Financial Accounting and Accounting Standards€¦ · · 2015-08-31PREVIEW OF CHAPTER...

9-2

PREVIEW OF CHAPTER

Intermediate Accounting

IFRS 2nd Edition

Kieso, Weygandt, and Warfield

9

9-3

5. Determine ending inventory by applying

the gross profit method.


the retail inventory method.

7. Explain how to report and analyze

inventory.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Inventories: Additional

Valuation Issues 9 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe and apply the lower-of-

cost-or-net realizable value rule.

2. Explain when companies value

inventories at net realizable value.

3. Explain when companies use the

relative standalone sales value method

to value inventories.

4. Discuss accounting issues related to

purchase commitments.

9-4

A company abandons the historical cost principle when

the future utility (revenue-producing ability) of the asset

drops below its original cost.

LOWER-OF-COST-OR-NET REALIZABLE

VALUE (LCNRV)

LO 1

9-5

Net Realizable Value

Estimated selling price in the normal course of business less

estimated costs to complete and

estimated costs to make a sale.

LCNRV

ILLUSTRATION 9-1

Computation of Net

Realizable Value

LO 1

9-6

ILLUSTRATION 9-2

LCNRV Disclosures

Net Realizable Value

LCNRV

LO 1

9-7

Illustration of LCNRV: Jinn-Feng Foods computes its

inventory at LCNRV (amounts in thousands).

LCNRV ILLUSTRATION 9-3

Determining Final

Inventory Value

LO 1

9-8

Methods of Applying LCNRV

LCNRV

ILLUSTRATION 9-4

Alternative Applications

of LCNRV

LO 1

9-9

In most situations, companies price inventory on an item-

by-item basis.

Tax rules in some countries require that companies use an

individual-item basis.

Individual-item approach gives the lowest valuation for

statement of financial position purposes.

Method should be applied consistently from one period to

another.

Methods of Applying LCNRV

LCNRV

LO 1

9-10

Cost of goods sold (before adj. to NRV) €108,000

Ending inventory (cost) 82,000

Ending inventory (at NRV) 70,000

Inventory (€82,000 - €70,000) 12,000

Loss Due to Decline to NRV 12,000

Inventory 12,000

Cost of Goods Sold 12,000

Loss

Method

COGS

Method

Illustration: Data for Ricardo Company

Recording Net Realizable Value

LO 1

9-11

Loss COGS

Method Method

Current assets:

Inventory 70,000€ 70,000€

Prepaids 20,000 20,000

Accounts receivable 350,000 350,000

Cash 100,000 100,000

Total current assets 540,000 540,000

Partial Statement of Financial Position


LO 1

9-12

Loss COGS

Method Method

Sales 200,000€ 200,000€

Cost of goods sold 108,000 120,000

Gross profit 92,000 80,000

Operating expenses:

Selling 45,000 45,000

General and administrative 20,000 20,000

Total operating expenses 65,000 65,000

Other income and expense:

Loss due to decline of inventory to NRV 12,000 -

Interest income 5,000 5,000

Total other (7,000) 5,000

Income from operations 20,000 20,000

Income tax expense 6,000 6,000

Net income 14,000€ 14,000€

Income Statement


9-13

Use of an Allowance

Instead of crediting the Inventory account for net realizable

value adjustments, companies generally use an allowance

account.

Loss Due to Decline to NRV 12,000

Allowance to Reduce Inventory to NRV 12,000

Loss Method

LCNRV

LO 1

9-14

No

Allowance Allowance

Current assets:

Inventory 70,000€ 82,000€

Allowance to reduce inventory (12,000)

Inventory at NRV 70,000

Prepaids 20,000 20,000

Accounts receivable 350,000 350,000

Cash 100,000 100,000

Total current assets 540,000 540,000

Use of an Allowance

Partial Statement of Financial Position

LO 1

9-15

Recovery of Inventory Loss

Amount of write-down is reversed.

Reversal limited to amount of original write-down.

Continuing the Ricardo example, assume the net realizable

value increases to €74,000 (an increase of €4,000). Ricardo

makes the following entry, using the loss method.

Recovery of Inventory Loss 4,000

Allowance to Reduce Inventory to NRV 4,000

LCNRV

LO 1

9-16

Allowance account is adjusted in subsequent periods, such

that inventory is reported at the LCNRV.

Illustration shows net realizable value evaluation for Vuko Company

and the effect of net realizable value adjustments on income.

Recovery of Inventory Loss

ILLUSTRATION 9-8

Effect on Net Income of Adjusting

Inventory to Net Realizable Value

LO 1

9-17

LCNRV rule suffers some conceptual deficiencies:

1. A company recognizes decreases in the value of the asset

and the charge to expense in the period in which the loss in

utility occurs—not in the period of sale.

2. Application of the rule results in inconsistency because a

company may value the inventory at cost in one year and at

net realizable value in the next year.

3. LCNRV values the inventory in the statement of financial

position conservatively, but its effect on the income statement

may or may not be conservative. Net income for the year in

which a company takes the loss is definitely lower. Net

income of the subsequent period may be higher than normal if

the expected reductions in sales price do not materialize.

Evaluation of LCM Rule

LO 1

9-18






inventory.




1. Describe and apply the lower-of-cost-or-

net realizable value rule.



3. Explain when companies use the relative

standalone sales value method to value

inventories.



9-19

Special Valuation Situations

Departure from LCNRV rule may be justified in situations when

cost is difficult to determine,

items are readily marketable at quoted market prices, and

units of product are interchangeable.

Two common situations in which NRV is the general rule:

Agricultural assets

Commodities held by broker-traders.

VALUATION BASES

LO 2

9-20

Agricultural Inventory

Biological asset (classified as a non-current asset) is a

living animal or plant, such as sheep, cows, fruit trees, or

cotton plants.

Biological assets are measured on initial recognition and

at the end of each reporting period at fair value less costs

to sell (NRV).

Companies record gain or loss due to changes in NRV of

biological assets in income when it arises.


NRV

LO 2

9-21

Agricultural Inventory

Agricultural produce is the harvested product of a biological

asset, such as wool from a sheep, milk from a dairy cow,

picked fruit from a fruit tree, or cotton from a cotton plant.

Agricultural produce are measured at fair value less

costs to sell (NRV) at the point of harvest.

Once harvested, the NRV becomes cost.

NRV


LO 2

9-22

Illustration: Bancroft Dairy produces milk for sale to local cheese-

makers. Bancroft began operations on January 1, 2015, by

purchasing 420 milking cows for €460,000. Bancroft provides the

following information related to the milking cows.

Agricultural Accounting at NRV

ILLUSTRATION 9-9

Agricultural Assets—

Bancroft Dairy

LO 2

9-23

Bancroft makes the following entry to record the change in carrying

value of the milking cows.

Biological Asset (milking cows) 33,800

Unrealized Holding Gain or Loss—Income 33,800

Agricultural Accounting at NRV ILLUSTRATION 9-9

Agricultural Assets—

Bancroft Dairy

LO 2

9-24


Biological Asset (milking cows) 33,800

Reported on the Statement of financial position as a non-

current asset at fair value less costs to sell (net realizable

value).

Reported as “Other income and expense” on the income

statement.


LO 2

9-25

Inventory (milk) 36,000


Illustration: Bancroft makes the following summary entry to record

the milk harvested for the month of January.

Assuming the milk harvested in January was sold to a local

cheese-maker for €38,500, Bancroft records the sale as follows.


Cash 38,500

Sales Revenue 38,500

Cost of Goods Sold 36,000

Inventory (milk) 36,000

LO 2

9-26

Commodity Broker-Traders

Generally measure their inventories at fair value less costs to

sell (NRV), with changes in NRV recognized in income in the

period of the change.

Buy or sell commodities (such as harvested corn, wheat,

precious metals, heating oil).

Primary purpose is to

► sell the commodities in the near term and

► generate a profit from fluctuations in price.

NRV


LO 2

9-27






inventory.









relative standalone sales value

method to value inventories.



9-28

Valuation Using Relative Standalone Sales

Value

Used when buying varying units in a single lump-sum purchase.

Illustration: Woodland Developers purchases land for $1 million

that it will subdivide into 400 lots. These lots are of different sizes

and shapes but can be roughly sorted into three groups graded A,

B, and C. As Woodland sells the lots, it apportions the purchase

cost of $1 million among the lots sold and the lots remaining on

hand. Calculate the cost of lots sold and gross profit.

VALUATION BASES

LO 3

9-29

ILLUSTRATION 9-10

Allocation of Costs,

Using Relative Standalone

Sales Value

ILLUSTRATION 9-11

Determination of Gross Profit,

Using Relative Standalone Sales Value

VALUATION BASES

LO 3

9-30






inventory.








3. Explain when companies use the relative

standalone sales value method to value

inventories.

4. Discuss accounting issues

related to purchase commitments.

9-31

Generally seller retains title to the merchandise.

Buyer recognizes no asset or liability.

If material, the buyer should disclose contract details in

note in the financial statements.

If the contract price is greater than the market price,

and the buyer expects that losses will occur when the

purchase is effected, the buyer should recognize a

liability and corresponding loss in the period during which

such declines in market prices take place.

Purchase Commitments—A Special Problem

VALUATION BASES

LO 4

9-32

Illustration: Apres Paper Co. signed timber-cutting contracts to

be executed in 2016 at a price of €10,000,000. Assume further

that the market price of the timber cutting rights on December

31, 2015, dropped to €7,000,000. Apres would make the

following entry on December 31, 2015.

Unrealized Holding Gain or Loss—Income 3,000,000

Purchase Commitment Liability 3,000,000

Other expenses and losses in the Income statement.

Current liabilities on the balance sheet.

Purchase Commitments

LO 4

9-33

Purchases (Inventory) 7,000,000


Cash 10,000,000

Assume Apres is permitted to reduce its contract price and

therefore its commitment by €1,000,000.


Unrealized Holding Gain or Loss—Income 1,000,000

Illustration: When Apres cuts the timber at a cost of €10 million,

it would make the following entry.

Purchase Commitments

LO 4

9-34

5. Determine ending inventory by

applying the gross profit

method.




inventory.




1. Describe and apply the lower-of-cost-

or-net realizable value rule.








9-35

Substitute Measure to Approximate Inventory

Relies on three assumptions:

1. Beginning inventory plus purchases equal total goods to be

accounted for.

2. Goods not sold must be on hand.

3. The sales, reduced to cost, deducted from the sum of the

opening inventory plus purchases, equal ending inventory.

GROSS PROFIT METHOD OF

ESTIMATING INVENTORY

LO 5

9-36

Illustration: Cetus Corp. has a beginning inventory of €60,000

and purchases of €200,000, both at cost. Sales at selling price

amount to €280,000. The gross profit on selling price is 30

percent. Cetus applies the gross margin method as follows.

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

ILLUSTRATION 9-13

Application of Gross Profit Method

LO 5

9-37

Illustration: In Illustration 9-13, the gross profit was a given. But

how did Cetus derive that figure? To see how to compute a gross

profit percentage, assume that an article cost €15 and sells for

€20, a gross profit of €5.

Computation of Gross Profit Percentage

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

ILLUSTRATION 9-14

Computation of Gross

Profit Percentage

LO 5

9-38

Illustration 9-15

Formulas Relating

to Gross Profit

Illustration 9-16

Application of

Gross Profit

Formulas

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

9-39

Illustration: Astaire Company uses the gross profit method to

estimate inventory for monthly reporting purposes. Presented below is

information for the month of May.

Inventory, May 1 € 160,000 Sales € 1,000,000

Purchases (gross) 640,000 Sales returns 70,000

Freight-in 30,000 Purchases discounts 12,000

Instructions:

(a) Compute the estimated inventory at May 31, assuming that the

gross profit is 25% of sales.

(b) Compute the estimated inventory at May 31, assuming that the

gross profit is 25% of cost.

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

LO 5

9-40

Inventory, May 1 (at cost) € 160,000

Purchases (gross) (at cost) 640,000

Purchase discounts (12,000)

Freight-in 30,000

Goods available (at cost) 818,000

Sales (at selling price) € 1,000,000

Sales returns (at selling price) (70,000)

Net sales (at selling price) 930,000

Less: Gross profit (25% of €930,000) 232,500

Sales (at cost) 697,500

Approximate inventory, May 31 (at cost) € 120,500

(a) Compute the estimated inventory at May 31, assuming that the

gross profit is 25% of sales.

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

LO 5

9-41

Inventory, May 1 (at cost) € 160,000

Purchases (gross) (at cost) 640,000

Purchase discounts (12,000)

Freight-in 30,000

Goods available (at cost) 818,000

Sales (at selling price) € 1,000,000

Sales returns (at selling price) (70,000)

Net sales (at selling price) 930,000

Less: Gross profit (20% of €930,000) 186,000

Sales (at cost) 744,000

Approximate inventory, May 31 (at cost) € 74,000

(b) Compute the estimated inventory at May 31, assuming that the

gross profit is 25% of cost.

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

25%

100% + 25% = 20% of sales

LO 5

9-42

Disadvantages

1) Provides an estimate of ending inventory.

2) Uses past percentages in calculation.

3) A blanket gross profit rate may not be representative.

4) Normally unacceptable for financial reporting purposes

because it provides only an estimate.

IFRS requires a physical inventory as additional verification of

the inventory indicated in the records.

Evaluation of Gross Profit Method

GROSS PROFIT METHOD

LO 5

9-43

Managers and analysts closely follow gross

profits. A small change in the gross profit

rate can significantly affect the bottom line.

For example, at one time, Apple Computer

(USA) suffered a textbook case of shrinking

gross profits. In response to pricing wars in

the personal computer market, Apple had

to quickly reduce the price of its signature

Macintosh computers—reducing prices

more quickly than it could reduce its costs.

As a result, its gross profit rate fell from 44

percent in 1992 to 40 percent in 1993.

Though the drop of 4 percent seems small,

its impact on the bottom line caused

Apple’s share price to drop from $57 per

share to $27.50 in just six weeks.

WHAT’S YOUR PRINCIPLE THE SQUEEZE

As another example, Debenham (GBR),

the second largest department store in the

United Kingdom, experienced a 14

percentage share price decline. The

cause? Markdowns on slow-moving

inventory reduced its gross margin. On the

positive side, an increase in the gross profit

rate provides a positive signal to the

market. For example, just a 1 percent boost

in Dr. Pepper’s (USA) gross profit rate

cheered the market, indicating the

company was able to avoid the squeeze of

increased commodity costs by raising its

prices.

Sources: Alison Smith, “Debenham’s Shares Hit by Warning,” Financial Times (July 24, 2002), p. 21; and D. Kardous, “Higher Pricing Helps Boost Dr. Pepper Snapple’s Net,” Wall Street Journal Online (June 5, 2008).

LO 5

9-44



6. Determine ending inventory by

applying the retail inventory

method.


inventory.













9-45

Method used by retailers to compile inventories at retail prices.

Retailer can use a formula to convert retail prices to cost.

Requires retailers to keep a record of:

1) Total cost and retail value of goods purchased.

2) Total cost and retail value of the goods available for sale.

3) Sales for the period.

Methods

Conventional Method (or LCNRV)

Cost Method

RETAIL INVENTORY METHOD

LO 6

9-46 LO 6

Illustration: The following data pertain to a single department for

the month of October for Fuque Inc. Prepare a schedule computing

retail inventory using the Conventional and Cost methods.

COST RETAIL

Beg. inventory, Oct. 1 52,000£ 78,000£

Purchases 272,000 423,000

Freight in 16,600

Purchase returns 5,600 8,000

Additional markups 9,000

Markup cancellations 2,000

Markdowns (net) 3,600

Normal spoilage and breakage 10,000

Sales 390,000


9-47

Cost to

COST RETAIL Retail %

Beginning inventory 52,000£ 78,000£

Purchases 272,000 423,000

Purchase returns (5,600) (8,000)

Freight in 16,600

Markups, net 7,000

Current year additions 283,000 422,000

Goods available for sale 335,000 500,000 67.0%

Markdowns, net (3,600)

Normal spoilage and breakage (10,000)

Sales (390,000)

Ending inventory at retail 96,400£

Ending inventory at Cost:

96,400£ x 67.0% = 64,588£

CONVENTIONAL Method:


LO 6

9-48

Cost to

COST RETAIL Retail %

Beginning inventory 52,000£ 78,000£

Purchases 272,000 423,000

Purchase returns (5,600) (8,000)

Freight in 16,600

Markdowns, net (3,600)

Markups, net 7,000

Current year additions 283,000 418,400

Goods available for sale 335,000 496,400 67.49%

Normal spoilage and breakage (10,000)

Sales (390,000)

Ending inventory at retail 96,400£

Ending inventory at Cost:

96,400£ x 67.49% = 65,060£

COST Method:


LO 6

9-49

Freight costs

Purchase returns

Purchase discounts and allowances

Transfers-in

Normal shortages

Abnormal shortages

Employee discounts

Special Items Relating to Retail Method

When sales are recorded

gross, companies do not

recognize sales discounts.


LO 6

9-50 LO 6

Special

Items


ILLUSTRATION 9-22

Conventional Retail

Inventory Method—

Special Items Included

9-51

Used for the following reasons:

1) To permit the computation of net income without a physical

count of inventory.

2) Control measure in determining inventory shortages.

3) Regulating quantities of merchandise on hand.

4) Insurance information.

Some companies refine the retail method by computing inventory separately by

departments or class of merchandise with similar gross profits.

Evaluation of Retail Inventory Method


LO 6

9-52





7. Explain how to report and

analyze inventory.













9-53

Accounting standards require disclosure of:

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

Presentation of Inventories

1) Accounting policies adopted in measuring inventories,

including the cost formula used (weighted-average, FIFO).

2) Total carrying amount of inventories and the carrying

amount in classifications (merchandise, production supplies,

raw materials, work in progress, and finished goods).

3) Carrying amount of inventories carried at fair value less

costs to sell.

4) Amount of inventories recognized as an expense during the

period. LO 7

9-54

Presentation of Inventories

5) Amount of any write-down of inventories recognized as

an expense in the period and the amount of any reversal

of write-downs recognized as a reduction of expense in

the period.

6) Circumstances or events that led to the reversal of a

write-down of inventories.

7) Carrying amount of inventories pledged as security for

liabilities, if any.

Accounting standards require disclosure of:


LO 7

9-55

Common ratios used in the management and evaluation of

inventory levels are inventory turnover and average days

to sell the inventory.

Analysis of Inventories


LO 7

9-56

Measures the number of times on average a company sells

the inventory during the period.

Inventory Turnover

Illustration 9-25

Illustration: In its 2013 annual report Tate & Lyle plc (GBR)

reported a beginning inventory of £450 million, an ending inventory

of £510 million, and cost of goods sold of £2,066 million for the

year.


LO 7

9-57

Measure represents the average number of days’ sales for

which a company has inventory on hand.

Average Days to Sell Inventory

365 days / 4.30 times = every 84.8 days

Average Days to Sell


Illustration 9-25

LO 7

9-58

INVENTORIES

In most cases, IFRS and U.S. GAAP related to inventory are the same. The

major differences are that IFRS prohibits the use of the LIFO cost flow

assumption and records market in the LCNRV differently.

GLOBAL ACCOUNTING INSIGHTS

9-59

Relevant Facts

Following are the key similarities and differences between U.S. GAAP and

IFRS related to inventories.

Similarities

• U.S. GAAP and IFRS account for inventory acquisitions at historical cost

and evaluate inventory for lower-of-cost-or-net realizable value (market)

subsequent to acquisition.

• Who owns the goods—goods in transit, consigned goods, special sales

agreements—as well as the costs to include in inventory are essentially

accounted for the same under U.S. GAAP and IFRS.


9-60

Relevant Facts

Differences

• U.S. GAAP provides more detailed guidelines in inventory accounting. The

requirements for accounting for and reporting inventories are more

principles-based under IFRS.

• A major difference between U.S. GAAP and IFRS relates to the LIFO cost

flow assumption. U.S. GAAP permits the use of LIFO for inventory

valuation. IFRS prohibits its use. FIFO and average-cost are the only two

acceptable cost flow assumptions permitted under IFRS. Both sets of

standards permit specific identification where appropriate.


9-61

Relevant Facts

Differences

• In the lower-of-cost-or-market test for inventory valuation, U.S. GAAP

defines market as replacement cost subject to the constraints of net

realizable value (the ceiling) and net realizable value less a normal markup

(the floor). IFRS defines market as net realizable value and does not use a

ceiling or a floor to determine market.

• Under U.S. GAAP, if inventory is written down under the lower-of-cost-or-

market valuation, the new basis is now considered its cost. As a result, the

inventory may not be written up back to its original cost in a subsequent

period. Under IFRS, the write-down may be reversed in a subsequent

period up to the amount of the previous write-down. Both the write-down

and any subsequent reversal should be reported on the income statement.


9-62

Relevant Facts

Differences

• IFRS requires both biological assets and agricultural produce at the point of

harvest to be reported at net realizable value. U.S. GAAP does not require

companies to account for all biological assets in the same way.

Furthermore, these assets generally are not reported at net realizable

value. Disclosure requirements also differ between the two sets of

standards.


9-63

About The Numbers

Presented below is a disclosure under U.S. GAAP related to inventories,

which reflects application of U.S. GAAP to its inventories.


9-64

On the Horizon

One convergence issue that will be difficult to resolve relates to the use of the

LIFO cost flow assumption. As indicated, IFRS specifically prohibits its use.

Conversely, the LIFO cost flow assumption is widely used in the United States

because of its favorable tax advantages. In addition, many argue that LIFO

from a financial reporting point of view provides a better matching of current

costs against revenue and therefore enables companies to compute a more

realistic income.


9-65

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Transcript of Financial Accounting and Accounting Standards€¦ · · 2015-08-31PREVIEW OF CHAPTER...