blacktip,

species helps these fast swimmers escape predation from larger members of

as well as other sharks and fishes such as large sea basses that would like to

The same is true for small tunas, jacks and mackerels, species that use their

both when hunting and when being hunted.


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Many reef fishes are highly maneuverable, a characteristic that enables them

within the tight confines of reef communities. In addition, thin-bodied specie

angelfishes and butterflyfishes can quickly slide into hiding places when dang

Sticking it to Em

A variety of fishes use numerous sharp spines and armored scales to help fen

swallowing a lot of water when alarmed, balloonfishes and pufferfishes can in

erecting a number of very sharp spines. The rigid and sharply pointed spines

unpleasant mouthful of nails and needles instead of an easy meal.Surgeonfishes are named for the strategically placed, often brightly colored,

spines near the base of their strong tail. Those spines and a quick beat of the

serious injury to any predator. The bright color of the spines serves as a don

warning sign.

A number of relatively small reef sharks including the horn sharks, Port Jacks

crested bullhead possess a sharp spine toward the front of their dorsal fin. In

the spines are especially sharp, and when erected make an unpleasant surpri

such as a large sea bass or angelshark. Triggerfishes are also equipped with aspine. Instead of using this spine to inflict injury, they erect the spine to help

into tight cracks and crevices in reef communities, preventing predators from

triggerfishes out of their holes.

While not armed with sharp spines, boxfishes and sea horses possess armore

harden their bodies, making it more difficult for an attacker to injure or captu

is true for a variety of catfishes, many of which also possess sharp spines.

Stingrays, as many beach users know all too well, are equipped with one or mon their tails near the base. Capable of injecting powerful venom, these barbs

injuries to animals that try to harm the rays.


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Poisons and Potions

Scorpionfishes, lionfishes and stonefishes are equipped with a pair of poison

of each of their many pectoral spines. When threatened these species can qu

and use these spines as venom-injecting needles to repel threats. The reef st

to be the most highly venomous fish in the world.

Mimicry

A variety of fishes such as the foureye butterflyfish use a false eyespot to con

The big, dark, conspicuous spot is on the back of the fishs body above, but ne

Specialists believe the eyespot is intended to trick predators into thinking tha

actually its head so the predator is likely to attack the least vulnerable end of

body, and the predator is likely to be fooled by the direction the butterflyfish

attempts to evade the predator.

On the Fly

More than 50 species of flyingfishes use their ability to glide above the surfacescape predators such as tunas, billfish, sea lions, dolphins, sharks and more

able to jump out of the water and then glide through the air over considera

When spread while airborne, their greatly enlarged pectoral creates an airfoil

airplane wing providing lift and enabling these fishes to glide. Those species

wings also have enlarged pelvic fins that provide additional lift.Once flyingfish break the surface they spread their fins and beat their tail. Th

lobe of the tail works like an outboard motor with the sideways motion of the

fish to gain height and extend the duration of the flight. Flyingfish can glide f

(100 m), and they are occasionally seen as high as 10 feet (3 m) above the su

Safe at Home


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Many fishes, including tilefishes, a variety of gobies and jawfishes, reside in s

to where these fishes retreat when they detect danger. In some cases the bu

elaborate and have several entrances and exits meaning that a predator cannopening and be ensured of cornering its prey.Razorfishes dont require a burrow. They can quickly bury themselves in sand

variety of eels such as snake eels and cusk eels are also adept at quickly bury

sand to escape harm. Many blennies live in sponges or in the vacated shells o

mollusks. These small living quarters provide the blennies with superb places

the need arises.

Shock and Awe

In comparison with other rays, electric rays are not fast swimmers. Nor are t

barbs like stingrays. But they are far from defenseless. As their name sugges

equipped with specialized electricity-producing organs that can unleash powe

that help these rays protect themselves and stun prey. The rays do not have t

contact with the creatures they shock. They just need to be sure the creature

electrical field created when a ray unleashes a jolt of electricity. Electric rays

electricity-producing ability frivolously. It takes time for them to store more

the interim might have trouble warding off another attack.Fishes employ a variety of techniques and strategies to defend themselves. Le

ways fishes protect themselves provides valuable insight into the inner work

oceans, rivers, lakes, ponds and streams.

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Materials:

paper, paper plate, pencil and black marker
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scissors or cutter glue

Instructions:

Draw a half circle with a marker on the edge of the

plate.

cut a triangular mouth from the half circle area

Glue the piece you cut out onto the back as a tail.

Cut an eyeball out from construction paper (or use thetemplate piece).

Cut long triangles out from construction paper and glue themaround the paper plate.

Cut a fin shape out (or use the template piece) and glue it tothe middle of the fish.


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Fish Defense Mechanisms

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