firaun in the period of Musa

8/12/2019 firaun in the period of Musa

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he Identification Of Pharaoh During he ime Of Moses

M S M Saifullah, Abdullah David & Mohammad Ghoniem

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Assalamu alaum wa rahamatullahi wa baraatuhu#

-. Introduction

!reated for the "ur"ose of evangelising the native "eo"les the colonialists

were encountering as the e/"anded across the globe, the missions of the

!hristian missionaries were one of the breeding grounds for biblical

archaeolog in the nineteenth centur0-1 2 and remain so until this "resent


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da. Although the earliest e/cavations in 3g"t were not "ur"osel develo"ed

with the intention to underwrite the biblical narrative, scholars were cogni4ant

of the fact that ancient 3g"t had been mentioned in the 5ld 6estament,

"articularl in the boos of Genesis and 3/odus.0%1 As the mass e/cavation

of 3g"t beconed, the colonial "owers rushed forth to anal4e a countr full

of ancient treasures s"anning different religions and cultures over severalmillennia. In 7ictorian 8ritain much of the "o"ular interest revolved around

the ancient 3g"tian connections with the 8ible, es"eciall the 3/odus

narrative. It is in such a conte/t that Amelia 3dwards, an amateur

3g"tologist, and Reginald Stuart 9oole of the De"artment of !oins and

Medals at the 8ritish Museum, founded the 3g"t 3/"loration und :now

3g"t 3/"loration Societ; in -''%.0


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Moses saw "arts of the reigns of two 9haraohs :3/odus %#%


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te/t being the boo of I Nings #-,

In the four hundred eightieth ear after the Israelites came out of the land of

3g"t, in the fourth ear of Solomons reign over Israel, in the month of Oiv,

which is the second month, he began to build the house of the (5RD.0-1

It is generall agreed that Solomon ruled c. J$ 8!3 due to snchronisms

with 3g"tian and Assrian historical records.0--1 6herefore, according to the

conservative evangelical "osition, one sim"l adds *' to JF$ 8!3

:fourth ear of Solomons reign; to arrive at the figure -**F$ 8!3.0-%1 All

archaeological evidence is strictl inter"reted in light of this date, i.e., one

arrives at the date before one adduces su""orting archaeological evidence.

6he 9haraoh of the 3/odus according to the ancient 3g"tian chronological

data is thus 6uthmosis III :sometimes also written as 6hutmose III; whoreigned in the "eriod -*$J2-*%B 8!3 0igure


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and inerrant Eord of GodP 6hirdl, irres"ective if one follows either of these

numbers, none of them matches the number tallied when one ado"ts a

straightforward literal reading of individual =udge reigns and other "eriods of

time given in the 5ld 6estament from I Nings bac to the boo of 3/odus.

ensham neatl summarises,

6he "eriod of the =udges e/tends from the death of +oshua to the death of

Samson or the beginning of the activities of Samuel. 6he total of all the dates

given in +udges is *- ears. 8ut - N. #- states that the tem"le of Solomon

was constructed in his fourth ear, *' ears after the 3/odus. If we tae *-

ears and add the * ears s"ent in the desert, then the ears of +oshua, 3li,

Samuel, Saul, and David, then add SolomonLs ears, a figure of

a""ro/imatel BJJ ears emerges, which is --J ears in e/cess of the *'

ears given in Nings.0-B1

Similar calculation b ?offmeier of reigns derived from talling the ears in

retrograde order from I Nings bac to the boo of 3/odus gave


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harmonised in a fashion suitable for the conte/t, then the various theories of

biblical ins"iration, infallibilit and inerranc are necessaril rendered void

and the divine authorshi" of the 5ld 6estament overstated. Additionall, one

should note the theological convictions and "resu""ositions of those

"ro"onents of the earl2date model mean the dogmaticall adhere to the

Masoretic te/t re"orting of numbers and are unable to "rovide a reasonablee/"lanation of their "reference for the numbers re"orted there as o""osed to

the Se"tuagint or Dead Sea Scrolls. 6he following two re"resentative

e/am"les will serve to illustrate the fact that such an a/iomatic standard

cannot be ado"ted without difficult. In - Samuel -$#*, is Goliath si/ cubits

and a s"an tall :c. J J;, or four cubits and a s"an tall :c. J;P 6he

Se"tuagint and the oldest e/tant ?ebrew witness Dead Sea Scroll *HSama,

which "redates the oldest Masoretic ?ebrew manuscri"t b around -,

ears, agree with each other against the Masoretic 6e/t.0-J1 Remaining in the

boo of - Samuel, how man vessels are re"orted in verse %#-*F-P Given

the choice of two vessels as "er Dead Sea Scroll *HSama, three vessels as

"er the Se"tuagint and four vessels as "er the Masoretic te/t, 9arr o"ts forone vesselQ0%1 Such e/am"les could easil be multi"lied manifold.

E?3C IS A 9(A!3 CAM3 C56 A 9(A!3 CAM3P

6he "roof te/t of those scholars ado"ting the late2date model is based on a

set reading of the boo of 3/odus -#--,

6herefore the set tasmasters over them to o""ress them with forced labor.

6he built su""l cities, 9ithom and Rameses, for 9haraoh.0%-1

Ramesses II was nown to have constructed the cit of 9i2Ramesses :or 9r2

Ramesses, lit. house or dwelling of Ramesses; and it became the ca"ital of

his ingdom. 8 studing the usage of the name 9i2Ramesses in its

eg"tological conte/t, scholars of ancient near eastern archaeolog uicl

identified the residence named in 3/odus -#-- must be referring to the samecit. Attem"ts have been made b those scholars who su""ort the earl2date

model to "rove that the name Ramesses e/isted before the advent of

Ramesses.0%%1 ?owever, of those cities that used the name Ramesses, none

of them "redate the reign of Ramesses II. 6his "articular issue was studied

in2de"th b "rominent 3g"tologist Sir Alan Gardiner over J ears ago.0%


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6o sum u"# whether or no the 8ible narrative be strict histor, there is not the

least reason for assuming that an other cit of Ramesses e/isted in the

Delta besides those elicited from the 3g"tian monuments. In other words,

the 8iblical Raamses2Rameses is identical with the Residence2cit of 9i2Ramesses near 9elusium.0%*1

6he 9entateuchal occurrences of Ramesses omits the initial element 9r2F9i2.

6his should not seen as a reason for distinguishing the biblical references

from the Ramesside residence of the northeast Delta as the writing

KRamessesL is attested in 3g"tian records and was a well2nown

abbreviation for this cit.0%B1 !onseuentl, with this data in hand, "ro"onents

of the late2date model hold the 9haraoh of the 3/odus to be Ramesses II

who reigned from -%$J2-%-< 8!3. 6his dating of the 3/odus en=os"o"ularit among scholars.0%1

A""reciating their "osition is confounded b the numerical data given in the

Masoretic and Se"tuagint te/t of - Nings #-, the "ro"onents of the late2date

model deal with this contradiction b resorting to a numerical substitution

theor as follows. irst, the start with the number *' as re"orted in the

Masoretic te/t of the 5ld 6estament. Second, * ears is =udged as being the

KidealL generation, giving *' F * -% generations in total. ?owever, the

value * is substituted for its actual real mathematical value of %B, as this is

closer to the actual length of a generation. 6hird, the mathematical

calculation continues to its conclusion giving -% / %B


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Realising the "roblem such an inter"retation of 3/odus -#-- "oses in that it

directl contradicts the data "rovided elsewhere in the 5ld 6estament

regarding number of ears ela"sed since the Israelites came out of 3g"t, the

"ro"onents of the "reviousl discussed earl2date model, in order to esca"e

the charge of historical contradiction or anachronism, affirm that editorial

u"dating has occurred.0%'1 According to them, this means that the name ofthe storeFsu""l cit built b the 9haraoh called Rameses in 3/odus -#-- was

originall named something else. 6hat is, the theoretical original reading,

which is "resentl unnowable and cannot be ascertained from the e/tant

biblical manuscri"ts, has in fact been u"dated b an unnown, unnamed

editor:s; centuries after Moses allegedl com"osed his te/t. 5ther well2nown

historical anachronisms in the 8ible due to editorial u"dating, to name but a

few, are mention of the 9haraohs when the rulers of ancient 3g"t were not

even called 9haraohs, a""earance of the name 9oti"har in the time of

+ose"h when the name 9oti"har itself "ost2dates both +ose"h and Moses,

and the anachronistic mention of the coin daric in the time of David. 6hus the

issue of editorial u"dating leaves Moses seeing "arts of the reigns of two9haraohs as mentioned in the 8ible :3/odus %#%


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ins"ired b God, and b his singular care and "rovidence e"t "ure in all

Ages, are therefore authenticall@ so as, in all !ontroversies of Religion, the

!hurch is finall to A""eale unto them.0


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errors in the 8ible. (et us now move from the last article to the first article.

?ere the I!8I "ur"osefull omitted reference to the number of boos

com"rising the canon of the 8ible due to established historical variances on

the com"osition of the canon throughout !hristendom.0


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igure -# 6he new chronolog :left column; as "ro"osed b David Rohl and

the biblical chronolog :right column;.0


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reuire one to de"end u"on editorial u"dating, ins"ired te/tual u"dating,

assigning different numerical values to msterious numbers or deciding

between which t"e of manuscri"ts and translations to rel u"on to calculate

those numbers.

Cotwithstanding the e/istence of dubious data in the 5ld 6estament, the

!hristian missionaries su"erciliousl claimed that the 9haraoh de"icted in the

Huran was A 9haraoh Eho orgot to Die in 6ime. 6he missionaries,

however, did not realise that the law of unintended conseuences would

result in their own "erceived Schadenfreude encom"assing them. As it turns

out, the contradictor data in the ?ebrew 8ible maes their "referred dating

of the 3/odus c. -**B 8!3 intrinsicall defective. )sing the missionaries own

language, one ma characterise the 9haraoh of the 8ible as not onl a

9haraoh who failed to a""ear on time but also a 9haraoh who forgot to

a""ear at the right "lace.


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9haraoh :Arabic, fir awn;. Ehat do modern linguistic studies and3g"tolog reveal about the word 9haraoh and its use in ancient 3g"tP

6he famous 8ritish 3g"tologist Sir Alan Gardiner discusses the term

9haraoh and cites the earliest e/am"le of its a""lication to the ing, during

the reign of Ameno"his I7 :c. -


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between -B$ 8!3 and -B* 8!3.0*%1 Giving and taing a few ears, the

Cew Ningdom chronolog, suggested b eg"tologists, is now validated

scientificall using -*! dating.

6?3 9?ARA5? E?5 R3IGC3D (5CG

Cow that we have identified the s"ecific timescale for the stor of Moses, let

us now loo into the ne/t and "erha"s the most im"ortant of all clues. )nlie

the 8ible, the Huran s"eas about onl one 9haraoh who ruled 3g"t before

the birth of Moses until the 3/odus and his :i.e., 9haraohs; death. 6he

evidence for this comes from the Huran %'#$2J and Huran %#-'2%%.

So Ee sent this ins"iration to the mother of Moses# Sucle :th child;, but

when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river, but fear not nor

grieve# for Ee shall restore him to thee, and Ee shall mae him one of 5ur

messengers. 6hen the "eo"le of 9haraoh "iced him u" :from the river;# :It

was intended; that :Moses; should be to them an adversar and a cause of

sorrow# for 9haraoh and ?aman and :all; their hosts were men of sin. 6he

wife of 9haraoh said# :?ere is; =o of the ee, for me and for thee# sla him

not. It ma be that he will be use to us, or we ma ado"t him as a son. And

the "erceived not :what the were doing;Q 0Huran %'#$2J1

?ere God is narrating the event after the birth of Moses and how he was cast

in the river onl to be "iced u" b "eo"le of the 9haraoh. 9art of the

dialogue between Moses after his return from Midian and 9haraoh, as cited in

the Huran %#-'2%%, maes it "erfectl clear that this 9haraoh is the same

9haraoh who too custod of Moses in his infanc.

:9haraoh; said# Did we not cherish thee as a child among us, and didst thou

not sta in our midst man ears of th lifeP And thou didst a deed of thinewhich :thou nowest; thou didst, and thou art an ungrateful :wretch;Q Moses

said# I did it then, when I was in error. So I fled from ou :all; when I feared

ou@ but m (ord has :since; invested me with =udgment :and wisdom; and

a""ointed me as one of the messengers. And this is the favour with which

thou dost re"roach me,2 that thou hast enslaved the !hildren of IsraelQ

0Huran %#-'2%%1


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?ere 9haraoh reminds Moses of the time that he s"ent as a child in his

household and the event when he illed a man 0Huran %'#


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s"iritualF"schological strength. 6he commentators inter"ret this as

bestowing of 9ro"hethood on Moses and the corres"onding age of * ears

:See the commentaries such as 6afsXr al26abarX, 6afsXr al2HurtubX, 6afsXr al2 +alaln, Al2NashshWf of al2OamahsharX, etc.;.

6hirdl, after illing of one of the 3g"tians, Moses immediatel fled to Midian

after learning that the officials in 3g"t were "lanning to sla him. ?owever,

what is not clear is the time that ela"sed between the conferment of wisdom

and nowledge on Moses and his illing of the 3g"tian.

Ehen he reached full age, and was firml established :in life;, Ee bestowed

on him wisdom and nowledge# for thus do Ee reward those who do good.

And he entered the cit at a time when its "eo"le were not watching# and he

found there two men fighting,2 one of his own religion, and the other, of hisfoes. Cow the man of his own religion a""ealed to him against his foe, and

Moses struc him with his fist and made an end of him. ?e said# 6his is a

wor of 3vil :Satan;# for he is an enem that manifestl misleadsQ ?e "raed#

5 m (ordQ I have indeed wronged m soulQ Do 6hou then forgive meQ So

:Allah; forgave him# for ?e is the 5ft2orgiving, Most Merciful. ?e said# 5 m

(ordQ or that 6hou hast bestowed 6h Grace on me, never shall I be a hel"

to those who sinQ So he saw the morning in the cit, looing about, in a state

of fear, when behold, the man who had, the da before, sought his hel" called

aloud for his hel" :again;. Moses said to him# 6hou art trul, it is clear, a

uarrelsome fellowQ 6hen, when he decided to la hold of the man who wasan enem to both of them, that man said# 5 MosesQ Is it th intention to sla

me as thou slewest a man esterdaP 6h intention is none other than to

become a "owerful violent man in the land, and not to be one who sets things

rightQ And there came a man, running, from the furthest end of the !it. ?e

said# 5 MosesQ the !hiefs are taing counsel together about thee, to sla

thee# so get thee awa, for I do give thee sincere advice. ?e therefore got

awa therefrom, looing about, in a state of fear. ?e "raed 5 m (ordQ save

me from "eo"le given to wrong2doing. 6hen, when he turned his face

towards :the land of; Madan, he said# I do ho"e that m (ord will show me

the smooth and straight 9ath. 0Huran %'#-*2%%1

6he events surrounding the conferment of wisdom and nowledge on Moses

and his illing of the 3g"tian in the Huran are mentioned successivel

suggesting that the were "erha"s se"arated b a shorter "eriod of time. As it

stands, this "eriod of time is an unnown. In Midian, Moses offered to hel"

two girls to water their flocs. 6he father of the girls agreed to marr one of


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them to Moses under the condition that he serves him for ' ears and

voluntaril for % more ears to mae it - ears as stated in Huran %'#%B2%J.

Afterwards one of the :damsels; came :bac; to him, waling bashfull. She

said# M father invites thee that he ma reward thee for having watered :our

flocs; for us. So when he came to him and narrated the stor, he said# ear

thou not# :well; hast thou esca"ed from un=ust "eo"le. Said one of the

:damsels;# 5 m :dear; fatherQ engage him on wages# trul the best of men

for thee to em"lo is the :man; who is strong and trust ?e said# I intend to

wed one of these m daughters to thee, on condition that thou serve me for

eight ears@ but if thou com"lete ten ears, it will be :grace; from thee. 8ut I

intend not to "lace thee under a difficult# thou wilt find me, indeed, if Allah

wills, one of the righteous. ?e said# 8e that :the agreement; between me

and thee# whichever of the two terms I fulfill, let there be no ill2will to me. 8e

Allah a witness to what we sa. Cow when Moses had fulfilled the term, andwas travelling with his famil, he "erceived a fire in the direction of Mount 6ur.

?e said to his famil# 6arr e@ I "erceive a fire@ I ho"e to bring ou from

there some information, or a burning firebrand, that e ma warm

ourselves. 0Huran %'#%B2%J1

It is not clear from the above verses if Moses fulfilled ' or - ears in Midian.

In an case, we can tae a minimum of '2- ears as Moses sta in Midian.

ourthl, there is no mention of an e/"licit length of Moses second so=ourn in

3g"t after returning from Midian. Conetheless, there are number of verses in

the Huran which can hel" to give us an idea of the length of time of Moses

second so=ourn in 3g"t.

Said the chiefs of 9haraohs "eo"le# Eilt thou leave Moses and his "eo"le,

to s"read mischief in the land, and to abandon thee and th godsP ?e said#

6heir male children will we sla@ :onl; their females will we save alive@ and

we have over them :"ower; irresistible. Said Moses to his "eo"le# 9ra forhel" from Allah, and :wait; in "atience and constanc# for the earth is Allahs,

to give as a heritage to such of ?is servants as ?e "leaseth@ and the end is

:best; for the righteous. 6he said# Ee have had :nothing but; trouble, both

before and after thou camest to us. ?e said# It ma be that our (ord will

destro our enem and mae ou inheritors in the earth@ that so ?e ma tr

ou b our deeds. Ee "unished the "eo"le of 9haraoh with ears :of


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droughts; and shortness of cro"s@ that the might receive admonition. 8ut

when good :times; came, the said, 6his is due to us@ Ehen gri""ed b

calamit, the ascribed it to evil omens connected with Moses and those with

himQ 8eholdQ in truth the omens of evil are theirs in Allahs sight, but most of

them do not understandQ 6he said :to Moses;# Ehatever be the Signs thou

bringest, to wor therewith th sorcer on us, we shall never believe in thee.So Ee sent :"lagues; on them# Eholesale death, (ocusts, (ice, rogs, And

8lood# Signs o"enl self2e/"lained# but the were stee"ed in arrogance,2 a

"eo"le given to sin. 3ver time the "enalt fell on them, the said# 5 MosesQ

on our behalf call on th (ord in virtue of his "romise to thee# If thou wilt

remove the "enalt from us, we shall trul believe in thee, and we shall send

awa the !hildren of Israel with thee. 8ut ever time Ee removed the

"enalt from them according to a fi/ed term which the had to fulfil,2 8eholdQ

the broe their wordQ So Ee e/acted retribution from them# Ee drowned

them in the sea, because the re=ected 5ur Signs and failed to tae warning

from them. And Ee made a "eo"le, considered wea :and of no account;,

inheritors of lands in both east and west, 2 lands whereon Ee sent down 5urblessings. 6he fair "romise of th (ord was fulfilled for the !hildren of Israel,

because the had "atience and constanc, and Ee levelled to the ground the

great wors and fine buildings which 9haraoh and his "eo"le erected :with

such "ride;. 0Huran $#-%$2-


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:b;

igure


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attire and administered affairs of the nation with the full su""ort of im"ortant

officials. ?atshe"sut disa""eared in -*B' 8!3 when 6uthmosis III, wanting to

reclaim the throne, led a revolt. After 6uthmosis III became the sole ruler, he

had her statues and reliefs mutilated. 6hus the actual reign of 6uthmosis III

was for onl Y


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fit the descri"tion of a 9haraoh who claimed to be "rinci"al god of 3g"tP (et

us investigate.

Ehen Moses calls 9haraoh to worshi" one true God, the call is re=ected.

Instead 9haraoh collects his men and "roclaims that he is their (ord, most

high.

?as the stor of Moses reached theeP 8ehold, th (ord did call to him in the

sacred valle of 6uwa, Go thou to 9haraoh for he has indeed transgressed

all bounds# And sa to him, KEouldst thou that thou shouldst be "urified :from

sin;P 2 And that I guide thee to th (ord, so thou shouldst fear ?imP 6hen

did :Moses; show him the Great Sign. 8ut :9haraoh; re=ected it and

disobeed :guidance;@ urther, he turned his bac, striving hard :against

God;. 6hen he collected :his men; and made a "roclamation, Saing, I amour (ord, Most ?igh. 0Huran $J#-B2%*1

urthermore, when Moses goes to 9haraoh with clear signs, the are

re=ected as being fae. 9haraoh then addresses his chiefs b saing that he

nows of no god for them e/ce"t him.

9haraoh said# 5 !hiefsQ no god do I now for ou but mself... 0Huran%'#


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"ea as evidenced in numerous cult statues as well as su""orting

hierogl"hs and "a"ri.0B1 6he hierogl"hs give good information about the

him. (et us consider three hierogl"hs from the time of Ramesses II :who had

"renomen )sermaatre2sete"enre and nomen Ramesses meramun;.

Stela no. *- of ?ildesheim Museum shows two "eo"le, one is standing

wearing the double crown with the uraeus, a short sirt, a neclace and holds

the so2called handerchief or seal in one hand 0igure B:a;1. ?e is called#

Ning of )""er and (ower 3g"t, the (ord of the 6wo (ands KRamesses2

meramun, the GodL.0B-1

:a;

:b;

:c;

igure B# Stela no. :a; *-, :b; -$J of the ?ildesheim Museum. :c; 6hese

have an im"ortant inscri"tion saing Ramesses2meramun, the god. 6his

inscri"tion is mared inside a red bo/ in both the stelas :a; and :b;.0B%1

5n stela no. -$J of ?ildesheim Museum a man is de"icted wearing a long

garment tied at the waist, offering two flowers with his right hand. In front of

him is a table laden with various inds of offerings, and two stands with a

vase between them 0igure B:b;1. 5""osite him are two statues, each

wearing a short ilt, an artificial beard and the crown of )""er 3g"t, with

uraeus in front. Above these two statues and before them are the words#

(ord of the two (ands K)sermaatre2set"enreL Monthu2in2the26wo2(ands and

(ord of the diadems KRamesses2meramunL, the God.0B


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igure # A relief in the Great 6em"le of Abu Simbel showing Ramesses II

venerating Ramesses II.0B*1

5ur last e/am"le of the divine ingshi" in ancient 3g"t comes from the

Great 6em"le at Abu Simbel 0igure 1. An interesting relief in the Great

6em"le of Abu Simbel shows the (ord of 6wo (ands K)sermare2set"enreL :

Ramesses II; offering to Ramesses2meramun : Ramesses II;. 5bviousl,

Ramesses II is worshi""ing Ramesses II here. ?owever, we also note that

the worshi""er and the one who is worshi""ed have two different names and

that these names are "ronomen and nomen of Ramesses II, res"ectivel. A

closer loo at the iconogra"h reveals that the worshi""er and he who is

worshi""ed are not identical. ?e, to whom the offering is made, is adorned

with a sun2dis and has a curved horn around his ear, de"icting his divinit.6herefore, Ramesses II is not sim"l worshi""ing himself, but his divine self.

0BB1 !oncerning the 9haraoh, the Huran also mentions that he e/alted

himself in the land and that he was e/travagant.

8ut none believed in Musa e/ce"t the offs"ring of his "eo"le, on account of

the fear of 9haraoh and their chiefs, lest he should "ersecute them@ and most

surel 9haraoh was loft in the land 0Arabic# fir awn la2 Wlin fi2al2ardh1@ and most surel he was of the e/travagant 0Arabic# innahu lamin al2musrifXn1.

0Huran -#'


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:-,%; It lies between D=ah and 6o2meri, and is full of food and victuals. It is

after the fashion of 5n of )""er 3g"t, and its duration is lie :-,


25/51

6he Huran "rovides another ver uniue and interesting descri"tion of the

9haraoh which can be shown to be "articularl a""licable to Ramesses II.

6his is the Huranic reference to 9haraoh in a cou"le of verses as dhul2awtWd

:of the awtWd or usuall translated as (ord of the staes;. 6he relevantverses are#

5r have the the dominion of the heavens and the earth and all betweenP If

so, let them mount u" with the ro"es and means :to reach that end;Q 8ut

there 2 will be "ut to flight even a host of confederates. 8efore them :were

man who; re=ected messengers,2 the "eo"le of Coah, and KAd, and 9haraoh,

the (ord of Staes, and 6hamud, and the "eo"le of (ut, and the !om"anions

of the Eood@ 2 such were the !onfederates. 0Huran


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. : 83). ,$ DA3 B.E ? 67 /! F/ G;HIJG/K #!: C +E +L? :/ GM 4-'# = : S? ! TS >U # N;! ?


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#orks for the gods the entire length of 1g$pt and 7ubia, /amesses II

surpassed not onl$ the 1ighteenth !$nast$ but ever$ other period in 1g$ptian

histor$. In that realm, he certainl$ fulfilled the d$nast$s aim for satiet$.89;

5imilarl$, 2la$ton ackno#ledges /amesses II as a preeminent builder

among the Pharaohs of ancient 1g$pt and states that his greatest feat #as

the building of t#o temples at Abu 5imbel, especiall$ the et his genuine building achievements are on a Herculean scale. He

added to the great temples at 'arnak and 3u4or, completed his father 5etis

mortuar$ temple at


28/51

It is also #orth noting that the phrase -Pharaoh, 3ord of the a#td- is

mentioned along #ith Iram #hich had loft$ pillars, most likel$ cut from rocks,

and people of Thamud #ho built houses in the mountains. This suggests that

Pharaoh /amesses II also did something similar, i.e., built structures out of

rocks. Indeed /amesses II built t#o temples at Abu 5imbel in 7ubia #hich

#ere cut in the living rock of the mountainside 8Gigure B;. ?ne is called the


29/51

Gigure : A philatelic melange sho#ing the campaign to create #orld#ide

a#areness to save the anti*uities of 7ubia. /amesses II and his temples at

Abu 5imbel #ere prominentl$ featured on the stamps in man$ countries.

5ome stamps also sho# his *ueen 7efertari. In the above figure, the are

stamps from (from top ro#, left to right) 1g$pt (=A/), 5omalia, onaco, the

atican, Ira*, 7igeria,


30/51

and containing a river port.89E; In the timeline of the ancient near east, the

construction of Pr/amesses is certainl$ unprecedented as =phill informs us,

Per /amesses #as probabl$ the vastest and most costl$ ro$al residence ever

erected b$ the hand of man. As can no# be seen its kno#n palace and

official centre covered an area of at least four s*uare miles, and its temples

#ere in scale #ith this, a colossal assemblage forming perhaps the largest

collection of chapels built in the preclassical #orld b$ a single ruler at one

time.89B;

+ith the use of a caesium magnetometer, the first geoph$sical

measurements of Pr/amesses took place in 9.89; =sing the data

gathered from the recent magnetometer inspections, the latest pro0ections

have sho#n the cit$ centreMro$al residence comprised at least s*uare

kms, around @.L s*uare kms more than had been previousl$ estimated. It is

hoped that continued magnetic investigation #ill eventuall$ lead to a map of

Pr/amesses covering at a minimum the cit$ centreMro$al residence.8E; +ith

all the focus on the cit$ centreMro$al residence, one should also not forget to

consider the large suburban Done, #hich, #hen factored into the calculations,

sho#s the ancient cit$ of Pr/amesses comprised at least @ s*uare kms.

8E; 5ometimes numbers alone do not conve$ the sheer scale of the

construction. If #e consider the area of Pr/amesses in comparison to other

celebrated cities in the ancient near east such as the famous ancient

esopotamian cities of 'horsabad, 7imrud, 7ineveh and 6ab$lon, the areabounded b$ Pr/amesses easil$ eclipses them all.8EF; 2ommenting on such

a gigantic feat of human engineering =phill further remarks,

The uni*ue feature about Per /amesses is that it is the onl$ cit$ of imperial

siDe in the ancient near east, rivalling Heliopolis, emphis and Thebes in

splendour, kno#n to have been entirel$ planned, built and full$ completed

under one 'ing.8E@;

Pr/amesses, #hich once had magnificent splendour, no# lies in ruins. ost

likel$, the destruction of this magnificent cit$ is alluded to in the &uran E:@E

and


31/51

lands in both east and #est, lands #hereon +e sent do#n ?ur blessings.

The fair promise of th$ 3ord #as fulfilled for the 2hildren of Israel , because

the$ had patience and constanc$, and +e levelled to the ground the great

#orks and fine buildings #hich Pharaoh and his people erected (#ith such

pride) 8m kna $as"na u fir a#na #a *a#humO #a m knO $a rishOn;.

8&uran E:@E;

5HA33 +1 5A1 >?= I7 TH1 6?!>, THAT >?= A>15T 61 A

5I?=...Q

+e took the 2hildren of Israel across the sea: Pharaoh and his hosts

follo#ed them in insolence and spite. At length, #hen over#helmed #ith the

flood, he said: -I believe that there is no god e4cept Him +hom the 2hildren

of Israel believe in: I am of those #ho submit (to Allah in Islam).- (It #as said

to him): -Ah no#R 6ut a little #hile before, #ast thou in rebellionR and thou

didst mischief (and violence)R -This da$ shall +e save thee in the bod$, that

thou ma$est be a sign to those #ho come after theeR but veril$, man$ among

mankind are heedless of ?ur 5ignsR- 8&uran :F;

The &uran and the 6ible 814odus K:F@ and 14odus L:F; state that

the Pharaoh #as dro#ned in the sea. Ho#ever, the &uran differs from the

6ible and it makes a ver$ uni*ue statement that the bod$ of the dro#ned

Pharaoh #as saved as a sign for future generations. The &uranic statement

about rescuing Pharaohs bod$ #ould be in total agreement #ith the fact that

the bod$ of /amesses II has survived in a mummified form. It #as discoveredin BB among a group of ro$al mummies that had been removed from their

original tombs for fear of theft. Priests of the Fst !$nast$ had reburied them

in a cache at !eir al6ahari on 3u4ors #est bank.8EK; The mumm$ of

/amesses II formed one of the cache and its resting place #as Tomb 'E in

the alle$ of 'ings. 7othing #hatsoever #as kno#n at the time of the

revelation of the &uran about the mumm$ of /amesses II.


32/51

A fe# #ords also need to be said about the preservation of the mumm$ of

/amesses II 8Gigure ;. In EK, 1g$ptologists at the 1g$ptian useum,

2airo, noticed that the mumm$s condition #as #orsening rapidl$. The$

decided to fl$ /ameses II to Paris so that a team of e4perts could give themumm$ a medical e4amination. ?n 5eptember F9, E9, a Grench Air Gorce

plane touched do#n at 3e 6ourget airport 0ust outside Paris carr$ing the

mummified bod$. /amesses II ma$ have been dead for more than @,

$ears but his mummified bod$ #as #elcomed #ith a ceremon$ fit for an$

living head of state.

(a)

(b)

Gigure : umm$ of /amesses II sho#ing (a) top and (b) side vie#s.

The idea of bringing the mumm$ of /amesses II to Paris for an e4haustive

scientific investigation #as the brainchild of !r. aurice 6ucaille. The pro0ect

#as codirected b$ 2hristiane !esroche7oblecourt, curator of 1g$ptian

Anti*uities at the usSe du 3ouvre, and Professor 3ionel 6alout, !irector of

the usSe de lHomme.8EL; ?ne of goals of the pro0ect #as to stud$ the

remains of the Pharaohs mumm$ for evidence that #ould complement that

from other archaeological and #ritten sources. Ho#ever, the main mission#as to rescue the mumm$ from ph$sical deterioration caused b$ fungus,

bacteria and insects.8E9; !uring the e4amination, scientific anal$sis revealed

battle #ounds and old fractures, as #ell as other medical conditions. Grom

the 4ra$ anal$sis, it #as concluded that /amesses II #as suffering from

atherosclerosis and an 4ra$ of his pelvis sho#ed calcification of both femoral

arteries.8EE; In the last decades of his life, /amesses II #as apparentl$

crippled #ith arthritis and #alked #ith a hunched back.8EB; It #as suggested


33/51

that /amesses II suffered from ank$losing spond$litis, no# part of

rheumatologic folklore.8E; All these led 6ucaille to infer that /amesses II

could have not pla$ed an$ role in the 14odus as he #as crippled.8B; He

claimed, using the biblical data (14odus F:F@), that his son erenptah #as

the Pharaoh involved in the 14odus after /amesses IIs death. Ho#ever, a

recent stud$ using better 4ra$ imaging and unpublished radiographs hasconcluded that the diagnosis of ank$losing spond$litis as reported in the

literature is unsupported. The authors prefer a diagnosis of diffuse idiopathic

skeletal h$perostosis8B; (or !I5H) #hich is corroborated b$ the

archaeological and historical studies about the ph$sical attributes and

e4ploits of /amesses II.8BF; Thus, the possibilit$ cannot be re0ected out of

hand that /amesses II #as the Pharaoh #ho perished in the sea #hile

chasing the 2hildren of Israel.8B@; Ho#ever, it must be emphasiDed that the

process of mummification itself convolutes the information of actual cause of

death. Therefore, the cause of death of /amesses II cant be verified from his

mumm$.


34/51

title used to refer to the king of 1g$pt from the 7e# 'ingdom Period on#ards.

5hould our proposed identification of /amesses II be correct, a historical

investigation has sho#n that 6akenkhons, the High Priest of Amun during

/amesses II reign, can be considered a good candidate for Haman

mentioned in the &uran.

Another interesting detail #hich the &uran mentions is the da$ of encounter

bet#een oses and the magicians.

-6ut #e can surel$ produce magic to match thineR 5o make a tr$st bet#een

us and thee, #hich #e shall not fail to keep neither #e nor thou in a place

#here both shall have even chances.- oses said: ->our tr$st is the !a$ of

the Gestival 8$aum alDna;, and let the people be assembled #hen the sun is

#ell up.- 8&uran F:LBL;

The da$ of the encounter in the &uran is called $aum alDna. Una means a

thing #ith #hich or b$ #hich one is adorned, ornamented, decorated, etc.8BK;

5o, the phrase $aum alDna can mean a da$ #hen people are dressed up

smartl$, or the cit$ is adorned or perhaps both. It could even mean a da$ of

pompous celebration or more precisel$ a da$ of festival.8BL; 2ould it refer to

the Heb5ed (or simpl$ 5ed) festivalV The Heb5ed Gestival,8B9; also called a

0ubilee, #as usuall$ celebrated @ $ears after a kings rule and thereafter,

ever$ three $ears. /amesses II celebrated a record or F of these after his

Heb5ed festival in $ear @. It #as to rene# the potenc$ of the Pharaoh and

to assure a long reign in the afterlife. ?ne of the most important aspects of

this festival is that it #as probabl$ #itnessed b$ ordinar$ citiDens onl$ ver$

rarel$.

K. 2onclusions

Those 2hristian scholars #ho date the 14odus can be broadl$ divided into

t#o groups: one #hich believes that the 6ible should be the sole basis of

dating and the other group #hich uses ancient near eastern archaeolog$.

6oth these groups emplo$ certain assumptions and overlook certain details in

order to reach their conclusions. As #e have observed, proving the efficac$ of

the statements contained in the ?ld Testament is problematic. The biblical

account is inherentl$ contradictor$ as the information provided simultaneousl$


35/51

points to#ards divergent time periods and thus divergent Pharaohs. The

2hristian scholars, #hom the missionaries and apologists depend upon, rush

to e4plain a#a$ these contradictions b$ making ingenious reinterpretations of

the te4t and using concepts such as -editorial updating- and its corollar$

-inspired te4tual updating-. Gor e4ample, the number KB does not actuall$

stand for KB and the place name /amesses does not actuall$ stand for theplace name /amesses. !oes it reall$ matterV /ealising the$ have no other

choice, the missionaries and apologists have long since approved -editorial

updating- and its occurrence throughout the 6ible. ?ne such missionar$

casuall$ states, -In the final an$lsis, I do not mind if the placeMperson names

#ere updated in 5criptures- W #hich begs the *uestion #hat other te4ts the

missionaries and apologists -do not mind- being updatedV It should be clear

b$ no# that such approval is integrated #ithin a fle4ible creedal s$stem of

beliefs #here one can believe in an undelineated 6ible that contains errors

and still maintain ones right to -salvation-. 2onse*uentl$, the doctrines of

biblical inspiration, infallibilit$ and inerranc$ become confusing and ineffectual

as numbers mean other different numbers and place names mean other

different place names.

Although certain assumptions must be formed in absence of information

supplied, interpreting the &uran does not re*uire one to depend upon

-editorial updating-, -inspired te4tual updating-X assigning different numerical

values to m$sterious numbers or deciding bet#een #hich t$pe of manuscripts

and translations to rel$ upon to calculate those numbers. The &uran does

not mention the name of the Pharaoh #ho un0ustl$ oppressed oses and the

2hildren of Israel. +hen combined, the information provided b$ the &uran

and the ancient 1g$ptian sources including the archaeological and

documentar$ evidence, there are a sufficient number of clues that point

to#ards the 7e# 'ingdom period in general and to the Pharaoh /amesses II

in particular #ho reigned for about 99 $ears from FEWF@ 621. Although

the scientific e4amination of /amesses IIs mumm$ is inconclusive regarding

the precise nature of his death, he did not, as #as previousl$ thought, have a

debilitating rheumatic condition that #ould have ph$sicall$ prevented him

from engaging oses and the 2hildren of Israel in the final stages of his life.

In conclusion, the &uranic presentation of the Pharaoh of the 14odus is

internall$ consistent and fits #ell #ith the e4tant eg$ptological data. This isalso in line #ith the earlier studies b$ Hamidullah8BE; and Gatoohi et al.8BB;

#ho have arrived at similar conclusions, albeit using less e4haustive and

sometimes shak$ evidence, that the Pharaoh #ho ruled 1g$pt before the

birth of oses until the 14odus and his (i.e., Pharaohs) death #as /amesses

II.


36/51

And Allah kno#s bestR

6ookmark and 5hare

/eferences Y 7otes

8; . ! ZaDAndreu, A +orld Histor$ ?f 7ineteenth2entur$ Archaeolog$:7ationalism, 2olonialism, And The Past, FE, ?4ford =niversit$ Press Inc.,

7e# >ork, pp. @@K. It #ould come as a surprise to man$ that even a

scientific discipline such as archaeolog$ had to find its place amongst

contemporar$ political events in 0u4taposition #ith #estern imperial and

nationalistic ideologies current in the nineteenth centur$. Hence, in the #ords

of ! ZaDAndreu, -... archaeolog$ is not a valuefree and neutral socialscience as previousl$ presumed.- 8ibid., p. K;. 5een b$ man$ as the

archaeolog$ of the 3evant #ith a (evangelical) 6iblical bias, it is of course an

entirel$ different discussion if such a discipline named biblical archaeolog$ is

even appropriate. Gor some topical vie#s see P. /. 5. oore$, A 2entur$ ?f

6iblical Archaeolog$, , The 3utter#orth Press: 2ambridge (=')% . 2.

oreland (1d.), 6et#een Te4t And Artifact: Integrating Archaeolog$ In 6iblical

5tudies Teaching, F@, 5ociet$ ?f 6iblical 3iterature: Atlanta% T. +. !avis,

5hifting 5ands: The /ise And Gall ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$, FK, ?4ford

=niversit$ Press Inc.: 7e# >ork% C. '. Hoffmeier Y A. illard (1ds.), The

Guture ?f 6iblical Archaeolog$: /eassessing ethodologies And

Assumptions, FK, The Proceedings ?f A 5$mposium August FK, F

At Trinit$ International =niversit$, +m. 6. 1erdmans Publishing 2o.:


37/51

8K; The 5ociet$ W Histor$ ?f The 5ociet$ (The 6eginnings), The 1g$pt

14ploration 5ociet$ (?fficial +ebsite), available online (accessed Kth

7ovember FB).

8L; 1g$pt 14ploration Gund, /eport ?f Gourth Annual


38/51

In the four hundred and eightieth $ear after the Israelites had come out of

1g$pt, in the fourth $ear of 5olomons reign over Israel, in the month of Uiv,

the second month, he began to build the temple of the 3?/!.

8; '. A. 'itchen, -Ho# +e 'no# +hen 5olomon /uled-, 6iblical

Archaeological /evie#, F, olume FE (5eptemberM?ctober), 7o. L, pp.

@F@E, p. LB.

8F; 5ee, for e4ample, +. H. 5hea , -14odus, !ate ?f The - in


39/51

8L; G. 2. Gensham, -Cudges, 6ook ?f-, in


40/51

the$ built Pithom and /ameses as store cities for Pharaoh.

8FF; ork, p. K% P. Ale4ander and !. Ale4ander (1ds.), The 3ion Handbook To

The 6ible, , Third 1dition (/evised Y 14panded), 3ion Publishing Inc.:

?4ford (='), p. L9% '. A. 'itchen, -oses- in C. !. !ouglas (?rganiDing

1ditor), 7e# 6ible !ictionar$, BF, 5econd 1dition, Interarsit$ Press:

3eicester (=') and T$ndale House Publishers, Inc.: +heaton (I3), p. EL%

-oses- in A. 2. $ers (1d.), The 1erdmans 6ible !ictionar$, BE, +illiam


41/51

6. 1erdmans Publishing 2ompan$:


42/51

8@; P. 5chaff, The 2reeds ?f 2hristendom, +ith A Histor$ And 2ritical 7otes,

BEE, Gourth 1dition /evised and 1nlarged, The 1vangelical Protestant

2reeds +ith Translations, olume III, Harper Y 6rothers: 7e# >ork.

8@; The Humble Advice ?f The Assembl$ ?f !ivines, 7o# 6$ Authorit$ ?f

Parliament 5itting At +estminster, 2oncerning A 2onfession ?f Gaith,

Presented 6$ Them 3atel$ To 6oth Houses ?f Parliament, 9K9, Printed for

the 2ompan$ of 5tationers.: 3ondon, pp. L9% A !eclaration ?f The Gaith And

?rder ?#ned And Practiced In The 2ongregational 2hurches In 1ngland%

Agreed =pon And 2onsented =nto 6$ Their 1lders And essengers In Their

eeting At The 5avo$, ?ctob. F. 9LB, 9L, Printed for !. 3. And are to be

sold in Pauls 2hurch >ard, Gleet5treet, and +estminsterHall: 3ondon, pp. F

@% A 2onfession ?f Gaith. Put Gorth 6$ The 1lders And 6rethren ?f an$2ongregations ?f 2hristians (6aptiDed =pon Profession ?f Their Gaith) In

3ondon And The 2ountr$, 9EE, Printed for 6en0amin Harris, and are to be

sold at his shop at the 5tationers Arms in 5#eetings /ents, in 2ornhill, near

the /o$al 14change: 3ondon, p. E.

8@F; /. 2. 5proul, 14plaining Inerranc$, 9, 3igonier inistries: ?rlando

(G3), p. L9. 7.6. This book #as previousl$ published in B #ith the title

14plaining Inerranc$: A 2ommentar$, b$ the International 2ouncil on 6iblical

Inerranc$.

8@@; ibid.

8@K; ibid., pp. F.

8@L; !. . /ohl, A Test ?f Time, L, olume I: The 6ible Grom $th To

Histor$, /andom House =' 3td.: 3ondon.

8@9; ibid., p. @@.


43/51

8@E; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The

!$nastic Period- in 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton (1ds.), Ancient

1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F9, op. cit., p. KF% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical

2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in . 6ietak (1d.), The

5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern editerranean In The 5econd

illennium 6.2., F, Proceedings ?f An International 5$mposium At 5chlo

6Haindorf, LthEth ?f 7ovember 9 And At The Austrian Academ$,ienna, thFth ?f a$ B, 2ontributions To The 2hronolog$ ?f The

1astern editerranean olume I, Qsterreichischen Akademie !er+issenschaften: +ien, pp. KLK9 Y p. K. This is a ne# revised version of

'itchens article originall$ published in '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical

2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment-, Acta Archaeologica,

9, olume 9E, pp. @.

8@B; !. . /ohl, A Test ?f Time, L, olume I: The 6ible Grom $th To

Histor$, op. cit., p. @FE.

8@; 6. oung, -The Talmuds T#o Cubilees And Their /elevance To The !ate ?f The

14odus-, +estminster Theological Cournal, F9, olume 9B, pp. EB@% /. I.asholD, -?n The !ating ?f The 14odus-, Presb$terion, F9, olume @F,

7o. F, pp. @% /. '. Ha#kins, -Propositions Gor 1vangelical Acceptance

?f A 3ate!ate 14odus2on*uest: 6iblical !ata And The /o$al 5carabs Grom

t. 1bal-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological 5ociet$, FE, olume L,

7o. , pp. @K9% C. '. Hoffmeier, -+hat Is The 6iblical !ate Gor The 14odusV

A /esponse To 6r$ant +ood-, Cournal ?f The 1vangelical Theological

5ociet$, FE, op. cit., pp. FFLFKE% idem., -/ameses ?f The 14odus

7arratives Is The @th 2entur$ 6.2. /o$al /amesside /esidence-, Trinit$

Cournal, FE, op. cit., pp. FBFB% 6. oung Y 6.


44/51

8K; 5ir A.


45/51

different but it should not make an$ impact on our argument.

8KL; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The


1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F9, op. cit., pp. KFKK% '. A. 'itchen, -The

Historical 2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in . 6ietak

(1d.), The 5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern editerranean In

The 5econd illennium 6.2., F, op. cit., pp. @K.

8K9; 1. Hornung, /. 'rauss Y !. A. +arburton, -2hronological Table Gor The


1g$ptian 2hronolog$, F9, op. cit., p. KK% '. A. 'itchen, -The Historical

2hronolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, A 2urrent Assessment- in . 6ietak (1d.), The

5$nchronisation ?f 2ivilisations In The 1astern editerranean In The 5econd

illennium 6.2., F, op. cit., p. L.

8KE; +. C. urnane, -The 1arlier /eign ?f /amesses II And His 2oregenc$

+ith 5et$ I-, Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, EL, olume @K, 7o. @, pp.

L@% idem., Ancient 1g$ptian 2oregencies, EE, 5tudies In Ancient

?riental 2iviliDation 7o. K, The ?riental Institute: 2hicago (I3), pp. LEBE%

A. 5palinger, -Traces ?f The 1arl$ 2areer ?f /amesses II-, Cournal ?f 7ear

1astern 5tudies, E, olume @B, 7o. K, pp. FEFB9.

8KB; '. A. 'itchen, -/amesses II- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford

1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F, olume III, ?4ford =niversit$ Press:

?4ford (='), p. 9.

8K; !. P. 5ilverman,-!ivinities And !eities In Ancient 1g$pt- in 6. 1. 5hafer

(1d.) /eligion In Ancient 1g$pt:


46/51

5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3Bg$pte, LK, olume LF, pp. KK@LL, Plates I[[[II. ?ther important #orks are


47/51

Plate II(a).

8LL; H. Te elde, -2ommemoration In Ancient 1g$pt-, in H.


48/51

3td.: 3ondon (='), pp. L@LK.

89F; '. A. 'itchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The 3ife And Times ?f /amesses II,

'ing ?f 1g$pt, BF, op. cit., pp. F@KF@L. 14amples of stamps from various

countries featuring temples of Abu 5imbel, /amesses II and his *ueen

7efertari can be seen on p. F@9.

89@; ibid., p. F@9.

89K; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-,

Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, 9B, olume FE, 7umber K, p. F.

89L; . HamDa, -14cavations ?f The !epartment ?f Anti*uities At &ant]r

(Ga*us !istrict) (5eason, a$ Fst Cul$ Eth, FB)-, Annales !u 5ervice

!es Anti*uitSs !e 3Bg$pte, @, op. cit., pp. @9B, Plates II% 3. Habachi,-'hat\na&ant]r: Importance-, Annales !u 5ervice !es Anti*uitSs !e 3

Bg$pte, LK, op. cit., pp. KK@LL, Plates I[[[II.

899; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.),

1nc$clopedia ?f The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, , /outledge, Ta$lor

Y Grancis 6ooks 3td: =', pp. 9KE9K% 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6.

/edford (1d.), The ?4ford 1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F, olume III,

?4ford =niversit$ Press: ?4ford (='), pp. KBL.

89E; 1. P. =phill, -Pithom And /aamses: Their 3ocation And 5ignificance-,

Cournal ?f 7ear 1astern 5tudies, 9, olume FB, 7umber , p. @E. =phill

records a ver$ useful table allotting points to the above listed cities based on

this concise list of nine attributes re*uired for Pr/amesses as discerned from

the primar$ and secondar$ sources.

89B; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, BK, Aris Y Phillips,

+arminster: 1ngland, p. .


49/51

89; 1. Pusch, -To#ards A ap ?f Piramesse-, 1g$ptian Archaeolog$, ,

7umber K, p. @.

8E; 1. 6. Pusch, -Piramesse- in !. 6. /edford (1d.), The ?4ford

1nc$clopedia of Ancient 1g$pt, F, olume III, op. cit., p. L.

8E; 1. 6. Pusch Y A. Herold, -&antirMPi/amesses- in '. A. 6ard (1d.),

1nc$clopedia ?f The Archaeolog$ ?f Ancient 1g$pt, , op. cit., p. 9KE.

8EF; 1. P. =phill, The Temples ?f Per /amesses, BK, op. cit., p. FFE. 7.6.

The comparative calculations made b$ =phill #ere based on the

measurements of Pr/amesses available to him at the time. As #e have

observed, modern investigations sho# the cit$ is no# considerabl$ larger

than previousl$ imagined.

Perhaps due to the uncertaint$ surrounding the identification and e4act

measurements, some modern studies still maintain 7ineveh and

subse*uentl$ 6ab$lon #ere the largest cities in the ancient near east. Gor

e4ample see, 2. ork: (=5A), pp. EB.

8EL; . 6ucaille (Trans. A. !. Pannell Y . 6ucaille), ummies ?f The

Pharaohs: odern edical Investigations, , 5t. artins Press: 7e#

>ork, pp. vii44.


50/51

8E9; 5. Pain, -/amesses /ides Again-, 7e# 5cientist, FK, Issue FKE@ (@th

7ovember), p. LK.

8EE; -/amses II (/amses The ork, p. @B.


51/51

7. 6. Gor the latest facial reconstruction of /amesses II face using a three

dimensional computer model see 2. . +ilkinson, -The Gacial

/econstruction ?f Ancient 1g$ptians- in !. A. /osalie (1d.), 1g$ptian

ummies And odern 5cience, FB, op. cit., pp. EE.

8B@; 5ta$ing active and getting regular e4ercise are amongst the best #a$s of

managing the s$mptoms of diffuse idiopathic skeletal h$perostosis (!I5H). A

recent stud$ suggests that the people suffering from !I5H sho# improvement

#ith e4ercise therap$. 5ee the stud$ b$ A. AlHerD, C. 5nip, 6. 2larke, C.

1sdaile, -14ercise Therap$ Gor Patients +ith !iffuse Idiopathic 5keletal

H$perostosis-, 2linical /heumatolog$, FB, olume FE, 7o. F, pp. FEF.

8BK; 1. +. 3ane, An Arabic1nglish 3e4icon, 9B, Part @, 3ibrairie !u 3iban:

6eirut, FEFB.

8BL; ibid., p. FB.

8B9; Gor detailed discussion of Heb5ed festival see H. Grankfort, 'ingship

And The

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