MAPPING SHRIMP FEED SUPPLY CHAIN

IN SONGKHLA PROVINCE TO FACILITATE FEED

DIALOGUE

FULL REPORT SUBMITTED TO OXFAM THAILAND

Lead Researcher: Sarinee Achavanuntakul Research Team: Srisakul Piromwarakorn James True Pattraporn Yamla-Or Sasiwimon Khlongakkhara Koranis Tanangsnakool

March, 2014

1. Research Background 13 1.1Objectiveofthisproject 14

1.2Objectiveofthisreport 14

1.3MethodologyandLimitationsofResearch 15

2. Overview of Fishmeal Industry 16 2.1 Thailand’sFisheriesfromthePast 16

2.2 Whytrawlersandpushnetsarebanned 20

2.3 CharacteristicsofFishmeal 22

2.4 OverviewofFishmealIndustry 26

2.4.1 Global 26

2.4.2 ThailandFishmealProduction 28

2.4.3 ThailandFishmealConsumption 31

2.4.4 ThailandFishmealExports 31

2.4.5 ThailandFishmealImports 33

2.4.6 SongkhlaFishmeal 34

2.5 FishmealPrice 35

2.6 Classification 37

2.7 Governmentpoliciesandregulations 38

3. Literature review: impact of trash fish industry on ecosystems 39

4. Literature review: Changes and Impact on Local Artisanal Fishing Community 48 4.1 DefinitionsofArtisanalFisheries 48

4.2 Thailand’sArtisanalFishingCommunities 49

4.3 ConflictsbetweenCommercialFishermenandArtisanalFishermen 49

4.4 ImpactofCommercialFisheriesinthe3,000-MeterProhibitedAreasonArtisanalFishermen 50

5. Existing regulations and standards relating to trash fishing and Thailand implementation 54 5.1 FAOCodeofConductforResponsibleFisheriesandtheEUregulationonIUUfishing 54

5.1.1 ThedevelopmentofIPOA-IUU 54

5.1.2 Thedefinitionofillegal,unreportedandunregisteredfishingactivities 56

5.1.3 TheEuropeanUnionregulationtocombatIUUfishing 57

TABLE OFcOnTEnTs

TABLE OFcOnTEnTs

5.2 Standardsontrashfishingataninternationallevel 57

5.2.1 MarineStewardshipCouncil 57

5.2.2 AquacultureStewardshipCouncil 58

5.2.3 ThecertificationstandardfortheResponsibleSupplyofFishmealandFishOil 58

5.2.4 BestAquaculturePractices 59

5.2.5 GlobalGoodAgriculturalPractice(GlobalG.A.P) 60

5.2.6 FriendoftheSea 60

5.2.7 ASC,GAA,andGlobalG.A.P.agreementonresponsiblesourcingoffishmealandfishoil 60

5.3 Nationalregulationsandstandards 67

5.3.1 Thaifisherieslaw 67

5.3.2 ControlofIUUfishing 70

5.3.3 CompliancetotheEURequirements:Thailandcatchcertificatescheme 74

5.3.4 FishmealcertificateschemeinThailand 76

5.3.5 ARoadmapforSustainableDevelopmentofThailand’sFisheries 80

6. Estimates of biomass diverted to fishmeal supply chain 81 6.1 Preamble 81

6.2 Datacollectionsummary 85

6.3 Biomassanalysisconclusion 95

7. Supply Chain of Fishmeal Industry in Songkhla and Its Activities 97 7.1 SupplyChainandStakeholders’activities 97

7.2 Responsiblesourcingoffishmealrawmaterial 112

7.2.1 Animalfeedmills 112

7.2.2 Fishmealproducers 114

7.2.3 Suppliersofrawmaterials 115

7.3 Supplementaryinformation:fieldresearchatTaSa-aanPort 116

8. Case Study: Sustainable Fishing in Peru 120 8.1 OverviewofPeru’sanchovetaindustry 120

8.2 HistoryofthePeruviananchovetafishery 121

8.3 Towardfisherysustainability 124

8.4 LessonsfromPeruviansustainability 129

9. Impact of Supply Chain Activities, Gap Analysis, and Recommendations 132 9.1 DirectImpactsonThaimarineecosystem 132

9.2 IndirectImpactsonThaimarineecosystem 132

9.3 Gapanalysisandrecommendations 135

Appendix 149

Figure1: MarineProductioninThailandfrom1950-2011 17

Figure2: CatchPerUnitEffortfrom1961–2010(kilogramsperhour) 18

Figure3: Thailand’sEEZmap 19

Figure4: Numberoffishingboatsbytype,2011 21

Figure5: Volumeofwild-caughtmarineproductionbytypeoffishinggears,2010(tons,%oftotal) 21

Figure6: Mainspeciesandshareofglobaloutputandexport 22

Figure7: Speciesoffishusuallyfoundintrashfish 23

Figure8: Productionprocessoffishmealandfishoil 25

Figure9: Compositionof1st,2nd,and3rdgradefishmeal 26

Figure10:World’sfishmealproduction,1988-2009 27

Figure11: Topsixfishmealproducingcountries(thousandtons) 27

Figure12:Topsixfishmealconsumingcountries(thousandtons) 27

Figure13:Topsixfishmealexportingcountries(thousandtons) 28

Figure14:Topsixfishmealimportingcountries(thousandtons) 28

Figure15:Thailand’sfishmealproductionbyyear,2006-2011 29

Figure16:Thailand’sfishmealproductionandproducers,1987-2011 29

Figure17:Thailand’stopfivefishmealproducingprovincesin2011 30

Figure18:Rawmaterialsoffishmeal,1987-2011 30

Figure19:Thailand’sfishmealexportbyyear,2008-2013* 32

Figure20:Thailand’sfishmealexportbycategory,2007–2013* 33

Figure21:Thailand’sfishmealexportbycategory,2008–2013* 33

Figure22:RawmaterialsoffishmealinSongkhla,1999–2011,dividedintotrashfish, trimmings(by-product)andotherfish 34

Figure23:Averagepricesoffishmealbyprovincein2011(Bahtperkilogram) 35

Figure24:Peruvianfishmealpricefrom1980–2013(US$perton) 36

Figure25:Pricesoftrashfish,1stand2ndgradefishmeal,andPeruvianfishmeal,2007-2011(Bahtperkilogram) 36

Figure26:Estimatedquantityoflivestockandfeedingredientsrequiredforsufficientanimalfeed inThailand,2003-2012(tons)* 37

Figure27:ReportedfinfishlandingintheGulfofThailand 43

Figure28:MSYmodel 44

Figure29:Simplifiedcoastalfoodwebs 46

Figure30:AveragedailyincomeperboatofartisanalfishermeninSongkhladuring1993-1999 51

Figure31:AveragedailycostperboatofartisanalfishermeninSongkhladuring1993-1999 52

Figure32:Averagedailyprofit/lossperboatofartisanalfishermeninSongkhladuring1993-1999 53

Figure33:RequirementforSourcingoffishmealandfishoilofBAP,ASC,G.A.P. 61

Figure34:SummaryofinternationalstandardsandcertifiedThaicompanies 62

Figure35: Figure35:KeyfeaturesofFisheriesAct1947,comparedtodraftofthenewfisheriesact 69

Figure36: Vesselsregistrationprocess 71

Figure37:NumberofregisteredThaifishingvessels,2010-2013 71

TABLE OFFIGUREs

TABLE OFFIGUREs

Figure38:ProcessofacquiringfishinglicenseandfishingpermitinThaiwaters 72

Figure39:Processofacquiringfishinglicenseandfishingpermitinoverseaswaters 73

Figure40:Numberoffishingvesselsreceivingandreturningfishinglogbookfrom2010-2013 74

Figure41:CatchCertificateScheme 75

Figure42:AmountofcertifiedmarineproductsexportedtotheEUandnumberofcatchcertificateissued from2010-2013 76

Figure43:Fishmealcertificatescheme 78

Figure44:Numberoffishmealcertificate(submittedforverification),amountofmaterials,andamountoffishmeal bysourceofmaterialsfrom10June–31December2013 78

Figure45:Summaryofvariousschemes 79

Figure46:PlapetconditioninSongkhla 82

Figure47:ReportedfinfishlandingsintheGulfofThailand 83

Figure48:VolumeofmarinefishlandedatSongkhla(Tasa-aan) 84

Figure49:ThefisheriespieratSongkhlajustbeforedawn(ImageS.Arunrugstichai) 86

Figure50:Results–compositionoflandedproductatSongkhla 87

Figure51:Summaryofcatchstatisticsforthevesselsinterviewedforthisstudy 88

Figure52:Selectionsofplapetfoundatport 89

Figure53:DepartmentofFisheriesCatchperUnitEffort(CPUE)figuresfor2010/11. 90

Figure54:CompositionofplapetfromavesseloffloadingatSongkhlainAugust 90

Figure55:ExamplecompositionofplapetfromavesseloffloadingatSongkhlainSeptember 91

Figure56:SummaryofthediversityofbiotalandedasplapetinSongkhlainAugustandSeptember 91

Figure57:Averagespeciescompositionofthe“foodfish”componentofcatcheslandedatSongkhla 92

Figure58:AmultispeciesbasketoffishlandedinSongkhla 93

Figure59: crustaceans,squidsandfishmashedtogetherintounrecognizability 94

Figure60:TaSa-aan“Afterwards 95

Figure61:Peruvianfishmealandfishoilsupplychain 97

Figure62:MapoffishmealsupplychainincentralandeasternregionsofThailand 98

Figure63:MapoffishmealsupplychainonAndamanSeaside 99

Figure64:MapoffishmealsupplychainonGulfofThailandside 99

Figure65:MapoffishmealsupplychaininSongkhla 100

Figure66:FishmealproducersinSongkhla,rankedfromlargesttothesmallest 102

Figure67:RawmaterialsoffishmealinSongkhla,1999–2013,dividedintotrashfish,by-productsandotherfish102

Figure68:RelationshipsbetweentopfivefishmealproducersinSongkhlaandfish-processingmanufacturers 103

Figure69:FishmealpricesatBangkokmarketannouncedbyCPFonFebruary8,2014 104

Figure70:Fishmealoperationflowchart 105

Figure71:Summaryoftrashfishusage(highlightedinred)andmapofsupplychainoffishmealindustry inSongkhla 108

Figure72:ActivitymapoffishmealsupplychainandpracticesunderThailand’sfishmealcertificate 111

Figure73:Animalfeedmillsbasedonfishmealtraceability,rankedfromhighest%tolowest% 114

Figure74:Fishmealproducedfromwholefishandfishmealproducedfromnon-traceablewholefishbypurchasers (percentage) 116

Figure75:TaSa-aanPort 117

Figure76:TaSa-aanPortLandingArea 118

Figure77:Peruviananchoveta 121

Figure78:HistoricalPeruviananchovetalanding,majorElNiñoandfisheryphases 122

Figure79:Fleetsizeandnumberoffishmealfactories:1950–2006 124

Figure80:Peruvianrapiddecisionflowonfishingclosure(IFFO2009) 127

Figure81:Stakeholders’activitiesandtheirimpactsonThaimarineecosystem 134

Figure82:GulfofThailandatnight,asseenfromspace 136

ABBREVIATIONS APFIC TheAsia-PacificFisheryCommission ASC TheAquacultureStewardshipCouncil BAP BestAquaculturePractices CC CatchCertificate CD CustomsDepartment,MinistryofFinance CPF CharoenPokphandFoods CPUE CatchPerUnitEffort DFT DepartmentofForeignTrade,MinistryofCommerce DOF DepartmentofFisheries EEZ ExclusiveEconomicZone EU EuropeanUnion FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganization FAO-COFI FoodandAgricultureOrganizationCommitteeonFisheries FIP FisheryImprovementProject FMFO FishmealandFishOil FSARG FisheryStatisticsAnalysisandResearchGroup FOS Friendofthesea GAA GlobalAquacultureAlliance GlobalG.A.P. GlobalGoodAgriculturalPractices GoT GulfofThailand IDH SustainableTradeInitiative(InitiatiefDuurzameHandel) IFFO InternationalFishmealandFishOilOrganization IFFORS ResponsibleSupplyofFishmealandFishOil IMARPE TheInstitutodelMarchdelPeru IPOA Theinternationalplansofaction IUCN TheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature IUU Illegal,Unreported,andUnregulatedFishing IVQ IndividualVesselQuota MCPD MarineCatchPurchasingDocument MCPD-FM MarineCatchPurchasingDocument–Fishmeal MCTD MarineCatchTrans-shippingDocument MOAC MinistryofAgricultureandCooperatives MSC MarineStewardshipCouncil NPOA-IUU NationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,DeterandEliminateIllegal,Unreported

andUnregulatedFishing RFMO RegionalFisheriesManagementOrganizations RPOA-IUU RegionalPlanofActiontoPrevent,DeterandEliminateIllegal,Unreported

andUnregulatedFishing SFP SustainableFisheriesPartnership SNP SociedadNacionaldePesqueria(Peru’sNationalFisheriesSociety) TAC TotalAllowableCatch TFMA ThaiFeedMillAssociation TFM ThaiunionFeedmill TFPA ThaiFishmealProducersAssociation TUF ThaiunionFrozenProducts UNGA UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly WWF WorldWildlifeFund

TABLE OFABBREvIATIOns

TABLE OFABBREvIATIOns

FOREWORDFOREWORDThis research contributes to the Economic Justice Programme of

Oxfam Thailand. Oxfam is an international development agency that

works in more than 90 countries worldwide. We have the mission to work with

partners to end poverty and inequality. In Thailand, the Economic Justice

Programme empowers people’s organizations with knowledge and

information, and partners with key stakeholders in the country and regions

to achieve equal economic opportunities. Two main target groups are the

fisherfolk and the small scale farmers. With close consultations with Oxfam’s

partners, we are working to achieve the community right to joint natural

resources management, climate change adaptation and gendered enterprise

and market.

This research is aimed to inform the Association of Thai Fisherfolk

Federations, civil society, relevant public and private sectors and hope it will

springboard discussions towards more sustainable marine management

which also takes fisherfolk’s right into account.

Oxfam Thailand would also like to thank Thai Sea Watch Association

(TSWA), our partner, whose support for field coordination and information

was crucial to the success of this research.

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ExEcUTIvEsUmmARy

ExEcUTIvEsUmmARy

productwhichiscompletelyunsaleableinanyothermarket(especiallyused inreferencetobadlydamagedorputrescentproducts).InThaifisheriesparlance,such“trash”fishisknownasplapetanddoesnot refer to low-value,butotherwiseediblefish.

This research finds that Thailand’sdemersalfisheryhasbeenseverelydepletedbyoverfishing.Excessfishingcapacityoverthepast fourdecadeshasmeant thatCatchPerUnit Effort (CPUE) has been decliningcontinuously since 1961 fromalmost 300kilogrammesperhourto17.8kilogrammesin2010. The rapiddepletion, contrastswithpublishedproductionfigures,suggesting thatThailandhasbeendependingon resourcesfromothercountriesforalongtime.

Itisnowwidelyrecognizedthatunselectivefishingaimedatmaximizingthetotalcatch,suchasbottomtrawlingwhichyieldsthekindoftrashfishused inThailand’sfishmealproduction,tendstodramaticallychangemarineecosystem.Smallfishandinvertebratessuchassquidsthatfeedmainlyonplanktonwill becomeover-represented in theocean,andwill quicklydomina te the sys tem. Overfish ing i sincreasinglyunderstoodtoresult inchangesinthestructureandfunctionsofmarinehabitat,especiallyorganisms’relativepositions in thefoodchain(technicallycalled“trophiclevel”ofanecosystem).Sincepopulationsofmanysmallfishspeciesdependonaddingnewmembers(“recruitment”inscientificterm),overfishinghas

ThisresearchprojectispredicatedonthepremisethatinordertoconstructivelyengageshrimpindustryinThailandtoimplementmoresustainablesupplychainpractices,oneofthemost importantfirststeps is topinpoint theimpactoffishmeal(shrimpfeed)industryonthelivelihoodofcoastalcommunities inThailand,aswellasmaptheirsupplychaininordertogetaclearerpictureofbusinessconductsofkeystakeholders foruse inevaluatingpotentiallyfruitfulengagementstrategies.

Fishmeal isamainprotein ingredient foranimalfeed,especiallyforfishandshrimpfeed.During this research,weencounteredmanydifferentaccountsofratiobetweenwholefish,trimmings, and trashfishused in fishmealproduction.Whiletheglobalnormforfishmealisthat75%ofrawmaterialscomprisewholefish(including“trashfish”ininternationaldefinition,i.e.undesirableorunpalatablefish),and25%trimmings,ThaiFeedMillAssociationclaimsthatrawmaterialsoffishmealinThailandare:35%trimmingsfromcannedfishmanufacturers,18%trashfish,15%sardinellasandotherfish,20%trimmingsfromSurimiproducers,2%trashfishfromoverseaswatersandtheremaining10%aretrimmingsfromotherfishprocessingmanufacturers.

Inpart,thisvariancecanbeexplainedbythe imprecisionof thephrase “trash fish”.WhereasinWesterncountries,trashfishmeansundesirableorunpalatablefish, inmodernThailand, itmeansexclusivelythat fractionof

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sUmmARysUmmARybeensuggestedas themain reason for thedecliningfishstockthatisavailabletoartisanalfishermen. Thisofcoursehas tremendousconsequence to the livelihood and foodsecurityofartisanalfishermenwho relyonnatural replenishmentofcoastalfishstock. Italsoaffectsindustrialfishermenwhotargetadultfishpopulation.

Fromthestatisticsofsmall-scalefishinghouseholds,wefoundthatthemajorityoftheartisanal fishermen inThailand use smalloutboardpoweredboats. InSongkhla, thepercentageofartisanalfishermenwhousedsuchboatswas63.64%or3,930householdsin2000,andabout27.5%or1,683householdsdid not use any fishing vessel. Severeovercapacity in the industrialfishing industryresultinginthedepletionofnear-shoremarineresources,hasleftlocalartisanalfishermenwithvery limitedchoicesas1) theirboats, ifany,wererelativelysmall,sotheycouldnotgotofishveryfarfromshore2)manyofthemhadnoskillother thanfishing.When thepreviouslyabundantcoastalseabecamebarren, localartisanalfishermenfacedalotofproblems,bothfinancialandsocial.Financialproblemsincludedecreasing incomesand increasingcostsoffisherieseventually leadingto informaldebts.OneresearchinfivevillagesinSongkhladuring1993-1999 showed that local fishermen’sincomein1999fell3-40timesfromthe1993level.

Our field research for th is projectdiscoveredthat,withtheexceptionofasinglevessel interviewed inAugust, the vesselsinterviewed inSeptember2013were landingaround4 tonsofcommercialfishper triponSongkhlafishingport,afterspendinganywherebetweenoneandtwoweeksatsea.Thiscatchwas supplementedby roughly 6.5 tonsofplapet.AlloftheskippersinterviewedstatedthattheirfishingwasconductedinthevicinityofMuKohKra(anoffshoregroupofislandsinNakhornSriThammaratprovince).Thevesselswereall“standard”mediumotter-boardtrawlers

(24-40m in length,crewof5-6,poweredby275-315 horsepower diesel engines, anddeployingtrawlnetswith10metregape),andrepresentareasonablesampleofthetypesofmedium-sized commercial fishing vesselsreturningproduct toSongkhlaat that timeofyear.

Thefigurespresentedhererepresentanaveragetotalreturnonfishingeffort(CPUE)ofapproximately49(±17)kilogramme/hourforthevesselslandingcatchinAugustandSeptember.Thehighcatchratesofjuvenileandtrashfishin demersal trawls can be explained byinappropriatelyfinemeshusedinthecod-endsofnets. TheThaiDepartmentofFisheriesMasterPlansuggeststhat40millimetresisanappropriatemesh size for demersal trawlfisheriesintheGulfofThailand.Noneofthevesselssurveyedusedmesh larger than25millimetres,andmostused20millimetresorless. Push-net fishermen use even finermeshednets(as littleas10millimetres)andfrequentlytargetareasutilisedasnurseriesbymany species of fish and crustaceans.Juvenilesofcommerciallyvaluablespeciesandthoseimportantinfoodsecurityforlocalpeopleare killed in largenumbers,wasting theirpotential.

Thewastefulnessofoverly-finemeshsizesiscompoundedbytheuseoflongtrawlduration,often6hoursormore,meaningthatanyproductcapturedduringthefirst fewhoursof thetowevenifitisofcommerciallyvaluablespecieswillbecomeruinedandunsalableandwillbecome“pla pet”.Tossapornpitakkul et al. (2008)reportedthattheaverageplapetcompositionof catches inNakhonSriThammarat andSongkhla averaged42.08%of theannualcaptureforsmallotterboardtrawlerssuchasthosewe interviewed.Theseauthorsalsosuggestedthatthecatchcompositionchangesthroughouttheyear(withplapetbeing40%ofthe catch in theNortheastmonsoon,47%betweenthemonsoons,and40%during theSouthwestmonsoon).However,wefoundan

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averageof62%plapet incatches landed inSeptember,attheendoftheSouthwestmonsoon.Thissuggeststhatthesituationhasworsened.

Likewise,thevolumeofplapetpervessellanding(averagingslightlymorethan6tons)coincideswithSongkhla fisheries records(roughly4000vessel landings, fora totalof25,000tonsofplapet.)Theoretically,100%ofplapet landedatSongkhlacouldbesold tofishmealproducers,ascouldanyotherwastedordegradedproduct.However,mostoftheplapet was too decomposed to be used asfeedstockforthehighgradefishmealpreferredforshrimpfoodproduction,sotheyaresoldtofactoriesthatproducelower-gradefishmealatlesservalue.

In-depthinterviewswithfishmealfactoriesbasedinSongkhlafoundthat,ofthe25,000tonstotalestimatedplapetamount landedeveryyear,approximately5,760tonsor23%aresenttofishmealproducersbasedinSongkhla;theremaining77%probablywent to fishmealproducersinotherprovinces.

Themainrawmaterialsused infishmealproduction inSongkhlaare trimmings fromfish-processingmanufacturerse.g.surimi,tunacanning;fishballproducersaswellasanchovyproducersandfishretailersatthemarketswhichaccountedabout80%oftheestimatedtotalrawmaterialsof100,215 tons,or79,964 tons in2013. Fishmeal producers also buy rawmaterialsdirectlyfromcommercialfishingboats,aswellasbrokerswhocollect trashfish fromlocalfishingboats fromSongkhlaandotherprovinces.Thisaccounted for 20%of rawmaterialsor20,250tons.Ofthisamount,62%or about 12,609 tonswere fish landed inSongkhla(which includes5,760tonsof trashfishorplapet);theremaining38%or7,641tonswerefishfromotherprovincessuchasSatunandPattani,aswellasimportedfish.

Animal feedmills’ activities that causeindirectimpactsaresimilartothoseoffishmeal

factories,asanimalfeedmillsaremajorusersoffishmealproduced from trashfishorfishcaughtunsustainably. Ineffect, theyare theonesthatcreatedemandsfortrashfish.Itstartswhentheysetbuyingcriteria.Manyfeedmillssetbuyingcriteriaandpricesbasedon thequalitiesofthefishmealalone,notbyhowfish–rawmaterialsoffishmeal–werecaught.Thus,fishmealproduced fromtrashfishcaughtbytrawlersandpushnets thatdestroymarineecosystemcanbesoldtoanimalfeedmills.Thisencouragesfishingboatowners tocontinuetheirunsustainablefishingpractices.

Thegoodnews is thatcurrentlyseveralfeedmillsinThailandalreadyimplementvarioussustainableprocurementpractices, tovaryingdegreesofsuccess,partlyowingtopressuresfromtheultimatebuyersoffrozenfoodexports,particularlytheEuropeanUnion.Forexample,asofMarch2014bothCharoenPokphandFoods(CPF)andThaiunionFrozenProducts(TUF),twomajorfeedmills,arecertifiedBestAquaculturePractices(BAP)4-starortoplevelstatus.CPFisalsocertifiedunderGlobalGoodAgriculturalPractice(GlobalG.A.P).CPFisfarand away the largest buyer of fishmealproducedinSongkhla,with45%marketshareoffishmealsoldtoanimalfeedmills,followedbyBetagro(17%),ThaiunionFeedmill (11%),LeePattana(9%),andKrungthaiFeedmill(3%).Top three players – CPF, Betagro, andThaiunion–have73%shareof themarketcombined.

Ouranalysisofbiomasscatchaswellasfishmealsupplychain inSongkhlashowthatthere issignificant room for improvement insustainablesourcing.OnlyfishmealusedbyBetagroandKrungthaiFeedmill iscurrently100% traceable,since theybothbuy100%fishmealfromonesinglefishmealproducerthatis100% traceable.Amongmajor feedmillplayers,CPF,LeePattana,andThaiunionFeedmillhave thehighestshareoffishmealproducedfromnon-traceablesources–74%combined.

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Ouranalysisofbiomasscatchaswellasfishmealsupplychain inSongkhlashowthatthere issignificant room for improvement insustainablesourcing.OnlyfishmealusedbyBetagroandKrungthaiFeedmill iscurrently100% traceable,since theybothbuy100%fishmealfromonesinglefishmealproducerthatis100% traceable.Amongmajor feedmillplayers,CPF,LeePattana,andThaiunionFeedmillhave thehighestshareoffishmealproducedfromnon-traceablesources–74%combined.

Complicating thepicture is the fact that,since trash fishing is not yet consideredcategorically illegal inThailand, it ispossibleevenfortraceablefishmeal(i.e.complyingwiththe standards) to include trash fish rawmaterial. Inotherwords,currently there isnosustainabilitystandardorfishmealcertificatescheme inThailand thatcanensure thatnotrashfishwasused infishmealproduction.Forexample,therewere575tonsoffishmealproducedfromtrashfishsoldtoCPF,abouthalfof this amountwas traceableandgot thefishmealcertificationunderprivatesectors’fishmealcertificationscheme.

WeobservethreekeylimitationsofcurrentsustainabilitystandardsandcertificateschemesascurrentlypracticedinThailand:

1. There is currently no sustainablesourcingschemeorstandardthatallmajorfeedmillssubscribeto.Unlessanyscheme/standard

incorporatesall large feedmills, therewouldstillbeamarket forfishmealproduced fromirresponsibly-sourcedrawmaterialssuchastrashfish,andthereforethispracticewillcon-tinue.

2. Most schemes relyonaself-reportmechanism.Nothingcanassurefulltraceabilityorguarantee that thefishermen themselvesfillout thenecessarydocumentation.Morespecifically,thesourceoffishmealrawmaterialscannotbeverifiedduetothelackof location-specific auditmechanisms, e.g. satellite-positioning tools toascertain that thefishingboat is reallyfishingat thestated location.Therefore,itiscurrentlyonlypossibletocheckwhetherthedocumentsarefilledoutcorrectly,notthecorrectnessofthedocumentcontents.

3. Currentlyeverysustainablesourcingscheme and standard is based on theinternationally accepted definition of IUUFishing – the catchmust not be Illegal,Unreported, andUnregulated (IUU) to fitunder thisdefinition.Butdue toThailand’sou tda ted fishery law, what i s w ide lyconsidereddamagingfishingconduct e.g.smallmeshsizeof trawls, is not illegal inThailand. Inaddition,every illegal conductunderfisheries law isconsidered illegalonlywhen the fisherman is caught in the act.Therefore,damagingfishinginThailandisnotconsidered IUUFishing, and thereforenostandard based on IUU can effectivelydiscourage trash fish trawl ing. This is

Company% Share of Fishmeal from Songkhla Sold to Animal Feed Mills

% of TraceabilityTraceable

Fishmeal Amount (tons)

CPF 45% 81% 6,839

Betagro 17% 100% 3,270

Thaiunion Feedmill 11% 47% 972

Lee Pattana 9% 36% 600

Krungthai 3% 100% 600

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exacerbated by insufficient control andmonitoringsystemsdueto limitedresources.Consequently,illegally-caughtmarineproductscanbelandedlegally.

LessonsthatThailandcanlearnfromthecasestudyofPeru’ssustainablefishingindustryalsoshow“gaps”inthecurrentattemptstowardsustainablepracticesasfollows:

1. Since overfishing and destructivefishingare“tragedyofthecommons”problemineconomicsparlance,whereeffortsofafewunscrupulousplayersi.e.“freeriders”canruintheresourcesforeveryone, it isnecessarytoimplementsolutionsandstandardsacrosstheboard, i.e.encompassingeverystakeholder.Perusuccessfullyutilizesacombinationoflaws(e.g.IndividualVesselQuota(IVQs),meshsize,by-catchregulation,seasonalclosure,fishingrights) and industry involvementandself-regulation (participation of SNP (Peru’sNationalFisheriesSociety)insettingquotaandresolvingconflicts)across theboard,whileThailand still has serious gaps from thelegal definition (e.g. trash fishing still notcategorically illegal, practices consideredonly illegalwhencaught in theact),weakenforcement, topiecemealparticipationofstandardsandvoluntaryschemes(e.g.onlyonefeedmillisofferingmonetaryincentivesunderfishmealcertificatescheme).

2. Science-baseddataand technologyarebothvitaltoensurefisheriessustainabilityandeffectiveenforcement. IMARPE,majorgovernmentmarineresearchagency inPeru,is recognized globally as a world classauthority, continually reportingmaximumsustainableyield,ecosystemconservation,andresourcesustainabilityconsiderations to thegovernmentonwhichtobasedecisionssuchasquotasetting.Onthetechnologyfront,allcommercialfishingvesselsinPeruarerequiredto installsatellite trackingdevices toensureenforcement of seasonal closures andindividualquotas,since thegovernmentcan

track themovementand locationofvesselsin real-time. InThailand, there is yet nosustainability standard or schemewhichincludessatellite trackingoffishingboats toensure that traceability documentation iscorrect,andmaximumsustainableyieldisnotyetapartofsystematicdecision-makingatpolicylevel.

3. The clearer the “business case forsustainability,”themoreincentivesplayershavetocomplywithsustainability laws/standards/schemes.InPeru,IVQshelpedencouragefleetoperatorstomaximizetheirefficiencythroughcarefullyfishingtripscheduling,accountingforabundance,andproximitytoshoretoachieveshorter andmore successful fishing trips.Consequently, the fleet receives fresherlandings,providinghigher-quality fishmealproductionandultimatelyhigherprofitswithlowercostsdue to less fuelconsumption. Incontrast,thereisasyetnoclearbusinesscaseforsustainabilityinThailand’sfishmealindustryinSongkhla;most fishmealproducers thatparticipateinthefishmealcertificateschemedosoonlybecausetheyarepaidapricepremiumbythebuyer(currentlyonlyCPF),ortheymustdo it as part of the buyer ’s requirement.There is only one fishmeal producer thatcites “competitiveness”as the reason theyparticipate in thescheme;since theycannotcompeteonquality, theyoffer full traceabilitytobuildcredibilityandtrustworthiness.

Given theabovemajor gapsbetweencurrentpracticesand“bestpractice” inPeru,webelieveitisimperativethatallcurrenteffortstomove the fishmeal industry inThailandtowardsamoresustainablepathway–fromnewfisheries lawtothe industry’s latestFisheriesImprovementProject–aresynchronizedandtrulyencompassallstakeholders,designedtoclosetheabovegapsasmuchaspossiblewithaviewtowardlong-termsustainabilityofmarineecosystemsinThailand.

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Aquaculture isoneof thefastestgrowingfoodproductionsystemswiththetotaleconomicvaluearound150billionUSDworldwide.Thisindustryiscontroversialforitsextensiveimpactonsocietyandecosystems.Yetitalsopresentssignificant food production and economicopportunities for developing countries asdominantaquacultureproducers,includingtheruralareasinwhichthatproductiontakesplace.

Thailandistheworld’slargestexporterofshrimp,and thereforehasoneof the largestshrimpfeedindustries intheworld.However,the feed industry inThailand is still littleconcerned with quality issues and lessincentivized to tryandcomplywithexistingsustainabilitystandardsettingmechanisms(oreco-labels)suchasRSPO,RTRS,SAN,MSC,FTand/or organic voluntary standards. Inaddition, the use of genetically-modifiedorganisms(GMO)inthesecommoditiesislesstransparent.Moreover, fromasustainabilityperspective, there is a blatant ecologicalinefficiencyinthesystem:ithasbeenestimatedthat2kilogramsoffeedisrequiredtoproduce1kilogramsofaqua-culturedfish.

Theproblemisthatincreasingdemandforlesserqualityfish,grains,andsoyforaquaculturefeedsdrivesgrowingunsustainablenegativeimpactonglobal foodproductionsystemsaswellas livelihoodsofpoorpeople infisheriesandagriculture.Thistakesplaceparticularlyindeveloping countries; affectingagriculturepotentialinruralareas,accesstolandforruralpoor;and/orecosystemservices for thosedepending foodproductionsystemssuchascapturefisheriesand forestry.Protein is themajorcomponentforshrimpfeedsandanimalproteinshavelongbeenconsideredessential,since theyarenutritionallyappropriateandreadily digestible.Fishmeal hasbeen the

traditionalchoiceamongstallanimalproteinsinaquaculture feeds for its protein quality,palatabilityandasasourceofessentialaminoacids.Ithasbeenestimatedthatalmost50%ofby-catchand (legally)under-sizedcatch infisheriesgoesintoaquaculturefeed.Whatthismeans for the coastal artisanal fishers ofThailandislargelyunknown.

OxfaminThailandhasbeenworkingwithcivilsociety oncommunity rights tocoastalresourcemanagementandaccesstoagriculturallandrights.Globally,Oxfamhasbeenengagedin the development of theAquacultureStewardship Counci l (ASC; see: www.ascworldwide.org)andseveralstandardsthiscertificationsystemhouses, inparticularwithregardstoshrimp.OneofthemaindrawbacksoftheASCsystemasatooltowardsresponsibleorsustainableaquaculturewasandisthatthefeedthatgoesintotheaquaculturepondsisstillinsufficiently‘captured’bytheASCstandards.Thus,despite theASCbeinga tool todriveaquaculturepractices towardssustainability,thereisstillahugedooropentonegativeimpact(indirectly)causedbyaquaculture;namelythroughthesupplyofaquaculturefeedandfeedingredients.

TheASChasrecentlyannouncedthestartof “FeedDialogues” and invited intereststakeholders to participate. In order toconstructively engagemajor shrimp feedcompanies inThailand, one of themostimportantfirststepsistopinpoint,asaccuratelyaspossible,theimpactofshrimpfeedindustryon the livelihoodofcoastal communities inThailand,aswellasmaptheirsupplychaininorder togetaclearerpictureofshrimp feedindustrybusinessconductforuseinevaluatingpotentiallyfruitfulengagementstrategies.

REsEARch BAckGROUnD1.

14

1.1 Objective of this project

1)To establish and quantify, asmuch aspossible,theimpactofshrimpfeedindustryonthelivelihoodoflocalfishingcommunitiesinSongkhla;

2)Tomap thesupplychainofshrimp feedindustry inSongkhla, includingmarketsharesandkeyactivitiesofmajorstake-holdersinthesupplychain;and

3)Tospurmoreawarenessandsupportfortheissuefromthegeneralpublicviaaneffectivecommunicationplanthatwillbeexecutedinconjunctionwithresearch.

1.2 Objective of this report

1) Reviewbackgrounddocumentsrelated todepletionofcoastalresourcesandlivelihoodoflocalfishingcommunitiesinSongkhlaaswellasotherrelevantresearchpapersandliterature;

2) DiscusswithOxfamteamsandlocalNGOsinvolved inOxfam’s ongoing programinSongkhla,aswellasotherswhichhavecarriedout similarworks togain furtherunderstandingoflocalconditionandtrend;

3) Establishandquantify,asmuchaspossible,the impactofshrimpfeed industryon thelivelihoodof local fishingcommunities inSongkhla;

4) SubmitafullanalysisonthelinkagebetweenshrimpfeedindustryandlivelihoodoflocalfishermeninSongkhla;

5) Identify keycompanies involved inbothupstreamanddownstreamofshrimpfeedbusinessinSongkhla,reviewtheirbusinesspractices,and identifypotentials formoresociallyandenvironmentally responsiblebusinessconducts;and

6) Review environmental ly sustainablebusiness practices carried out in thesimilar context and formulate practicalrecommendations for furtherdiscussionswithbusinessstakeholders

15

1.3 Methodology and Limitations of Research

Forthisresearch,theresearchteamconductedfieldresearchonthefollowingissues:

1) Supply chainstructureandpracticesoffishmealindustryinSongkhla;and

2) Estimateandanalysisofcatch landedatSongkhlaTaSa-aanPort

Inaddition,theteamconducteddeskresearchandinterviewsonthefollowingissues:

1) Literature reviewon the impactof trashfishingonmarineecosysteminSongkhla;

2) Literature reviewon the impactof trashfishingonlivelihoodoflocalartisanalfishingcommunitiesinSongkhla;

3) OverviewofthefishmealindustryinThailandandSongkhla;

4) Existing regulationsandstandardsandproposedrevisions;and

5) Literaturereviewonsustainablefishing inPeru

The research team found thatexistingresearchontheimpactoftrashfishingonthelivelihoodoflocalartisanalfishingcommunitiesinSongkhlaisverylimited.Thereappearstobenoresearchonthisspecifictopic; theclosestwewereabletouncoverwereafewreportsontheimpactofpushnetfisheriesinPattani,andimpactofanchovyfishingusing luring light inSongkhla.Thelatterincludesquantitativedataof incomesof localfishermenduring1993–1999;thisdatawasusedtosupportthesugges-tionthatdestructivefishinglikeanchovyfishingusingluringlighthadimpactonlocalfishermen.Theuseofquantitativedatainthisresearchisrare;mostreportssimplycontaindescriptionsofthecauses,impact,andadaptationsoflocalfishermen.

Westillcitetheaforementionedresearchin this reportbecausewebelieve that, theaforementionedreservationsnotwithstanding,researchdatashows that localfishermen inSongkhlawereaffectedfromthereductionofmarineresourcescausedbydestructivefishing.When one considers decl in ing marineresources,itisdifficulttodistinguishtheeffectsof trawlersandpushnets fromtheeffectsofanchovyfishingusingluringlight.Evenifitweredoable,nosuchdatawascollectedoravailableatthispoint.

Apart from l imited information and/orliteratureavailable,muchoftheinformationis a lso outdated. Both p ieces o f theaforementionedresearchreportswereviewedfor this reportwerewritten in2000,over13years ago.Not only are research reportsoutdated,butkeydatae.g.MarineFisheryCensus,whichrecords incomeofsmall-scalefishing households, is also outdated. Forexample,MarineFisheryCensus,whichwasconductedevery10years,wasdiscontinuedafter the2000 IntercensalSurveyofMarineFishery(B.E.2543).Similarly, the IncomeofSmall-ScaleFishingHouseholdsSurveywasalsolastconductedin2000orB.E.2543.

16

2.1 Thailand’s Fisheries from the Past

Commercialfisheries inThailandcanbetracedback tobeforeWorldWar II.Fishinggearsusedintheearlydaysweresimple,e.g.hooks,pots, stownets, setnets,orbeachseines,andmostof thefishingboatswerenon-poweredboatssuchassailboats,rowboatsorpaddleboats. In1945, therewereonly65poweredboatsand2,513non-poweredboats.Between1953–1960,trawlerswereintroducedtoThailand,but theywerenotparticularlysuccessfulbecausefishermendidnotknowthecharacteristicsof theseabottomwhere theytrawled,andthepricesof thedemersal1fishwerevery lowbecauseThaipeopleat thattimedidnotknowdemersalfish;theypreferredpelagic2 fish l ike Indo-Pacific anchovy(DepartmentofFisheries,n.d.).

However,in1960,theGermangovernmentsentexperts to trainThaifishermen tousetrawlers;theywereverysuccessful.Theyfoundthatmarineresources in theGulfofThailandwereveryrich,andthatthemostefficientgeartocatchdemersal faunawastheOtterBoardTrawl(OBT).Almostinstantly,trawlersbecameverypopular.Atthattime,theThaiDepartmentofFisheries (DoF) itselfalsosupported the

useofpair trawlers(PT).TheymodifiedandconvertedChinesepurseseinerstofunctionastrawlers,andtrainedfishermenintrawlfishing.The trawlfisherywasbooming,spurring theacquisitionofmoreandbiggertrawlers.In1960,therewereonly99 trawlers,but in1966 thenumberhadskyrocketedto2,695,equivalenttoa 2,600% growth rate within six years.Meanwhile,marineproduction increasedbyover600%,from63,711tonsin1960to448,554tons in1966 (Boonwanich&Boonpakdee,2009.).

From1967,ThaitrawlersbeganfishinginthemarinezonesofCambodia,Myanmar,Vietnam, andMalaysia, increasing “Thai”marineproductionto1,548,157tons in1972;Thailandbecamea“topten”marineproduct-producingcountry (DoF,n.d.). In1987, themarineproduction topped2million tons,ofwhich68%wasdemersalfauna,composedof41%ofdemersalfish,39%oftrashfish3,9%,ofsquidsandothermiscellaneousorganisms,includingshrimps (Kongprometal.,2007).Itstayedatlevelsof2.4–2.8milliontonsduring1990–2006,reaching itspeakof2,827,400tons in 1995.Since then it has graduallydeclined (Fishery InformationTechnologyCenter[FITC],2012).

OvERvIEW OF FIshmEAL InDUsTRy2.

1 Demersalfisharefishlivingat/neartheseafloore.g.seabass,shark,redsnapper,ray,grouper,flatfish,seacatfish,bream.2 Pelagicfishareoceanfishwhichliveinschoolsintheuppersealevelse.g.anchovy,mackerel,tuna,sardine,mullet,pomfret.3 Trash fish are a term fishermen call small-sized, non-commercial fish and/or spoiled fish that cannot be sold for humanconsumption.InSongkhla,trashfishorPla Kaiisaspecifictermforassortedsmall-sized,non-commercialfishsoldtofishmealproducers.Ifthesamefishissoldtofishfarms,itwillbecalled“bait fish”orPla Yue.Fishandothermarinefaunathathavebadlyhandled,smashedbythetrawlnetorareputrescentaretermedPla Pet.

17

4 CatchPerUnitEffort(CPUE)isareferencenumberusedtoindirectlymeasuretheabundanceofthemarineresources.Itisthetotal catchdividedby the total amountof effort spenton thecatch.ReportedCPUE is calculatedasweightednumberofCPUEsreportedby85stationsofMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureauinGulfofThailand(64)andAndamanSea(21);CPUEiscalculatedusingstandardvesselswhichwilltrawlforonehourusingOtterBoardTrawlswith2.5cmmeshsizeduringJanuarytoJuneeveryyear(MarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,2012).

5 FrominterviewconductedwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,2013.

Figure 1: Marine Production in Thailand from 1950 - 2011

Source: Oceans in the Balance, Thailand in Focus, 2013

3000000

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

tons

1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

years

AlthoughThailand’smarineproductionkeptgrowingduring theperiod1960–1995,theCatchPerUnitEffort (CPUE)4hasbeendeclining continuously since 1961 fromalmost300kgsperhour to17.8kgs in2010(Boonwanich&Boonpakdee, 2009).Thissuggests thatmarine resourcesofThailandhavebeendeclining,andthatThailand’sfisheryproductionhasbeendependingonresourcesfromothercountries fora long time.WhenMalaysiaandIndonesiabeganimposingnewregulationsthatdisallowforeignboatstofishintheirmaritimezones,Thaifishingboatsinthose

watershadtoberegisteredasMalaysianandIndonesianboats.When landing thecatchesfromtheseboats,thecatcheswereconsidered“importedfish”.Thailand’smarineproduction,therefore,sharplydroppedto1,644,800tonsin2008 (DoF,2013)while theCPUEdidnotchangemuch.Evenso, theofficialFisheriesStatisticsofThailanddoesnotaccuratelyreflecttheamount of fish caught inThaiwaters,becausetheofficialfiguresincludefishcaughtintheun-policedEEZsofCambodia(intheGulfofThailandfigures)andMyanmarandonthehighseas(inAndamanSeacatchfigures)5.

18

Figure 2: Catch Per Unit Effort from 1961 – 2010 (kilograms per hour)

Source: Boonwanich & Boonpakdee, 2009.

Therefore,inordertomaintainorincreasethevolumeofmarineproductionofthecountry,Thailandhas tosearch formoreabundantfishing grounds, exert more effort, use‘undiscriminating’fishinggearsthatcancatchalmosteverything,and/orbuildmoreboats.

Fishing GroundsThailandcoversanareaof514,000km2,

and has two coastl ines 2,600 km long.Thecoastlineon theGulfofThailand(GoT)side is1,840km in length,and thatof theAndamanSeais865km.AccordingtoFishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles of the King-dom of Thailand(FAO,n.d.), themainfishinggroundforThaifishingboatsisGoTwhichac-counts for41%of totalwild-caughtfishand

seafood.(19%intheAndamanSeaand40%inthewatersoutsideThailand’sEEZ(ExclusiveEconomic Zone)According to theUnitedNationsConventionon theLawof theSea(UNCLOS),EEZisdefinedastheareawithin200nauticalmiles(nm) frombaseline.Eachcountryhas thesovereign right toexplore,exploit, conserve,andmanage themarineresources–bothlivingandnon-living–inthewaterssuperjacenttothesea-bed,sea-bed,andsubsoilwithintheEEZ.Thailand’sEEZcoversanareaof323,488.326km2(120,812.12km2of theAndamanSeaand202,676.20km2ofGoT)(HydrographicDepartment,RoyalThaiNavy,2012citedinDepartmentofMarineandCoastalResources,n.d.).

350

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50

0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

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(kg.

/hr.)

2504

2513

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2531

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297.8kg./hr.

17.8kg./hr.

6 TherearemanynumbersofThailand’sEEZe.g.316,000km2(FAO),316,118.3km2(GreenpeaceSoutheastAsia),420,280km2(Khemakorn,2009),306,365(SeeAroundUsProject),butweusetheonefromDepartmentofMarineandCoastalRe-sourceswhichcitedfromHydrographicDepartment,RoyalThaiNavy.

19

Figure 3: Thailand’s EEZ map

Source: Hydrographic Department, Royal Thai Navy, 2012 cited in Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, n.d.

น่านน้ำาภายใน InternalWater

ทะเลอาณาเขต TerritorialSea

เขตต่อเนื่อง ContiguousZone

เขตเศรษฐกิจจำาเพาะ ExclusiveEconomicZone

พื้นที่พัฒนาร่วมไทย-มาเลเซีย Malaysia-ThailandJointDevelopmentArea

คำ�อธิบ�ยสัญลักษณ์ ExplanationofMapSymbols

ข้อมูลพื้นฐานทางทะเลและชายฝั่งBasicMarineandCoastalInformation

อาณาเขตทางทะเลของประเทศไทย MaritimeZoneofThailand

ตำาแหน่งจังหวัด ProvinceLocation

ถนน Roadเส้นท�งน้ำ� Waterway

อาณาเขตจังหวัด ProvinceBoundary

20

Apart fromEEZ,UNCLOSalsodefined“shelfarea”7 thateachcountrycanclaim itsrights.In1971,Vietnamimposedlawonitsshelfarea,andsodidCambodiain1972.Toprotectits rights,Thailandclaimed itsshelfarea in1973.Theclaimsovershelfareasofthethreecountriescreated theoverlappingareas thatcausedisputesbetweenthethreenations.Theoverlappingareasareasfollows:

1.Thailand–Cambodia8,733nm2

2.Thailand–Vietnam3,903nm2

3.Cambodia–Vietnam18,311nm2

AfterbothVietnamandCambodia laidclaimsovershelfareas,theyclaimedonEEZwhichdirectlyaffectedThaifisheryindustryasitlostaround300,000nm2ofhighseasthatThaifishingboatsusedtofish,makingfishingboatssmallerthan22meterstoreturntoThaiwatersandcompetewith thesamesizeorsmallerfishingboatsfishing there trying tocatchasmuchaspossible.Middle-sizedboats,ontheotherhand,boughtconcessionstofishatthesameareasoroperateillegallywhilelargeboatswentevenfurthertofishinthehighseasthatwerenotclaimed.

Thosesmallfishingboatsincludingtrawlersthatreturnedtofish inThaiwatersworsenedtheovercapacityproblems inGoT,andhadconflictswithothersmall fishingboats thatalreadywerefishingintheseareas.Thus,lateron,MinistryofAgricultureandCooperatives(MOAC) enacted regulations concerningtrawlers,trawlfishing,pushnets,andpushnetfishing, e.g.Ministry ofAgriculture andCooperativesdecreeonforbiddenzonestousetrawlersandpushnetsB.E. 2515 (1972),regulationonthepracticeofreducingtrawlersandpushnetsB.E.2523(1980),andregulationonthecontrolof trawlersandpushnetsB.E.2539(1996).

2.2 Why trawlers and push nets are banned

The M i n i s t r y o f Ag r i c u l t u r e andCooperatives’ (MOAC) latest regulationontrawlersandpushnets, issued inB.E.2539(1996),stipulates that theThaigovernmentwillno longergrant licensestonewtrawlers;onlythosewhoalreadyownthe licensescanapply for license renewal.Asa result, thenumberof registeredtrawlersandpushnetshasbeendeclining.Forexample, in1989,therewere 13,113 trawlers, but in 2011,the number was 3,466 (Boonwanich &Boonpakdee,2009;FITC,2013).ThereasonsMOAC enacted these regulations werebecausetheyrealized thatmarineresourceswereexploited faster than the reproductiveabilityofnature,whichcouldleadtodepletionoftheresourceswhichwouldeventuallyaffecttheeconomy.Also,thereweretoomanyfishingboats,particularlytrawlersandpushnets,andtrawlersandpushnetsaredestructivefishinggears thatcatcheverything indiscriminately(Boonwanich&Boonpakdee,2009).

Trawlersandpushnetscatchfishandothermarinefaunalivingatorneartheseafloor.Theysweepeverything including juvenilesofcommercialfish into thecod-endaswellasdestroycoralreefs,spawngroundsandhabitatsoffishwhentheydragpass,makingthesea-bedsmooth,plain,muddyseafloor(Plathong,2012).Therearethreetypesoftrawls:1)otterboardtrawl(mostpopular),2)pairtrawl,and3)beamtrawl. In2011,of17,203 registeredfishingboats,20.1%or3,466were trawlers.Of thetotalnumberofthetrawlers,65.1%(2,256)wereregisteredas otter board trawlers, 31.5%(1,092)werepairtrawlers,and3.4%(118)werebeamtrawlers.Althoughtrawlersaccount foronly20.1%ofthetotalnumberoffishingboats,capturebytrawlerscomprised773,317tons,or48%ofthewild-caughtmarineproductiontotalof1,610,418.

7 Shelfareaistheareaoftheseafloorthatnaturallyextendsfromthelanduntilitmergeswiththecontinentalmarginorwithin200nmfromthebaseline.

21

Figure 4: Number of fishing boats by type, 2011

Figure 5: Volume of wild-caught marine production by type of fishing gears, 2010 (tons, % of total)

Source: Fishery Information Technology Center, 2013

Source: Fishery Information Technology Center, 2012

trawlers

purseseine

gillnetsandentanglingnets

fallingnets

liftnets

pushnets

othernets

hook&lines

miscellaneouse

3,719,22%

3,466, 20%

32, 0%32, 0%

1,498, 9%

7,825, 45%

274, 2%375, 2% 11, 0%

trawlers

purseseine

gillnetsandentanglingnets

fallingnets

liftnets

pushnets

othernets

hook&lines

miscellaneouse

773,317, 48%

533,016, 33%

77, 849, 5%

22,682, 1%60,384, 4%

3,352, 0%16,596, 1% 123,222, 8%

Thecompositionoffishcaughtbytrawlersrevealswhytheyareconsidereddestructivefishinggears.Kongprometal.(2007)reportedthatofthetotalfishandseafoodcaughtbytrawlers–smallotterboardtrawls,mediumotterboardtrawlsandpairtrawls,36.08%-71.94%weretrashfish,ofwhichbetween15.18%-54.57%werejuvenilesofcommercialfish.Ifthesejuvenileshadnotbeencaughtandallowedtogrow,theywouldhavemuchhighereconomicvaluesbothaslargerfishandasasourceofreplenishmentoftheexploitablestockwhentheyrecruitedtothespawningpopulation.

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2.3 Characteristics of Fishmeal

Fishmeal isbrownpowdermade fromcooking,drying,andsqueezingtrashfish8and/or trimmingsof fish (Nordahl, 2011).Rawmaterialsused toproducefishmeal includewholefishandtrimmings(i.e.trimmings)fromfishproductionsuchasfishheads,bones,etc.AccordingtoC.J.ShepherdandA.J.Jackson(2012)fromInternationalFishmealandFishOilOrganisation (IFFO), the global norm forfishmealisthat75%ofrawmaterialscomprisewholefish(including“trashfish”ininternationalparlance,i.e.undesirableorunpalatablefish),and the remaining 25% are tr immings.However, according to theThai FishmealProducersAssociation (TFPA), fishmealproduced inThailand ismade from 65%trimmings and 35% trash fish (Personal

communication,August13,2013).

Yetanothersetoffiguresiscitedbytheanimal feed industry.According toThaiFeedMillAssociation, rawmaterialsof fishmealcome from35%trimmings fromcannedfishmanufacturers,18%trashfish,15%sardinellasandotherfish,20% trimmings fromSurimiproducers,2%trashfishfromoverseaswaters,and the remaining10%are trimmings fromotherfishprocessingmanufacturers(Fishmeal,2011).

Thespeciesofwholefishusedinfishmealproduction vary from region to region.Forexample, inSouthAmerica, themainspeciesareanchovyandNorthernEuropebluewhitingwhileinThailand,variousspeciesareusedtoproducefishmeal.

BasedonBureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearch,speciesoffishcaughtdependonthefishinggearsfishermenused. If thefishermenusegillnetsorpurseseines,fishcaughtwillbepelagicfishonlysuchasSardinellas.Butiftheyusetrawlers–otterboardtrawl,pairtrawlorbottomtrawl–orpushnets,mostofthefishcaughtwillbedemersalfishwhichconsistofvariouskindsofspeciesusuallyreferredtoasPlaBenchapan(literallymeansfivekindsoffish)ortrashfish.Figure7showthespeciesoffishusuallyfoundintrashfish.

8 Trashfishisanall-encompassingtermusedtodescribeloweconomic-valuefish,usuallysmallspeciesthatarenotpreferredbyconsumers.Theyarebycatchfromnon-selectivefisheries;insomecountries,trashfishwillbediscardedwhileinmanycountriestheyareusedfor1)makingfishmealforanimalfeed,2)directanimalfeed,and3)humanconsumption.InThailand,trashfishorPla Ped/Pla Kaiisusuallyreferredtosmallsizefish(bothtruetrashfishwhichisstillsmallwhenmaturinge.g.sardinellaandjuvenilesofhigheconomicvaluefish)anddamagedfish,whichareusedtoproducefishmeal.

Figure 6: Main species and share of global output and export

Country/Regionof production Main species used in production Global production

share 2007Global export

share 2007

Peru Anchove 25% 41%

Chile JackMackerel,Anchovy,Sardines 13% 16%

China Various 19% 0%

Thailand Various 8% 3%

USA Menhaden,Alaskepollock 5% 3%

Iceland Blue-whiting,Herring,trimmings 2% 4%

Norway Blue-whiting,Capelin,trimmings 3% 1%

Denmark Sandeel,Sprat,Blue-whiting,Herring 3% 5%

Japan Sadine,Pilchard 4% 0%

Total 81% 73%

Source: FAO Fishstat 2009 cited in Nordahl, 2011

23

สัตว์น�้ำที่พบมำกในปลำเป็ด

Figure 7: Species of fish usually found in trash fish

24

Source: Thai Fishmeal Producers Association, 2013

Figure 7 (continued)

25

Production Seasons

Peru–theworld’smajorfishmealproducerandexporter–hastwofishingseasons.ThefirstPeruvianfishingseasonstarts fromMayto July, and the secondseason runs fromNovemberuntil January (IFFO,2009).ThefishingseasonsineachregionofThailandareasfollows:

1. Southeastregion(AndamanSea): November–April 2. Southwestregion(GulfofThailand): May–October 3. Eastregion(GulfofThailand): September–April(Bureauof AgriculturalEconomicsResearch,2012)

InThailand,fishmealproductionseasonisprincipally inthenon-MonsoonperiodfromApril–July;thefishmealproducersreceivealotof rawmaterialsduring thisperiod.Thecomposition of product that is diverted tofishmealproductionchangesduringtheyear,withalargerproportionofjuvenilesand“true”trashfishafter the recruitmentpulses thatcoincidewithmonsoonseasons.

Figure 8: Production process of fishmeal and fish oil

Pelagic fish(globally 75% of input)

Trimmings(globally 25% of input)

Step 1

Cooked at 95oC

Step 2

Squeezed

Crude fishoil

Fishoil yield2.5 - 4.5%

Step 3

Flame Dried(low quality fishmeal)

Steam Dried(high quality fishmeal)

Fishoil yield22 - 24%

Fishmeal Production Process

Fishmealproductionprocess inPeru isdifferentfromtheprocesspracticedinThailand.InThailand,theproducersdonotseparatefishoilfromfishmeal,sothefishmealcontainsalotoffatresultinginashortshelflife.ThefishmealandfishoilproductionprocessinPeruasshowninfigure8isdividedintothreesteps:1)cook2)squeeze,and3)dry.Thefirststepistocheck,clean,andcookthefishataround95degreeCelcius.Thesecondstep is tosqueeze theliquidoutofthecookedfish,andthethirdstepis todry thefish (Nordahl,2011).Theoil isextractedbetweenstages2and3.

InThailand,therearetwotypesoffishmealproductionprocess:1)squeezingand2)drying.The“squeezing”systemisthetraditionalprocessthatcauseswaterpollution.Thissystemcanbedescribedinfoursteps:1)cook2)squeeze3)dryand4)grind.Fishmealproducedby thesystemhaslowproteinandfatbecausesomeofproteinandfatarelostduringthesqueezingstep.The“drying”systemconsistsoffoursteps:1)chop2)cook3)dryand4)grind.Fishmealproducedbythissystemwillcontain58-65%protein,butithasashortshelflife(BureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearch,2012).

Source: Nordahl, 2011

26

FromIFFOestimates,outputsfromthePeruvianproductionprocess include4.79%fishoil,22.5%fishmeal,and72.8%watersteam(ShepherdandJackson,2012).Accordingto IFFO9 ,compositionoffishmealincludes60-72%ofprotein,10-20%ofash,5-12%offataswellasthefattyacidsEPAandDHAoromega-3.Thisbreakdown issimilar to theStudyofEconomicproductionandMarketofFishmealundertheQualityAssuranceSystemthatstatesthatfishmealcontainsprotein,ash,salt,humidity,andremains(Kak).AccordingtoMinistryofAgricultureandCooperativesofThailand,fishmealisgradedbyitscompositionasshowninFigure9.

Figure 9: Composition of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grade fishmeal

Fishmeal 1st Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade

Protein(notlessthan) 60% 55% 50%

Ash(notmorethan) 26% 28% 30%

Salt(notmorethan) 3% 3% 3%

Humidity(notmorethan) 10% 10% 10%

Remaining(notlessthan) 2% 2% 2%

Source: Bureau of Agricultural Economics Research, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Thailand, 2012

9 citedin“IstheAquacultureIndustryCaughtinaFishmealTrap?”byPerGunnarNor(2011)

2.4 Overview of Fishmeal Industry

2.4.1 Global

Fishmeal isamainprotein ingredient foranimalfeed,especiallyforfishandshrimpfeed.Theglobalproductionoffishmealin2012was4.73million tons (Bureau ofAgriculturalEconomicsResearch,2012);however,thetrendisdecliningbecauseoftheEl Niño that causes the reductionoffishstockwhich is the rawmaterial of fishmeal.Also,Peru–amajorfishmealproducerandexporter–introducedafishingquota. Itproduced1.34milliontonsofhighqualityfishmealwith65%+proteinin2009whileChile– thesecond largestproducer–produced0.65million tons in thesameyear.Thetwocountriesaccountedfor41.63%ofthe

total fishmeal production, so when theyintroducedfishingquotas,itaffectedtheglobalsupplyoffishmealandresulted in increasingprices.OthermajorfishmealproducersincludeThailand,USA,JapanandDenmark.

Eventhoughgloballythereishighdemandforaqua-culturedanimals,thetrendoffishmealconsumption is declining because of thegrowingpricesoffishmeal (Fishmeal,2013).ThemajorconsumersareChinawhoin2004used1.528million ton,Japan0.703,Chile0.467,Thailand0.409,andNorway0.309.Chinaisalsothebiggestimporteroffishmeal.In2009,Chinaaloneimportedabout1.31milliontonswhilePeruexportedabout1.583milliontonsoffishmeal(Seafish,2011).

27

Figure 10: World’s fishmeal production, 1988 - 2009

World’s Fishmeal Production 1988 - 20091988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

80000007000000600000050000004000000300000020000001000000

0

tons

years

World’s Fishmeal Production ๅๅๅๅ ๅ /ๅๅๅ

Source: IFFO, 2010 cited in Seafish, 2011

Figure 11: Top six fishmeal producing countries (thousand tons)

Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Total 5,997.4 6,201.7 5,401.6 6,274.5 6,022.7 5,230 5,052.8 5,006.8 4,775.2

Peru 1,844 1,941 1,251 1,982.7 2,019.9 1,378 1,407 1,430.3 1,346.9

Chile 699 839 664 933.1 870.4 854.7 781.9 729.7 641

Thailand 381 387 397 403 473.4 461.2 428 468 381.2

USA 342 337 318 353 268.8 232 251 216.2 249

Japan 227 225 230 295 221.9 219.6 210 202.9 192

Denmark 299 311 246 259.2 213.1 209.4 166 161.3 180.9

Source: IFFO, 2010 cited in Seafish, 2011. No revision has been made to the figures.

Figure 12: Top six fishmeal consuming countries (thousand tons)

Country 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

China 1,240 1,516 1,113 1,366 2,030 1,682 1,406 1,183 1,528

Japan 802 792 699 744 710 691 687 596 703

Chile 293 261 149 351 270 222 351 36 467

Thailand 566 466 418 481 504 484 408 405 409

Norway 232 320 247 223 361 276 246 289 309

Taiwan 308 315 303 254 253 250

Source: IFFO, 2005 cited in Seafish, 2011. No revision has been made. Figure of Chile in 2003 is believed to be a typo.

28

Figure 13: Top six fishmeal exporting countries (thousand tons)

Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Peru 1,937 1,520 1,372 1,751 2,000 1,338 1,219 1,561 1,583

Chile 491 497 576 494 709 470 474 478 609

Denmark 307 305 203 247 254 253 161 210 240

Iceland 190 125 126 158 104

Mexico 19 9 12 51 39 83 94

Morocco 27 20 35 34 55 48 33 70 92

Source: IFFO, 2010 cited in Seafish, 2011. No revision has been made.

Figure 14: Top six fishmeal importing countries (thousand tons)

Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

China & Hong Kong 984 976 797 1,147 1,598 980 986 1,352 1,310

Norway 143 127 150 162 202 211 220 242 328

Japan 478 480 388 402 376 412 350 309 281

Taiwan 295 242 239 238 234 213 152 150 180

Vietnam 29 20 60 61 96 83 104 114 115

UK 233 192 184 143 138 143 91 92 114

Source: IFFO, 2010 cited in Seafish, 2011. No revision has been made.

2.4.2 Thailand Fishmeal Production

Thailand’s fishmeal production wasestimatedtobearound0.43–0.50milliontonsduring 2008 – 2013.These numbers areestimated numbers fromThai FishmealProducersAssociation(TFPA)sinceThailanddoesnothaveanyreportor recordofactualfishmealproduction.Thesestatisticsarealsodifferent from those fromFisheryStatisticsAnalysisandResearchGroup (FSARG)atDepartmentofFisheries(DoF),whicharequite

low compared toTFPA’s figures: FSRAGestimatedannualfishmealproductionat0.33–0.35million tonsbetween2007–2011.Accordingtointerviewswithbothorganizations,we found that theyusedifferentmethods toestimateannualproduction,andthesedifferentmethodsleadtodifferentfigures.TFPAhaslocalcommittees ineachprovinceestimate theirmonthlyfishmealproductions,whileFSARGhasfishmealproducersineachprovincereporttheirproductionstoDoF’sprovincialoffice.

29

Figure 15: Thailand’s fishmeal production by year, 2006-2011

Thailand’s Fishmeal Productions 2006 - 2011600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

02006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Prod

uctio

n (to

ns)

TFPA

DoF

Source: Thai Fishmeal Producers Association (TFPA), 2013; Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (DoF), 2013

FromFigure15, theproductionoffishmeal in recentyears isquitestable.Despite theincreasingdemandsforanimalfeed,decliningfishstockinThaiwatersmeantthatproductionfellbehinddemand,evencompensatedbytrimmingsfromfishprocessingmanufacturers(Fishmeal,2010a)Apartfromdecliningsuppliesofrawmaterials,decreasingproductioncapacity–thenumberoffishmealproducers,alsoaffectsthetotalfishmealproduction,asshowninFigure16.

Figure 16: Thailand’s fishmeal production and producers, 1987 - 2011

Thailand’s fishmeal productions and producers

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

500,000450,000400,000350,000300,000250,000200,000150,000

13012011010090807060

Num

ber o

f fish

mea

l pro

duce

rs

Number of fishmeal producers Fishmeal productions (tons)

Fish

mea

l pro

duct

ions

(ton

s)

Years

Source: Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (FSARG), DoF, 2013

AccordingtotheThaiFishmealProducersAssociation(TFPA),thereare64fishmealproducersregisteredasmembersof theassociation.The totalproductionof theseproducerscombinedaccounts forapproximately80%ofnationalproduction(Personalcommunication10,August13,2013).Fishmealindustryconsistsofmanymediumandsmallplayerswhotrytoworktogethertonegotiatefishmealprices.Theindustrylandscapeisunlikeanimalfeedindustryinthatthereisnodominantproducer;mostmembersoftheassociationaresimilarinsize,andnocompanyisaslargeoraspowerfulasanyofthemajoranimalfeedmills.Becauseofthis,andbecauseanimalfeedmills

10InterviewwithKhunSanguansakAkaravarinechai,PresidentandKhunNichkamolKumaree,ManageronAugust7,2013;emailfromTFPAonAugust13,2013.

30

arethemainpurchaseroffishmealandmandatequality,animal feedmills thereforehavevastbargainingpowertosetfishmealprices(BureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearch,2009).

InThailand,thelargestfishmealproducingprovinceisSamutsakorn;in2011,itproduced138,420tonsor27.51%of totalproductionaccording toTFPA,and115,668 tonsor35.3%accordingtoDepartmentofFisheries(DoF).Production inotherprovincesdiffersaccordingtothevariousestimatesusedbyTFPAandDoF(Figure17).

Figure 17: Thailand’s top five fishmeal producing provinces in 2011

Rank TFPA DoF

1 Samutsakorn,138,420tonsor27.51% Samutsakorn,115,668tonsor35.3%

2 Nakorn Sithammarat,66,490tonsor13.21% Songkhla,39,402tonsor12.03%

3 Songkhla,56,960tonsor11.32% Ranong,31,640tonsor9.66%

4 Pattani,42,459tonsor8.41% Phuket,25,127tonsor7.67%

5 Trang,37,840tonsor7.52% Pattani,24,243tonsor7.4%

Source: Thai Fishmeal Producers Association, 2013; Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (DoF), 2013

Figure 18: Raw materials of fishmeal, 1987 - 2011

Raw materials of fishmeal

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

1,000,000.00

500,000.00

-

Yearsother fishtrash fish trimmings

Tons

Source: Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (DoF), 2013

Asmentioned inanearliersection, rawmaterialsof fishmealproduced inThailandconsistofwholefishandtrimmings.AccordingtoTFPA, in 2012, fishmeal rawmaterialscomprised30%trimmingsfromfishingcanningmanufacturers,25% trimmings fromSurimiproducers,10%trimmingsfromfishprocessingmanufacturers10%,andtheremaining35%arewholefish (interviewwithTFPA,August13,2013).ThisissimilartodatareportedbyFSARGindicatingthatin2011,fishmealrawmaterialsconsistedof39%wholefish(comprising28%

trashfish–labeledinthereportasplapet,and11% true trash fish –meaning not-yet-decomposedfish thatareusedasfishmealrawmaterials, i.e. in linewith internationalstandards–andjuveniles)and61%trimmings.From thepastuntil 1996, rawmaterialsoffishmealwerewholefish(trashfish,truetrashfish,and juveniles).Butbeginning in1997,trimmingshaveplayedamoreimportantroleasmain rawmaterial for fishmeal,while thepercentageandamountofwholefishhavebeendecliningcontinuouslyasshowninFigure18.

31

2.4.3 Thailand Fishmeal Consumption

Since it is not required for fishmealproducersinThailandtoreporttheamountoffishmealtheyproduce,weobtainedestimatedfiguresoffishmealproductionwithsomedetailsonprovincialdatafromTFPAandDoF.Fishmealconsumptionfiguresarefarmoreobscureandinconsistentthanproductionfigures.

According to Bureau ofAgriculturalEconomicResearch(2012),Thailand in2012consumedaround0.45–0.48milliontonsoffishmeal,mainlyforaquacultureespeciallyforWhitelegshrimps.This issimilar tofigures inAnimalFeedBusinessmagazinevolume135,November–December2010thatshowedthatfishmealconsumptionsduring2006–2010werearound0.42–0.52milliontons(Fishmeal,2010a).Nevertheless, theywereconflictedwithfiguresshown inAnimalFeedBusinessmagazinevolume134,September–October2010 that said “…the increasing livestockpopulationsincreasethedemandforfishmealasfollow... in2009totaldemandsare0.556million tons,and in2010 totaldemandsare0.578million tons”(Fishmeal,2010b,p.27).Thesenumberswerederived fromtablesoflivestockpopulations,amountofanimal feed,andamountofrawmaterialin2009and2010publishedonThaiFeedMillAssociationwebsite(www.thaifeedmill.com).

Once again, the above figures areestimated,andwe found that thefiguresdonot reflect theactualdemands forfishmeal.Forexample,basedonaninterviewwithTFPAandanofficialofDoF,fishmealisnolongerusedtoproduceanimal feed forchicken,and it isusedvery little in feedforpigs–only forpigbreedingstock.However,intheTFPA-publishedtableof livestockpopulations, theamountofanimal feed,andamountof rawmaterial in2013,demandsof fishmeal forall typesofchickenstillaccount forahighproportion–almost50%of the totalestimateddemands.Thisisbecausefiguresforsuchpublishedtablearestillcalculatedtheoreticallyfromtheamountoflivestock,asopposedtousingactualfigures.

Simi lar to fishmeal product ion andconsumptionfigures,thereisnopublicdataontheamountorpercentageoffishmealusedbymajoranimal feedproducers;nonetheless,basedonan interviewwithThaiFishmealProducers Assoc ia t ion (TFPA) , TFPArepresentative estimated that CharoenPhokphandFoods(CPF)isthelargestfishmealbuyer inThailand; thecompany is thought topurchaseapproximately40-50%offishmealproduced domestically every year.Majorfishmeal buyers includeCPF, KrungthaiFeedmill,ThaiunionFeedmill,andLeePattana.Basedontheirreportedfinancialsin2012,CPFwasrankedthefirstwith56,471millionBahtrevenues, followedbyKrungthaiFeedmillat5,294millionBaht,ThaiunionFeedmill4,951millionBaht,andLeePattana4,071millionBaht. In2010,CPFwas theworld’s largestanimalfeedproducer,withannualproductionofapproximately23.2millionmetrictons.

2.4.4 Thailand Fishmeal Exports

Unlike production and consumption,importsandexportsoffishmealaresubjecttocustomsprocess, sowe thenhaveofficialrecordsofimportedandexportedfishmeal,butagainwefoundtheconflictsbetweennumberspublishedbytheOfficeofCommodityStandards(OCS),DepartmentofForeignTrade(DFT),MinistryofCommerce(MOC)andtheCustomsDepartment(CD),MinistryofFinance.

OCSpublishesdataofexportedfishmealdividing it into threegrades:1stgrade,2ndgrade,and3rdgrade;whileCDcategorizesdataaccordingtoHarmonizedSystemCodes(HSCode), and fishmeal is divided into fourcategories:fishmealwith>60%proteincontent,fishmealwith<60%proteincontent,mealsofcrustaceans,molluscs, and other aquaticinvertebrates;andothers.

32

LookingatFigure19,weseealthoughthenumbersaredifferent,particularlyin2010and2011, the trendsareverysimilar;actually in2012and2013theirfiguresareveryclose–54,534,47(CD),58,365.61(OCS)in2012,and110,848.54(CD),109,213.09(OCS) in2013.Compared to thefigures in2012, fishmealexport doubled in 2013.This is probablybecause in2013Thailand’sshrimp industryfacedEarlyMortalitySyndrome(EMS)problem,causingshrimpproductiontoreducebyhalfto0.25milliontons(ShrimpExportShrinks,2013).Thisledtothedeclineofshrimpfeeddemandsfollowedby the reductionof thedomesticdemands for fishmeal; therefore, fishmealproducershad tosell theirstocks toexportmarkets.Accordingly, ifThailand’s shrimpindustry faces the sameproblem in2014,fishmealproducerswillprobablyhavetorelyonexportagain.

Thailand’smajor exportmarkets forfishmealincludeVietnam,China,Taiwan,andIndonesia.AccordingtoOCSandCD,in2013,Thailand exported around42,000 tons offishmealtoVietnamandaround24,000tonsto

Figure 19: Thailand’s fishmeal export by year, 2008-2013*

Fishmeal Export, 2008 -2013120,000.00100,000.0080,000.0060,000.0040,000.0020,000.00

-2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Tons

Customs Department Office of Commodity Standards

Years

Source: Office of Commodity Standards, Department of Foreign Trade, 2013; the Customs Department, 2013

Note:* Number in 2013 of OCS is from Jan. – Oct. while that of CD is from Jan. – Nov. For OCS, we use data of all three grades of fishmeal, and for CD, we use two categories of fishmeal: fishmeal with >60% protein content (HS CODE 2301.20.20), and fishmeal with <60% protein content (HS CODE 2301.20.10)

Chinaaccountingabout38%and22%oftotalexportedfishmeal.Vietnamhasagrowingfeedindustrywithannualgrowthrateof15-17%.Thishighgrowth isdue to the fact that localingredientswerenotenough tosupply localfeedproductiondemand,sotheyhadtoimportabout60-70%of the ingredients.90-95%ofdriedsoybeancakesandfishmealareimported(HoangAnh,2012).AsforChina,in2011,itbeattheUSAandbecametheworld’slargestfeedproducerwith175millionmetric tonsof feedproduction,andkeptincreasingin2012to191millionmetric tons.Despite thegrowingfeedproduction,China’slocalsupplyoffishmealisstilllow,makingitnecessaryforChinatoimportfishmealtofillthefishmealdemand-supplygap.In2012,itwasestimatedthatChinaimportedabout1.2milliontonoffishmeal(USDA,2012).

Considering the quality of exportedfishmeal,basedonexportdatafrombothOCSandCD,Thailandmainlyexports1stgradefishmeal,definedasfishmealwith>60%proteincontent,asshowninFigure20and21.

33

Figure 20: Thailand’s fishmeal export by category, 2007 – 2013*

Fishmeal with <60% protein contentFishmeal with >60% protein content

Fishmeal Export, 2007 -2013*

Years

120,000.00

100,000.00

80,000.00

60,000.00

40,000.00

20,000.00

-2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Tons

Source: The Customs Department, 2013* From Jan. – Nov. 2013

Figure 21: Thailand’s fishmeal export by category, 2008 – 2013*

Years3rd grade Fishmeal2nd grade Fishmeal1st grade Fishmeal

Fishmeal Export, 2008 -2013*120,000.00

100,000.00

80,000.00

60,000.00

40,000.00

20,000.00

-2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Tons

Source: Office of Commodity Standards, DFT, MOC, 2013* From Jan. – Oct. 2013

2.4.5 Thailand Fishmeal Imports

SinceThailandcanproduceonly25%ofhighprotein(60%+)fishmeal,ithastoimporthigh-proteinfishmealfromothercountries(AnimalFeedBusiness,2011)AccordingtoCDrecords,in2013Thailandimportedaround6,092tonsoffishmealmainlyfromMyanmar(45.87%)andVietnam(36.68%).Howeverandagain,wefoundtheconflictsoffishmealimportfiguresevenfromthesamesource.Forexample,inAnimalFeedBusinessmagazinevolume134,September–October2010,itsaysthatin2008Thailandimported12,968tonsoffishmeal,in2009thenumberincreasedto16,755tons,andinthefirsthalfof2010,Thailandimportedabout7,220tonsoffishmeal(Fishmeal,

34

2010b).However, thesefiguresconflictwiththoseinthenextissue–volume135,November–December2010–thatsaysin2010Thailandimportedonlyaround1,000 tonsoffishmealreducingfrom2,000tons in2009(Fishmeal,2010a). The figures in the volume 135,however,match thefiguresweget fromtheCustomsDepartment.

2.4.6 Songkhla Fishmeal

Currentlyfishmeal industry inSongkhlaconsistsof9fishmealproducers,accordingtoTheThaiFishmealProducersAssociation,declining from18producers listedon thewebsiteofDepartmentofInternalTrade(www.dit.go.th)asof2010.Basedontheirrevenuesin2012, the topfivefishmealproducers inSongkhlawere1)JanaFish Industrieswith28.6%shareof total revenues2)PaesaeSongkhla16.1%3)PacificFishmealIndustrial14.7%4)SamilaFishmeal11.8%,and5)ThaiCharoenfeedmill10.4%.

According toTFPA, in2013,Songkhlaproducedaround41,000 tonsof fishmeal,equivalenttoabout8.2%oftotalproductionofthecountry.ThismakesSongkhlathesecondlargestfishmealproducerintheSouthernregionandfourthlargestnationally,afterSamutsakorn,SamutprakarnandNakhonSiThammarat.

Based on data from DoF, most rawmater ials used to produce fishmeal inSongkhlaaretrimmings(by-product)asshowninFigure22. In2011,94.95%of total rawmaterialsor134,986tonsweretrimmingswhileonly5.05%or7,178tonswerewholefish(ofwhich5,428 tonswere trashfish).However,pleasenotethatofthefigurefortrashfishherewasof thosegoing tofishmealproducersatSongkhla,not trashfish landedatSongkhla.Basedon interviewswithDoFofficials,TFPArepresentatives,andfishmealproducers’peo-ple,wefoundthatfishmealproducerssourcetheirrawmaterialsacrossprovinces.

Figure 22: Raw materials of fishmeal in Songkhla, 1999 – 2011, divided into trash fish, trimmings (by-product) and other fish

Raw materials of fishmeal in Songkhla, 1999 - 2011180,000160,000140,000120,000100,00080,00060,00040,00020,000

0

YearsOther fishTrash fish Byproduct

Tons

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Source: Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (FSARG), DoF, 2013

Fortheprices in2011, theaverage1stgradefishmealwith60%+proteinatSongkhlawas30.43Bahtperkilogram(OfficeofInternalTradeSongkhla,2013)or0.30and6.21Bahtlowerwhencomparedwith30.73Bahtofthenationalaverageprice,and36.64BahtofPeruvianF.O.B.price.

35

In2011,theaveragetrashfishpriceatSongkhlawas4.33Bahtperkilogram,4.27Bahtlowerthanthenationalaveragepriceof8.60Baht(OfficeofAgriculturalEconomics,2012).Whenwelookattheaveragepricesoffishmealbyprovincein2011,thepriceoffishmealatSongkhlawasamongthecheapestprices,rankingnumber3fromthebottom.ThisreflectstherelativelypoorqualityoffishmealproducedinSongkhla,whichdependslargelyonthequalityofrawmaterials.

Figure 23: Average prices of fishmeal by province in 2011 (Baht per kilogram)

Puket

Provincen Average price of fishmeal sold at the province

Rayong

Chumphon

Phangng

a

Ranong

Songkhl

aPatt

ani

Samut

Sakhon

Chantha

buri

Samut

Prakan

Chon Buri

Samut

Songkhr

am

Prachua

b Khiri KhanTra

tTra

ngSatu

n

Nakhon

Si Tham

marat

45.0040.0035.0030.0025.0020.0015.0010.005.000.00

Baht

Average price of fishmeal by province, 2011

Source: Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (FSARG), DoF, 2013.

(Note: Fishmeal prices of all grades are the same throughout the country, but differences in the average prices here reflect different grades of fishmeal sold at the provinces.)

Fordetailsofestimatedmarketshares inSongkhlaofanimalfeedmills,andestimatesofquantitiesoffishmealproduced inSongkhla,seeChapter7ofthisreport.

2.5 Fishmeal Price

Fishmealpricehasbeentrendingupwardsduetohighdemandoffishmealforaquaculturefeed,especiallyfromChina,andlowsupplyforthemajorfishmealproducersduetodisruptionscausedbyEl Niñophenomenonanddecreasingmarine resources (Globefish, 2009-2013;Mavromichalis,2013).AsshowninFigure19,the price started climbing since 2009 asfishmealproductiondecreased inconjunction

withhighdemandforfishmealandexpectedEl Niño.Subsequently,oneofmajorfishmealproducers – Chi le – was damaged byearthquakein2010,coupledwithlowstockinChina,sothepriceclimbedbackup.However,whenthepricebecameveryhigh,buyerswerehesitanttobuyandturnedtosubstituteproductsthatalsohavehighproteincontent,suchassoybean instead. Furthermore, fishmealproductiondecreased in thesecondhalfof2011,andthisresultedinpricedrop.In2012,demandforanimalfeedfromaquacultureandlivestockindustrieswerepositiveagain,whilelowcatchesandlowfishmealproductionwerereported,sothepricewentupandremainedhigh during the first twomonths of 2013.(Globefish,2009-2013)

36

Figure 24: Peruvian fishmeal price from 1980 – 2013 (US$ per ton)

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

1/1/1980

1/7/1981

1/1/1983

1/7/1984

1/1/1986

1/7/1987

1/1/1989

1/7/1990

1/1/1992

1/7/1993

1/1/1995

1/7/1996

1/1/1998

1/7/1999

1/1/2001

1/7/2002

1/1/2004

1/7/2005

1/1/2007

1/7/2008

1/1/2010

1/7/2011

1/1/2013

Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2013

Figure 25: Prices of trash fish, 1st and 2nd grade fishmeal, and Peruvian fishmeal, 2007-2011 (Baht per kilogram)

504540353025201510

50

Priceofassortedtrashfish

Secondgradefishmealwith<60%protein

Firstgradefishmealwith>60%protein

FOBpriceofPeruvianfish-meal

Source: Bureau of Agricultural Economic, 2012; Fishmeal, 2010

Figure25showedthatfishmealprices inThailand increasedsignificantly in2008, thenhasheldsteadythereafter.Inpractice,pricesinThailandaresetandannouncedbyCPF,amajorfeedmillcompany,andthesepriceswilldetermine thepricesof trash fishused toproducefishmeal.Typically, trashfishisusedtoproducefishmealintheratioof4:1,i.e.4unitsof trashfisharerequiredtoproduce1unitoffishmeal. (BureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearch,2009).

Factors thataffect thepricesoffishmealinclude1)demandforanimalfeed,2)supplyof

fishmeal,3)referencepricesofPeruvianandChilean fishmeal, and4) pricesof proteinsubstitutes such as soybean (Office ofAgriculturalEconomics,2012).

1) Demand for fishmeal

Sincefishmealisamainproteiningredientused inanimal feedproduction,especiallyaqua-cultured animals,which use higherpercentageof fishmeal in their feeds, thedemandforanimal feed thereforedrives thedemandforfishmeal.Thedemandforanimalfeedhasbeen risingdue toan increasing

37

Figure 26: Estimated quantity of livestock and feed ingredients required for sufficient animal feed in Thailand, 2003-2012 (tons)*

18,000,00016,000,00014,000,00012,000,00010,000,000

8,000,0006,000,0004,000,0002,000,000

0 | | | | | | | | | | |

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Fishmeal

Soybeanmeal

Maize

Brokenrice

Livestock

Source: Thai Feed Mill Association, 2003-2012

(Note: *As mentioned earlier, these figures are still calculated theoretically from the amount of livestock, as opposed to using actual figures.)

numberof farmedanimals,which in turnhasbeenincreasingtomeetthedemandforfoodfromagrowingglobalpopulation.

Inaddition,pricesofsubstitutessuchassoybeanmealandmeatbonemeal (MBM)affectthedemandforfishmeal.BothsoybeanmealandMBMgive lowerpercentagesofprotein thanfishmeal,butwhenthepricesoffishmealarehigh,animal feedmillswillusetheminsteadofmoreexpensivefishmeal.

2) Supply of fishmeal

Thesupplyof fishmealhasbeenonaslightdeclinesince2008.Accordingto“Oceansin theBalance,Thailand inFocus” reportbyGreenpeaceSoutheastAsia(2013),Thailand’sfisheriesaredecliningdue todeterioratingresourcescausedbyoverfishingandtheuseofdestructivefishinggearssuchasbottomtrawland push nets. Fish caught by trawlerscomprises40%oftargetspecies,40.8%trashfish,and19.8%of juvenile target species.StatisticsfromtheDepartmentofFisherycitedinthispublicationshowsthatcatchperunitefforthasdeclinedfrom300kgperhourin1961to25kgperhourin2011.

3) Reference prices of Peruvian fishmeal

Peru is the world’s largest fishmealproducerandexporter.ItsFOBpricesareusedasreferenceprices.ThesepricesareaffectedbythePeruvianfishmealproductionandChina’sfishmealimports,whichinturnmostlydependonfishmealstocksanddemandsfromChina’saquaculture.

2.6 Classification

Fishmealisdividedintogradesdependingon“quality”definedbythefollowingcriteria1)percentageofprotein2)odor3)TVBN(TotalVolatileBasicNitrogen–acommonlyusedindicatorof freshness)and4)percentageofhumidity.Fishmealisalsoclassifiedbyqualityinto6grades:1)shrimpgrade2)firstgradefishmeal3)secondgradefishmeal4)thirdgradefishmeal5)fishheadgrade,and5) leftovergrade (Bureau ofAgricultural EconomicsResearch, 2012).The quality of fishmealdependslargelyonthequalityofrawmaterials.Fishcaughtbygillnetarethebest-qualityrawmaterialsthatcanbeusedtoproduceshrimp

38

gradefishmeal.Thisisbecausefishcaughtbygillnetbelongtothepelagicschooloffish;theyarenotmixedinwithothermarinecreaturesormud. In contrast, fish caught by trawler,especiallybottomtrawlers,havelowerqualitythanthosecaughtbygillnet.Pairtrawlsuselesstimetocatchfishthanbottomtrawlersdo,sothefishcaughtby thisgearare fresher thanthosebybottomtrawlers.

Tr imm i ngs f r om fi sh p r o ces s i n gmanufacturerssuchasfishheads,bones,tailsorgutscanbeusedtoproducefishmeal,buttheresultingfishmealislowproteinfishmeal;itwillbeeitherthirdorfishheadgradefishmeal.

Ausefulruleofthumbinestimatingtrashfishusageinfishmealproductionisthefactthattrashfishorplapetascurrentlydefined(badlydamagedorputrescent;completelyunsalableotherwise)canonlybeusedtoproducethirdgrade(#3grade)fishmealandbelow.Secondgrade(#2grade)fishmealandabovecannotutilize trashfish.However,since there isnotmuchdiscrepancyofproteinbetweendifferentgrades,somefishmealproducerswillmixhigh-proteinfishmealwithlower-proteinfishmealinorder toupgradefishmeal tosell forbetterprices.Thiscreatesdemandsfor lowproteinfishmealasfishmealproducersknowthatitcanbemixedtoincreasethepercentageofproteinlateron.

MoredetailsoffishmealclassificationandprocessesarefoundinChapter7ofthisreport.

2.7 Government policies and regulations

Import – export policies

Importpoliciesdependongovernmentpoliciesduringeachperiodandexistingtradeagreements. For example, import tariff ofASEAN-Chinaforfishmealwith60%+proteinin2006-2007was15%,andthenwasdroppedto8%in2008-2009,andfurtherreducedto0%in2010.Importpoliciesrelatedtofishmealsince2010areasfollows:

1. Import tariff for fishmealwith60%+proteinimportedundernormalconditionis15%.Butitcanbeimportedwithoutquotaatanytime.

2. Forfishmealwithprotein lower than60%,importershavetoobtainimportpermissionfrom theDepartmentofForeignTrade.Thetariffleviedforthistypeoffishmealundernormalconditionis6%.

3. Allgradesoffishmealare levied0%tariffifimportedunder:

1)ASEAN FreeTradeAgreement(AFTA)

2) Thailand-NewZealandFreeTradeAgreement(FTA)

3) Thailand-AustraliaFreeTradeAgree-ment(FTA)

4) ASEAN-ChinaFreeTradeAgreement

4. Allgradesoffishmealare levied5%tariff if importedduringJanuary–Marchand3.33%duringApril–DecemberunderJapan–ThailandEconomicsPartnersAgreement(JTEPA)

5. Allgradesoffishmealare levied10%tariff if importedunderASEAN–KoreaFreeTradeAgreement(AKFTA).

Forexports,exporterscanexport freely;thereisnoexporttariff.

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3.LITERATURE REvIEW: ImpAcT OF TRAsh FIsh InDUsTRy On EcOsysTEms

FisheriesinThailandarealargecomponentoftheexportindustry,bothintermsofwild-caughtandfarmedproducts.DepartmentofFisheriesclaimsabout4.2milliontonsoffishandseafoodareproducedperyear,90percentofwhichisdestinedfortheexportmarket,earningaroundUS$7.3billionin2011(DepartmentofFisheries(DoF), 2013).An increasingproportionofundersized fishanddecreasing volumeofcommercial ly important species in thecompositionofthewildfishcatchinrecentyearssuggestsymptomsofbiologicaloverfishingandlossofcoastalhabitat,decliningstocks,withconcomitantfallingprofitsofindividualvesselsindicatethateconomicallyoverfishedfishstocksthreatentheviabilityofwildfisheriesintheGulf(Ahmedetal.2007,Nasuchon&Charles2010).

Theterm“trashfish”ismisleadingbecauseit suggests this part of the catch has noecologicalorcommercialvalue.Clearlythisisnot thecase.TheAFPICRegionalWorkshopon“Theproductionanduseoflowvalue/trashfish frommarinefisheries in theAsia-Pacificregion”(Funge-Smithetal2005)suggeststhatusesoftrashfisharediverseandinclude:

1) localconsumption(e.g.fresh,dried)11,

2) direct feed(e.g. livestock,highvaluespeciesaquaculture),

3) fishmealproduction (e.g. forpoultry,aquaculture)and

4) value-addedproducts(e.g.fishsauce,surimi,proteinconcentrates).

Inthecontextofthisstudy,however,wewillconcentrateon that fractionof thefisheriescapture that is diverted towards fishmealprocessing.Thisfractionincludesnotonlythe“trashfish”componentofthelandedcatch,butalso offcuts from economic fish that arepre-processedat the landing forcanningorsurimiproduction(Fishmeal6_2556).

Inmosteconomicallydevelopedpolities,suchasEuropeorAustralia,muchof thenon-targetedtrawlcatchandjuvenilescaughtarediscarded in thesea(whetherduring thesortingphaseof theharvestorbytheuseofspecialisedBycatchReductionDevicesfittedtothenets).IncountrieswherethereisastrongmarketfortrashfishsuchasThailand,ontheotherhand,non-targetcatchandunder-sizedfish are also landedandmay comprise asubstantial portion of fishermen’ incomes(Supongpan & Boonchuwong 2010 ,Boopendranathetal.2013).AreportpreparedforFAO(Kungsawan1996)assertedthatverylittlediscardingnowtakesplaceatseaintheThaifishingindustry;thisgelswithfieldobserva-tionsmadeatfishlandingsinsouthernThailand.

Theproblemshavebeenexacerbatedbyinappropriateoruncoordinatedpolicieswithinand between government agencies, forexample,theprotectionofthefishmealindustryhasadirect impactonfisheries,since ithasencouraged capture of small trash fish,often leading tohighcatchesof juvenilesofimportantspecies(Lebeletal.2002,Pauly&Chuenpagdee 2003, Boonchuwongse &Dechboon2003,Stobutzkietal.2006,Saikliang

11 NotethatthisisquiterareinSongkhla,andcoastalThailandgenerally;almostuniversally,thelandedproductthatisregardedas“trashfish”hasbeendamagedbeyondsuitabilityforhumanconsumption,oriscomposedofspeciesthatarenevereatenbylocals;thetrawlerfishermenareabletosellnotonly“genuine”trashfish,butalsothedamagedremainsoffishandinver-tebratesthataccumulatesinthecodendofthenetduringlongtrawls(oftendegradedtothepointofputrescence).

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2007).Theenormouslyover-capacity trawlfisheryoftheGulfhasinmanywaysbecomethefishmealproducer thathasenabled theaquaculture industry todevelop intoahugeexportindustrywithrelativelylowfeedcosts.

However,thequalityofthemealproducedfromtheThaifisheriesthesedayisnotsufficientbyitselfforaquacultureduetothepoorqualityof the landings (predominantlydamaged,ordegraded product) and consequently theaquaculturemeal industrysupplementsThaifishmealwithimportedmeal(WorldBank1991).Thailand once exported the bulk of theirfishmeal(60%in1980),butthereaftersteadilydecreasingtheexportquantitiestolessthan1%by1992andthereafter.Thailandbecameanetimporterofmealin1992(Deutschetal2007).

AnAPFICworkshopontheexploitationoftrashfishandotherlow-valuecapturefisheries(APFIC,2005)foundgreatdifficultiesindefiningtheexpression “trashfish” inameaningfulcontext–eitherecologicallyoreconomically;theynowprefertheexpression“lowvaluefish”.Theproblemarisespartly becauseof thewidelyvariantinterpretationsofwhatconstitutestrashfish inanygivenfishery; inspecialistfisheries,any lowvaluenon-targetspecies isregardedas“trashfish”,whereas inheavily-exploitedmulti-species fisheries such asSongkhla thedefinitionof trashfish ismuchmorenebulous.

Mostfishermenrelyonharvestingdifferentspeciesfor their livelihoodandseldomtargetoneparticular species (although theymayprefercertainspeciesfortheireconomicvalue).Moreover,asthefisheryintheGulfofThailandhaschangedunderexploitationandthemostdesirablespecieshavebecomerarer,speciesthatwerepreviouslydiscardedorsentdirectlytofishmealprocessorsarenowclassifiedas“economic”fish(Tossapornpitakkuletal.,2008).Supongpan&Boonchuwong(2010)reportedthat trash fishwere themost numerouscomponent of research vessel catcheseverywhereintheGulfofThailand.Khemakornetal.(2005)reportedalsothatfishermenwouldsortdamagedspecimensof“economic”fishand

thosethathadspoiledintransitintothetrashfishbinsforsaleatlandings.Comparisonsofrecentwithhistoricalestimatesof trashfishversuseconomicspeciesinfisheriesproductionthusare–atbest–tenuous.Consequently,thefishermenandfisheriesofficialsusuallyfinditdifficult toclearlydefineandunderstand theby-catchissue,andevenbetweenagencies,thedefinitionof“trashfish”fluctuates.

Some theoreticalfisheriescontext isofassistance in aid of understanding thisterminologicalproblem.Firstly, it iswidelyrecognised thatunselectivefishingaimedatmaximising the total catch (the so-called“biomasstrashfishproduction”industrymodel)will tendtoreduceaveragetrophic level inasystem’s foodweb (Pauly&Chuenpagdee2003).Smallfishand invertebratessuchassquidsandcrustaceans that feedmainlyonplanktonwillbecomeover-representedinthemarinecommunityandwillquicklydominatethesystemintermsofbiomass.Alargeproportionof thecatchfromanyvesseloperatingthesedaysintheGulfofThailandwillbecephalopods,indicatingseveredepletionoffinfishstocks(inearly years, finfish comprised the bulk ofcatches:Pauly1985).

Increasingly in theGulfofThailand, thetotalcatchhasahigherproportionof“trash”fish(consisting of undesirable or unpalatableby-catch),muchofwhichgoes tofishmeal.AsurveybyPatthananurak&Phoonsawat(2003)concurswithDepartmentofFisheriessummaries that indicatearound1/3of theproduct landed by trawlers in theGulf ofThailandisclassifiedastrashfish;however,theproportions of juveniles and undersizedindividualsof targetspeciesare typicallynotincludedintheFisheriesfigures.

Tossapornpitakkuletal (2008)describedthe catch of trawlers inSongkhla as (onaverage)composedof53%economicfishand47%trashfish,ofwhich38.5%werejuvenilesofeconomicspecies.Thesenumbersvariedconsiderablythroughouttheyear,withjuvenilesbeingover-represented incatchesduringthemonsoonperiodcoincidingwithreproduction.

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12 Itmightbeworthnotingthattheassumptionsmadeinmanyofthetheoreticaldiscussionsoffisheriesintheliteraturemakethissameassumption:thatthegoalofthefishermenandmanagementauthoritiesistobalancelong-termviabilitywithshort-termprofitability.ThisisusuallywronginAsia,sincehistoricallaxityandlackofknowledgeabouthowtoapplyinappropriate(mostlytemperate,single-species)fisheriesmodelstoadisparate,multi-speciestropicalfisheryhavehamperedunderstand-ingofboththeindustryandtheresource(Ruddle&Hickey2008,Yeetal.2011).

Anearlierstudy(Sahat1994inTossapornpitak-kul et al., 2008) produced roughly similarnumbers(economic:trashfish≈55:45,juvenile:trash ≈ 47:53), although the previouslymentionedreclassificationofspeciessuggeststhattheproportionofjuvenilesofeconomicallyusefulspeciesaredecliningasaproportionofthe total catch (i.e. therehasbeena largereductionintheamountofjuvenilesavailabletocatchinrecentyears,evenwithanexpandedlistofspecies).SupongpanandBoonchuwong(2010)placethefractionofjuvenilesinthetrashfishcomponentas35%.

Reasons for bycatch

Thesizeofthemeshatthecod-endofatrawlnetcanmakeaverylargedifferenceintheamountof juveniles caughtasbycatch (InThailand,cod-endmeshsizemaybeassmallas15mm(5/8”)andveryfewanimalsescape(Eayrs2007,Daviesetal.2009).Pauly(1985)suggested that theminimumappropriatenetcod-endmesh size for the innerGulf ofThailand,wherethebulkofthecatchwasmadeat that time, should be 45–55mm;Paulyapparentlyassumed, likeBroadhurstetal.(2000)thatthegoalofthefisherywaslongtermprofitabilityratherthansimplyvolumeextraction,andthatthe60%reductioninbycatchofferedby the>45mmmeshwas thusdesirable12.Largermeshsizesgreatlyincreasethechancesofjuvenilefishandprawnsescapingthetrawl(Boonchuwong&Dechboon(2008)reportthatseasonalprohibitionsofmeshsizessmallerthan47mmapplytocertainareasoftheGulf,for this reason). TheThaiDepartment ofFisheriesMasterplan(DoF2008)suggeststhatthisgear restriction isaprimarysourceofnon-complianceandillegalfishingintheGulfofThailand.Tossapornpitakkul et al. (2008)reportedthatmeshsizesusedbyfishermenintheGulfofThailandrangefrom19.05-25mm(3/4-1”),withmostfishermenusingameshof22mm(7/8”).

Different types of bycatch reductiontechnologieshavebeendevelopedinthefishingindustryaroundtheworldwithaviewtoreducethe bycatch and discards from trawling,however,with theexceptionofTEDs(TurtleExclusionDevices),uptakeofthetechnologyintropicalcountriessuchasThailandhasbeenminiscule(Ekmaharaj2006,Boopendranathetal.2013).Forsomefishermen,trashfishmaygenerateoverone-thirdof their incomefromthecatch(Funge-Smithetal2005).Bycatchreductiondevicescanreduce thevolumeofjuvenilesandnon-targetspeciescapturedbyasmuchas40%(Eayrs2007,Boopendranathetal.2013).

Fishingstrategycontributes to the largebycatchfigurespublishedbytheDepartmentofFisheries;itcanbeseenthatgearselectioncanstrongly influence thecapturecomposition.For instance, largeottertrawlsreturnmostofthecatchastrashfish(comprising45.4-62.5%of the total catch), whereas edible fishcomprisesonly14.4-29.1%ofthetotalcatch(Boonchuwongse&Dechboon 2003); thetrade-offfortheoperatorsisthatCPUEismuchgreater for the largervessels,since theyaretowingmuchlargernets.ThedeclineinmeshsizesasoverallCPUEdiminishesmeansthattheincreaseinthetrashfishfractionsubsidizesthe lower catch rateof the target species(Daytonetal1995,Khemakornetal.2005).Undersizedjuvenilesofvariousdemersalandsomepelagic species are trappedby thefinemesh sizes of trawls indiscriminatelyharvestingmarine products in prolongedtrawlingoperations. Insocialandeconomictermsthetotalcommercialbiomassextractedin theGoTmay bemore important thansustainabi l i ty, i .e. the unstated fisherymanagementobjectiveistomaximizethecatch,irrespectiveofthespeciescomposition(infacttheDoFwebsite,Englishversion{http://www.fisheries.go.th/english/introduction.html}statesthatitsgoalsareachievingcatchtargetsforthe

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fisheryratherpreservingtheresourceforfuturegenerations).Theratioofundersizedfishtothetotalcatchishugeinamulti-speciesfisherythatisconcernedonlywithmaximisingthevolumeofproductlanded.

Overfishing in GoT

This isnotnew information;astreamofdocumentationdatingbackseveraldecadeshas consistently warned of themassiveovercapacityintheGoTfisherysincethe1980’s(e.g.Hongsul 1980); in fact, Payaotou&Jetanavanich(1987,p44)stated:“…by1973the inshorecatch reached803,000 tonneswhichisindicativeofoverfishingnotonlywhencompared to theMSYbut alsowhen thedecliningcatches insubsequentyearsareconsidered”. Pauly (1985)went further “…fortunesweremade,but thebottom line isblight–theGulfofThailandbecamebarren...”.The overfishing problemwas repeatedlyhighlightedinsubsequentyears,inavarietyofreports(e.g.Boonwanich1992,Janetkitkosoletal.,2003,Kongprometal.2003,Pauly&Chuenpagdee 2003, Boonchuwongse &Dechboon2003,Stobutzkietal.2006).

TheGulfofThailand isoneof themost-documentedexamplesofresourcedepletioninfisheries literature;by1995thetotalbiomassestimateshaddeclinedtolessthan8%ofthe1965 estimates (Stobutzki et al. 2006).Moreover,theimpactofunregulatedecosystemoverfishingintheGoThasbeenhighlightedinseveralkeynationaldocumentspreparedforregionalandglobal fisheriesorganisations(Payaotou&Jetanavanich1987,Kongprometal.2003,Lymeretal2008). Whenthetrawlfisherybeganinthe1950’s,inappropriategearsandinexperienceensuredthatfishingpressurewasminimal;asubstantialtechnicalupgradeinthe1960’s saw rapid increase in capacity,helpedbyCPUEintheorderofaroundthreehundredkilogramsperhour.

ThestandingbiomassandCPUErapidlydeclinedastheeasilyharvestedportionofthestockwasexploitedbya rapidlyexpandingfishingfleet (Pauly&Chuenpagdee2003)–

trawlablebiomassintheGoTdeclinedfrom680000t in1961to560000t in1995,attributedmainly toovercapacity in thefishing industry(Funge-Smithetal.2012).SubsequentdeclinesinThailand’smarinefisheriesresourcescanbeattributed toanumberofadditional factors,includingtheuseofdestructivefishinggear(e.g.trawl,pushnets)andmethods(e.g.largescaletrawlinginnearshoreareas,useofpushnetsnearcoralreefs).IndustrialfishinginThailandischaracterisedbyanalmostubiquitouscultureofviolationofbothfisheriesregulations(e.g.fishinginfishspawninggroundsduringperiodsof temporaryfishingbans)andcoastalzoneexploitationbans,andaMalthusianextractionofmarineresources,resultingindestructionoffishhabitats,suchasmangroves,seagrassmeadows,andcoralreefs.

It isactuallyquitedifficulttoestablishtherealintensityoffishingpressureintheGulfofThailand,becausetheinformationreleasedbytheDepartmentofFisheries is inconsistent,at times obfuscatory andapparently self-contradicting.Forinstance,thecapturelevelsreported in thedocumentsavailable fromtheDoFwebsiteconflictwiththosereportedtoFAOandotherorganisations,partlybecausefiguresincludedproduct landedatThai ports butsourcedelsewhere(usually Indonesia,whereseveral hundred nominallyThai boats flyIndonesianflags:Morganetal.2007).More-over,thereisnoclearestimateoftheamountoffishillegallyharvestedbycommercialopera-torswithinthe3kmcoastallimitthatissupposedtobe reserved for localfishermen (Barbier2002).TheresearchvesselsusedtocalculatetheFisheryDepartment’sMSYandCPUEfig-uresusea40mmcod-endmesh(Payaotou&Jetanavanich1987,Kongchaietal.2003,Kong-promet al. 2003); since small nets retaindisproportionatelymorejuvenilesandtrashfish,thishastheeffectofmakingtheDepartmentof Fisheries capture and effort figuresunderestimatesof the truecatch (inallsizeclasses).

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Figure 27: Reported finfish landing in the Gulf of Thailand

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010Year

Land

ings

(ton

s) 1,500

1,000

500

0

totalfish

foodfish

trashfish

Reported finfish landings in the gulf of Thailand

Figure 27. Landings of finfish abstracted from DoF reports, 1986-2011. The sharp rise in the early 1990’s reflects the growing importance of the pelagic tuna fishery (only a fraction of which is actually captured in the GoT). The circled area indicates a reclassification of several species from “trash fish” to “food fish”. The “crash” evident in the landings in the period after 2005 probably reflects a “tipping point” in the ecosystem towards a lower productivity system with a higher proportion of low trophic level species caused by chronic overexploitation of demersal species. Part of this change may be explained by some Thai fishing boats changing registration to Malaysia and Indonesia domicile, in order to comply with more stringent Malaysian and Indonesian regulations.

Anadequatemanagementsystembasedonsingle-speciesandsingle-fleet referencepointsisprobablyinfeasibleinthecontextoftheGulfofThailand.AsubstantialproportionofthelandingsatSongkhlaportaresourced fromvesselsoperating in internationalwaters (orfromtheEEZsofneighbouringcountries),yetareincludedinproductionstatistics(FAO2009),something which tends to val idate theexpectationofunreliabilityofofficialfisheriesestimates for the southernGoT fishery.Likewise theDepartmentofFisheries first

includedTunasasaseparateentryintheIndianOceancatchstatistics in2005(andswitchedBarracudafrom“demersal”to“pelagic”);theseare likely tobemostlyproductsofoffshorefishingvesselsoperatingoutsideThailand’sEEZ(Lymeretal2008).Itcanbesaidwithouthesitation, however, thatmost demersalresourcesandalmostallgroupsofpelagicfishareover-exploited.Furthermore,thecatchratesrecordedbygovernmentresearchvesselshaveshownpersistentlydecreasing trendssince1966(FAO2009).

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Within the Gulf of Thailand, fishing effort has increased as catches have declined.

Payao tou & Je tanavan ich (1987)highlightedtherapidityofthedeclineinCPUE(CatchperUnitEffort)ofGoTfisheries,aswellasthechangeintrashfishcompositionofthecatch,andrelatedittoovercapacity.Kongpromet.al.(2003)suggestedthat the1995leveloffishing effort was about twice the effortnecessary toharvestMaximumSustainableYield(MSY),whichindicatedthatthedemersalandother fishery resourceswere alreadyseverelyover-fished.SupongpanandBoonchu-wong,(2010)assesseddemersalfishcaughtbytrawl fisheries in theGulf ofThailandandreportedacalculatedMSYof277,027metrictons(approximatelyonethirdofthatestimatedbyPayaotou&Jetanavanich(1987)adecadeearlier)atanoptimumfishingeffort(fMSY)of31.4milliontrawlinghours.Demersalcatchesin2005reportedbytheDepartmentofFisheriesamountedto315,418tonscapturedduring49.3millionhoursoffishingeffort.Thereportedeffort

expendedincapturingdemersalfishexceededoptimumby60%and thesafelyextractableresourceofdemersalfishwasoverexploitedbymorethan50%.Itcanbeseeneasilyherethattheeconomicbenefitoftheextraeffortfollowedtheclassiclawofdiminishingreturns,andthatthedemersalshrimpindustryinparticularwasunprofitable at its current level of effort(Boonchuwongse&Dechboon2003).

AcalculationofoptimalfishingeffortbyAhmedetal(2007)indicatestheovercapacityproblemclearly(Figure21below).NotexploitingfisheriesresourcesatMSYorMEYleadstothelossofproductionandrentsfromthefisheries;this isa2-tailed relationship in thatunder-exploitationmeanstheresourceisnotprovidingasmuchasitmight,whereasoverexploitationmeans that the resource isbeingdegraded(Guillenetal.2012).Overthedecadessinceindustrial fishingwas introduced, fisheriesdevelopment in theGulf ofThailand hasconcentratedon increasingfishingeffort tomaintainorincreasetheproductionvolume.

Figure 28: MSY model

Figure 28. In this model, the MSY figure represents the apex of the cost-benefit curve; excessive effort, such as that reported by the Department of Fisheries, is greatly sub-optimal, and approximately twice the effort that would produce MEY (Maximum Economic Yield). From Ahmed et al. 2007.

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Evidenceformassivechangesinspeciescomposition in theGulf of Thailandwasobtained fromanalysisof trawlsurveydatabetween1963and1972(Pauly,1985). Ithasbeenshownthatfishingcanaffect,directlyorindirectly, the structure of demersal fishassemblages(Suvavepun,1991Kongprometal., 2003). Nevertheless, this continuedexpansionoftheGoTfisherywaseconomicallydriven,despitelocalandoverseasexperiencesand the recommendationsofexpertswithinThailand(Boonchuwongse&Dechboon2003),apparentlyundertheimpressionthatthestockwas inexhaustible.Theextremeovercapacitywhichwasapparent in the1990’shasseensuccessivecollapsesinfisheriesproduction,totheextentthatreportedCPUEwasreducedtoaroundfromaround300kg/hour inthe1960’sto17kg/hour in2010(Pauly&Chuenpagdee2003,Boonchuwongse&Dechboon2003,สงวนสิน[FisheriesDirector](unpubl2010)).

OtherresearchhasplacedactualCPUEintheGoTmuchlower:atrawlsurveyconductedbySEAFDEC in2004-5 indicated that thehighestaveragecatch rate in theGoTwas11.9kg/hour,withanaverageCPUEof10.3kg/hours(Rugpan&Bunleudaj,2012).ThemuchreducedCPUEhas,inturn,ledthefishermentoemployincreasinglylongtrawltimes(upto6hours)betweennetretrievals.Theextraordinarylengthoftowtimeshighlightstheincreasinglypatchyresourcedistributioninthetrawlareas;chronic fishing disturbance leads to theremovalofhigh-biomassspeciesanddeclinesintotalcommunitybiomass,biomassoflargermacrofauna,anda totalproductiondecline(Dupliseaetal.2001,2003,Jenningsetal2002,Queirosetal2006). Italso leads togreateramountsof“patchinesss”intheresource,astheareasdisturbedbytrawlingtaketimetorecover(Thrush&Dayton1991).

Tossapornpitakkuletal., (2008)reportedthatthreemajorstrategiesexistforcommercialfishingoperators:diurnal,daylightornocturnal.Thediurnalfishermen(around32%ofvessels)conductoperationsof 1-13days’ duration(average≈6+3.5days), duringwhich theycustomarilytrawltwiceduringthedayand2-3

timespernight,witheachtowbeing4-5hoursduration.Theyusethesamecaptureequipmentforbothdaytimeandnight timeoperations.Daytime-onlyoperators(around7%ofvessels)conduct tripsof1-10days’duration,althoughtheytendtoprefershort trips(≈2.3+3days).Theyconduct2-3trawlsperday,eachlasting4-6hours. Thenocturnalfishermen(around61%ofvessels) likewisepreferredshort (≈2days)tripsandalsotrawled2-3timespernight,withtowsbeing3-6hourslong.Theseverylongtrawltimesincreasetheproportionofdamagedproductandbycatchinthetrawls,astheearlycatch issmashedagainst thebackof thenetand formsasolid liningover thenetmeshthroughwhichnothingescapes.

Thegreatweaknessofsurplusproductionmodelssuchastheonepresentedhereisthattheymake certain assumptionsabout thegenerationtimesofthefisherystock;themostegregious of these is to assume that thehigh-turnoverspecieswhichdominatethecatchofthehighestecologicalandeconomicvalue.Thisisseldomtrueinacomplexmultispeciesfishery such as theGulf of Thailand. Inmulti-speciesandmulti-fleetfisheries,singlespeciesassessments,andconsequentlyMSYandMEYreferencepoints,areoftennotvalid,andsocatch targetsareoftengrossover-estimations(Guillenetal2013).Unfortunately,it is impossible to adequatelymodel thecomplexityofthedemersalassemblageintheGoTinanymeaningfulway.Theconsequencesofadoptingasimplifiedmodelareprofound,however: the remaining stocks becomeincreasinglyreliantonrecruitmenttomaintainpopulation,andthusundergolargervariationsin b iomass as recru i tment fluc tua tesstochasticallybetweenyears.Fisheriesreturnsthusbecome increasinglydifficult topredict,particularly forartisanalfishermenwhohavelimitedscopeformigrationtodifferentlocalitiesiffishbecomescarce.

The effects of juvenile overfishing

Overfishing is increasinglyunderstoodtoresultinindirectalterationsofhabitatstructureandfunction,particularly inregardstotrophic

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levels(Valentine&Heck,2005).Therolesthatsmallfishspeciesmayplayasprey,competitors,predatorsandherbivoresmakethempotentialkey members of communit ies and keydeterminantsof the fateofotherpopulations(Forster&Vincent2010).Itistrivialtopredictthattheintegrityofjuvenilepopulationsiscrucialif ecosystems are to function effectively.Truncationofagestructurebyfishinghasbeensuggestedasthemainreasonfortheincreasedhighervariability in recruitmentofexploitedspecies (Hsieh et al., 2006), and hugelyreducingthenumberofindividualsavailableforcapturebyartisanalfishingtechniques(Gislason

2001, Najmudeen&Sathiasdhas 2008).This,ofcoursehastremendousconsequenceforthelivelihoodandfoodsecurityofartisanalfishermenwhorelyoncoastalreplenishment,andalsofortheindustrialfishermenwhotargettheadultpopulation(Figure29).Thereductioninhabitatheterogeneityisamajordeterrentinthesurvivalandrecruitmentofamultitudeofmarineorganisms,includingmanyspeciesthatarecommerciallyimportant(Kumar&Deepthi2006).Substantial increases inprofitabilityoffishingwouldbeachieved,at lowerharvestrates, if juvenilefishingwerereduced(Vibun-pantetal.2003).

Figure 29: Simplified coastal food webs

BEFORE FISHING AFTER FISHING

Figure 29. Simplified coastal food webs showing changes in some of the important top-down interactions due to overfishing; before (left side) and after (right side) fishing. Bold font represents abundant; normal font represents rare; “crossed-out” represents extinct. Thick arrows represent strong interactions; thin arrows represent weak interactions. Severe overfishing drives species to ecological extinction because overfished populations no longer interact significantly with other species in the community (From Jackson et al. 2001)

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Eveninasystemthatistargetingonlythelargest individuals, as the level of fishingmortality increases, thepopulationdynamicsareincreasinglydominatedbyrecruitment,andatthelimitthepopulationvariabilityisequaltothevariabilityofrecruitment(Hsiehetal.,2006,Froeseetal.,2008).Fisheriesbiologiststendtopartitionoverfishing intoseveraloverlappingcomponents, depending on the industrypractices. Recruitment (or reproductive)overfishingcanbedefinedasdepleting thereproductivepartofthestockbysomuchthatrecruitmentisimpaired.Growthoverfishingcanbe defined as where inefficiently smallspecimensare targeted,depletingtheyoungpartof thestockbefore ithasreachedits fullbiological andeconomicpotential (Diekertetal.2010). Thecommonperception is thatgrowth-overfishing is themorewide-spreadformof overfishing,whereas recruitment-overfishinghasmoredisastrousconsequencessince itdirectly impedesthefutureviabilityoffish stocks. Avoidance of recrui tmentoverfishingisthestatedmaintheoreticalbasisforfisheriesstockmanagement intheGulfofThai land; the Department of Fisheries(notionally) seeks to avoid reducing thespawningstock toa level that thecatchablestockdiminishesovertimebecauseofalackofrecruits. In truth, the processes overlapconsiderably,buttheremovalofjuvenilesfromthepotentialspawningpopulationhasamoreinsidiouseffect.

Severe overfishing drives species toecological extinction because overfishedpopulationsnolongerinteractsignificantlywithotherspeciesinthecommunity(Jacksonetal.2001).Theuseofsingle-species referencepointsisquestionablewhenspeciesinteractionsareimportant(Stergiou2002).Rapiddeclinesinmean trophic level of capturedfish (i.e.“fishingdownthefoodweb”)reflectsprofoundmodificationsintheecosystem,andleadstoacascadeofundesirableconsequences(Pauly&Chuenpagdee2003,Srinivasanetal2010,Rochet &Benoit, 2011). In amulti-gearmulti-species fishery such as theGulf ofThailand,whereundersizedandotherwiseundesirablecomponentsofthecatchareakey

partof fishermen’ income, theproliferatingimpactofjuvenilefishingismuchmoreintense(cfNajmudeen&Sathiahas2008).

Disproportionatelylarge-scaleremovalanddestructionofyoungandjuvenilesoffishandcrustaceansareespeciallydetrimental to thefisherybecausewhen juvenilemortality isincreasedthefuturecatchesandsubsequentrecruitmentwillbeaffected. Theestimatesmade (by fisheries biologists) of growth,mortalityandrecruitmentarethusinvalidated,becausetheprogressionof juveniles intothespawningpopulationiscompromised.

Changestothecommunitycompositionareanobviousandperniciouseffectofoverfishingandtrophicdecline.Thecreationofpondsformarineshrimpaquacultureundertheimpetusof this pushhas led to the destruction ofthousands of hectares ofmangroves andcoastalwetlands.This is important to localartisanal fishermenbecause they providenurserygrounds for variousyoungaquaticanimalsincludingcommerciallyimportantfish,and theirdestructioncan lead tosubstantialeconomic losses for commercial fisheries(Stobutzkietal2006,Allsoppetal2008)andlivelihoodrisksfor localpeopleheavilyreliantonfishingasboth incomeand foodsecurity(Fleishman2006,Pomeroyetal.2007).

It is important tonoteatsomestagethattrawlbycatchisnottheonlysourceofjuvenilemortalityinthesystem.Thecagecultureoffoodfishwidely-promotedasanalternativeincomestreamforlocalfishermenusespredominantlywild-caught juvenilesasstock(Tanyarosetal2008,Songraketal2008,Sheriffetal2008),andalsouseswholeorsectioned trashfish(includingmany juveniles) as stock feed(Bunlipatanonetal2012).Sincethemangrovecreekswherecagecultureispracticedarealsokeynursery areas formanyeconomicallyimportantspecies,thisrepresentsasignificantpotential threat to recruitmentand trophicintegrityof thesystem,overandabove thethreatposedby industrialfishing(FAO2008,Allsoppetal.2013).

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LITERATURE REvIEW: chAnGEs AnD ImpAcT On LOcAL ARTIsAnAL FIshInG cOmmUnITy4.

Whenevermarineresourcesaredepleted,everyfishermanisaffected,bothartisanalandcommercialalike.However,artisanalfishermenseem tobemoregravelyaffected,as theirfishingcapacityisalotlowerthanthecommercialfishermenintermoffishinggearsandvessels.Theyseem tobevictimsofoverfishingbycommercialfishermen,particularlythoseusingtrawlersandpushnetswhicharethemaintrashfishsupplierstofishmealproducers.

In thecontextof thisstudy,although theresearchteamfocusesonanalysingtheimpactof trashfishingon the localartisanalfishingcommunities inSongkhla, it is difficult toseparatetheimpactoftrashfishingbytrawlersandpushnetsfromanchovyfishingusingluringlight,sointhissectionofliteraturereview,wewillincludeimpactfrombothpushnetsfishingandanchovyfishingwithluringlightasbothofthemaredestructivefisheriesthathighlyaffectthemarineecosystemandeventuallyhaveimpactontheartisanalfishermen.Itwillshowhowtheartisanalfishermenwereimpactedandwhattheresultswere.

4.1 Definitions of Artisanal Fisheries

Beforewetalkaboutchangesandimpactof trash fishing on local artisanal fishingcommunities,weshouldfirstlydefinethetermartisanal fishery (ก�รประมงพื้นบ้�น)so thatwehaveaclearpictureandscopeofwhatitisinthis research.The termartisanal fishery issometimesusedinterchangeablywiththetermscoastal fishery(การประมงชายฝั่ง)andsmall-scale fishery (การประมงขนาดเล็ก)(ArtisanalFisheries,

2012;DoF,2005;FAO,n.d.;Kijthavornetal.,2000;Panjarat,2008;Sirichai,2003).This isbecause art isanal fisheries are usuallysmall-scale,andthefishinggroundsareinshoreoroperatewithin threekm.off thecoastline.However, theword“artisanal”alsoconnoteslow-level technology,and theuseof smallamountofcapitalandlabor(FAO,n.d.).

Wecansummarizekeycharacteristicsof“artisanalfisheries”asfollows: 1) Notusinganyfishingvesselsorusing

smallsizefishingvesselswithorwithoutpowernotmorethan10meterslonge.g.sailboats,Kolaeboats,Hua-Tongboats

2) Usinglow-techfishinggearsspecificallyfortargetspeciese.g.nets,hooks,lines,traps,crabgillnets,shrimpgillnets

3) Operatingnot far from theshorelineusuallywithinthreekm.fromthecoast

4) Usinglaborswithinhouseholdsfrom1-3persons

Insomecountries,artisanalfisheriesaredefinedbytypeandsizeofboats.Forexample,inBrunei,artisanalfishermenarethosewhousenon-poweredorpoweredboatsnotlongerthan60ft.;inHongKong,notlongerthan40ft.;inMalaysia,notover10G.T. (gross ton); thePhilippines,notover3G.T)(DistinguishingandTypes,n.d.).AsimilarcriteriawasusedbyNationalStatisticalOffice (NSO)andDoF(2001)whentheyconductedasurveyontheincomeofsmall-scalefishinghouseholds in2001. They defined small-scale fishinghouseholdbytypeofboatsincludingno-fishingvessel,non-poweredboats,outboardpoweredboats,inboardpoweredboatslessthan5G.T.,andinboardpoweredboatsbetween5-9G.T.

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Insomecountries,artisanalfisheriesaredefinedbytypeandsizeofboats.Forexample,inBrunei,artisanalfishermenarethosewhousenon-poweredorpoweredboatsnotlongerthan60ft.;inHongKong,notlongerthan40ft.;inMalaysia,notover10G.T. (gross ton); thePhilippines,notover3G.T)(DistinguishingandTypes,n.d.).AsimilarcriteriawasusedbyNationalStatisticalOffice (NSO)andDoF(2001)whentheyconductedasurveyontheincomeofsmall-scalefishinghouseholds in2001. They defined small-scale fishinghouseholdbytypeofboatsincludingno-fishingvessel,non-poweredboats,outboardpoweredboats,inboardpoweredboatslessthan5G.T.,andinboardpoweredboatsbetween5-9G.T.

4.2 Thailand’s Artisanal Fishing Communities

MuchresearchhasfocusedthatThailand’scontext,artisanalfisheryconceptgoesbeyondkeycharacteristicsmentionedearlier; italsoincludestraditional,handed-downwisdomfrompreviousgenerations,andtheresponsibilitiestoprotectingandpreservingtheseawhich isunlikecommercialfisheriesthatfocusongettingthemostoutofthesea.Thewisdomteachesthemnotonlywhen,whereandhowtofish(e.g.theylearnthatshrimpsandfishareabundantduringMonsoon season; they use gearsspecificallyfortargetspecieswithlargemeshsize,somostly,theycatchmaturefishand/orotherfauna;forexample,theywillusecrabgillnetswith7cmmeshsizetocatchcrabs),butalsohowtomaintaintheabundanceoffishinthesea.(TheylearnnottooverfishandmakeartificialcoralsorSungfor thefishto live in.)Thisisbecauseinmanycases,fishingisjustforsubsistence,and it is theonly thing theyknowhowtodo,sotheirlivesandtheirfamilymembers’dependonthesea(Sirichai,2003).

According to theReport of the 2000

IncomeofSmall-ScaleMarineCaptureFisheryHouseholdSurveybyNSOandDoF(2001),there were 53,343 smal l -scale fishinghouseholdscountrywide13.86.1%or41,225werefishinghouseholdswithoutboardpoweredboats(long-tailedboats, เรือหางตัด).Songkhlahadthehighestnumberofsmall-scalefishinghouseholds,i.e.6,175householdswhichwere86.71%ofthetotalmarinefisheryhouseholdsinSongkhla(7,121households).Of the totalnumberof small-scale fishinghouseholds,63.64%or3,930householdsoperatedwithoutboardpoweredboats,and27.5%or1,683didnotusefishingvessels.Duringpeakseason,therewere16,340fishermenworking,ofwhich61.2%or10,001workedinsmall-scalefisheries.

4.3 Conflicts between Commercial Fishermen and Artisanal Fishermen

Inmodernday,artisanalfishermendonotcapturefishonlyfortheirownconsumptionbutasmain incomeof the households.Theypreserveandprotect theseabycapturingmaturefishtogivethemachancetoreproduceandcreatingartificialcoralsforfish.Problemsoccurredwhencommercialfishing,particularlypushnetsand trawlers,came tofishwithinfishinggroundsofartisanalfishermen,orwithin3,000meters off the shorewhich is fishspawning grounds.These push nets andtrawlers 1) depletedmarine resourcesbysweepingalmosteverythingunselectivelyintotheircod-ends,2)brokefishinggearsoflocalartisanalfishermenstationedinthesea,and3)destroyedtheseagrassandcoralreefsaswellasartificialcoralsmadeby localfishermen,whichwerehabitatsandspawninggroundsofthefish(Boonwanich&Boonpakdee,2009).

InThe Roles of Fisherfolk Community in Natural Resources Management and Law Enforcement in the Area of Pattani Bay: Case Study at Tanyongpao Village14, Moo 4, Tagamsa

13Inthisreport,thesmall-scalefishinghouseholdsincludethosewhodonotusingfishingboats,usenon-poweredboats,useoutboardpoweredboats,andinboardpoweredboatsnotover9G.T.

14Tanyongpaovillageisafishermen’svillageinTambonTagamsam,AmphoeNongchik,Pattani.Thevillagehasaround236householdswiththepopulationof1,154people,ofwhich99%wereMuslimand80%wereartisanalfishermen.

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Subdistrict, Ampoe Nongchik, Pattani,PiyaKijthavornetal. (2000)also found that theintrusionofpushnetfishingboats,whichwerefuelled by fishmeal business since 1970,destroyedfishinggearsof localfishermenaswellasthetraditionalartificialcoralsorSung,anddepletedcoastal resources,reducingtheamountofmarineanimalsthatlocalfishermencouldcatch.ThesefindingsaresimilartothoseofChalitaBandhuwong(2000)(citedinSuwi-monPiriyathanalaietal.,2011) in thepapertitled“Huatong”Development,Characteristics,andAdaptationsofAndamanFisherfolk.Shestatesthattherearetwoproblemscausedbytrawlandpushnetfishing;oneisthatthefishinggearsof the localfishermenweredestroyed,andtheotheristhereductionofmarineanimals.

Incaseofanchovypurseseineswithluringlight,even though theydidnotdestroy thefishinggearsof the localartisanalfishermen,thewaytheycatchfish–usinglighttolurethematnight– isverydestructive to themarineecosystem,because the light lurednotonlyanchovythatwastargetspecies,butalsootherjuvenilesofeconomicfish.Of the totalfishcaughtbythismethod,69-78%wasanchovy,andtherestwasjuveniles;insomearease.g.PrachuabKirikhan,thepercentageofanchovywentdownto55%.Thesejuvenileswouldthenbesoldcheaplytofishmealproducersastrashfish.Inthecontrary,iftheywerelettolive,theywouldhavemuchhighereconomic values(Dachapimon,2000).

Conflictsbetweencommercialfishermenandartisanalfishermencanbedatedbackto1964whenpushnetsand trawlerswerebooming.MinistryofAgriculturehadtoenactregulationsprohibitingpoweredboatswithpushnetsandtrawlerstooperatewithin1,000metersoffthecoast,astheydestroyedthefishinggearsof the localfishermencausing theconflictsbetweenthem.Thesituationdidnotimprove;infactitworsenedaftermanycountriesclaimedtheirEEZandshelfareas,causingThaifishingboatsto losetheirabout300,000km2fishinggroundswhenhighseastheyusedtofishwereturnedintoshelfareasofothercountries.Thus,someofthemcamebacktofishinThaiwaters

encroaching upon the preserved areas(Boonwanich&Boonpakdee,2009;Sirichai,2003).SuwimonPiriyathanalaietal. (2011)studiedfishingcommunitiesinPattaniandwroteapaper titled theProject ofAdaptationofFisherfolk inPattani. Itstates thatfishermencommunitiesinPattanihavefaceddestructivefishingproblemcausedbypushnetfishingformorethan30years,andtheproblembecamemoresevereduringthepast15years.

Mainreasonsthatthecommercialfishingboats violated the laws thatprohibited thecommercialfisherieswithin3,000metersoffthecoastare1)marine resourcesoutside thepreservedareashavebeenusedup2)thelawsarenotclear,e.g.whenoneprovinceenactedregulations thatprohibitedpushnets fromoperatinginthatprovince,itisnotclearwherethelineisintheseabecausetherewasnomapattached,and3)thepenaltiesarelowcomparedto the returns theywouldget fromviolatingthe laws (Sirichai, 2003;OfficeofNaturalResources andEnvironmental Policy andPlanning).

4.4 Impact of Commercial Fisheriesin the 3,000-Meter Prohibited Areason Artisanal Fishermen

Fromthestatisticsofsmall-scalefishinghouseholds,wefoundthatthemajorityoftheartisanal fishermen inThailand use smalloutboardpoweredboats. InSongkhla, thepercentageofartisanalfishermenwhousesuchboatswentdownto63.64%in2000,butabout27.5%didnotuseanyfishingvessel.Thus,whencommercialfishingboatsviolated lawsand caught fishwithin 3,000-meter area,resultinginthedepletionofmarineresources,this left localartisanal fishermenwithverylimitedchoicesas1) theirboats, ifany,wererelativelysmall,so theycouldnotgo tofishsomewhereelseveryfarfromtheshore2)manyofthemhavenootherskillsbutfishing(Sirichai,2003).Similarly,SutiraChairuksa (2001)reportedinherresearchThe Way of Life of the Local Fishing Households: Comparative Studies

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15BanBor-ItvillageisalocalfishingcommunityalongthecoastofGoTinTambonKoh-Taew,AmphoeMueang,Songkhla.Thereareabout300householdswiththepopulationabout1,500people.ThemajorityareartisanalfishermenoperatinginGoT.

16BanTa-SaovillageisalocalfishingcommunitybySongkhlaLakeinTambonSatingmor,AmphoeSinghanakorn,Songkhla.Thereareabout270householdswiththepopulationabout2,850people.ThemajorityareartisanalfishermenoperatinginSongkhlaLake.

Two Areas, That Are Between the Gulf of Thailand Area and Songkhla Lake Area, Songkhla that82.9%ofheadsof the localfishinghouseholdsof thesamplegroup (92households) at BanBor-It village15 saidtheyhadnotdoneanythingelsebefore theybecamefishermenwhilethepercentagewentup to94.2% from thesamplegroupof120householdsatBanTa-Saovillage16.

TrinSuknuan (cited inSuwimonPiri-yathanalaietal.,2011)wrote inhisresearchentitled“AdaptationofFisherfolkCommunitiesatPakPhanangRiverBasinAfterPakPhanangRiverBasinDevelopmentProject” that theabilitiesoflocalfishermentoadaptthemselvesdependedonmanyconditions–mostimportantlyresourcecondition,economiccondition,andsocialandculturalcondition.Thosewhoonlyworkedonfisheryandhadnolandwouldhavelowchancesandabilitiestoadaptthemselves.Thosewhocouldnotadapthadtorelocate.

When the seawas not abundant anylonger,localartisanalfishermenthenfacedalotofproblems,bothfinancialandsocial.Financialproblems includedecreasing incomesandincreasingcostsoffisherieseventuallyleadingtoinformaldebts(Dachapimon,2000).Figure30showsaveragedaily incomesperboatofartisanalfishermeninSongkhlainfivevillagesduring1993–1999(PiyaKijthavorn,cited inDachapimon,2000),whichwasadownwardtrend. Interestingly, in1993, their incomesvariedwidely,e.g.fishermeninBanLecouldearnasmuchas2,000BahtperdaywhilefishermeninBanPangChangTieonlyearnedaround600Bahtperday.However, in1999,their incomefell toaround200-400Bahtperday,exceptinBanLethattheincomecollapsedto50Bahtperday,40timesor4,000%lowerthantheirincomein1993.

Figure 30: Average daily income per boat of artisanal fishermen in Songkhla during 1993-1999

BanHuaWara,Ranode

BanPangChangTie,Sathingpra

BanMuangNgam,Singhanakorn

BanLe,Singhana-korn

BanTalingChan,Chana

| | | | | | | |1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

Source: Piya Kijthavorn cited in Dachapimon, 2000.

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Whenwelookat localfishermen’scosts,wewillseethattheyarequitestablethroughoutthe7-yearperiod.Therearesignificantchangesincostsat twovillages:BanPangChangTieandBanMuangNgam,during1996-1997.From1993-1996,theaveragecostofartisanalfishermenatBanPangChangTiewas300Bahtperday,andthatofBanMuangNgamwas460Baht,butin1997,thecostsdroppedto150Bahtand120Baht.Thisisprobablynotbecausethecoststhemselvesdecreased,butbecausethefishermenreducedtheirfishingefforts– timespentonfisheriesanddistanceoffshore–astheycouldnotbearthecostsanylonger.ThiswillbecomeclearerwhenwelookattheFigure30whichshowsaverageprofits/lossesof theartisanalfishermenatfivevillages.In1996thefishermeninBanPangChangTiebrokeeven,whilethoseatBanMuangNgammadelosses.Probablybecauseofthecleardownwardtrendoftheirincome,thefishermendecidedtoreducetheeffortssothattheycansavecostsandhavesomemoneyleft.

InFigure31,thegraphlookssimilartotheoneinFigure22inthatitisalsoadownwardslope.Sinceaverageincomesvariedwidelyin1993whilethecostswerenotmuchdifferent,theprofitsfishermenmadealsovariedwidelyalongwithincomes.However,in1999aftertheirincomehadbeenconsistentlydecreasingformanyyears,theprofitstheymadewerearound50–150Bahtexcept forBanLe.Outof thefivevillages,thefishermenfromBanLevillagemade thehighest incomesof2,000Baht in1993-1994,butafterthattheiraverageincomesharplydroppedto1,000Baht(50%decrease).Itcontinuedtodeclineuntilitwas150Bahtperday in1998whichwasbelowcost, resultingin50-Bahtloss.Then,in1999,theircostwentup50%from200Bahtperday to300Baht(probablybecausetheyputmoreeffortsforthehopethattheymightbeabletocatchmorefishandearnmoremoney),but it turnedout thattheycouldmakeonlyaround50Baht,or66%lessthantheyearnedinthepreviousyear.

Figure 31: Average daily cost per boat of artisanal fishermen in Songkhla during 1993-1999

BanHuaWara,Ranode

BanPangChangTie,Sathingpra

BanMuangNgam,Singhanakorn

BanLe,Singhana-korn

BanTalingChan,Chana

| | | | | | | |1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

Source: Piya Kijthavorn cited in Dachapimon, 2000.

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Figure 32: Average daily profit/loss per boat of artisanal fishermen in Songkhla during 1993-1999

BanHuaWara,Ranode

BanPangChangTie,Sathingpra

BanMuangNgam,Singhanakorn

BanLe,Singhana-korn

BanTalingChan,Chana

| | | | | | | |1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

2200

1700

1200

700

200

-300

Source: Piya Kijthavorn cited in Dachapimon, 2000.

Whenthereturnswerenotworththeefforts,manyfishermenstoppedfishing, sold theirboats,andfoundotherjobse.g.theybecameworkersincommercialfishingboats,factories,orat theconstructionsites;aconsiderablenumber became unemployed. For thosewhostill carriedonfishing tomaintain theirhouseholdcashflowsaswellasinvestintheirboats,fishinggears,andfuelsastheyput inmoreeffortandwentfurtheroffshore,theyhadtoturntomiddlemenforloans.Thisisbecausemostartisanalfishermenwerenotqualifiedto borrowmoney from thebanke.g. theycould offer no col lateral and had l i t t lesavings (Dachapimon,2000;Sirichai2003).Ashouseholddebts increasedand incomesdeclined,menspentmoretimeawayatsea,whilewomenhadtoleavetheirhomestowork.Somecouldnotafford tosend theirkids toschool, and thesekidswere then illiterate(Kijthavornetal.,2000).

Forthosewhodecidedtofindotherjobstosolvefinancialproblems,many facedsocialproblems instead.Whenfishermenwent toworkonbigcommercialboats, in thecitiesor overseas, theywere exposed to newenvironments,newcultures,aswellasdrugs.Someofthesepeoplebroughtbackdrugstothecommunities(Kijthavornetal.,2000).Moreover,peoplewhoworkoncommercialfishingboatsorattheporttendtocommitacrimebecausetheyareaddictedtodrugs.Whenadultsmoveto thecityoranothercountryand leavetheirchildrenbehind, the childrenarenotwell-educatedandtendtohaveproblems;someofthembecamedrugaddicts(Piriyathanalaietal,2011).However,iftheparentstooktheirchildrenwith them, thechildrenwillnotbeeducated.Kijthavornetal. (2000) reported thatsomefishermenwenttoworkillegallyinMalaysiaandbroughttheirchildrenwiththem.Theirchildrenwere then not educated,while somehadchildrenwhile theyworkedas illegalaliens,making thechildrenborn inMalaysia illegalchildren.

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ExIsTInG REGULATIOns AnD sTAnDARDs RELATInG TO TRAsh FIshInG AnD ThAILAnD ImpLEmEnTATIOn5.

5.1 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and the EU regulation on IUU fishing

Concernsofdepletionofmarineresources,damages to themarine ecosystems, andsoc ioeconomic impacts that threatensustainability in the long-run have beenexpressedat various international stages.TheCodeofConductforResponsibleFisherieshad been developed according to therecommendationfromtheNineteenthSessionoftheFAOCommitteeonFisheries(COFI)heldin1991andwaseventuallyadoptedby theTwenty-EighthSessionoftheFAOConferenceon31October1995(FAO1,2014).Thecodeprovidesprinciples,guidance,andinstrumentsfor all involved in fisheries toachieve theultimategoalofsustainability(FAO,1995).

The internationalplansofaction(IPOAs)arevoluntary instrumentselaboratedwithinthe frameworkof theCodeofConduct forResponsibleFisheries.Inpractice,theyfunctionasinternationalagreementstomanageissuesrelatingtoresponsiblefishingpractices.FourIPOAsinclude(FAO2,2014):

1) InternationalPlanofActionforReducingIncidentalCatchofSeabirdsinLonglineFisheries

2) InternationalPlanofActionforConser-vationandManagementofSharks

3) InternationalPlanofAction for theManagementofFishingCapacity

4) InternationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,Deter,andEliminateIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulatedFishing(IPOA-IUU)–this is thepertinentstandardfor trashfishingandwillbeelaborated in thesubsequentsectionsofthisreport.

5.1.1 The development of IPOA-IUU

“Illegal, unreported and unregulatedfishing,”(IUU) isaconceptwhichhasgainedwidespreaduse inrecentyears(FAO,2001).Overfishingandirresponsiblefishingactivitieshave led tomarine resourcesdepletionaswell asdamagedaquatic biodiversity andenvironment.Inaddition,IUUfishingalsoentailssocio-economic impact.Overexploitedfishingcausesadecline infishstockwhich in turnaffectsthesizeandqualityofmarinecatches,leading to lowerprofitabilityand job losses.Moreover, IUUfishingbringsaboutanunfaircompetitionbetweenthoseplayersfollowingtherulesandthosewhodonot.

InternationallawsandregulationsonIUUfishinghavebeenwidelydiscussedfordecades.Initially, the term“IUU”hadnotbeenclearlydefined; only ideas andmeasures werediscussed.Thesehavebeendeveloped intoguidelinesandenhanced intomoreconcreteregulationsmanydecadeslater(Chanrachkijetal.,n.d.).

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationof theUnitedNations(FAO)hasplayedaleadingroleinpromoting internationalefforts toaddressand combat IUU fishing andwas the firstorganizationtodefineIUUfishing(Chanrachkijetal.,n.d.).An internationaleffort toprevent,deter and eliminate IUU fishing stemmedfrom theRomeDeclaration (1999) on theImplementationof theCodeofConduct forResponsibleFisheries,whichstates thatallcountrieswoulddevelopaglobalactionplantofightIUUfishing.Thisprovidedtheframeworkfor FAO to develop and expound theInternationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,Deterand El iminate I l legal , Unreported andUnregulatedFishing(IPOA-IUU)(Chanrachkijetal.,n.d.;Kongrawd,2006).

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IPOA-IUUwasadoptedin2001toaddressmanyproblemsthatemergedfromIUUfishing.ItencouragescountriestodevelopregionalplanandnationalplanofactiontocombatIUUfishinginorder toestablish sustainable fisheries.However, IPOA-IUU isavoluntarynon-legalbinding instrument; itactsasatoolboxforallcountriestoadaptanddesigntheirmeasurestomeettheirsituations(Chanrachkijetal.,n.d.;Kongrawd,2006).Problems regarding IUUfishingarecomplexandmulti-facetedduetothedifferencesinmarinebiodiversity,environment,andsocio-economicsituationsinanyparticularcountry.Therefore, it is impossible todesignone-size-fits-allIUUFishingguidelinesthatcan‘work’everywhere; the instrumentmustbeadjustedtorespondtospecificcircumstances(Chanrachkijetal.,n.d).

Fishing in states’ waters has beenmonitoredandcontrolledbyeachcoastalstate’slawsandregulations,andthestatecan fullyenforceitslawsonIUUfishing.However,therearemanyeconomicspecies in thehighseaswherestate-level lawis inapplicable.For thisreason, IPOA-IUU suggests that regionalorganizationplayaleadingroleindesigningandexecutingmeasuresforsustainablymanagingmarineresourcesandcombatingagainstIUUfishing (Chanrachkij et al., n.d).RegionalFisheriesManagementOrganizations(RFMO)wasmentionedforthefirst timeintheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea1982about thecollaborationbetween2coastalstatesinmanagingmarineresources.Thailandis amember ofTheAsia-Pacific FisheryCommission17 (APFIC), theRFMO thatmonitorsfishingareaswherethelargestshareofworldmarineproductscomesfrom.APFICas a regional organization plays role tos t rengthen fisher ies management andconservation in the region by providingtechnicalsupportanddevelopmentguidelines.Itactsasanadvisorybody forRPOA-IUU,whichwasendorsedintheMeetingofMinistersresponsible forfisheries from11participating

countries,includingThailand(DoF,n.d.).RPOA-IUUcoverstheareaofSoutheastAsianregionincludingtheSouthChinaSea,Sulu-SulawesiSeas(CelebesSea)andtheArafura-TimorSeas(APFIC,2007).

AccordingtoAPFICStrategicPlan2012-2018(2012),theoverallobjectiveofAPFICistopromoteregionalarrangementsandregionalprocesses inorder to improve responsiblefisheriesandaquacultureintheregion.Itworksthroughtheregionalconsultativeforumwheremember countries, regional fisheries andaquacultureorganizationsgather to identifyemergingissuesinfisheriessector.Duringtheperiod2005-2012APFIChasaddressedkeyissuesforevery2yearswhichcovers:

1) Co-managementinfisheries;Lowvalue/trashfish(2005-2006)

2) Certificationinaquaculture&fisheries;CapacitymanagementandreductionofIUUfishing(2007-2008)

3) Livelihoods&ecosystemapproach(2009-2010)

4) Use of assessments for improvedmanagement & address ing theimplicationsofclimatechange in theAPFICregion(2011-2012).

Inaddition,therearenumbersofregionaltechnicalprojectsAPFICcoordinateswithFAOwhich have resulted in capacity buildingactivit ies in the various areas; namely,strengthenmanagementof fisheries, raiseawareness on cl imate change impactsadaptationandmitigationrelated tofisheriesandaquaculture,contributetocombatingIUUfishing, promote reductionof fishingover-capacity,etc(APFIC,2012).

At a national level,APFIC assists itsmemberstodevelopNationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,DeterandEliminateIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulatedFishing(NPOA-IUU).ThisisinaccordancewithFAOguidelinethatencour-

17CurrentmembersofAPFICareAustralia,Bangladesh,Cambodia,China,France,India,Indonesia,Japan,Malaysia,Myanmar,Nepal,NewZealand,Pakistan,thePhilippines,RepublicofKorea,SriLanka,TimorLeste,Thailand,UnitedKingdom,UnitedStatesofAmerica,andVietnam(APFIC,2014).

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agesallstates toestablishNPOA-IUU.FAOsuggestedproceduresfornationstoeffectivelydevelopNPOA;forexamples,anationshouldreview theirfisheriespolicyandagreement,improvecooperationbetweenstates’agencies,evaluatemarineresourcesandIUUfishing.

Currently,Thailand’sNPOA-IUUisunderdraftingprocessandexpectedtobecompletein201418.ThisdoesnotmeanthatIUUissueshavebeenneglected;measurestocombatIUUconcernswere included incountry’sfisheriesroadmapcalled“MarineMasterPlan,”whichcoverstheperiodof10yearsfrom2009to2018.ThatIUUfishingmightthreatenexportofmarineproductstotheEUwastheunderlyingreasonthatIUUissuewasincorporatedintothePlan(CabinetResolution,2009).Thishasledtothedevelopmentofcatchcertificatescheme,andsubsequently the implementationof logbookreportandmeasures topromotevesselandfishinggearregistration(see5.3.2).Moreover,theMarineMasterPlanhasrecommendedthatoutdatedFisheriesActB.E.2490berevisedsoastobeinlinewithcurrentfishingactivities(see5.3.1)(MinistryofAgricultureandCooperatives,2010).

5.1.2 The definition of illegal, unreported and unregistered fishing activities

According to Kongrawd (2006), thedefinitionofIUUfishinghasdevelopedthroughmanydiscussionsataninternationallevel;forexample,UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly(UNGA),FoodandAgricultureOrganizationCommitteeonFisheries(FAO-COFI),andUNCommissiononSustainableDevelopment.Thedefinitionof IUUfishingadoptedby theInternationalPlanofActiontoPrevent,DeterandEliminate IUUFishing(IPOA-IUU) isasfollows(FAO,2001):

Illegal Fishing refers to activities:

-conductedbynationalorforeignvesselsinwatersunder the jurisdictionofaState,without thepermissionof thatState,or in

contraventionofitslawsandregulations;

-conductedbyvesselsflying theflagofStates thatareparties toarelevant regionalfisheriesmanagementorganizationbutoperatein contravention of the conservation andmanagementmeasures adopted by thatorganizationandbywhichtheStatesarebound,or relevant provisions of the applicableinternationallaw;or

- in v io la t ion o f na t iona l laws orinternational obligations, including thoseundertakenbycooperatingStatestoarelevantregionalfisheriesmanagementorganization.

Unreported fishing refers to fishingactivities:

-whichhavenotbeenreported,orhavebeenmisreported, to the relevantnationalauthority,incontraventionofnationallawsandregulations;or

-undertakenintheareaofcompetenceofa relevant regional fisheriesmanagementorganizationwhichhavenotbeenreportedorhavebeenmisreported,incontraventionofthereportingproceduresofthatorganization.

Unregulatedfishingreferstofishingactivi-ties:

- in theareaofapplicationofa relevantregionalfisheriesmanagementorganizationthatareconductedbyvesselswithoutnationality,orbythoseflyingtheflagofaStatenotpartytothatorganization,orbyafishingentity, inamanner that is not consistent wi th orcontravenestheconservationandmanagementmeasuresofthatorganization;or

- inareasor forfishstocks inrelation towhichtherearenoapplicableconservationormanagementmeasuresandwheresuchfishingactivitiesareconductedinamannerinconsistentwithStateresponsibilitiesfortheconservationoflivingmarineresourcesunderinternationallaw.

18FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(4December2013).

57

Overall, IUUfishingrefers to theactsoffishing that obstruct , v io late, or harmconservationmanagementmeasures.Thisincludedanactofnoncomplianceandfalseorfalsifiedreport. IUUfishingcanbeconductednotonlybylargecommercialvesselsbutalsosmallcoastalvesselsand inanywatersbothhighseasandstates’water.Therefore, inanattempttocombatIUUactivities,actionplanandmeasures need to beadjusted to variouscircumstances at different levels; namelyinternationallevel,regionallevel,andnationallevel(Chanrachkijetal.,n.d.).

5.1.3 The European Union regulation to combat IUU fishing

TheECIUURegulationistheoutcomeoftheEuropeanCommissionefforts tocombatIUUfishing.TheEuropeanCommissionhasapplied theCouncil Regulation (EC)No.1005/2008onSeptember29,2008inordertoestablishanEUsystemtoprevent,deterandeliminateIUUfishing.ThisregulationisdirectlydrivenbytheFAOIPOA-IUUadoptedin2001and likewisecontains theobjective tofightagainst IUUfishing to ensure sustainableharvesting ofmarine resources.The IUURegulation applies to catchesmade fromJanuary1,2010.

AccordingtotheHandbookonthepracticalapplicationofCouncilRegulation (EC)No.1005/2008(2009),theIUURegulationaimstoprevent, deter and eliminate IUU fishingactivitiesinanymaritimewatersrelatingtotheEuropeanCommunity through tradeflows,ortheflagoffishingvessels,orthenationalityofoperators.After theEU’s IUU regulationwasadopted (hereinafter referred as IUURegulation),informationofthisnewinstrumentandadvisesof future implementationweregiven toall thirdcountries throughvariousseminarsandmeetings.The regulation istransparentandnon-discriminatorybetweenEuropean community and third-countryfisheries.Theinstrumentisappliedtoallfishingvessels,underanyflag, inallmarinewaters,that products are t raded wi th the EUcommunityorcommunity’svesselsinvolvedin

IUUfishing.

The IUU Regulat ion is a voluntaryinstrumentprovidinggeneral requirements inwhichcountriescanadapttosuittheirparticularchallenges. It reliesontheresponsibilityandcommitmentofthirdcountries.AcatchcertificateschemewasadoptedtoensurefulltraceabilityofallaquaticfisheryproductstradedwiththeEUcommunity.Thisisacorepartviewedasatooltoassistinthecontrolandcomplianceoftheregulation.ToaffirmthatnoneofproductsintheEUCommunitymarket issourcedfromIUUfishing,catchcertificate is required formarineproductsexportedtotheCommunity.Ontheotherhand, thecatchcertificateschememayalsoapplytoproductsexportedfromtheEU, ifcertificate isrequiredbythecountryofdestination.

5.2 Standards on trash fishing at an international level

Thereare6mostpopular internationalstandardsintheareaofmarinefeedingredientsincluding theMarineStewardshipCouncil(MSC), theAquacultureStewardshipCouncil(ASC),theIFFOGlobalStandardResponsibleSupplyofFishmealandFishOil(IFFORS),theGlobalAquacultureAllianceBestAquaculturePractice(BAP),theGlobalG.A.P.standard,andtheFriendoftheSea(FOS)(IFFO,2012).Allofthesesixstandardsareappliedonavoluntarybasis,but thecertificationprocess isaudited,i.e.notself-reportbyproducers.

5.2.1 Marine Stewardship Council

TheMSC is themostwidely recognizedand theworld’s largest standard to certifysustainabilityinwild-caughtfisheries(Seafish1,2012).Onavoluntarybasis,theMSCusesitcertificationprocessandblueeco-label toinfluenceconsumers’choices.Thecertifiedlabelwillassurethatfishproductscomefromsustainableandwell-managedsources(MSC,2010).

58

TheMSCenvironmental standard forsustainablefishingandMSCchainofcustodystandardforseafoodtraceabilityareatthecoreoftheprogram.Thesustainablefishingstandardisonlyappliedforwild-capturedfisheriesnottofarmedfish.Fisherywillbeassessedagainstthreeprinciples including sustainable fishstocks,minimizingenvironmental impact,andeffectivemanagement.Onceafisheryhasbeencertified,companieswhowishtosellproductfromcertifiedfisheriesmusthaveMSCChainofCustodycertificationandapplyforeco-labelbefore using. To get Chain of Custodycertification,businessesmustbeexaminedthattheyhaveeffective traceability,storageandrecord-keepingsystems.Thishelpstopreventillegally-caughtfishfromenteringtheseafoodsupplychainandensure thatfishsoldwiththeMSCeco-label comes froma certifiedsustainablefishery(MSC1,2014).Currently,there isneithercertifiedfisherynorfishery inassessmentunderMSCsystem inThailand(MSC2andMSC3,2014).

5.2.2 Aquaculture Stewardship Council

TheAquacultureStewardshipCouncil(ASC)was found in2010byWorldWildlifeFund (WWF) incooperationwith theDutchSustainableTrade Initiative(IDH).Themainobjectiveistoenhanceresponsibleaquaculturethroughaglobalsetofstandardsandtopromote“thebestenvironmentalandsocialpracticesinfarmedseafood”.Thestandardcoversfishfarmandcrustacean,forwhicheachdifferentspecieshasitsownstandard(IFFO,2012).SimilartoMSC,ASC develop its label to influenceconsumers’choicesandassuretheyarebuyingresponsibly farmed fish, crustaceans andshellfish.Onceafisheryhasbeencertified,ASCchainofcustodyhelpsensure thatproductsdelivered in thesupplychainoriginate fromASC-certified farms.So far, there isneithercertified farmnor farm inassessmentunderASCinThailand;therefore,thereisnocertifiedsupplierinthechainofcustodystandard(ASC1andASC2,2014).

ASCiscurrentlydevelopingafeedstandardto promote ‘Environmentally Sound andSociallyResponsible Feed in theGlobalAquacultureIndustry’(ASC3,2014).Thishasbeguninthesecondquarterof2013andtheapprovalisprojectedbytheendof2015.TheoutputwillbeasingleASCFeedStandardthat is applicable globally to all types ofaquaculturefeedproductionfacilitiesandusablebyall certificationprograms.The followingoutcomesareexpected(ASC4,2014):

1) Amoreenvironmentally soundandsociallyresponsiblyproducedfeedforaquaculture

2) Strongermarket-based incentives formore environmentally sound andsociallyresponsiblefeedproduction

3) An improved sourcing of the feedcomponents,using ingredients fromcrediblecertifiedsources.

5.2.3 The certification standard for the Responsible Supply of Fishmeal and Fish Oil

The cer t ificat ion s tandard for theResponsibleSupplyofFishmealandFishOil(IFFORS) isdesigned tocertify responsiblepracticeinrawmaterialsourcing,andfishmealandfishoilmanufacturingbothfordirecthumanconsumptionandforanimalfeedusage(IFFO,2012).Thestandardcontainsthreeessentialcomponents o f responsib le sourc ing,responsiblemanufacturing,and responsibletraceability,whicharekeyeligibilitycriteriatobecomecertified(IFFO1,2014).

Tobe certified, a fishmeal and fishoilfactorymustbeable todemonstrate that itresponsiblysourcesitsrawmaterialsshowingwhereall its rawmaterialscome from.Fishproductsmustbesourcedfromwellmanagedfisheries19.Thefactory thenmustbeable toprovethat ithasfullandeffectivetraceabilitysystem.For responsiblemanufacturing, thefactorymustimplementsystemsdemonstrating

19SustainablefisheriesarefisheriesmanagedaccordingtotheFAOCodeofConductforResponsibleFisheries.OnewaytodemonstratethisistouseafisherythathasbeencertifiedbytheMSC.

59

20Shrimpproductscanbearamarkwithupto4stars(forfeedmills,hatcheries,farms,andprocessingplants),whilemarksonpackagingforotherspeciesincludingsalmon,mussels,otherfinfishandcrustaceanhaveupto3stars(sinceBAPstandardsforhatcheryfacilitieshavenotyetbeendeveloped)(GAA3,2014).

goodmanufacturingpractices,suchasFEMASandGMP+(IFFO,2012).

The“IFFOAssured”certificationmarkhasbeendevelopedtorepresentcompliancetotheIFFOStandard.Atpresent, IFFOmembersincludeproducers, traders, feedcompanies,edibleoilrefiners,retailers,financialinstitutions,governmenta l and non-governmenta lorganizations inmore than30countries. Itsmembers account for over 50%ofworldproductionand75%of thefishmealandfishoiltradedworldwide(IFFO2,2014).Therearecurrently103factories in9differentcountriesthathavebeensuccessfullycertifiedtotheRSstandard includingPeruvianAnchovyandAlaskanPollock,twoofthelargestsustainablymanagedfisheries(IFFO3,2014).Currently,there isneitherapproved IFFORS factory(IFFO4,2014)noracertifiedchainofcustodyunit inThailand (IFFO5, 2014).However,CharoenPokphandFoodsandT.C.UnionAgrotecharemembersofIFFO(IFFO6,2014).

5.2.4 Best Aquaculture Practices

BestAquaculturePractices (BAP) isanauditedcertificationstandard forhatcheries,farms, processing facilitiesand feedmillsdevelopedbytheGlobalAquacultureAlliance(GAA) to promote the use of responsibleaquaculturepractices.TheBAPstandardsaddressenvironmentalandsocialresponsibility,animalwelfare,foodsafetyandtraceabilityinavoluntarycertificationprogramforaquaculturefacilities.TheBAPprogramoutlinesstandardsforeachtypeoffacilityasfollows(GAA1,2014):

1) BAPSeafoodProcessing/RepackingPlantStandard

2) BAPSeafoodProcessingPlantStandard 3) BAPFinfish andCrustaceanFarm

Standard 4) BAPSalmonFarmStandard 5) BAPMusselFarmStandard 6) BAPShrimpHatcheryStandar

7) BAPfeedmillStandard

BAPstandardsarealsoillustratedonretailpackaging ranging from2-star to4-star20.Four-starstatusreflects“toplevel”intheBAPprogram,signifyingthatthemarineproduct isproducedfromBAP-certifiedatallfourfacilities;that is fromBAP-certifiedhatcheries throughBAP-certified farms, processed at aBAPcertifiedprocessingplants,andaquaculturefeedusedisproducedfromaBAP-certifiedfeedmills(GAA,2011).

Accordingto theBAPfeedmillStandard(GAA,2010), certified feedmillmust fulfillrequirements regardingfishmealandfishoilconservationinordertobecertified.Itrequiresafeedmilltoindicatefeedfishingredientsonproductslabels,packaging,shippingdocumentsorinvoicesforallfeedsproducedundertheBAPprogram.The feedmillmust also obtaindeclarationsofspeciesandfisheryoriginsfromsuppliers,keepfulltraceabilityrecordoffeed,andmust implementeffectiveprocedures toseparatefeedproducedunderBAPfromother,non-BAPfeed.

Forfuturestandard,itrequiresthat:

1) (Futurecriticalstandard.)AfterJune1,2015,atleast50%ofthefishmealandfishoilderivedfromreductionfisheriesshallcomefromapprovedcertifiedsources.

2) (Futurecriticalstandard.)AfterJune1,2015,at least50%of thefishmealorfishoilderived from fishery by-products such astrimmingsandoffalshallcomefromapprovedcertifiedsources.

Currently inThailand, thereare29BAP-certifiedprocessingplants,34certifiedfarms,8BAP-certifiedhatcheries,and6BAP-certifiedfeedmills (BAP4,2014).CharoenPokphandFoods(CPF)andThaiUnionFrozenProducts(TUF) are the only two companies that

60

announced theyhaveachievedBAP4-starstatus (BAP1, 2014). There are 7 ThaicompaniescertifiedBAP3-star(BAP2,2014),and6companiescertifiedBAP2-star(BAP3,2014).

5.2.5 Global Good Agricultural Practice (Global G.A.P)

GlobalG.A.Pstandardsare intended toassureconsumers that food is sustainablyproduced by minimizing environmentalimpacts,reducingchemicalsuse,andensuringaresponsiblepracticetoanimalwelfareandtoworkerhealthandsafety.Thestandardscertify“GoodAgriculturalPractice”inagriculturalandaquacultureproducts.TherearecurrentlysixdifferentstandardswithinGlobalG.A.Pwhichare(seafish2,2012):

1) IntegratedFarmAssurance (IFA) -includingamoduleforaquaculture

2) CompoundFeedManufacturing(CFM)-coveringfeedsforbothlivestockandaquaculture

3) LivestockTransport(LT) 4) PlantPropogationMaterial(PPM) 5) RiskAssessment inSocialPractice

(GRASP) 6) ChainofCustody

AccordingtotheListofCertifiedCompoundFeedManufacturing Companies as of 8February,2013 (GlobalGAP1,2013), threeanimal feedcompanies inThailand,namelyThaiunionFeedmill,CharoenPokphandFood,andKrungthaiFeedmill,havecertifiedCFMstandard.However, as of February 2014,onlyCharoenPokphandFood is certified(GlobalGAP, 2014) under this standard;ThaiunionFeedmillandKrungthaiFeedmillcertificateshaveexpiredsinceJune2013andAugust2013respectively(GlobalGAP1,2013).

5.2.6 Friend of the Sea

FriendoftheSeawasfoundedtopromotethe conservation of themarine habitat.Theorganization’smostwell-knownproject istheDolphin-safeProjectwhichhasbeenabletosavemillionsofdolphinsfromdyingintunanets.Thisprogram is consideredbysomeobserverstobethestartingpointofsustainableseafoodmovement.FriendoftheSealabelwascreated to assure that the productswereproducedandsourcedsustainably; therefore,consumerscanmaketheirchoices.Certifiedproductscompriseproductsoriginating fromfisheriesandaquaculture,covering foodfishandwidelytradedspecies,fishmeal,fishfeed,andOmega-3fishoil.However, requirementregardingfishmealusedinaquaculturehasnotbeenaddressed(FriendoftheSea1,2014).ThefirstandonlyThaiseafoodproductapprovedforFriendoftheSealabeliswild-caughtMeretrix,underPanapescabrandbyThaiSpringFish(FriendoftheSea2,2014).

5.2.7 ASC, GAA, and Global G.A.P. agreement on responsible sourcing of fishmeal and fish oil

AquacultureStewardshipCouncil (ASC),GlobalAquacultureAll iance (GAA) andGLOBALG.A.P.haveannouncedandsigneda jointMemorandumofUnderstandingoncommonrequirementsforsourcingoffishmealand fish oil (FMFO).Thiswill harmonizerequirementsbetweencertificationschemesandcanbeconsideredasthefirststeptowardstheirmutual goal to improve aquaculturepract ice. The three par t ies ident ifiedcrosscuttingelementscoveredinallthreestand-ards. This helps feed companies whenconsider togetengaged inoneormoreofthese standards. Sourcing requirementsof FMFO under the three standards aresummarized in the following picture.Theidentifiedcommoncriteriaare (GlobalGAP,2013;SeafoodSource,2013):

21Thai Spring Fish is a subsidiary company of the PanaPescaGroup (http://www.friendofthesea.org/public/catalogo/Check-list%20FoS%20Wild%20Catch%20Fisheries%20-%20Thai%20Spring%20Fish%202010%2006%2029.docx)

61

Figure 33: Requirement for Sourcing of fishmeal and fish oil of BAP, ASC, G.A.P.

l50%MSCorIFFORScertifiedby2015forbothfisheriesandindustrialby-products;

lUsematerialfromFisheriesImprovementsProjects

whenavailable.

l100%MSC(orISEAL)certified by2017;lIFFORSfishmealupto2017 (Pangasiusonly_;

lFishsourcescore≥6withno individual<6.0orN/Ainstock

assessmentcategorylNoCITES

lTraceabilitytospecesandcountryoforigin;

lNoendangeredspecies(IUCNredlist)usedforfishmeal/-oil;

lPreferenceforfeedmanufacturerswithevidenceofresponsible

sourching;lAvoicanceofIUU

lReport%FAOCCRFcompliant(e.g.MSCorIFFORScertified)forfisheriesorigin;

l3rdpartyaccreditedcertifiedoriginforindustrialby-products.

lClearwrittenplanfor responsiblesourcing;lFreeofundesirablesubstances(foodsafetyrelated).

Requirements for sourcing of fishmeal and fish oil (from whole fish and fishery by-products)

NOTE: AN ASC requirements included at form level standards, most BAP and GLOBALG.A.P. requirements included as feed mill standards.

BAP ASC

GLOBALG.A.P.

Source: http://www.thefishsite.com/uploads/files/news/gaa%20-%20Copy.gif

1) Traceability to thespeciesand to thecountryoforigin.

2) Nouseof rawmaterialsourced fromendangered species based on theInternationalUnionforConservationofNature’s (IUCN) red list forfishmealandfishoil.

3) Avoidanceoffishsourcedfromillegal,unreportedandunregulated fishing(IUU).

4) Preferenceforfeedmanufacturerswithevidenceofresponsiblesourcing.

62

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64

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66

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67

5.3 National regulations and standards

5.3.1 Thai fisheries law

TheFisheriesAct,B.E.2490(1947)istheprincipal legislationon fishery industry inThailand.TheActhasbeenamendedtwicein1953and1985.Itnotonlyestablishedbaselineregulation for the registrationand licensingof fishing equipment, but also empowerscompetentauthoritytoregulatetypesoffishingtechniques.Inaddition,theActrequirespermitforthoseengaginginfishingoperation.TheActcomprisessixchapters,coveringtheareasoffisheriesmanagement and conservation,aquaculture, registrationandapplication forpermission,collectionandfixationoffisheriestax,fisheriesstatistics,andpenalties.

1) Management measures under the Fisheries Act

In order to handle depleted fisheriesresources,managementmeasureshavebeendesignedandimplementedunderThaiFisheriesAct.According to thenationalfisherysectoroverviewconductedbyFAO(2009),keyfisherymanagementmeasuresareasfollows:

lAreaandseasonalclosures

Initially,areaandseasonalclosuresareimposedtorecoverimportanteconomicmarinespecies; suchas the Indo-Pacificanchovy.Various regulationshavebeen implementedsince1984;forexample,from1Februaryto31Marchandfrom1Aprilto15May,trawlersandpurse seiners using gearwithmesh sizesmallerthan4.7cmhavebeenprohibitedfromfishingintheuppersouthernareaoftheGulfofThailand.

lGearRestrictions

Topreservecoastalresources,trawlersandpushnetareprohibitedwithin3,000m. fromshoresincethesegearsareverydestructive

especiallyoperated inshore.This isbecausetheycatchtrashfish,a largeportionofwhicharejuvenilesofeconomicallyvaluablespecies.Inadditions, repeateddraggingof trawlersmaydamagebenthichabitatsanddemersalresources.

lLimitedEntry

Inanattempttocontrolnumbersof trawlandpushnets,in1980DepartmentofFisheriesannouncedaprotocolrequiringtrawlandpushnet tobe registeredand form thennomorelicensedwouldbeissued.Therefore,onlythosetrawlersandpushnetterswith licensescouldannuallyextend their fishing licenses.Thelicensesaretransferableonlytofishermen’sheirandarenotapplicable if gearshavebeenchanged.

2) Shortcomings of Thai fishery law

Thaifisheryisfacingasevereoverfishingcrisis.Aquaticanimalshavebeenharvestedatafasterratethantheirreplenishment,resultinginacontinuouslydecline incapturefisheries(Apaipakdee,n.d.). Competition formarineresourceshasbeenmoreseveresincecoastalneighboringcountriesproclaimedExclusiveEconomicZone (EEZ)22,which resulted inThailand’s lossof300,000sq.mileaccesstofishingarea(Apaipakdee,n.d.;Panjarat,2008).Moreover,Thailandhaslostitsdirectaccesstohighseas from theGulfofThailand; somemediumand largeThai vessels,withoutal icense, i l legal ly passing neighbor ingcountries’ EEZwere frequently arrested(Apaipakdee,n.d.;Panjarat,2008;FAO,2009).Not only competition among commercialfishermenbecamemore severe, but alsoconflicts between commercial and localfishermenarose(Apaipakdee,n.d.).

Intensecompetition isexacerbatedbyineffectiveand improper fisheries lawandregulations.TheFisheriesActwasdrawnupbefore thedevelopmentofmarinefisheries.

22MyanmarandVietnamin1977,CambodiaandthePhilippinesin1978,IndonesiaandMalaysiain1980

68

Therehavebeensignificantchangesinfishingactivitiesduringthepast66years,suchasanincreaseinthenumberofvesselsandfishinggearscapacity.Therefore, theFisheriesActB.E.2490 isconsidered inappropriate in thefollowingaspects:

lOutdated regulationsandproblemsofenforcement

Itisnecessarytomakechangeinregulationsinresponsetothosechangesinfishingactivitiessothat thegovernmentauthoritiesarearmedwithproperinstrumentsforeffectivelyhandlingandregulatingfisheries(KarnjanakesornandYen-Eng,n.d.).AccordingtoPanjarat(2008),theFisheriesActdoesnoteffectivelyrespondtopresentsituationofmarinecaptureregardingthedevelopmentoffishinggearsandmethods.An increasingcatchcapacityofvesselsandgears,adeclininginfishstock,andaninefficientcontrol over destructive fishinggearsandequipment, especiallymeshsizeof trawls(Apaipakdee,n.d.),have led toacaptureofincreasingproportionof trashfish includingjuvenileeconomicvaluablespecies.AsofMarch2014,DepartmentofFisheriesisconductingaresearchon impact fromincreasingminimumtrawlmesh size from 2.5 cm. to 4 cm.23 Moreover,because legal fishingground ineachprovince isnotclearlydemarcatedandwell-known,fishermenare likely tomisuselicenseddestructivegears(Madadam,2012).Themost recognized consequence is thedamagestrawlersmadeonseafloorsandlocalfisheriesinthecoastalarea24.

Theoutcomeofsuchoutdatedregulationsis thatdamagingfishingpracticessuchasbottom-trawlingfortrashfishisnotyetillegalinThailand. Inaddition,penalties includingfineandimprisonmentarenotsufficientlystringent(Apaipakdee,n.d.;Madadam,2012).Perhapsmostimportantly,everyviolationoffisherieslawisonlyconsideredaviolationifthewrongdoer

iscaughtintheact.25Forthesereasons,therehavealwaysbeeninstancesoflegalviolationsandillegalfishing.

lBarrierstoparticipation

The present FisheriesAct empowersMinisterofAgricultureandCooperativeandProvincialGovernor to regulateandenforcefisheryrelatedactivities(KarnjanakesornandYen-Eng,n.d.;ArtisanalFishermenAssociationofThailand,2011). It doesnotallow localfishermenaskeystakeholderstoparticipateinthe fisheries resourcesmanagement andestablishmentoffisherieslaw(Panjarat,2008).Thishasledtoalimitedacceptancebyfishermen,contributing toviolationof regulationsandconflictsamongstakeholders.Decentralizationbyempoweringlocalorganizationsinfisheriesadministration,managementanddevelopmentwillhelpimprovemarineresourcemanagementbymonitoringandcontrollingof illegalacts(AssociationofThaiFisherfolkFederations,2011).

3) Draft of the New Fisheries Act

Havingbeenthemainregulatoryapparatusfordecades,theexistingFisheriesActiscon-sideredoutdatedandinadequateforsomeofthereasonsoutlinedabove(Madadam,2012)andisagreedamongstakeholdersthatitshouldberevised(IOM,2011).Therehavebeenmanyefforts to draft and adopt new fisherieslegislation.The latestattemptasofFebruary2014hasresultedinadraftofthenewfisheriesact whichmodifies inappropriate and/oroutdatedcontentassummarizedinFigure35.

Of all the proposed changes, clearerdemarcationoflegalfishinggrounds,aswellasdefinedauthoritytomandatetype,number,size,andcomponentsofallowedfishinggearandfishingmethodsineacharea,shouldfinallyhelpmakedamagingpracticessuchastrashfishingbybottom-trawlingillegalinThailand.

23“ProblemsandFutureManagementofLocalFishingCommunities”ConferenceatDepartmentofFisheries,21February2014.24NotificationofMinistryofAgricultureandCooperatives,Subject:Prohibitedareaofmotorizedfishingvesselsusingtrawlnets

andpushnetsusage(1964).25Morespecifically,Clause57intheFisheriesActstipulatesthattheauthoritiesmustfindallthreeofthefollowingcomponents

atonceatthetimeofarrest:fishingboat,fishinggear,andcatch.Inotherwords,violatorsmustbecaughtintheact.

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Figure 35: Key features of Fisheries Act 1947, compared to draft of the new fisheries act

The Fisheries Act, B.E.2490 (1947) Draft of the new fisheries act

1. Fishing Ground and Fishing Methods

Fishingareaisnotclearlyidentified,leadingtotheconflictbetweencommercialfisheriesandcoastal(artisanal)fisheries.

l Fishinggroundisdividedinto3areas:coastalfisheriesarea,offshorefisheriesarea,andinlandfisheriesarea.

lMinisterorprovincialgovernorhastheauthoritytomandatetype,number,size,andcomponentsofallowedfishinggear,fishingmethods,andno-fishingseasonsineacharea.

2. Promoting and Controlling of Aquaculture

Therehavebeenproblemsrelatingtoaqua-culture;highchemicalusageandmangroveforestintrusion.However,promotingandcontrollingofaquaculturehasnotbeenstatedontheAct.

Principlesrelatingtoaquaculturepromotionandcontrolareestablished.

3. Hygienic Control

Contaminatedexportaquacultureanditsrelatedproductshavebeendetected,resultingfromanabsenceofclearstandard.

Imposecatchandpost-catchstandardsforaquaculture.

4. Public Participation

Lackofcooperationamongstakeholdersinfisheriesmanagement.

DepartmentofFisheriesshallplayaleadingroleinpromotingcooperationamongstakeholdersaswellassupportingcommunity-basedfisheriesmanagement.

5. National Fisheries Policy Commission

-notmention- NationalFisheriesPolicyCommission,whichcomprisesMinisterofAgricultureandCooperation,asachairman,andcommitteesfromrelatedpartiesfrombothprivateandpublicsectors,worksaspolicymakermanagingandcontrollingfisheries.

6. Penalties

FineandimprisonmentareimposedtothoseviolatingtheAct.-Finefrom50Bahtto20,000Baht.-Imprisonmentfrom1monthto6years.

Increasetheseverityofpenaltiesto -Finefrom5,000Bahtto600,000Baht.-Imprisonmentfrom1monthto6years.

Source: Department of Fisheries, cited in Madadam (2012)

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Prior to parliament dissolution on 9December,2013,draftofthenewfisheriesacthaspassed tworeadingsat thecommissionlevel; it is onlypending the thirdandfinalreading,whichisthevoteinthesenate.Sincetheparliamenthasbeendissolved,CouncilofStatewillcompilependingdraft lawsandwillproposetothenewgovernmentandparliament,wheneverThailandhasanewparliament, toconsider.AsofMarch2014,theDepartmentofFisherieshasnotifiedtheCouncilofStateofitsintentiontosubmitthisdraftlawtothesenate.26

5.3.2 Control of IUU fishing

ThailandhasdevelopedNationalPlanofAction toPrevent,DeterandEliminate IUUFishing(NPOA-IUU)inaccordancewithIPOA-IUU to preserve marine resources andsubsequentlyachievesustainablefisheries.However,Thailand’sNPOAisstill indraftingprocessandexpectedtobecompletein201427.Atpresent,therearethreestateunitinvolvinginfisherymanagementinThailand;namely,1)DepartmentofFisheries,MinistryofAgricultureandCooperation,2)DepartmentofMarineandCoastal Resources,Ministry of NaturalResourcesandEnvironment,and3)MarineDepartment, Ministry of Transport andCommunication.Theseunitscollaborativelymonitorandcontrol illegal,unreportedandunregulatedfishinginthecountry(Jantrarotai,2013).

1) Control of illegal fishing

CurrentlytheThaiauthoritiescombatillegalfishingviathreemethods:enforcementoflawsandregulations,vesselregistration,andfishingpermitandlicensing.

l Fishing under Thai laws and regulations

Allvesselsfishingandcultivatingmarineanimals inThaiwatersmustcomplywith thelaw,rules,regulations,andconditionsapprovedand imposed by the state. The principallegislativemechanismforfisheriesactivitiesistheFisheriesAct,B.E.2490(1947).TheActisgovernedby theMinistryofAgricultureandCooperationandexecutedbyDepartmentofFisheries,which is themain governmentagency responsible formanaging fishery.AccordingtoJithlang(n.d.),otherfisherieslawandregulationrelatedtocombatingagainstIUUfishing includeNavigation inThaiWatersAct,B.E.2456 (1913), andThai VesselsAct,B.E.2481 (1938).Other regulations includeNotification ofMinistry ofAgriculture andCooperatives,NotificationofDepartmentofFisheries,andRFMO28regulation.

l Vessel registration and vessel license

VesselregistrationandvessellicensingareissuedbyMarineDepartment.AccordingtoThaiVesselLaw29,allmotorizedvesselsandabove6GTnon-motorizedvessels requirevesselregistration(DepartmentofFisheries,2009).Vessel registration certificate is a lifetimecertificateindicatingregistrationnumber,stateflag,vesselownership,andthevessel’sphysicalcharacteristics.Vessellicenseidentifiesvesseltypeandusage,nameofcertifiedvesselcrew,aswellas the locationsofpermittedsailingwater.Thelicensemustberenewedannually.

Department of Fisheries of ThailandcollaboratewithMarineDepartmenttoestablishpersuasivemeasures toencouragevesselregistration,namelyregistrationfeereductionforsmallvessels(lessthan14metersorlessthan20GT),whichmostlyare localartisanalvessels. Inaddition, registeredvesselsareentitledfornaturaldisastercompensation30.

26Fromaconference“ProblemsandFutureManagementofLocalFishingCommunities”atDepartmentofFisheries(21Febru-ary2014)

27FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(4December2013).28RegionalFisheriesManagementOrganizationsareinternationalorganizationsworkingtowardssustainablefisheriesmanage-

mentinaparticularregion(EuropeanCommission,2013).29ThaiVesselsAct,B.E.2481(1938)section830FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(4Dec2013).

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Figure 36: Vessels registration process

Vessel ownerreceives Certificate of Vessel

Registration

Vessel ownerFile an application with document

support

Vessel ownerFill application form (Kor 5, Bor57)

Marine Department/ Vessel Standard Bureau

Vessel inspection

Vessel Standard Registration

Certificate of Vessel Registration/ Vessel license

Source: Department of Fisheries (2009) and Jithlang (n.d.)

TheDepartmentofFisherieshassetavessel registrationtarget toregister40,000fishingvesselswithinfouryears(2010-2013).Thistargetaccountsaround70%oftotalfishingvesselsinThaiwater31;however,thenumberofregisteredvesselshasnotreachedthetargetasshowninFigure37.

Figure 37: Number of registered Thai fishing vessels, 2010-2013

Fiscal yearNumber of registered vessels

Goal Result %

2010 7,000 4,356 62.23

2011 11,000 7,350 66.82

2012 11,000 6,631 60.28

2013 11,000 1,521 13.83

Total 40,000 19,858 49.65

Source: Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau, Department of Fisheries

31AsurveybyMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureauin2011indicatedatotalof57,141fishingvesselsoperatinginThaiwaterboththeGulfofThailandandAndamanSea.

Despitefailingtomeetthegoal,DepartmentofFisherieshasdecided tocontinuesettingannualtargetof11,000vesselsfor2014.It isworthnotingthat theproblemof inconsistentdatahasarisenfromthe lackofcooperation

between government agencies, namelyDepar tment o f F isher ies and Mar ineDepartment. ThenumberoffishingvesselsoperatinginThaiwaterindividuallycollectedbyeachunitisunmatchedwhichledconfusionto

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theEUinspectingofficials.Forthisreason,MOUon informationsharing,particularlyonvesselregistration,wassignedbybothunitsin201332.

l Fishing permit and fishing license

To legallyengage in fishingoperation,fishingpermitandfishinglicensearerequired.These are issued by a competent officialDepartmentofFisheries.According to theFisheriesAct1947, ‘permit’ refers to licenseissued toaperson to fishand to cultivateaquaticanimalsinthereservedfisheriesand‘license’referstolicenseissuedtoalicenseetousefishingimplement.Apersonispermittedto

usefishing licenseonlywhen the license inhisnamehasbeenissuedandthefisherytaxhasbeenpaid.Eachfisherman isallowedtouseaspecific typeoffishinggear,outof12categories,thatisindicatedinafishinglicense.FishinginformationandthevalidityofalicensecommenceannuallyfromApril1toMarch31ofthefollowingyear(FisheriesAct,1947).

Thereare3typesoffishinggearsthatarerestricted;theirrenewalwillonlybeissuedtothose fishermen entitled in the previousharvestingseason.These includetrawlnets,pushnets,andanchovy liftnetswhicharerecognizedashighlydestructivegears.

32 FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(4Dec2013).33 Reservedfisheriesarefisheries inwhichapersonhasbeenpermitted tofishor tocultivateaquaticanimals,and include

trappingpond(theFisheriesAct1947).34 FishingImplementincludesmachinery,instrument,accessories,componentparts,arms,stakes,orvesselsusedinfishing(the

FisheriesAct1947).

Figure 38: Process of acquiring fishing license and fishing permit in Thai waters

Vessel ownerExisting fishing license (if any) - Thai nationality, ID card - Thai Domicile - Power of Attorney - Copy of vessel registration certificate - Copy of vessel license

- Names of crews who are allowed to use the fishing gear

Fisheries District Office

Document check

Submit to the District Chief

Record and collect fee

Fishing License (Aor 1) and Fishing Permit (Aor 6)

Source: Jithlang (n.d.)

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Apart from complyingwith laws andregulations,fishingactivitiesarenotlegalunderThailawunlessbothfishingvesselandfishinggearare legalized,byregisteringvesselandacquiringfishinglicense(Aor1)asmentionedabove.Forlessthan14-meterfishingvessels,mostlylocalartisanalvessels,vesselregistrationandfishinglicensearenotnecessaryincasefishingpermit(Aor6)hasalreadybeenacquired.

2) Control of unreported fishing

Inanattempttocontrolunreportedfishing,Thaiauthorityhasadoptedafishing logbookschemeaspartoffisheriesregulations. It isusedtofacilitateandencouragereportoffishingconduct;inotherwords,toeliminateunreportedfishing.Afishing logbook isused to recordinformation relating tovesselsandcatch. Itneedstobeendorsedbyavesselmasterthensubmittedtotheauthorities35ofthevessel’sflagstate.Inaddition,afishinglogbookisnecessaryforanexportersinceit isrequiredtoobtainacatchcertificateinthefirstplace.Datacollectedinafishinglogbookareasfollows(Department

ofFisheries,2009andPrompoj,2011);

a. FishingVesselRegistration(indicatingvessel’sname,registrationnumber,andsizeofvessel)

b. FishingLicenseNumber c. TypeofFishingGear d. FishingGround/Area e. FishingDuration f. PortofDeparture/Arrival(indicatingdate

fordepartureandarrival) g. Species/quantityofcatches h. CertifiedbyVesselMaster

There are 6 types of fishing logbookclassifiedbytypesoffishinggear;1)Fishinglogbook for trawlerandpushnet,2)Fishinglogbookforpurseseine,3)Fishinglogbookforgillnet,4)Fishinglogbookforliftnet,5)Fishinglogbook for trap,and6)Fishing logbook forothergears(Prompoj,2011).StatisticsoffishinglogbookMarine FisheriesResearch andDevelopmentBureauhasdistributed toandreceived fromregisteredfishingvesselsareshowninFigure40.

35 Fishing logbook shall be submitted to one of twenty-twoDepartment of FisheriesCoastal ProvincialOffices or FisheriesInspectionOfficesatports(Bangkok,Ladkrabang,Songkhla,Samutsakorn,andRanong).FisheriesAct1947).

Figure 39: Process of acquiring fishing license and fishing permit in overseas waters

Vessel ownerFill application formExisting fishing license (if any) - Thai nationality, ID card - Thai Domicile - Power of Attorney - Copy of vessel registration certificate - Copy of vessel license

- Agreement of contract for fishing in the oversea water

- Fishing License for vessels which authorized by other countries

Fisheries District Office

Document check

Submit to the District Chief

Record and collect fee

Fishing License (Aor 1) and Fishing Permit (Aor 6)

Source: Jithlang (n.d.)

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Figure 40: Number of fishing vessels receiving and returning fishing logbook from 2010-2013

Fiscal year Number of fishing vessels receiving fishing logbook

Number of fishing vessels returning fishing logbook

2010 3,589 2,082

2011 2,061 1,549

2012 1,462 1,57336

2013 291 355

Total 7,283 5,559

Source: Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau

36 Numberoffishingvesselsreturninglogbookcanexceedthoseofreceivingsincethelogbookpaperisnotanannualbasis.37Apersonviolatingfisherieslawisonlytobecaughtintheactofcommittinganoffence38Fromanin-depthinterviewwithChiefofSongkhlamarinefisheriessuppressionandpreventioncenter39ThisismainlyappliedtofoodfishwhichisanimportantproductexportedtotheEU.However,itisacrucialstartingpointthat

laterexpandedintoafishmealcertificatescheme.40SomemarineproductsareexcludedfromthescopeoftheECIUURegulation(HandbookoftheECIUURegulation,2009).

3) Control of unregulated fishing

Unregulatedfishingessentially involveswith fishing inconsistent with laws andregulationsorthatconductsinanyareawherenomeasures, laws, and regulations areapplicable.Thiscanbecontrolledbyeffectivemonitoring and surveillance system; forexample, offshore patrols and licensingschemes (Kongrawd, 2006). In doing so,Department of Fisheries established 12fisher ies suppress ion and prevent ioncenters, including7centers for freshwaterfisheriesand5centers formarinefisheries(DepartmentofFisheries,2014).Songkhlamarinefisheriessuppressionandpreventioncenter is responsible formonitoring andregulating fisheries in lower-southernGoTof136.6kilometers.Mainobstaclestocontrolof i l legal conducts comprise resourceinsufficiency, includinghumanresourceandfinancial resource,and limitationoffisherieslaw37(asstatedin5.3.1)38.

5.3.3 Compliance to the EU Require-ments: Thailand catch certificate scheme

TheECIUURegulationapplies1) toallmarinefisheryproducts,bothprocessedand

not, thatoriginates fromthirdcountryfishingvesselandexportedtotheEUCommunity;and2)toproductsoriginatingfromEUCommunityfishingvesselsexported to third countries(EuropeanCommission,2009).Thus,Thailand,asanexporter,needstocomplywiththeIUURegulation39. Suppliers need to providecertificateofmarineproduct41demonstratingthattherawmaterialissourcedincompliancewithEUregulationonIUUfishing(EuropeanParliament,2013).TheEUrequireseachflagstatetoestablishCompetentAuthoritytocontrolfisheryandaquacultureproductsand theirproductionchain.ThiswasdesignatedtotheDepartmentofFisheriesof theMinistryofAgricultureandCooperatives. Itspowersandresponsibilities includeaccess topremisesand all documentation related to fisheryproduct ion, the suspens ion of expor tcertification, the removal from the list ofestablishmentsapprovedtoexport to theEUand the possibi l i ty of seizing products(EuropeanParliament,2013).

Sincecatchcertificatescheme isakeyinstrument toexcludeIUUproducts fromthemarketsandtopromoteresponsiblefishing,anessentialpartof thisschemeistraceabilityofproductsupplychain.Accordingly,Thailand

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41 FoodandVeterinaryOfficecarriedoutanauditonfisheryproducts(includinglivebivalvemolluscs)andmonitoringofresiduesandcontaminantsinliveanimalsandanimalproducts.

CatchCertificationschemehasbeeninpracticesinceJanuary1,2010.Threeprocedureshavebeenexercised toensure full traceabilityofaquaticfisheryproductsandthreedocumentsfromeachprocedurearerequiredwhenapplyforacatchcertificate(DepartmentofFisheries,2009).Fish InspectionandQualityControlDivisionistheofficialcontrollerofthisscheme(Prompoj,2011).

Requireddocumentsundercatchcertificateschemeinclude:

a. FishingLogbooktorecord informationrelating to vesselsandcatches (asmentionedearlier).

b. MarineCatchTransshippingDocument(MCTD) indicates trans-shippinginformation,signedbyfishingvesselsandcarriervessels.

c. MarineCatchPurchasingDocument(MCPD) demonstrates purchasing

informationincludingvessels,catches,andsellers/buyersalong thesupplychain from fishing vessels to theprocessors.

AccordingtoEuropeanParliament(2013),ThaifisheryproductswereauditedbyFoodandVeterinaryOffice in2011and2012. ItwasobservedthatexistingmeasuresareinsufficientinassuringthatfishproductsexportedtotheEUare obtained,managedandprocessed inauthorizedestablishments.Toaddress thisproblem,Department of Fisheries as thecompetentauthorityhas informed theThaiFrozen FoodAssociation andThai FoodProcessors’Associationthatonlyrawmaterialsobtained fromEU-approvedsources,caughtbyEUapprovedfreezervessels thatcomplywithrelevantEUlegislation,canbeexportedtotheEU.

Thereisanumberofotherofficialstandards

Figure 41: Catch Certificate Scheme

Source: Prompoj, 2011

- Sign MCPDwhen catch sold

Logbook

Daily upload

Issue a catchcertificate

Apply fora catchcertificate

Cross-check

with database

network

(3)

(3)

(4)MCPD

EU(4)

MCPD

FishingVessel

Fish CollectorMCPD 1- Authorized officers validate

MCPD- Receive a copy of recorded fishing logbook and MCTD (if any)

(2) Sign and submit recorded logbook andMCTD (if any) when fish landed

Remarks : CC = Catch Certificate Logbook = Fishing logbook MCPD = Marine Catch Purchasing Document MCTD = Marine Catch Transship Document

(1) Providelogbook to fishermen

Fish CollectorMCPD 2

Factory A

-Database Network

Fishing Port

Fishery Provincial Officesor Fisheries Inspection Offices

Fish Inspectionand Quality

Control Division (CA Office)

- validate information in MCPD(s) and fishing record from database then issue Catch Certificate for the processors/exporters

- record catch data from receiving recorded logbookinto DOF fishing record system database

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compatiblewithEU legislation, includingNotificationof theMinistryofPublicHealthonFoodLabelling,NotificationoftheMinistryofPublicHealthonstandardforsomechemicalcontaminationsinfoods,Notificationof theMinistryofPublicHealthonveterinarydrugsresidues infoods,andNotificationoftheMinistryofIndustryonthelistofhazardoussubstances.Thesestandardsarenotimposedspecificallyonfisheryandaquacultureproductsbutratheroncommoditiesandfoodingeneral;however,theyrepresentconformityandcomplianceofThailegislationtoEUrequirements(EuropeanParliament,2013).

Thereare314fishprocessingestablishments thatcomplywith theaboveproceduresandapprovedbyDepartmentofFisheries(asofNovember13,2013).42Currently254licensedfishprocessingplants,includingfreezingvessels,areauthorizedtoexporttotheEU(August28,2013)43.Asof2013,126Thaicompanieshavebeenissuedcatchcertificate44.ThenumberofcatchcertificateissuedandquantityofmarineproductsexportedtotheEUfrom2010to2013areasfollows:

Figure 42: Amount of certified marine products exported to the EU and number of catch certificate issued from 2010-2013

Fiscalyear CertifiedmarineproductsexportedtotheEU(ton)

Numberofcatchcertificateissued

2010 23,317.35 3,254

2011 68,258.01 8,854

2012 57,245.78 8,510

2013 58,353.48 7,523

Total 207,174.61 28,141Source: Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau

5.3.4 Fishmeal certificate scheme in Thailand

In 2013, theDepartment of Fisheriesestablishedaseparatecertificateschemeforfishmealproduction.This ismainly toassurethattheprocessofobtainingrawmaterialsforfishmeal production is unharmful to theenvironment45.Theschemeinvolvesplayersatallstagesalongthefishmealsupplychainfromfishingvesselstofeedmills.Thescheme,firstimplementedon1July2013,isacollaborationof5organizations:DepartmentofFisheries,ThaiFishmealProducersAssociation,ThaiFeedMillAssociation,DepartmentofLivestock

Development, and theNational FisheriesAssociationofThailand.TheDepartmentofFisheriesplays lead role in facilitating thesystemandvalidatingalldocuments.

Similar to thecatchcertificatescheme,fishingvesselsandfishinggears thatseekfishmealcertificateneedtobelegal.Thiscanbedonebyregisteringvesselsandacquiringfishing licenseasmentionedearlier. Fishinglogbook isemployedasareportingmeasureindicatingoriginoffish,typeofgear,typeoffish,etc. Fishmeal producers need to collectdocuments demonstrating origins of rawmaterialsusedintheirfishmealproduction.

42http://www.fisheries.go.th/quality/DOF%12820list.pdf43https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/sanco/traces/output/TH/FFP_TH_en.pdf44FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(26November2013).45FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(26November2013).

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There are 5 types of documents thatfishmealproducersneed to collect.TheseincludeMarineCatchPurchasingDocument–F ishmea l (MCPD-FM) , Mar ine CatchPurchasing Document (MCPD), CatchCertificate,FormA,andFormB.Whicheverdocumentsfishmealproducersmustcollectdependson the typesof rawmaterialsandsuppliersasfollows:

1) Wholefish– (whether fromvessels,brokers,orpiers)FishmealproducersneedtorequestMarineCatchPurchasingDocument-Fishmeal (MCPD-FM)whichdemonstratesfishingactivitiesincludingtypesandamountoffishaswellasfishingarea.

2) By-products (surimi) – Fishmealproducers need to collectMarineCatchPurchasingDocument(MCPD)anddocumentformA,which indicatessuppliers, typesandamountoffish.

3) By-products ( tuna) – F ishmealproducersneedtocollectacatchcertificateorcaptain’s statementof imported tuna.Anddocument formB that illustratesprocessingplants,typesandamountoffish,fishingarea,vesselsandfishinggearsused.

After that, Thai Fishmeal ProducersAssociationwill certify batch of fishmealproduced from traceable rawmaterialsandissue a fishmeal cert ificate. However,practically, fishmealproducerswill issueafishmealcertificatebythemselvesonbehalfoftheAssociation since the scheme is self-reported.Then,fishmealproducerswillsubmitalldocuments to feedmillswhendeliveringproducts.Subsequently, feedmillswillpassthosedocumentstoDepartmentofFisheriesforvalidation.TheprocessoffishmealcertificateschemeisdemonstratedinFigure43.

Itisworthnotingthatthefishmealcertificatescheme is a purely voluntarymeasure.DepartmentofFisheries isnotanauthorized

agentmanagingorgoverningthescheme,butactsas“facilitator”byvalidatinginformationwithitsdatabase.Feedmillsmustoffer incentivesforplayersintheirsupplychain,fromvesselstofishmeal factories, to join thescheme.AsofMarch2014, offering a price premium fortraceableproducts is theonly incentive forstakeholderstojointhescheme46.

Between10Juneand31December2013,therewasonlyonefeedmill,namelymarketleaderCharoenPokphandFoods(CPF) thatsubmitteddocumentsandrequestDepartmentofFisheriestohelpexamine.Therewere1,752fishmealcertificatesfrom26fishmealproducerssubmittedforverificationwhichaccountedforthetotalof29,724,841kilogramsoffishmeal(Figure44).

46FromaninterviewwithMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries(26Nov2013).

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Figure 43: Fishmeal certificate scheme

Fish pier owner(issue MCPD-FM)

Fishing vessel

Processors(provide proofs of raw

materials sources)

Fishmeal producers(issue MCPD-FM if purchase directly from fishing vessels)

DOFvalidate all documents by

checking with IUU database (Information acquired from

fishing logbook)

Feed Mills(Submit all document to

DOF for validation)

importCatch certificate/captain statement

Document form A+ copy of MCPD

Fishmeal certificateand MCPD-FM/MCPD + form A/Catch cec. + form BMCPD-FM

+ form A,B

SubmitMCPD-FM

Document form B+ copy of catchcertificate ofcaptain statement

DOF:DepartmentofFisheriesMCPD-FM:forMarineCatchPurchasingDocument-FishmealFormArecordsamountofrawmaterialsfromtrimmings(surimi)FormBrecordsamountofrawmaterialsfromtrimmings(tuna),andforeignvesselinformation

Source: Department of Fisheries

Figure 44: Number of fishmeal certificate (submitted for verification), amount of materials, and amount of fishmeal by source of materials from 10 June – 31 December 2013

Source of materials Fishmeal certificate Amount of materials (kg.)

Amount of fishmeal (kg.)

Wild-Caught 1,119 75,183,563 19,302,989

OffcutsfromdomesticSurimiproduction

167 9,664,123 2,860,026

Importedoffcutsfromtunaproduction

292 17,005,650 4,974,515

Otheroffcuts 171 9,289,366 2,542,671

Unidentified 3 - 44,640

Total 1,752 111,142,702 29,724,841

Source: Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau, Department of Fisheries

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Figure 45: Summary of various schemes

Objectives/Core ideas Responsible Unit Relation to IUU

PlanofAction

IPOA-IUU Toprevent,deterandeliminateIUUfishingbyProvidingaguidelinesforallcountriestoadaptanddesigntheirmeasurestomeettheirsituations

FAO,Allstates IUUtermsasdefinedbyFAO2001

RPOA-IUU Toprevent,deterandeliminateIUUfishing.Emphasizethecooperationamongmemberstatesinmonitoringandmanagingmarineresourcesinthehighseas

Memberstates IUUtermsasdefinedbyFAO2001

NPOA-IUU Toprevent,deterandeliminateIUUfishingbyselectingsuitableinstrumentformIPOA-IUUandadapttospecificconditions.

Particularstate IUUtermsasdefinedbyFAO2001

The EC regulation

Toprevent,deterandeliminateIUUfishing.ToexcludeproductsfromIUUfishingfromEUmarketusingcatchcertificateschemeasthemaininstrument.

EUcommunityandthirdcountriestradedwiththeEU

IUUtermsasdefinedbyFAO2001

CertificateSchem

e

Catch CertificateScheme

AdoptedbytheEUcommunitytoensurefulltraceabilityofallaquaticfisheryproducts.ToaffirmthatnoneofproductsappearintheEUmarketisderivedfromIUUfishing.

EUcommunityandthethirdcountriestradedwiththeEU.Thirdcountries’authorizedagent(DepartmentofFisheries,Thailand)

IUUtermsasdefinedbyFAO2001

FishmealCertificateScheme

ToensurefulltraceabilityofrawmaterialsforFishmealproduction.Toassureresponsiblesourcingofrawmaterials.

DepartmentofFisheries,ThaiFishmealProducersAssociation,ThaiFeedMillAssociation,DepartmentofLivestock,andtheNationalFisheriesAssociationofThailand

IUUtermsasdefinedbyFAO2001.Theschemeisexpandedfromacatchcertificatescheme.

Thaiprincipallaw

Thai FisheriesAct1947

ToregulateallfishingactivitiesinThailandastheprincipallegislationonfisheryindustry.

MinistryofAgricultureandCooperatives

ConsistentwithIPOA-IUUguidelinestoreviewacountry’sfisherylawandregulations.

Draftofthenewfisheriesact

ToupdatetheFisheriesAct

Source: Marine Fisheries Research and Development Bureau, Department of Fisheries

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5.3.5 A Roadmap for Sustainable Development of Thailand’s Fisheries

Given shortcomings of the exist ingstandardsandregulationsoutlinedabove,ThaiFeedMillAssociation iscurrentlydraftingaroadmap for sustainable development ofThailand’sfisheries.This is to furtherensurethat supply chainand foodproductionaresustainable,i.e.fishmealismadefromlegalandresponsiblesources,notfromtrashfishingthatharmmarineresources.

ThedraftingprocessisassistedbyWorldWildlifeFund(WWF)andSustainableFisheriesPartnership (SFP).TheyproposedFisheryImprovementProject (FIP)be initiatedasaguidelineforthedevelopmentofthisroadmap.PreliminarystudiesoftheFIPareexpectedtobe completed in February 2014 and bediscussedwithallstakeholders.ItwillthenbedevelopedintotheroadmapwhichisprojectedtobecompleteinJuly2014andsubsequentlyimplemented inAugust of the same year.

The framework,guideline,andstakeholders’activitieswillbeclarifiedintheroadmap.Thisisexpectedto leadThaifisheriessector towardsustainabilitywithinthenext5years.

All stakeholders are encouraged toparticipate in theFIP,especiallyeightmajorseafoodandfoodproducerassociationswhicharemajorconsumersofThailand’sfishmealproduction.Other organizations that areparticipatinginthisprojectincludetheNationalFisheriesAssociationofThailand, theThaiOverseasFisheriesAssociation, theThaiFishmealProducersAssociation, theThaiFrozenFoodsAssociation,theThaiFeedMillAssociation, theThaiShrimpAssociation, theThaiTunaIndustryAssociationand theThaiFood Processors’Association. These 8organizationshavesignedtheMemorandumofUnderstanding (MoU) to jointly developThailand’s seafoodmanufacturing systeminNovember 2013 (Bangkok Post, 2014;Manager,2014).

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EsTImATEs OF BIOmAss DIvERTED TO FIshmEAL sUppLy chAIn6.

6.1 Preamble

Theterm“trashfish”travelspoorly.IntheunderstandingofFAOandfisheriesbiologistsoutsideofAsia,“trashfish”arenotsynonymouswith“bycatch”, low-valueproductsor“discards”fromafishery.Forinstance,inwesterncountriesthetermreferstobycatchfishthatareeitherdiscardedatseaorusedprimarilyforlivestock/fishfood,whileinothercountries(particularlyindevelopingcountries)itcoverslowvaluefisheriesproductsusedforbothlivestock/fishfoodandhumanfood.Thailandusestheterm“trashfish”(pla pet:ปลาเป็ด)onlyformarineproductsthatareutilizedforanimalfeed.FisheriesofficersinThailandmayoccasionallyusetheterm“lowvaluefish”forthosefishdestinedforprocessingpriortohumanuse,ormayclasseverythingunusableas“trashfish”andfishwithanymarketvalueatallas“foodfish”or“economicfish”.Theselowvaluefishincludemanyspeciesthatareelsewheredesignatedastrashfish.BycatchitselfmeanslittleinthemodernThaifishery,sincetrawlfishermendonottargetspecificstocks(e.g.shrimps)andeverythingcanbesold;nothingatallisdiscarded.

Fisheriesresearchersquiteoftenrefertoseveralcategoriesofproductbeingsoldbycommercialboatsthattraditionallyhavebeengroupedcollectivelyas“trashfish”.Notethatonlythefirstoneisprevalentoverseas:

l Bycatchfish thatare frequentlyunsaleableeven ingoodcondition (theyareregardedasunpalatableornotworththeeffort)–thisisthecategoryreportedintheFAOliteratureas“lowvalueortrashfish”;

l fish(includingcrustaceans)ofcommercialspeciesthatareunsaleablebecausetheyaredamagedordegradedbypoorpost-capturehandling;and

l themashed-updetritusoffish,crustaceansandothermarinebiotathatcoatsthebackofthecod-endofthenetafteraprolongedtrawl.

pla pet ปลาเป็ด

Ourresearchersfoundonly the last two categoriesoffishandotherbiotathataretoodamagedordegradedforeitherfreshmarketsor forsale to foodprocessors–collectivelyknownas“pla pet”inThailand–areuniversallysynonymisedwith“trashfish”inThaifisheriesliteratureandgeneralvernacular.

That is to say, ne i ther Thai land ’sDepartment ofFisheriesofficersnor localpeople in Thailand recognised thefirst category(undesirableorunpalatablespecies)

by the term“trashfish”. Anycatchstatisticsreportedby theDepartmentofFisheries inthepastdecadeorsorefer to the lower twocategoriesofdegradedproduct(particularlythelast).Thishasnotalwaysbeenthecase.

Tossapornpitakkuletal.(2008)suggestedthataround61.5%ofwhatwastermed“trashfish”couldbeconstruedas“truetrashfish”(ปลาเป็ดแท)้,whiletheremainderwascomposedofjuvenilesof“economic”fish,butthisdistinctionwasnotparticularlyevidentinthecurrentstudy.

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Thefishermencan reliablysellvirtuallyanylandedmarinespeciesofanysize/maturity ingood condition to the fishball processingfactorieseitherlocallyorinthemajordistributionmarkets(e.g.MahachaiinSamutSongkram),so referring to a product as “food fish” or“economicfish”, isnowadays thesameassayingitis“not pla pet”.

Thevarianceinusagemayhaveresultedfromamistranslationofthesenseoftheslangword“trash”intoThaior–morelikely–itmay

havemutatedovertheyears(asthefisheryhasbecomemoreMalthusian) tomean onlydegradedanddamagedproduct.Theusageis a crucial variance from internationalunderstandingofwhatconstitutes“trashfish”sensu strictu, however, and fundamentallychanges the interpretationofThaifisheriesstatistics.Toreduceconfusion,wewillusetheThaitermpla petinitsnativesensehenceforthtorefertotheentireproportionofcatchthatisunsuitable forhumanconsumption,withoutregardtospeciesorstageofmaturity.

Figure 46: Pla pet condition in Songkhla

Figure 46. Fish that have degraded into noticeable putrescence by poor storage or handling during transpor-tation are highly valued by the fishmeal factors because of the high protein content, but are a relatively minor component of the pla pet market. However, it is an unpredictable resource and does not appear on fisheries statistics as pla pet. (Image S Piromvaragorn)

Inpresentingthefollowingresults,itisworthnotingthatthepublishedresultsofDepartmentofFisheriessurveysandresearchliteratureindicatethatthecompositionoffishingboatlandingsatSongkhlavaries throughout theyear,with theeffectsof themonsoononbothcommunitycompositionofthefishedpopulationsandthelocationsfishedbythefishermen.Thisisconsistentwithexpectationsofatrophically-degradedsystemwherecatchablestocksareheavilydependentonstochasticfluctuations in recruitment. An increasingproportionofundersizedfishand

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decreasingvolumeofcommercially importantspeciesinthecompositionofthewildfishcatchinrecentyearssuggestsymptomsofbiologicaloverfishingandlossofcoastalhabitat,decliningstocks,with concomitant falling profits of

individualvessels indicate thateconomicallyoverfishedfishstocksthreatentheviabilityofwildfisheries in theGulf(Ahmedetal.2007,Nasuchon&Charles2010).

Figure 47: Reported finfish landings in the Gulf of Thailand

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010Year

Land

ings

(ton

s) 1,500

1,000

500

0

totalfish

foodfish

trashfish

Reported finfish landings in the gulf of Thailand

Figure 47. Landings of finfish abstracted from DoF reports, 1986-2011. The sharp rise in the early 1990’s coin-cides with the growing importance of the pelagic tuna fishery (only a fraction of which is actually captured in the GoT). The circled area indicates the endpoint of a progressive reclassification of several species from “trash fish” to “food fish” as the term trash fish came to mean exclusively pla pet. This type of reclassification has occurred several times over the past decades, and reflects the process of “fishing down the food chain” as more desirable species have become rare. The “crash” evident in the landings in the period after 2005 probably reflects a “tipping point” in the ecosystem towards a lower productivity system with a higher proportion of low trophic level species caused by chronic overexploitation of demersal species. Part of this change may be explained by some Thai fishing boats changing registration to Malaysia and Indonesia domicile, in order to comply with more stringent Malaysian and Indonesian regulations. Note that these landings contain a variable (but impossible to separate) component of fish caught outside Thailand’s EEZ, but landed in ports such as Songkhla by courier boats.

Thereisapaucityofpublisheddataaboutthewaythecatchchangesovertheyear,andthefishermenrangeoverasubstantialportionoftheGulfofThailand,meaningthattheeffectsonthelocalfisheriesresourcearequitehardtopredict.Seasonalchangesinpopulationstructure(theproportionofjuvenilefishinthepopulation)ofthefishedresourcesislikelytochangetheproportionofproductlandedbythefishermenthatisunsalableinthefreshmarket,andisthereforelikelytohaveaneffectontheproportionallocatedtothesurimi/fishballand“trashfish”portionssoldbythefishermen.Thisisanimportantcaveattothegeneralityoftheresultspresentedhere,also;becauseofthetimeconstraintsoftheproject,thedatapresentedaremerelya“snapshot”ofthelandingsatSongkhla.

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Itislikely,however,giventhegeographicallywide hunting range of the fishermenweinterviewed,thatanydirecteffectsonresourcestargetedbyartisanalfishermenwillbediffuse,andwillprobablyreflecttheoveralldecline infisheries resourcesof theGulfofThailandevident indatapublished fromrecentyearsbytheDepartmentofFisheries. Payaotou&Jetanavanich(1987,p44)stated:“…by1973the inshorecatchreached803,000twhich isindicative of overfishing not only whencompared to theMSYbut alsowhen thedecliningcatches insubsequentyearsareconsidered”. Thailand’sfisherieshavebeenoperating greatly over their sustainablecapacity forseveraldecades,andtheoveralltrophic level of the catch has declinedsubstantially. Thismeansthe intensefishingpressure has depauperised a previouslyabundantresource;inrecentyears,despiteanincreaseineffort,thetotalcatchhasdeclined.

Theeffectsof thecommercialfishingarenoticedbyartisanalfishermen for twomainreasons: the general decline in resourceabundancemeansthatspawningstockshavebeendepleted, so that the largepulsesofrecruitmentpreviouslyobservedarenolongeroccurring(thismeans, in turn, that the localfishermenperceive thedecline); secondly,itmeansthatthecompositionofthecatchhaschangedovertime–thehighvaluefoodfisharenolongeradominantportionofthecatch.

Theplapet itself isusuallydivided intoseveralcategories,dependingon itsstateofdegradation(orputrescence). Sincethesalepriceoffishmealdependsonboth itsproteincontent,anditsaroma,thelowestvalueplapetispurchasedby thebuyersonly reluctantly,sinceitsputrescencewillpervadeanyfishmealofwhichitisacomponent;generally,thebuyersprefertopurchasetheirproductionquotaofthe

Figure 48: Volume of marine fish landed at Songkhla (Ta sa-aan)

Year

Figure 48. Fisheries data for Songkhla (Songkhla Department of Fisheries report, 2013). Note the precipitous decline in fish landings in the early part of the last decade (mirroring the decline seen in the previous figure for the entire Gulf of Thailand fishery), and the commensurate drop in effort (vessel trips) as returns diminished. The “crossover” of food fish and trash fish landings in 2008 reflects an overall decline in the quantities of fish available for capture and the enormously protracted trawl times common in the fishery.

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betterclassesofplapet,andoffcuts. Thefishmeal producers purchaseall availablecategoriesoflowvalueandplapet,aswellastheoffalandoffcutsofcommercialspeciesthatareprocessedforsaleorcanningatthedocks.This last category (productionwaste) hasbecomeanincreasinglyvaluableproportionoffeedstock forfishmeal,but itsavailability isseverelylimited.

Noteworthy however, are “throwawaycomments”byfishmealproductionbuyersaboutthedeclineinbothsupplyandqualityoftrashfishandplapetinrecentyears–onceuponatimethebuyerswouldarrangetohaveseveraltruckslineduptoreceivefeedstock,andcouldnominatethequalityaheadoftime;nowadays,theycomplained,theywereluckytogetenoughtostarttheprocessorsonagivenday,andhadtocarefullyadulterate theproductwith lowvalue(putrescent)plapettomakeupproductionquotas.Someproducerssuggestedthatitwasnolongerpossibletoconsistentlyproducethehighestqualityoffishmealbecausethesupplyofhighquality trashfishhaddiminishedsomuch. In recent years as the supply of“highquality”feedstockhasdeclined,andtheproportionofplapetinthefishmealsupplyhasbecomedominant.

ThevesselsobservedunloadingproductatthefisherypierofSongkhlawereoftwomaintypes:otter-boardtrawlersand“courier”boats.Theotter-boardtrawlerswereoperatedbylocalfishermen,but tendedtooperatefar fromthehomeport–seeking trawlgroundswith thehighest returnswithin thesouthernGulfofThailand.Thecourierboatswerenotengagedinfishing(althoughtheywerebuiltonthesamelines),butweremostlyengaged in ferryingproductfromlargevesselsoperatingoffshore,or outsideThailand’sEEZ. They landedsubstantialamountsof trashfishandplapet,butwerenot available for interview. Theworkersatthelandingsdescribedmostofthehighvaluefoodfishlandedbysuchvesselsasoriginating in “Indonesia” (although thisdescriptionwasvagueenoughtosimplymean“elsewhere thanThailand”). Thereweresignificantlymoreof thesevesselsunloading

attheportduringthedaysourresearcherswerepresent than“local”boats; thismayreflectachangeintheimportanceoftheGulfofThailandas a primary source of fish landings forSongkhla,butthereisverylittledataavailableonewayoranother.

ThelatestDepartmentofFisheriesstatisticsavailable(for2011:http://www.fisheries.go.th/i t -s ta t /yearbook/data_2554/Yearbook/Yearbook2011-4.1.pdf) indicatethata totalof82,913 tonsofmarinefishwere landedatSongkhla in that year (out of totalmarinelandingsof90,363tons),70%ofwhich(57,783tons)wasclassedas foodfish. Thisfigureincludestheproduct landedbythe“offshore”boats,however,and isnotareflectionof thesituationfacedbyfishermenincoastalwaters.Moreover,thebreakdownoflandingssuppliedbytheSongkhlaDepartmentofFisheriesofficegaveaslightlydifferentstory:theyreportthattotal landingsatTaSa-aanfishingportwere88,341tons,comprisedof56,074tonsoffoodfish,7,082 tonsofothereconomicbiotaand25,185tonsoftrashfish(slightlymoretrashfishthanreportedbytheDepartmentofFisheriesYearbookdata).

FDstatistics indicatealso that in2011,allthetrashfishlanded,plusaroundonesixthof food fishwere converted into fishmeal.Aspreviouslymentioned, thesestatisticsdonotdistinguishbetweenGulfandAndamanfisheries,nordotheydistinguishbetweenfoodfishcaughtspecifically to feed thefishmealindustry(un-knowable)or“surplusproduction”that was otherwise unsalable atmarket(essentiallyzeroinallcases,sincebuyersfromotherprovincesboughtwhateverwasavailable).

6.2 Data collection summary

PSUresearchersinterviewedthecaptainsof “local”Thaifishingboatsunloadingat thefishingpieratSongkhlaonthreeoccasions(inAugustandSeptember2013),completingninekey-informant interviews regarding fishingpracticesandgear. Theboatcaptainswere

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informally engaged in conversation andquestioned about their vessel and gearsemployed,(roughly)whereandhowtheyfished,andwheretheysoldtheirproduct. Thedataobtained in these interviewswascheckedagainstpublishedfisheriesdatatodevelopapointestimateofthetotaleffortandproductionlandedatSongkhlafishingport.Theestimatecanonlybeappliedtotheperiodduringwhichinterviewsoccurred,because(asnoted) thefisheryvariesduring theyear,according toseasonalchanges inconditionsandstocks.Thatbeingsaid,however,webelieveitisvalidtomakesomebroadassumptionsbasedonthematerialdevelopedinthisstudy.

Theresearchersalsoundertookdetailedanalysis of the catch composition of theproductsunloadedby9 vessels (both theAugustandSeptemberlandings),concentratingon the composi t ion of the component

designated “trashfish”. Within theplapetsamples,finfishweretabulatedatfamilylevel,wherepossiblesincemanywerejuvenilesandhencedifficulttoidentifyatalowertaxonomiclevel. Fishesthatweresufficientlydamagedthat theywerenot identifiable to family levelwere grouped as “others”. Other landedproducts were identified to broad bioticcategory(e.g.“crustaceans”),orgroupedintoamiscellaneouscategory(mostlycomposedofvariousmolluscsandechinoderms).Notethatthesamecaveataboutseasonalvariationsincatchcompositionalreadymentionedwillalsoapplytothesedata.

Whileatthelandingsite,theresearchersalsoinformallyinterviewedthebuyerswhowerewaiting to receivevariousproducts fromthefishingboats. Theywereaskedabout thesupplyofplapet,andinvitedtoshareinsightsabouttheindustryfromtheirperspective.

Figure 49: The fisheries pier at Songkhla just before dawn (Image S. Arunrugstichai)

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With the exception of a single vesselinterviewed inAugust, thevessels landingproductatSongkhlafishingportwerelandingaround4tonsofcommercialfishpertrip,afterspendinganywherebetweenoneand twoweeksatsea. Thiscatchwassupplementedbyroughly6.5tonsofplapet.Alloftheskippersinterviewed stated that their fishingwasconducted in the vicinity ofMuKohKra(anoffshoregroupof islands inNakhornSriThammaratprovince). Thevesselswereall“standard”smallotter-boardtrawlers(24-40minlength,crewof5-6,poweredby275-315HPdieselengines,anddeployingtrawlnetswith10mgape),andrepresentareasonablesampleofthetypesofmedium-sizedcommercialfishingvesselsreturningproduct toSongkhlaat thattimeofyear.

Thefishermenworked inpulses; for theweekbeforeandafterthefullmoon,netsweredeployedandtrawled24hoursperday,for5-6hourspertow.Fortheremainderofthemonth,thetrawlermendeployedtheirnetsonlyduringdaylighthours(again,generallyin6hourtows),

becauseofchanges in thediurnalbehaviour(and therefore catchability) of their targetspecies. Theuseofsonar technologywaspervasive: thefishermenwouldsearch forbottomstructuresuchasbouldersorreefs,andplantheirtow-pathtopassascloseaspossibletothepotentialfishattractingstructure.

Thefigurespresentedhererepresentanaverage returnonfishingeffort (CPUE)ofapproximately49(±17)kg/hour for thevesselslandingproductinAugustandSeptember.ThisisalmostthreetimesthepublishedDepartmentofFisheriesaverageCPUEforthefarsouthernregionfor2011(Figure68).Thedisparityhasseveralinterpretations:theregionwhereallthefishermendeclaredtheywerefishing(nearKohKra) ismore than 50 kilometres from themainland,and isquite likely tobeadifferentecologicalsystem from thatsampledby theDepartmentofFisheries.Itmaybethatthereisastrongseasonalcomponenttothecatchandcapture rates – for instance, the vesselinterviewedinAugust(Figure65)hadamuchhigherproportionofeconomicfishthantrash

Figure 50: Results – composition of landed product at Songkhla

Dayfishing CommercialFish Pla pet

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

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14000

12000

10000

8000

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4000

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=August(singlevesselinterviewed)=September(8vesselsinterviewed)

Product landed at Songkla - Aug-Sept 2013

Days

(+SD

)

Kg la

nded

(+SD

)

Figure 50. (LHS) average number of days spent actively fishing by vesels that offloaded product at Songkhla. (RHS) average landings by category; note that while catch composition of the landings varied widely, on average trash fish composed 2/3 of the landed product, substantially more than is reported in Department of Fisheries sta-tistics. Of the “commercial fish category” perhaps 10% was composed of various species of squid and prawns, the remainder being finfish.

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fish, in strong contrast to theSeptemberlandings.BecausetheDepartmentofFisheriesdoesnotpublishfigures reflectingmonthlysamples, it isdifficultnot tobelieve that thepublishedDepartmentofFisheriesfiguresareanamalgamationofmanymonthssamplingandthusstronglyaveragebothcatch ratesandcomposition.Itismorelikely,however,thatthefishermensurveyedinthisstudywerefishingacompletelydifferentecosystemfromtheinshoregroundsroutinelysurveyedbyDepartmentofFisheriesvessels,andthatpublishedcaptureratesshouldbeviewedwithskepticism.

Augustwasamonthofvery littleactivityfromthefishermenofSongkhla,manyofwhom(beingMuslim)greatly reduced theirfishingactivityduringRamadan. It ispossible thatthis reduction in effort allowed the vessel

interviewed in this study to fishwith littlecompetition, increasing their CPUE andproportionalcatchof foodfish,but itseemsunl ikely. The phase of the moon alsoinfluencesfishermen’sactivity,suchthatmanychoosenot tofishduringthe lessproductivetimes,whentheycanonlyprofitablyfishduringthedaytime.Thevesselweinterviewedwastheonlyvesseltolandproductatthe“smallpier”during thatweek,althoughthecourierboatsunloadedatarateof4-8perday.TheratesofcaptureandtheeffortdescribedintheNationalDepartmentofFisheriesreportsdonotseemtoclosely reflectwhat this studyobservedatSongkhla (although theSongkhla-originatingreportstallywell,suggestingthattheNationalreportsaverageandthereforemasksubstantialregionalvariation).

Figure 51: Summary of catch statistics for the vessels interviewed for this study

Vessel Month Length Total Catch CPUE % Economic % Remarks number of trip (kg) (kg/hour) fish Trash fish 1 August 14 18,720 56 67.9 32.1 2 September 7 10,160 60 21.3 78.7 3 September 7 12,000 71 50.0 50.0 4 September 9 14,400 67 30.6 69.4 Lefttheir 5 September 14 14,800 44 32.4 67.6 product withboat#4 6 September 12 7,300 25 38.4 61.6 7 September 7 7,360 44 45.7 54.3 Lefttheir 8 September 9 5,800 27 48.3 51.7 productwith

9 September 7 5 Hadenginetrouble boat#6 800

Source: vessels interviews

Figure 51. Summary of catch statistics for the vessels interviewed for this study. It is evident that groups of fishermen operate cooperatively and that the resource is extremely patchy. Notwithstanding this, the Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE) for all of these fishermen is between 2 and 3 times the catch rate stated by the Department of Fisheries researchers using the same gear. Moreover, the relatively low proportion of trash fish quoted by the Department of Fisheries is realised only in one vessel (that fished in August), suggesting a) strong seasonal variation in trash fish abundance relative to economic fish, and b) the catch statistics used to represent Songkhla region are unlikely to be accurate, since all of these operators were fishing around Koh Kra, offshore of Nakhon Sri Thammarat province.

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Figure 52: Selections of pla pet found at port

Figure 52. a, b, d – selections of pla pet identified in the laboratory (after cleaning and fixation to prevent further degradation); c –Thai Department of Fisheries officers from Songkhla regional office identifying samples of pla pet at the pie; e – a typical basket of “quite high quality” pla pet unloaded from a trawler; f – fish heads that are discarded by on-pier processors are eagerly sought by the fishmeal producers. (Images: a-d: W. Klagnurak, e: S. Arunrugstichai, f: S. Piromvaragorn)

a b

c d

e f

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Figure 53: Department of Fisheries Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE) figures for 2010/11.

CPUEfiguresbyfishinggroundintheGulfofThailand(Unit:kg/hr)fishing ground  2010 2011 +/- % 1 24.800 19.814 (-4.986) (-20.10%) 2 19.282 16.950 (-2.333) (-12.10%) 3 13.372 9.480 (-3.892) (-29.11%) 4 11.469 13.090 1.621 14.13% 5 27.957 52.897 24.940 89.21% 6 29.292 48.650 19.358 66.09% 7 10.170 8.990 (-1.179) (-11.60%) 8 13.287 12.335 (-0.952) (-7.16%) 9 15.485 16.069 3.77%Gulf of Thailand 18.559 25.015 6.456 34.78%

Figure 53. Highlighted area reflects the putative fishing grounds of vessels landing product at Songkhla. Note that published CPUE varies widely between years, suggesting that the resource is unstable. Note also the degree of variation in capture rates between regions – only the central regions (5 and 6) approach the CPUEs reported by the Songkhla fishermen.

Thecompositionofthepla petvarieswidely,probablyreflectingthefishingpracticesofthevessels.

Figure 54: Composition of pla pet from a vessel offloading at Songkhla in August

OtherComposition of pla pet landed from vessel #1 at Songkhla (27/8/2013)

Figure 54. Composition of fish categorised as pla pet from a vessel offloading at Songkhla in August. The “other” category includes fish that are damaged to unrecognisability and also some non-teleost biota.

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Figure 55: Example composition of pla pet from a vessel offloading at Songkhla in September

Composition of pla pet from vessel # 4 (23-9-13)

Figure 56: Summary of the diversity of biota landed as pla pet in Songkhla in August and September

Average composition of pla pet in landings at Songkhla

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57: Average species composition of the “food fish” component of catches landed at Songkhla

Figure 57. Average species composition of the “food fish” component of catches landed at Songkhla. The “mix” categories contain some duplicate names because the baskets often comprised a varied collection of miscellaneous fish cotaining a high proportion of juveniles, which were difficult to identify in the time available (the fishermen were understandably keen to shift the catch as rapidly as possible). Note, however, that the proportions of some trash fish families (see above) are significant in the total catch, and that many juveniles of economic species also find their way into the pla pet bins.

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Figure 58: A multispecies basket of fish landed in Songkhla

Figure 58. A multispecies basket of fish landed in Songkhla, bought by middlemen for sale to a seafood factory via Mahachai market in Samut Songkram. Note that several of the species (and most of the size classes) would see this basket classified as “trash fish” in countries such as Australia. (Image: W.Klangnurak)

Forecastingtheamountofpla petlandedat Songkhla requires some degree ofassumptionaboutharvestingrates,fishermen’sactivity levelsandseasonalvariations inbothcapture ratesandcatchcomposition. As isdemonstratedbytheDepartmentofFisheriesstatistics, suchassumptionsare inherentlyflawed,andshouldonlybeusedasaroughguidetothebehaviourofthesystem.Fromtheverylimiteddataavailable,itwouldseemthat

thevolumeoftrashfishcaughtbyeachvesselisroughlysimilar–bothbetweenvesselsandbetweenmonths. However, thecompositionofthecatch,andtheproportionoftrashfishinlandingsvariesquitestrongly,bothbetweenvesselsandbetweenmonths. The rateoftransferoftrashfishtolocalfishmealfactoriesappears tobehighlyvariable,also,andverydifficulttopredict.

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Figure 59: crustaceans, squids and fish mashed together into unrecognizability

Figure 59. Crustaceans, squids and fish mashed together into unrecognizability - up to 70% of the product of Thailand’s trawl-capture fishery looks like this at landing. (Image S. Arunrugstichai)

Evenso,itappearsthattheresultsobtainedinthisrapidsurveyconcurwithpreviousstudiestoareasonabledegree:theproportionoftrashfishinthetotalcatchisbroadlysimilartothatreportedbyTossapornpitakkuletal.(2008)forthesametimeofyear.Likewise,thevolumeofpla petpervessel(averagingslightlymorethan6 tons) coincideswithSongkhla fisheriesrecords(roughly4000vessel-landings, foratotalof25,000 tonsofpla pet in2012).Theelevatedcatchratesreportedheremayreflectthe trend towards reducedfishingeffortasfishermendecide the returns from landingmostlypla petareinsufficienttopayforthefuelandmaintenancerequired tofishconstantly.Theyare thereforepulse-fishingby targetinghigher-efficiencystrategies (suchas24hourfishingdaysaroundthefullmoon,restphaseswhenthemoonisunsuitable).

Likewise,ifthesedataareindicativeofthescaleofvariation incatchesofeconomicfish(whichseemsplausiblegiventhewidevariationinpublishedDepartmentofFisheriesfigures),then it is reasonable tomodel thepla pet componentofthecatchasmostlystatic,whiletheeconomicfishproportionsuppliesmostofthevariationinlandingvolumes.Moreover,itsuggeststhattheproportionoffoodfishinthelandings reported by theDepartment ofFisheriesislikelytobestronglybufferedbythe“offshore”fishingindustrywhichlandsproductatSongkhlaandby theextremelyvariablesupplyofeconomicfishduringtheremainderoftheyear.

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Figure 60: Ta Sa-aan “Afterwards”

Afterwards”. Image: S. Piromvaragorn

6.3 Biomass analysis conclusion

Fishmeal production for shrimp foodisprobablynottheprimarydriverofthedeclineinartisanal fisheries in southernThailand,but it is certainlycontributory. The trawlerfishermendonotdistinguishbetween“trashfishspecies”and“ruinedfish”intheircatch–anyfishcatch ingoodcondition issortedout intosaleablecategoriesand the ruinedcatch isagglomeratedaspla pet, and is keptonlybecausethereisalwaysamarketforit.

Muchofthereasonforthehighcatchratesof juvenile fish in demersal trawls canbeexplainedbyinappropriatelyfinemeshusedinthecod-endsofnets.TheThaiDepartmentofFisheriesMasterPlansuggeststhat40mmisanappropriatemeshsize fordemersal trawlfisheriesintheGulfofThailand.Noneofthevesselssurveyedhereusedmeshlargerthan25mm,andmostused20mmorless.Push-net

fishermenuseevenfinermeshednets(aslittleas10mm)andfrequentlytargetareasutilisedasnurseriesbymany speciesof fishandcrustaceans. Juveniles of commerciallyvaluablespeciesandthose important in foodsecurity for localpeoplearekilled in largenumbers,wastingtheirpotential.

Thewastefulnessofoverly-finemeshsizesis compounded by the use of long trawldurations.Trawltimesreportedbythefishermenhereareextraordinarily long.Theextremedurationoftows(often6hoursormore)meansthatanyproductcapturedduringtheearlypartofthetow(say,thefirstfewhours)isguaranteedtobedamagedorunsalable(i.e.ruined)andwillbecome“pla pet”,evenifitisofcommerciallyvaluablespecies. Thepla pet coating thecod-end of the net forms an inescapablebarriertojuvenilefish.Theveryfinemeshusedbyallvesselsandtheprolongedtowdurationmeans thatvery littleescapes fromthenets

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duringnormalfishing,andalsothatasignificantcomponentofwhatiscaughtwillbesmashedintouselessness.ThatthefishermenreportedCPUEsfarexceeding(uptothreefold)thosereported by theDepartment of Fisheriessuggests that long trawl durat ions arecompletely unnecessary, and lower theeconomicreturnbydegradingthevalueofthecatch. While the timespentdeployingandretrievingthetrawlnetseemstobecountedas“losteffort”bymanyfishermen,theaddedvalueofproduct thathasnotbeenpulverisedandrenderedunsaleablebyhoursofbeingdraggedalongtheseafloorislikelytofaroutweighanylostproductivity.

Bycatchreductiondevicescanreducethevolumeof juvenilesandnon-targetspeciescapturedbyasmuchas40%(Eayrs2007,Boopendranathetal.2013).Thisisnotseenasabenefitbyfishermen. Howevercounter-intuitive itseemstodegradethebulkof theircatch forminor increases in volume, theexistenceofareadymarketforpla petmeansthatthefishermenhavenoinclinationtoinstallbycatchreductiondevicesontheirnetsor inanywayreducethewastecomponentoftheircatch.

Tossapornpitakkuletal. (2008) reportedthattheaveragepla petcompositionofcatchesinNakhonSri Thammarat andSongkhlaaveraged42.08%of theannualcapture forsmallotterboard trawlerssuchas thoseweinterviewed.Theseauthorsalsosuggestedthatthecatchcompositionchangesthroughouttheyear(withpla petbeing40%ofthecatchintheNEmonsoon,47%betweenthemonsoons,and40%duringtheSWmonsoon).However,wefoundanaverageof62%pla pet incatcheslanded inSeptember,at theendof theSWmonsoon,with thepossibleexceptionof theAugustboatdiscussedabove. That is,morethan2/3ofthefishlandedbylocalcommercialtrawlfishermeninSongkhladuringSeptemberwere smashedand degradedbeyond thepossibilityofbeingusedforhumanfood.Thisrepresentsatremendouswastageofbiomassandecosystempotential.

100%ofplapetlandedatSongkhlacouldbesold tofishmealproducers,ascouldanyotherwastedordegradedproduct. This isapotentialsupplyofaround25,000tonsperyearofplapetplusseveralhundredtonsofoffcutsandspoiledproducts fromseafood factoryproduction.However,mostoftheplapetwastoodecomposedtobeusedasfeedstockforthehighgradefishmealpreferredforshrimpfoodproduction,andverylittlelowvalueproductwasavailableforsaletothefishmealfactories.Withthe steady decline in pla pet volumeandqualityoverthepastdecadesasitmoveseverfurtherfromtheinternationaldefinitionof“trashfish”(andcloser to theword“garbage”), it isdifficulttoimaginethatthecurrentshrimpfoodproduction industryreliesasstronglyon localproductionasitusedto.

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sUppLy chAIn OF FIshmEAL InDUsTRy In sOnGkhLA AnD ITs AcTIvITIEs7.

7.1 Supply Chain and Stakeholders’ activities

Sofar,therearetwostudiesoneconomicsof fishmeal production andmarketwhichincludesthesupplychainoffishmealindustryinThailand: onebyBureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearchin2012,andtheotherby8RegionalOfficeofAgriculturalEconomicsin2007.But,thelatterismorespecificonfishmealindustryintheuppersouthernregion.However,beforegoing through thestudiesoffishmealsupplychaininThailand,thissectionwillstartwiththePeruvianfishmealsupplychain.

Figure61illustratesthePeruvianfishmealandfishoilsupplychainofCopeinca47.Thechainstartswiththesupplyofrawmaterials–anchovy–receivedfromanchovyfishing.Then,thefisharesent to thefishmealproductionplants tobe inspected,cleanedandcooked.Theoutputs from thisprocessare22%offishmealand3.5%offishoil.Afterthattheyare

distributed throughagents, representatives,brokers,anddirectsales.Andfinallytheyaresold to themarkets foranimalconsumptionwhichcanbedividedinto58%aquacultureand42%animalfeed(IFFO,2011citedinNordahl,2011).

ThesupplychainoffishmealinThailandisslightlydifferent from thatofPeruon threeaspects.First,Peruuseswholefishas rawmaterialsforfishmealwhileThailandusesbothwholefishandtrimmingsfromfishprocessingmanufacturers.Second, inPeru, fish aresupplieddirectly to thefishmealproduction

plantwhereas inThailand,unless it is thefishmealproducer’sfishingboats, fishmealproducersbuytrashfishfrompierswhoactasmiddlemenbetweenthefishingboatsandthefishmealproducers.Lastly,outputsofPeruvianproductionarefishmealandfishoilwhile inThailand,theoutputisonlyfishmealwithcrabshellmealastrimmings.

Figure 61: Peruvian fishmeal and fish oil supply chain

Source: Copeinca, 2010 cited in Nordahl, 2011

47CopeincaisaNorway-basedcompanyoperatinginfishingindustry,producingfishmealandfishoil.

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Figure62showthesupplychainoffishmealindustry in thecentralandeasternregionsofThailandasstudiedbyBureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearch(2012).Itshowsthatrawmaterialsforthefishmealproductioncomefrom55.31%ofwholefish(trashfish)and44.69%of trimmings,and that trashfish isused toproducenotonly thefishmealbutalsofishsauce, fertilizers,andasbaits infish farms.Afterthefishmealwasproduced,itisthensoldmostlytoanimalfeedmills(94.85%),tofarmers(0.47%),tobrokers(3.03%)wholatersellsittoanimalfeedmillsandexportsit.Only1.65%isexported.Thispieceofresearchistheonlyonethatmentionsexportinthesupplychain.

8 th Regional Office of Agr icu l tura lEconomicsconductedasimilar researchontheeconomicsof fishmeal productionandmarket of fishmeal industry in the uppersouthern region in 2007.Fishmeal supplychainstudiedinthisresearchisseparatedintotwosupplychainsbetweenAndamanSeasideandGulfofThailandside.Bothof themareslightlydifferentfromthefishmealsupplychaininthecentralandeasternregionsastheydonotmentionexport in thesupplychains,andtheydonotshowthedistributionoftrashfish.

However,thebigdifferencesbetweenthemarethepercentagesof trimmingsused in thefishmealproduction.Inthecentralandeasternregions,trimmingsare44.69%ofrawmaterialswhileinthesouthernregion,trimmingsfromfishprocessingmanufacturersareusedonlyas1-3%ofrawmaterialsforfishmeal.

When comparing the supply chain offishmeal industryonAndamanSeasidewiththatofGulfofThailandside,theyarenotverydifferent–onlyslightchangesinpercentages,andthatfishmealproducersonGulfofThailandsidealsobuytrashfishfrombrokerswhocollecttrash fish from local coastal fishermen.

Thedifferentpercentagesarethepercentageof trashfish fromfishmealproducers’fishingboatsandthepercentageoffishmealsoldtobrokers.OntheAndamanSeaside,trashfishfromthefishmealproducers’boatsaccountfor20.97%ofrawmaterialwhile it isonly3.34%ontheGulfofThailandside.ThismeansthatfishmealproducersontheAndamanSeasideownmorefishingboatsthanthoseontheGulfofThailandside.Thisisprobablybecausethereareenoughfishworthoperating their ownfishingboats.

Figure 62: Map of fishmeal supply chain in central and eastern regions of Thailand

TrashFish100%

Fish sauce 3%

Farmers0.47%

Fishmealproducers’fishingboats

Fishmealproducers92%

Brokers3.03%Animalfeedmills94.86%

Fishprocessingmanufacturers

Export1.65%

Piers95%Fertilizers1% Fishfarms4%

55.1%

44.69%0.21%

Source: Bureau of Agricultural Economics Research, 2012

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Figure 63: Map of fishmeal supply chain on Andaman Sea side

Fishingboatsoffishmealproducers

Fishprocerssingmanufacturers

Fishmeal producers

Crabshellmealprocessingfactory

Crabshellmeal

trimmings

Farmers

Others

AnimalfeedPiers

20.97%Trashfish

77.69%Trashfish

1.34% 4.51%

0.01%

95.48%

Commercialfishingboats

Localfishingboats

Brokers

Source: 8 Regional Office of Agricultural Economics, 2007

Figure 64: Map of fishmeal supply chain on Gulf of Thailand side

Fishingboatsoffishmealproducers

Fishprocerssingmanufacturers

Fishmeal producers

Crabshellmealprocessingfactory

Crabshellmeal

trimmings

Trashfish

Farmers

Others

AnimalfeedPiers

Coastalfishermen

3.34%Trashfish

92.11%Trashfish

3.4% 21.21%

1.15%

0.72%

78.07%

Commercialfishingboats

Localfishingboats

Brokers

Brokers

Source: 8 Regional Office of Agricultural Economics, 2007

Supply Chain of Fishmeal Industry in Songkhla

Ourunderstandingofthestructure,activities,andmarketsharesoffishmealsupplychaininSongkhla is formedfromthe informationreceivedfrombothsecondaryresearchandpersonalin-depthinterviewswithrepresentativesofmajoranimalfeedmills,managersoffishmealproducersinSongkhla,trashfishbrokers,andapierowner.Forthefishmealproducers,weinterviewed8out

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of 9 existing fishmeal producers that arebasedinSongkhla.Thesupplychain ismorecomplicatedand involvesmoreplayers thanthosewritten in “AStudyofEconomicsofFishmealProductionandMarketunder theQualityAssuranceSystem” byBureau ofAgr icul tural Economics Research and

“Economics of Fishmeal Production andMarketinUpperSouthRegionin2007”by8RegionalOfficeofAgriculturalEconomics,BureauofAgriculturalEconomicsResearchwhichwehavereviewedearlierinthischapter.

In short, the fishmeal supply chain inSongkhlaisformedfromsixlinksstartingfromthe fishery businesswho supply the rawmaterials, to themiddlemenat thepier (PaePla), to the core of the chain – fishmeal

producers,tothemostinfluentialplayerinthechain–animalfeedmills,totheusers–farmer,and finally tomarkets, both exports anddomestic.However, themain focusof thisresearchisthefirstfourlinks–fisherybusinesstoanimalfeedmills,sotherewillbenodetailsonactivitiesoffifthandsixthlink.

First linkof thesupplychainoffishmealindustry inSongkhla is thefisherybusiness whichsuppliesrawmaterials to thefishmealproducers.Therearetwotypesofboatsoverall:1)fishingboatsand2)transportingboats(tourboats).Functionoffishingboatsistocapturefishwhilethatoftransportingboatsistoprovidenecessitiese.g.foods,water,salttothefishingboatssothattheycancontinuefishingwithoutreturning to theport for the foodsorwater.Meanwhile,thetourboatswill transportcatch

Figure 65: Map of fishmeal supply chain in Songkhla

Source: Interviews and analysis

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backtotheporttoensurethattheyarestillfresh.

Thereare two typesoffishingboats:1)localfishingboatsand2)commercialfishingboats.Thelocalfishingboatsaresmallerthanthecommercialfishingboats,andusuallyrunbyfamilymembers.TheyfishwithinThailand’smaritimezone.Allthecatcheslandattheport,andfortrashfish,theywillsellthemtobrokerswhocollecttrashfishfrommanyboatstoselltofishmealproducers.Forthecommercialfishingboats, some belong to fish processingmanufacturersorfishmealproducers,sotheysupply al l the catches to their owners’companies.For those thatdonotbelong tofishmealproducers, theywillusuallysell totheir regular customers.Weestimate thatapproximately5,760 tons48of trashfish thatwerelandedatSongkhla’sportin2013wenttofishmealproducersinSongkhla(seeFigure35fordetails).

Activities of fishery businesses

Theiractivitiescanbegroupedintothreestages:1)preparing2)fishing,and3)landing.Duringpreparingstage,fishingboatownerswillborrowmoneytofundtheirfishingtripsandthenbuysuppliesforthetripincludingfood,water,ice,saltandgas.Thenextstageisfishing,inwhichfishiscaughtbyvarioustypesoffishinggearsdependingontargetfish.However,somegearsi.e.trawlersorpushnets,catcheverythingin theirwaves. In thesea,caughtfishwillbesortedbyspecies,stored,andfermented.Afterthat,inlandingstage,theywillbetransportedbackandlandedattheport.

Second link isPae Plaorfishpiersandbrokers thatbuyfish fromthefishingboats.PiersorPaePlaheredonotrefertoaphysicalstructureofport,butratherrefer toa typeofbusinessthatauctionsfishfromthefishingboatstore-sell;theyactlikeabroker;however,theyalsoprovideotherservicessuchassortingandcuttingofftheheadsandseparatingtheoffal.

Activities of fish pier (Pae Pla) and brokers

Aftertheboatsarriveattheport,economicfishcatcheswilllandattheportfirst,andPaePlawillauctionforthefishtheywant.Thentheywillsortthefishbysize,andinsomecasetheywillcut theheadsoff for thecustomers.Afterthattheywillsellthefishtoexporters,foreignclients,anchovyproducers,andseafoodwhole-salers.Bothanchovyproducersandseafoodretailerswillsell the trimmingssuchasfishhead, fish bones and guts to fishmealproducers.Aftertheauctionsofeconomicfishisover, then“PlaRong-ngan”or factoryfish(wholefinishthatisunpalatable)willbesoldtofishprocessingmanufacturerssuchascannedfishproducers,orSurimiproducers.Forthoseboatsbelongingtofishmealproducers,thefishwillbesentdirectlytothemills.

Then,thefishwhosesizesdonotmeetthestandardsoffishprocessingmanufacturersbutarestillfresharesoldtofishballproducers.After thatprocess, thefisharesold tofishfarmers.Afterall the factoryfishare landed,trashfisharefinallylanded;theyarethelasttolandamongallcatchtypes,andaretypicallysegregated in separate landing areas.Remaindersfromfactoryfishandtrashfisharethen sold together to fishmeal producers.Brokerswillcollectundersizedfish, trashfishandoffcuts,andsellthemtofishmealproducers.

Third l ink is fishmeal producers. InSongkhla, therearecurrentlyninefishmealproducersstillinoperation.In2013,thetopfiveplayers–ThaiCharoenAnimalFeed,PacificFishmealIndustrial,PaesaeSongkhla,SamilaFishmeal,andJanaFishIndustries–togetherproduceapproximately81%ofSongkhla’stotalfishmealproductionof29,300tons49.Figure66showstherelativesizesoffishmealproducersinSongkhlabasedontheirproductionsfromthelargesttosmallest.

48InterviewswithfishmealproducersinSongkhla.49Interviewswithfishmealproducersandtheir2012incomestatements.

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Themainrawmaterialsused infishmealproduction inSongkhlaare trimmings fromfish-processingmanufacturerse.g.surimi,tunacanning;fishballproducersaswellasanchovyproducersandfishretailersatthemarketswhichaccountedabout80%oftheestimatedtotalrawmaterialsof 100,215 tons, or 79,964 tonsin2013.Apartfromthis,fishmealproducersalsobuy rawmaterialsdirectly fromcommercial

fishingboats,aswellasbrokerswhocollecttrashfish from localfishingboats frombothSongkhlaandotherprovinces.Thisaccountedfor20%ofrawmaterialsor20,250tons.Ofthisamount,62%orabout12,609tonswerefishlandedinSongkhla;theremaining38%or7,641tonswerefish fromotherprovincessuchasSatunandPattani,aswellasimportedfish.

Figure 66: Fishmeal producers in Songkhla, ranked from largest to the smallest

Fishmeal Producer

1. Thai Charoen Animal Feed Co. Ltd.

2. Pacific Fishmeal Industrial Co. Ltd. 3. Paesae Songkhla Co. Ltd.

4. Samila Fishmeal Co. Ltd. 5. Jana Fish Industries Co. Ltd.

6. Songkhla Marine Products Co., Ltd. 7. Southern Fish Powder Factory 1969 Co., Ltd.

8. Sangcharoen Wattana Fisheries Co., Ltd.50

9. Songkhla Fishery Trading Limited Partnership

Source: In-depth interviews

50SincewecouldnotinterviewSangcharoenWattanaFisheries,weestimateditsrelativesizefromthe2012incomestatementcomparedwithotherfishmealproducers.

Figure 67: Raw materials of fishmeal in Songkhla, 1999 – 2013, divided into trash fish, by-products and other fish

Raw materials of fishmeal in Songkhla, 1999 - 2011180,000160,000140,000120,000100,00080,00060,00040,00020,000

0

YearsOther fishTrash fish Byproduct

Tons

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Source: Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (FSARG), DoF, 2013

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Among12,609tonsofwholefishlandedinSongkhlaandwenttofishmealproducersintheprovince,5,760tonsor46%weretrashfish.Thus,thismeansthatof25,000tonsof trashfishwhichwe estimated to be landed inSongkhla’sport,only23%went tofishmealproducers inSongkhla; the remaining77%or 19,240 tons probablywent to fishmealproducersinotherprovinces.Accordingly,whenwe incorporatedataofrawmaterialsused in2013withdatafromDoF,wegetarawmaterialchartofSongkhla’s fishmealproducersasshowninFigure67.

Since rawmaterials are crucial to thefishmeal producers, andwild-caught fishare rarer, offcuts from fish-processingmanufacturershaveplayedanimportantrole.Fishmealproducersthathavefish-processingmanufacturersas parentcompanieswillbesuppliedwith trimmings regularly, so theiroperationsaremorestableandpredictable;

therefore, theycanproducemorefishmealthan those thatdonothavefish-processingcompaniesinthegroup.Wealsofoundthatallof the topfiveplayershavefish-processingmanufacturersastheirparentcompaniesorownbythesamemajorshareholdersasshowninFigure68.

OfthetotalfishmealproducedinSongkhlain2013,36.8%were#2Bgrade(surimi),22.9%werefishheadgrade,23.2%were#2grade,and17.1%were#3grade.ThiscorrespondswithrelativequalityoffishmealrawmaterialsinSongkhlaaswementionedearlier, inthatthemain rawmaterials are by-products fromfish-processingmanufacturers.

However,ifwelookthegradeoffishmealproducedfromSongkhlafromthepast,wefindthatSongkhlafishmealis#3gradeonaverage.Dueto the lowqualityof trashfish,fishmealproducedwithtrashfishasmainrawmaterial

Figure 68: Relationships between top five fishmeal producers in Songkhla and fish-processing manufacturers

Fishmeal producers Fish-processing manu-facturers Relationships

ThaiCharoenAnimalFeedCo.Ltd.

ChotiwatManufacturingCo.Ltd.

FourmajorshareholdersofChotiwatManufacturinghold55%sharesofThaiCharoenAnimalFeed.

PacificFishmealIndustrialCo.Ltd.

PacificFishProcessingCo.Ltd.

AllshareholdersofPacificFishmealIndustrialaremajorshareholdersofPacificFishProcessing.

PaesaeSongkhlaCo.Ltd. ManAFrozenFoodsCo.Ltd.

FourmajorshareholdersofManAFrozenFoodshold96.92%ofsharesofPaesaeSongkhla.

SamilaFishmealCo.Ltd. SiamInternationalFoodCo.Ltd.

SamilaFishmealholds11%ofsharesofSiamInternationalFood,andfivemajorshareholdersofSiamInternationalFoodhold69.92%ofsharesofSamilaFishemal.

JanaFishIndutriesCo.Ltd SongkhlaCanningCo.Ltd

OnemajorshareholderofSongkhlaCanningholds30%ofsharesofJanaFishIndustries.

Source: Fishery Statistics Analysis and Research Group (FSARG), DoF, 2013

51Soldgradefishmealisthelowestgradeoffishmealusuallyproducedfromverybadconditiontrashfish.Thesmellisverybadandthepercentageofproteinisthelowestofallfishmeal.InThai,itiscalledplakai(ปลาขาย).

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isalways#3gradeor lower (soldgrade51).Ifwe lookathistorical trendsoffishmealrawmaterialusage–bothSongkhlaandThailand,weobservethatthepercentagesofby-productshaveincreasedcontinuously,whilewholefishusageincludingtrashfishhasbeendecliningsteadily.ThisconfirmsthetrendshowninFigure67thatfrom2004onwards,fishmealproducersinSongkhlahaveshiftedfromtrashfishtowardby-productsasthemainrawmaterialinfishmealproduction.

Amongthetopfivefishmealproducers,tworeceiveby-productsfromsurimiproducers,andthree fromtunacanningmanufacturers.Thedifferencesbetween#2Bandfishheadgradeare1)freshness2)percentageofprotein3)odorand4)percentageoffat.#2Bfishmealisveryfreshas itwasproduced fromoffcutsoffishused toproducesurimiwhich is forhumanconsumption, so theyare freshandclean.Thetrimmings fromsurimiproducersusuallyhavefishfleshwith them,so theyyieldhighpercentageofproteinandlowfat.Becausethey

arevery freshandclean,fishmealproducedfromthemsmellsgood.Foroffcutsfromtunacanningmanufacturers, theyareheads,guts,andbonesthatwerecutoffthefishandbarelyhadanyfishflesh left,so thepercentageofprotein is lower than thatof#2Bwhile thepercentageoffatishigherbecausefishheadsarefulloffat.Whencomparedwithtrimmingsfromsurimiproducers,by-productsfromtunacanningarelessfresh,sothesmelloffishheadgradefishmeal is thennotasgoodas#2Bgrade.

GradingoffishmealinanimalfeedindustryismorecomplicatedthanofficialfigurescitedearlierinChapter2whichdividesfishmealintothreegrades.Figure69showsanexampleofpricesoffishmealannouncedbyCPFonFebruary8,2014.PleasenotethatofficiallyCPFisnottheonewhoquotesthepricesoffishmeal,butbecauseCPFisthelargestfishmealbuyerinThailand, itspricesarecommonlyusedasreferencepricesinbothfishmealindustryandanimalfeedindustry.

Figure 69: Fishmeal prices at Bangkok market announced by CPF on February 8, 2014

FishmealFormer prices (Baht) Changes New prices (Baht)

January 28, 2014 (+/-) February 8, 2014

Shrimpgradeprotein65%-99.99% 31.80 +1.50 33.30

#1protein60%-99.99% 30.90 +1.50 32.40

#1protein57%-59.99% 30.70 +1.50 32.20

#2protein60%-99.99% 30.20 +1.50 31.70

#2protein54%-59.99% 29.20 0.00 29.20

#2B(Surimi)protein58%-99% 31.60 0.00 31.60

#2B(Surimi)protein52%-57% 29.30 0.00 29.30

#3protein60%-99.99% 26.00 +1.50 27.50

#3protein52%-59.99% 24.80 +1.50 26.30

Soldgrade 15.30 0.00 15.30

Fishheadgradeprotein45%-54.99% 28.10 +1.50 29.60

Source: Thai Fishmeal Producers Association, 2014

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Amajordifferencebetweenrough threegradesoffishmealcited inChapter2and11gradesinFigure69aboveisthatthosethreegradesare further subdivided into: shrimpgrade,#2Bgrade(surimi),soldgrade,fishheadgrade,and#1-3gradesdividedintoupperandlower.Percentagesofproteinrequirefor#1-3uppergradeareallbetween60%-99.99%.Whatsetsthemapartisclearlynotthepercentageofprotein; it is thesmell.Thesmell is themostsignificantcriteria ingradingfishmeal,and itusually correlateswithTVBN (measureoffreshness),i.e.smellyfishmealusuallyhashighTVBN.Smelloffishmealwillattractfish,shrimp,andlivestocktoeatthefeedwhilepercentageofproteinwillaffectgrowth rate,so thekeygradingcriteriaaresmell,protein,andTVBN.

Activities of fishmeal producers

Theiractivitiescanbedivided into threestages:1)pre-processing2)processing,and3)post-processing. In pre-processing, theiractivitiesincludebuyingcriteriasetting,supplierscreening,buying, rawmaterials receiving,rawmaterials checking, and documentschecking52.Fishmealproducerswillsetbuyingcriteria basedongrades of fishmeal theyproduce,andafterthattheywillscreensupplierssothat theygetrawmaterials thatmeettheircriteria.Then,whentheyagreetobuy,fishmealproducerswill senda truck topickup rawmaterials,but insomecases,supplierswilldeliverthematthefishmealproducers’factories.Afterthat,theywillcheckthequalityoftherawmaterials if theyareasagreedor if theyareacceptable.Then, the documentswill bechecked(forthosewhorequiredocuments).

Inprocessingstage, theactivitiesvarydependingon theiroperationswhether theyproducefishmealonlyortheyalsoproducefishoil.Thisdependsontheirrawmaterials.Iftheyusealotofoffcuts,especiallyfishheadsthatarefullof fat, theyusuallyproducefishoil. Iftheyproducefishoilcookingandsqueezingprocesswillbeadded.Trashfishusagehasnoeffectontheoperation–evenitismixedupwith

mud.But if the trashfish isverymashedupuntilitbecomesliquid,solidrawmaterialsmustbeaddedsothattheycanbemovedbyascrewconveyortoacooker.

TherearetwotypesoffishmealoperationsysteminSongkhla:steamingsystemandhotoilsystem.Theonlydifferencebetweenthetwoisoneusessteaminthedryingprocess,andtheotheruseshotoil.Therestoftheoperations

52Onlyfishmealproducersthatrequiredocumentse.g.MCPD

Figure 70: Fishmeal operation flow chart

Source: In-depth interviews and factory visits

Raw material receiving

Raw material checking

CookingSqueezing

Drying

Sieving

1st temperature reducing

Additive adding

Grinding

2nd temperature reducing

Quality checking

Mixing

Packing

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are the same. However, in Songkh lasteamingsystemismorepopular;onlyafewusehot oil system,and it is believed thatfishmealproducedbyhotoilsystemcanbecontaminatedfromsubstancesintheoil.

Theiroperationsstartafter rawmaterialreceivedandchecked for thequalityof rawmaterialsi.e.freshness,andcontaminantssuchasrubbergloves.Then,theyaremovedbyascrewconveyortoacooker(incasethattheywillproducefishoil)afterthatthecookedoffcutsaresqueezedtheliquidout.Theliquidwillbepipedtofishoiloperation,andfishmealwillbetransportedtoadryer. If theydonotproducefishoil,rawmaterialsaretransportedtodryersaftertheywerereceived.Whentheyaredried,eitherbysteamorhotoil,theywillbesievedtoseparatebigbones,andthencooled.Afterthatadditivesareadded,andfishmealisgroundandreducedtemperatureagain.

Inpost-processingstage,fishmealwillbecheckedforitsqualitye.g.color,humidity,odor,andmixedwithotherlotsoffishmealsothatitmatcheswithaspecificationofeachbuyer.Afterthat it ispackedanddeliveredtothebuyers.ThefishmealoperationflowchartisshownintheFigure70.

Fourth link isanimal feed mills.After thefishmealproducersproducefishmeal,mostlytheywillsellittoanimalfeedmills,andsellsometofarmsthatmixtheirownfeed.Somewillbesold tobrokerswhoaddvaluesbymixingdifferentgradesoffishmealandthensell ittoanimal feedmillsor farms.Animal feedmillsinspect thequalityof thefishmealandgradethem.If thefishmealproducersdonotagreewiththeirinspectionandarenotsatisfiedwiththeprices theyoffer, theyhave tobring thefishmealbackandbarethetransportationcost.

FromourstudyofSongkhla’sfishmealindustrysupplychain,wefoundthat in2013,66%offishmealproducedinSongkhlawenttoanimalfeedmills,24%wereboughtbybrokers,andtheremaining10%weresoldtofarms.AndthelargestandmostimportantbuyeroffishmealinSongkhlaisCPFbecauseof66%offishmeal

sold toanimal feedmills,CPFboughtabout8,463tonsor45%,andsixoutofeightfishmealproducerssaidtheysoldtheirfishmealtoCPF.ThenextlargestbuyerisBetagrobuying3,270tonsor17%followedbyThaiunionFeedmill(TFM,51%ownedbyThaiunionFrozenFoods)andLeePattanaat2,052tons(11%)and1,680tons(9%)respectively.KrungthaiFeedmillonlybought600tonsoffishmealor3%,whiletheremaining15%wenttoothersmallandmediumsizeanimalfeedmills.

5,760tonsoftrashfishcouldproduce1,527tonsof#3gradefishmeal,ofwhich37.6%or575tonsweresoldtoCPF,42.7%or652tonstobrokers,and19.7%or300 tons to farms.Nevertheless,CPFboughtvariousgradesoffishmeal-#2,#2B,#3,andfishheadgrade–fromsixfishmealproducerswhileotheranimalfeedmillsboughtonlyoneortwogradesfromasingleoracoupleoffishmealproducerswhicharetheir regularsuppliers.Summaryof trashfishusageandmapofSongkhla’sfishmealindustrysupplychainwithdetails isshowninFigure71.

Activities of animal feed mills

Activities in the pre-processing stageincludecriteriasetting,qualitychecking,anddocumentchecking.First,eachanimalfeedmillwillsetthebuyingcriteriasuchasthegradesoffishmeal, percentage of protein, TVBN,temperature,andcontamination.Theyspecifythe grades and the prices they will buyaccordingtotypesofanimalfeedstheyproduceasdifferenttypesofanimalfeedsusedifferenttypesoffishmeal;forexample,feedsforduckmaycontain“fishier”fishmealthanothertypes,while piglet feeds cannot use fishmealcontaining crab shellmeals as itwill hurtstomachsofpiglets.Whilelivestockandpoultryfeedscanuselowproteinfishmeal,aquaculturefeedsneedhighproteinfishmeal,especiallyshrimpfeedsandfeedsforfishthateatsmeats.Someanimalfeedmillsmaybuymorefishmealproduced fromby-productsas theywant toshift frombycatches toby-products thatareperceivedtohavelessenvironmentalimpacts.TFM,forexample,hasproductswhichare“zero

107

bycatch”.Theseproducts,accountingfor33.5%of the total, use fishmeal produced fromby-productsonly.

Thesecondstep isaquality checkingprocess.After fishmeal producerswhosefishmealmeetthecriteriaoftheanimalfeedmillandagreewiththeofferedprices,fishmealwillbedelivered to theanimal feedmill.On thearrival,afishmealtruckwillbequeuingforthefirstsampling.Samplewillbetakenfromeverybagpossible fromthe topand thebackrowusinga“bagprobe.”Asampletakerwilllookifthereareinsectsmixedinthefishmeal,ifthereare,theywillberejected.Andthenhewilllookatthecoloroffishmeal.Ifthecolorisdifferentfromapreviousbag,itwillbekeptinaseparatebag.Thenthesampletakerwilltouchsampleoffishmealtosensethetemperature.Ifitisquitehot,theywilluseadigitaltemperaturecheckertore-checkifitisacceptable.Aftertouching,asample takerwillsmell thefishmeal tosee iftheysmell thesameordifferent.If theysmelldifferent,itwillbekeptinaseparatebag.Then,allthesampleswillbemixedandtestedinthelab.Afterthefirstsampling,bagsoffishmealwillbe loaded.Then,samplewillbe taken fromeverybag.Thesampleswillbemixed,testedinthelab,andkeptforthreemonthsjustincasethat there is aproblemand the sample isneededtobere-tested.Then,documentsofthefishmealwillbechecked ifanimal feedmillsrequirethedocuments.

Duringtheprocessingstage,rawmaterialswill becookedso that theycanbegroundeasily,andthentheywillbesievedandgroundinordertobemixedeasily.Afterthattheywillbecooled,mixedandsenttoapelletmill.Then,

feed pelletswill be dried and cooled onemore timebefore theyarefiltered.Forpost-processingstage, feedswillbepackedanddelivered to customers (PollutionControlDepartment,MinistryofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment,2005).

Fifth link is farms–both livestockandaqua-cultured farms.Theybuyanimal feedsproducedbytheanimalfeedmillsofthefourthlinkwhichusefishmealasamainproteiningredient.However,somefarmswillbuyallthe ingredientsandmix them themselves.OfthetotalfishmealproducedinSongkhlain2013,10%or2,850tonsweresoldtofarms.Aqua-culturedanimals–fishandshrimps–needtobefedbyhighproteinfeeds.Therefore,whenshrimpfarmswerehitbyEarlyMortalitySyndrome (EMS), thedemands for shrimpfeedsdramaticallydeclined,anditaffectedthedomesticdemandsforfishmealaswell.

S ix th l ink is expor t and domest icconsumption.Since January 1, 2010,ECrequirescatchcertificatesfromtheexporterswhowillexportmarineproducts.Thisaffectsthesupply chainof fishmeal industrybecauseshrimpexporterswillneedcatchcertificatesfromtheanimalfeedmillswhoproduceshrimpfeedstoshowthattheexportedshrimpswerenot fedbyshrimpfeedsproduced fromIUU-fishingtrashfish.Thiseffectivelyforcesanimalfeedmillexporterstorequirecatchcertificatesfromthefishmealproducerswhoneedtoaskforthefishinglogbooksfromthefishingboats.

Overall,fishmealsupplychaininSongkhlaandmarketsharesofmajorplayersinthechainissummarizedinFigure71.

108

Figu

re 7

1: S

umm

ary

of tr

ash

fish

usag

e (h

ighl

ight

ed in

red)

and

map

of s

uppl

y ch

ain

of fi

shm

eal i

ndus

try

in S

ongk

hla

CPF

=CharoenPokphandFoods,TFM

=ThaiunionFeedm

ill(subsidiaryofThaiunionFrozenProducts),LeePa

ttana=LeePattanafeedmill,Krung

Thai=KrungThaifeedmill;reditems=trashfishusage

Sour

ce: I

n-de

pth

inte

rvie

ws

and

tele

phon

e in

terv

iew

s w

ith 8

out

of 9

fish

mea

l pro

duce

rs in

Son

gkhl

a

300

tons

(50%

)(m

ade

from

tras

h fis

h)60

0 to

ns#3

gra

de (2

1%)

2,25

0 to

ns#2

B g

rade

(79%

)

CPF

(45%

)8,

464

tons

6,83

9 to

ns (8

1%)

trace

abili

ty

972

tons

(47%

)tra

ceab

ility

1,08

0 to

ns (6

4%)

#2 g

rade

non-

trace

abili

ty

600

tons

(36%

)#2

B g

rade

trace

abili

ty

Sum

mar

y of

tras

h fis

h us

age

in s

uppl

y ch

ain

of fi

shm

eal i

ndus

try

in S

ongk

hla

- 5,7

60 to

ns o

r 5.7

% o

f 100

,215

tons

of r

aw m

ater

ials

wer

e tra

sh fi

sh.

- 2,4

00 to

ns o

r 42%

of 5

,760

tons

of t

rash

fish

had

MC

PD

-FM

.- 3

,360

tons

or 5

8% o

f 5,7

60 to

ns o

f tra

sh fi

sh d

o no

t hav

e M

CP

D-F

M.

- 1,5

27 to

ns o

r 5.3

% o

f 28,

509

tons

of fi

shm

eal p

rodu

ced

from

tras

h fis

h.- 6

52 to

ns o

r 42.

7% o

f 1,5

27 to

ns o

f fish

mea

l pro

duce

d fro

m tr

ash

fish

wer

e so

ld to

bro

kers

.- 5

75 to

ns o

r 37.

6% o

f 1,5

27 to

ns o

f fish

mea

l pro

duce

d fro

m tr

ash

fish

wer

e so

ld to

CP

F.- 3

00 to

ns o

r 19.

7% o

f 1,5

27 to

ns o

f fish

mea

l pro

duce

d fro

m tr

ash

fish

wer

e so

ld to

farm

.- 1

00%

of 6

52 to

ns o

f fish

mea

l pro

duce

d fro

m tr

ash

fish

that

wer

e so

ld to

bro

kers

cou

ld n

ot b

e tra

ceab

le.

- 300

tons

or 5

2.2%

of 5

75 to

ns o

f fish

mea

l pro

duce

d fro

m tr

ash

fish

that

wer

e so

ld to

CP

F co

uld

be tr

acea

ble

- 100

% o

f 300

tons

of fi

shm

eal p

rodu

ced

from

tras

h fis

h th

at w

ere

sold

to fr

am c

ould

not

be

trace

able

.

300

tons

(41%

)(m

ade

from

tras

h fis

h)

1,62

5 to

ns (1

9%)

non-

trace

abili

ty

1,35

0 to

ns (8

3%)

#2B

gra

de

3,90

0 to

ns (5

7%)

#2B

gra

de

240

tons

(3%

)#2

gra

de

737

tons

(11%

)#3

gra

de

1,96

2 to

ns (2

9%)

fish

head

grad

e

275

tons

(17%

)#3

gra

de (m

ade

from

tras

h fis

h)

1,08

0 to

ns (5

3%)

non-

trace

abili

ty

Leep

atta

na1,

680

tons

(9%

)

Bet

agro

3,27

0 to

ns (1

7%)

fish

head

gra

de10

0% tr

acea

bilit

y

Kru

ngth

ai60

0 to

ns (3

%)

#2B

gra

de10

0% tr

acea

bilit

y

Oth

er2,

748

tons

(15%

)#2

gra

de10

0% tr

acea

bilit

y

TFM

2,05

2 to

ns (1

1%)

#2 g

rade

Impo

rts 6

23 to

nsw

ith M

CP

D (8

%)

Sat

un 5

,910

tons

with

out M

CP

D-F

M (7

7%)

Pat

tani

1,1

08 to

nsw

ithou

t MC

PD

-FM

(15%

)

With

MC

PD

70,3

24 to

ns (8

8%)

With

out M

CP

D9,

641

tons

(12%

)

8 Fi

shm

eal p

rodu

cers

100,

215

tons

of r

aw m

ater

ials

28,5

09 to

ns o

f fish

mea

l

Farm

s (1

0%)

2,85

0 to

ns10

0% tr

acea

bilit

y

Ani

mal

feed

mill

s18

,814

tons

(66%

)

480

tons

(7%

)#2

gra

de10

0% tr

acea

bilit

y

1,30

8 to

ns (1

9%)

Fish

hea

d gr

ade

100%

trac

eabi

lity

3,25

7 to

ns (4

8%)

#3 g

rade

2,60

5 to

ns (8

0%)

trace

abili

ty

1,80

0 to

ns (2

6%)

#2B

gra

de10

0% tr

acea

bilit

y62

5 to

ns (2

0%)

non-

trace

abili

ty(m

ade

from

tras

h fis

h)

Bro

kers

6,84

5 to

ns (2

4%)

Tras

h fis

h5,

760

tons

(46%

)

Song

kla

12,6

09 to

ns (6

2%)

Oth

er w

hole

fish

6,84

9 to

ns (5

4%)

Oth

ers

7,64

1 to

ns (3

8%)

Who

le fi

sh20

,250

tons

(20%

)

Trim

min

gs79

,965

tons

(80%

)W

ith M

CP

D-F

M2,

400

tons

(42%

)

With

MC

PD

-FM

4,50

0 to

ns (6

6%)

With

out M

CP

D-F

M3,

360

tons

(58%

)

With

out M

CP

D-F

M2,

349

tons

(34%

)

Tras

h fis

h la

nded

in S

ongk

la25

,000

tons

Song

kla

5,76

0 to

ns (2

3%)

Oth

er p

rovi

nces

19,2

40 to

ns (7

7%)

109

Data source and calculation methodology

In in-depth interviews with fishmealproducers,weasked them toaverage theamountof rawmaterials theyusedmonthly,percentageof theirrawmaterialswithMCPDorMCPD-FM, theirproduction ratios,gradeoffishmeal theyproduce,andpercentageofeachmajorcustomer (animal feedmill)whopurchasetheirproducts.

1) Raw materials

l TrimmingsWefound thateightfishmealproducers

usedabout100,215tonsof rawmaterials toproducearound28,509 tonsoffishmeal.Of100,215tonsofrawmaterials,80%or79,965tons were offcuts from fish-processingmanufacturerse.g.surimiproducers,fishballproducers, or fish canningmanufacturers;and20%or 20,250 tonswerewhole fish.Since trimmingswere fromfish-processingmanufacturersforhumanconsumption,88%ofthe totaloffcutsorabout70,324 tonswereby-productsthathadMCPDwhichtellswherethefishcamefromorwheretheywerecaughtbywhichvessels.Only12%or9,641tonsdidnothaveMCPD.Someof theseby-productsactuallyhadMCPD,but thefish-processingmanufacturerdidnotreleasetheMCPD,sayingitwastradesecret.

l Whole fishOf20,250tonsofwholefish,62%or12,609

tonswerefishlandedinSongkhla,and38%or7,641tonswerefromotherprovincesincludingimports.Fish landedinSongkhlacandividedintotwogroups:trashfishandotherwholefish(truetrashfishandundersizedfishleftoveratthepier).Forthetrashfish,incasethattheydidnottellusdirectly,weevaluatedfromthegradeoffishmealtheyproduceandthesourceofthefish.Fromourcalculation,around5,760tonsoftrashfish landed inSongkhlawereused toproducefishmeal; thiswas46%of thewholefishfromSongkhla.Theotherwholefishwere6,849 tonsor 54%of thewhole fish fromSongkhla.66%of theseorabout4,500 tons

hadMCPD-FM,andtherest34%or2,349tonsdidnothave.

Forthefishfromotherplaces,5,910tonsor77%of7,641 tonswere fromSatun,and1,108tonsor15%werefromPattani.FishfrombothprovinceswerewithoutMCPD-FM.Pleasenotethatthesefishwereboughtbyonefishmealproducerwhodidnotrequirethedocuments.The rest 8% or 623 tonswere importedwithMCPD.Thefishmealproducerdidnotimport thefishby itself,but thesefishwereundersized imported fish sold froma fishcanningmanufacturer.

2) Fishmeal

Afterwekneweachfishmealproducer’saveragemonthlyamountofrawmaterialsused,theirproductionratios,andgradeoffishmealtheyproduce,wethencalculatedtheamountofeachgradeoffishmealproducedbyeachfishmealproducer.Of28,509tonsoffishmealproducedinSongkhlain2013,36.8%or10,500tonswere#2Bgrade,23.2%or6,600tonswere#2grade,22.9%or6,540tonswerefishheadgrade,and17.1%or4,869tonswere#3grade.Andamong4,869tonsof#3gradefishmeal,1,527tonsor31.4%werefishmealproducedfromtrashfish.

3) Fishmeal Buyers

Afterwecalculatedeachgradeoffishmealeachfishmealproducerproduce,wethenaskedthemwhomtheysoldittoatwhatpercentage,andafterthatwecalculatedtheamountofeachgradeoffishmealeachfishmealbuyerbought.

Fishmealbuyerscanbedividedintothreegroups:1)animalfeedmills2)brokersand3)farms.Animalfeedmillsarethelargestgroup,buying18,814tonsor66%of28,509tons in2013,whilebrokersboughtaround6,845tonsor24%,andfarmsbought2,850tonsor10%.

Majoranimalfeedmillbuyersconsistoffivemajoranimalfeedmillsandunidentifiedsmallandmediumanimalfeedmillswhichwelabeled

110

as“others”.Thefivemajoranimal feedmillsincludeCharoenPokphandFoods (CPF),Betagro,Thaiunion Feedmill (TFM), LeePattana,andKrungthai.CPFbought8,464tonsor45%of18,814tons,Betagro3,270tonsor17%,TFM2,052 tonsor11%,LeePattana1,680tonsor9%,Krungthai600tonsor3%,andothers2,748tonsor15%.

l CPFOf8,464tonsoffishmealCPFbought,81%

or6,839tonswerefishmealproducedfromrawmaterialswithdocumentsfortraceability,andincaseofCPF, theywerefishmealcertificates.Theothers19%or1,625tonswerefishmealwithoutfishmealcertificate.Among6,839tonsoffishmealwithfishmealcertificates,3,900tonsor57%were#2Bfishmeal,1,962tonsor29%werefishheadgrade,737tonsor11%were#3grade,and240tonsor3%were#2grade.Of737tonsof#3fishmeal,300tonsor41%werefishmealproducedfromtrashfish.Asfor1,625tonsoffishmealwithoutfishmealcertificates,1,350tonsor83%were#2Bgrade,and275tonsor17%were#3gradefishmealproducedfromtrashfish.Intotal,CPFboughtabout575tonsoffishmealproduced fromtrashfishor6.8%offishmealCPFboughtfromSongkhla.

l BetagroBetagrobought3,270 tonsoffishhead

grade fishmeal all, ofwhich had fishmealcertificates.ThisisbecauseBetagroboughtthefishmealfromasinglefishmealproducerthatcanprovidefishmealcertificates toallof thefishmealitproducesasitsrawmaterialsareby-productsfromthemothercompanywhichalreadyhasMCPDoffish itbought, so themothercompanythenprovidedMCPD–documentsfortraceability–tothefishmealproducer.

l TFMTFMbought2,052tonsof#2fishmeal47%

ofwhichor972tonswereproducedfromrawmaterialswithdocumentsfor traceability.Andtheother53%or1,080tonshadnodocuments.

l Lee PattanaLeePattanabought1,680tonsoffishmeal

64%ofwhichor1,080tonswere#2fishmealwithnodocuments for traceability.And theother36%or600 tonswere#2Bfishmealproducedfromrawmaterialswithdocumentsfortraceability.

l KrungthaiKrungthaibought600tonsof#2Bfishmeal,

allofwhichwereproducedfromrawmaterialswithdocuments for traceability.LikeBetagro,Krungthaibought thefishmeal fromasinglesourcethatcanhavedocumentsfortraceabilityofalloffishmealitproduces.

l OthersUnidentifiedsmallandmediumanimalfeed

millsaltogetherbought2,748tonsof#2fishmealproducedfromrawmaterialswithdocumentsfortraceability.

l BrokersBrokersbought6,845tonsoffourdifferent

gradesoffishmeal including3,257tonsof#3or 48%of the total fishmeal they bought,1,800tonsof#2Bproducedfromrawmaterialswith documents for traceability or 26%,1,308tonsoffishheadgradewithdocumentfor traceabilityor19%,and480 tonsof#2producedfromrawmaterialswithdocumentsfortraceabilityor7%.

Of3,257tonsof#3fishmeal,2,605tonsor80%wereproduced fromrawmaterialswithdocumentsfortraceability,andtheother20%or652 tonswereproduced from trashfishwithoutdocumentsfortraceability.

l FarmsFarmsbought2,850tonsoftwogradesof

fishmealproduced from rawmaterialswithdocumentsfortraceability.Of2,850tons,79%or2,250tonswere#2B,andtheother21%or600tonswere#350%ofwhichor300tonswereproducedfromtrashfish.

111Fi

gure

72:

Act

ivity

map

of fi

shm

eal s

uppl

y ch

ain

and

prac

tices

und

er T

haila

nd’s

fish

mea

l cer

tifica

te

Preparing

Fishingboat

owners

willborro

w

moneyto

fundtheir

fishingtrips.

Buyfoods,

water,ice,

saltandgas.

Collecting

Collect

undersized

fish,trash

fishand

offcuts,and

sellthem

tofishmeal

producers.

i)MCPD

-FM

whole

fishwhen

purchased

(tocom

bat

unreported

fishingand

toensure

traceability)

Landing

Fishwillbe

transported

backand

landedatthe

port

i)logbook(to

combat

unreported

fishing)

ii)MCPD

-FM

wholefish

when

purchased

(tocom

bat

unreported

fishingand

toensure

traceability))

Processing

Raw

materials

arecooked

squeezed

dried

sieved

1stcooled

added

additives

ground

2ndcooled

Processing

Raw

materials

arecooked

sieved

ground

1stcooled

mixed

pelleted

dried

2ndcooled

filtered

Fishing

Catchfishby

varioustypes

offishing

gears

depending

ontheir

targetfish.

Caughtfish

willbesorted

byspecies,

stored,and

fermented.

i)vessel

registration

(tolegalize

vesselandto

combat

illegal

fishing)

ii)fishing

license(to

legalize

fishinggears

andto

combat

illegal

fishing)

Pre-

processing

Setbuyingcriteria

basedongrades

offishmeal

theyproduce.

Screensuppliers

sothattheyget

rawmaterialsthat

meettheircriteria.

Receiveraw

materials.

Checkthequality

oftheraw

materialsifthey

areasagreed

oriftheyare

acceptable.

Check

documents

i)MCPD

-FM

forw

holefish

(tocom

bat

unreportedfishing

andtoensure

traceability)

ii)MCPD

,catch

certificate,

formA,formB

forby-product

fromprocessors

(tocom

bat

unreportedfishing

andtoensure

traceability))

Pre-

processing

Set t

he

buying

criteriasuch

asthegrades

offishmeal,

percentage

ofprotein,

TVBN

,temperature,

and

contam

ination.

Checkthe

qualityby

samplingand

testingthe

fishm

eal.

i)collectand

subm

itall

documentsto

DoFinorder

tobeverified.

(MCPD

-FM,

MCPD

,catch

certificate,

formA,

formB,and

fishm

eal

certificate)

Sorting

Auction

forthefish

theywant.

Sortthe

fishby

size,andin

somecase

theywillcut

theheads

offforthe

custom

ers.

Re-

sell

i)MCPD

-FM

whole

fishwhen

purchased

(tocom

bat

unreported

fishingand

toensure

traceability

Post-

processing

Fishmealw

illbechecked

foritsquality.

Fishmealis

mixedwith

otherlots

offishmeal

sothatit

matches

witha

specification

ofeach

buyer.

Itispacked

anddeliv

-eredtothe

buyers.

i)MCPD

andfishm

eal

certificate

(tocom

bat

unreported

fishingand

toensure

traceability)

Post-

processing

Feedsare

packedand

delivered.

Fishingvessels

Activities

Fishmealproducers

Animalfeedmills

Brokers

Piers

112

7.2 Responsible sourcing of fishmealraw material

Asstatedinchapter5,standardsonfisheryaredesigned topromoteresponsiblefishingpractices toachieve thegoal of long-termsustainability.Standardsintheareaoffishmeal,namelyIFFORS,ASC,GlobalG.A.P.,andBAP,allrequireresponsiblepracticesfromsourcingmaterial toendproducts.Animal feedmillsaimingtogetcertifiedareinevitablebuttofulfilthequalifications.CPFandThaiunionareexamplesofThaifeedmillsthatactivelyrespondto the requirements,although there remainsignificant gaps due to shortcomings ofThailand’scurrentfisheries lawand lackoflocation-basedtracking.Standards thatbothfirmsengagein53setthecriteriaforfishmealsourcingtobetracedbacktowhereandhowrawmaterialsoriginate.Fishmealmustbeproducedfrom traceable, non-IUUfishing, andusesnoendangered species as rawmaterials.Consequently,feedmillsattempttoincorporatesuppliers’practicesintotheirpracticesandinventmeasurestobettermanagetheirsupplychain.

Asstatedearlier,thefishmealsupplychaininSongkhlacomprisessixlinksfromfisherytoanimalfeedmarket.Thefocusofthisresearchis,however,onthefirstfourlinkswhichinvolvesthreegroupsofplayers,namelysuppliersofrawmaterials54,fishmealproducers,andanimalfeedmills.Theiractivitiesregardingresponsiblesourcingoffishmealaresummarizedbykeyplayersbelow.

7.2.1 Animal feed mills

Acall for responsiblesourcing fromaninternationalmarket,particularlytheEuropeanUnion,isthekeyfactordrivinganimalfeedmillstorespondby inventingprogramtoenhancetheirsupplychainmanagementandtodisplay

theirintentiontowardsustainability.Asthemostinfluentialpayersinthechain,feedmillsarethemostcapableofmotivatingchanges in theirsuppliers’practices.

1)ThaiunionFeedmill

ThaiunionFeedmill(TFM),asubsidiaryofThaiunionFrozenProducts(TUF),iscurrentlydevelopingtheprogramtopromoteresponsiblesourcingasapartofsustainabilityprojectofitsmothercompany,TUF.Monetaryincentiveistobe adopted in order to increase players’participationwhich is the essence of theprogram.Pilotprojectswillbe launched thisyear (2014) inPhang-NgaandChumphonprovince,where largeshareofsupplycomefrom55.Presently,thecompanyiscommittedtoBAPstandard;accordingly, itneedstoobtaindeclarationsfromsuppliersonthespeciesandfisheryoriginsofeachbatchoffishmeal,andkeeprecordof“oneup,onedown”.

Accordingtofieldinterviews,2,052tonsoffishmealproducedinSongkhlawassoldtothecompany lastyear;none isoriginated fromSongkhlatrashfishing56.Forty-sevenpercentsofthisamountcomefromaffiliatedsurimifirm,therefore,itistraceable.Fishmealproducerisrequested to fills the formprovidedby thecompany.This form identifies speciesandamountofrawmaterialsaswellasfishingarea.However, it isaself-reported formand thecompanydoesnotrequireotherproofsofrawmaterialsourcingfromthesuppliers’supplierssincethecompanyonlycomplieswithonedowntraceability.

DespitebeingcertifiedunderBAPstandard,53%of fishmeal thecompanybought fromSongkhla in2013 iswithoutdeclarationsofspeciesandoriginsof rawmaterials.Around70%ofuntraceablefishmeal issourcedfrom

53Suppliersofrawmaterialsincludefishingvessels,brokers,PaePla,andprocessingplants.54Fromaninterview.55Evaluatefromgradeoffishmeal.Fishmealgrade3andbelowaremadefromtrashfish.ThaiunionFeedmilldidnotbuygrade

3,orbelow,fishmeallastyear.56Evaluationbygradeoffishmeal.Fishmealgrade3andbelowaremadefromtrashfish.ThaiunionFeedmilldidnotbuygrade

3orbelowfishmealin2013.

7.2Responsiblesourcingoffishmealrawmaterial

7.2.1Animalfeedmills

1) ThaiunionFeedmill

2) CPF

3) Otherfeedmills

113

57InterviewwithCPF,13February2014.58Noinformationaboutreasonsbehindtheirdecisionsorinformationabouttheirfutureplantowardsustainablesourcingoffish-

mealastheyallrejectaninterview59MostlyfromPattaniandSatun

wildfishery, though,not from trashfishing,nothingcanassureresponsiblefishingpractices.

2)CPF

That Tha i land fishery indus t ry i sinternationallyknown forunsustainableandirresponsiblefishingwouldharmCPFcredibilityandcompetitiveness inaglobalmarket. Inresponsetothemarketpressure,thecompanyhasenteredIFFOlastyearandiscurrentlyinpreparationstageforapplyingtheIFFORS.ForthisreasonCPFveryactiveinco-inventingandpromotingthefishmealcertificateandissofartheonlyfeedmillengaginginthescheme.Theobjectiveoftheschemeistoensureresponsiblefishingpracticeandfishmealisproducedfromrawmaterials that exclude IUU fishing.Documents,asmentionedearlierinchapter5,weredesignedtofulfiltheschemerequirements.

Participationofallplayers in thechain isnecessaryforenablingafulltraceability.Forthisreason,CPFoffersapricepremiumof3bahtperkilogramtofishmealproducersforbatchesoffishmeal,ofwhichitssourcingcanbetracedback,whetherproduced fromby-productorwhole fish and regardless the grade offishmeal57.Thecompanyexpects fishmealproducerstorequestsproofofdocumentfromtheirsuppliersandalsoexpectsthesupplierstorequestdocumentfromthepreviousones.Thiswayafulltraceabilityisassured.AccordingtoCPF,before thescheme implementationallfishmeal is considerednon-traceable andcannotbeclaimedtoberesponsiblysourced.Inearlier2014,around50%offishmealsoldtoCPFistraceableandcertified.Thenumberisdifferent forfishmealsuppliedfromSongkhla–around80%offishmealiscertifiedwhileonly20%isnot.This represents thatamonetaryincent ive is considered persuasive toincorporateplayersintothescheme.However,it isachallenge forCPF to reducefishmeal

produced fromuntraceablesourcessoas tomeet IFFORSstandard.ThatCPFdoesnothavethemechanismtomonitorormanagetheallocationofapricepremiummayexcludesomeplayersoutof theschemeandobstruct thecompany to reach a goal of full-certifiedfishmeal. Inaddition, that IFFORSrequirescertifiedproduct tobesegregated to thoseuncertifiedwouldnecessitateCPFtodevelopamonitoringsysteminthefuture.

Lastly,itisworthnotingthattherewere575tonoffishmealproducedfromtrashfishsoldtoCPF, about halfwas traceable and got afishmealcertification.This indicates that theschemeisnotcapableofexcludingtrashfishingfromfishmealproduction.

3)Otherfeedmills

Other feedmills refer toBetagro, LeePattana,andKrungthaiFeedmill.Allof themhaveengagedinneitherafishmealcertificateschemenorany international standards58.BetagroandKrungthaiFeedmillpurchased3,270and600tonoffishmealfromSongkhlafishmeal producers last year respectively.Allfishmealsourcingistraceable.Betagroweresupplied fromfishmealproducerwhoserawmaterialsweresourcedfromitstunaprocessingmotherCompany.Likewise,KrungthaiFeedmillgotsuppliedmostly fromby-productfishmealproducer. Therefore, theproductwas100%traceableandthefishmealproducersareabletopreparedocumentaryproof, though,notrequestedbybothfeedmills.

AsforLeePattana,36%offishmealboughtfromSongkhlafishmealproducerslastyearwastraceable.Fifty-eightpercentsoftotalfishmealwereproducedfromnon-traceablewholefish59.This indicates amarket for irresponsiblesourcingfishmeal thatallowsunsustainablefishingpracticetocontinue.

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Figure73 ranksfivemajoranimal feedmillsbasedon thepercentagesoffishmealtraceability from thehighest to the lowest.Pleasenote that traceabilityheredoesnotexclusivelymean a fishmeal certificate.Traceabilityhere includesfishmealproducedfrom raw materials with documents fortraceabilitysuchasMCPDandMCPD-FM,butitwillnothaveafishmealcertificatewithitifthefishmealproducerdidnot issue thefishmealcertificate.Somefishmealproducers issuefishmealcertificatesforthefishmealproducedfromrawmaterialswithMCPDorMCPD-FM;thesefishmealproducersusuallyare thosewhosell toCPFsinceCPFgivesmonetaryincentives of three baht per kilogram forfishmeal with valid fishmeal certificates.However,somefishmealproducersseethisasanextraprocesswhichtheywillnotdounlessthebuyerwillrequestand/orpayforit.

7.2.2 Fishmeal producers

NoneoffishmealproducerinSongkhlagetstheirplant certifiedunderany internationalstandards.TheonlyschemetheycurrentlyjoinisThailand’sfishmealcertificatescheme. Inorderto identify theiractivitiesandincentivesregarding responsiblesourcingof fishmealunder this scheme, fishmeal producers inSongkhlacanbedivided into3groupsasfollows:1)fishmealproducerswithnoincentive,

2)fishmealproducersinfluencedbymonetaryincentive,and3)fishmealproducersinfluencedbyotherfactors.

1)Fishmealproducerswithnoincentive

Thereare twooutofeight interviewedfishmeal producers that donot tradewithCPF ; therefore, theyareexcluded fromthescheme.Oneof themstated that ithadnoincentivetotraceitsrawmaterialsorpreparedocumentinordertobecertified.Therewasnobenefitofdoingsosinceitstradingpartnersdidnotrequestanycertification.Ninetypercentofitstotalrawmaterialsarewholefish,ofwhichsourcingpractice;includingIUUfishing,cannotbetraced.However, itonlyproducesgrade-2fishmeal,whichimpliesthatprobablynotrashfishisusedasrawmaterial.

TheotherfishmealproducerisasubsidiaryofThaiunionGroup,andthisislikelytobethereasonfornotsellingtoCPF.ItwasrequestedbyThaiunionFeedmilltofilltheformdeclaringspeciesandamountofrawmaterialsaswellasfishing area; however, fishmeal sold toThaiunionFeedmillaccountedfor30%oftotalfishmeal, leavinganother70%withoutanydocumentaryverification.Nevertheless, thefactorymanager stated that rawmaterialsmostlycomefromitsmothercompany’ssurimi

Figure 73: Animal feed mills based on fishmeal traceability, ranked from highest % to lowest %

Company % of Traceability Amount (tons) Note

Betagro 100% 3,270 Buys100%fromasinglefishmealproducerthatis100%traceable

Krungthai 100% 600 Buys100%fromasinglefishmealproducerthatis100%traceable

CPF 81% 6,839

TFM 47% 972

LeePattana 36% 600

Source: Field interviews by research team, 2014.

60ThereasonsfornottradingwithCPF–oneofthemisasubsidiaryofThaiunionGroup,theotherisduetoproductqualification.

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processingplant,whileasmallportioncomesfromwholefish.Thefishmealproducerclaimsthatallrawmaterialusedaretraceable.

2) Fishmeal producers influenced bymonetaryincentive

Therearefivefishmealproducers in thiscategory.Frominterviews,theyallagreedthattofulfiltheschemerequirementandpreparealldocumentsincreasedtheiradministrativecost,trainingemployeesandinstructingsuppliersinparticular.Theywouldnotparticipate in theschemeunlessapricepremiumisgiven.Threeoffiveproducersaresuppliedwithrawmaterialsfromtheirmotherprocessingcompanysoitiseasierforthemtorequestdocumentscomparetothosepurchasingfromvessels,PaePla,orbrokers.Sharesofpricepremiumallocatedtosuppliersofrawmaterialsvaryfrom0.2-1bahtperkilogramofrawmaterials.However,noneofthesefishmealproducerssharesthereceivedprice premiumwith itsmother processingcompany.Theystatedthatwhetherornottheyrequested, theirmother companyneed topreparethosedocumentsforexportanyway.

Fishmeal producers in thisgrouponlyprepare traceability document for fishmealbatchesthataresoldtoCPF,butnotallfishmealsoldtoCPFistraceable.Lastyear,6,501tonoffishmealfromproducersinthisgroupweresoldtoCPF,75%areoftraceablewhiletherestof25%arenon-traceable.Theproportion iscompatiblewhenconsideringfishmealsoldtoothers, 80% is traceableand20% isnon-traceable.Whenconsidering typesof rawmaterials,fishmealsoldtoCPFisaround81%ofby-productsand19%ofwholefish;fishmealsoldtootheris80%by-productsand20%wholefish.Itcanbeconcludedfromthesefiguresandinterviewsthatafishmealcertificationschemedoesnotaffecthowrawmaterialsareselected.

3)Fishmealproducer influencedbyotherfactors

There isonlyfishmealproducer in thisgroup.Unlikeothers, it isnot influencedbyapricepremiumofferedbyCPF.Itissuppliedby

tunaprocessingplantwhich is itsmothercompany;hence,itsfishmealistotallytraceable.Documentaryproofofproductsourcingis100%prepared,declaredtothepurchasersregardlessoftheirrequests.Accordingtoaninterviewwiththe factoryofficer, this isbecausefishmealproducedherecontainslowproteincomparetoothers.Itcannotcompeteinqualitywhenproteinisanessentialcomponent,therefore,documen-taryproofdemonstratingfulltraceabilityofrawmaterialsoriginisofferedtobuildcredibilityandtrustworthiness.This indicates that thekeyfactor influencing thisfishmealproducer iscompetitivenessratherthanmonetaryincentive.

7.2.3 Suppliers of raw materials

Suppliersofrawmaterialscanbeclassifiedinto2groupswhichare1)processingplants,and2)fishingvessels,PaePla,andbrokers.

1)Processingplants

Asstated in thepreviouschapter,5of8fishmeal producers are supplied by theirprocessingplants,whichare theirmothercompany.Processingplantspracticestoshowtheirconformitytoafishmealcertificateschemeistoprovidetraceabilitydocumentwhenrequired.Documentsforsurimiprocessingplantandtunaprocessing plant are slightly different asmentionedinchapter5.Accordingtointerviews,theprocessingplantsnevergetashareofapricepremiumbut theystillprovidealldocumentsrequestedinordertofacilitatetheirsubsidiary.

2)Fishingvessels,PaePla,andbrokers

Unlikeprocessingplants,players in thisgrouparerequestedtoprepareMCPD-FMasaproofof responsiblesourcing.Forfishingvessels,itisnecessarytolegalizetheirvesselandgearaswellassubmittheirlogbooktotheauthoritywhenland.Theseplayerswillreceiveshareofapricepremiumrangefrom0.2-1bahtperkilogramofrawmaterialifbatchoffishmealproducedfromtheirsupplyiscertified.Figure74presentsproportionsoffishmealproducedfromtotalwholefishandnon-traceablewholefishbypurchasers.

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Figure 74: Fishmeal produced from whole fish and fishmeal produced from non-traceable

whole fish by purchasers (percentage)

Share of fishmeal produced from whole fish (%)

Share of fishmeal produced from non-traceable whole

fish (%)

CPF 24 16

LeePattana 19 29

ThaiunionFeedmill 19 29

Krungthai 1 0

Betagro 0 0

Otherfeedmills 7 0

brokers 19 18

farms 11 8

Total 100 100

Source: calculated from interviews with 8 fishmeal producers in Songkhla

Figure 74 shows that CPF accounts for 24% of fishmeal that produced from whole fish. This number declines when considering only fishmeal produced from non-traceable whole fish. This indicates the effect of a fishmeal certificate scheme on CPF purchasing of fishmeal from Songkhla. The impact on wild fish sourcing may not be significant since there is still a big market for non-traceable whole fish.

7.3 Supplementary information: field research at Ta Sa-aan Port

“Songkhla (TaSa-aan)FishingPort” isthebiggestfisheryport inSongkhlaoperatedby theFishMarketingOrganization (StateEnterprises),undertheministryofAgriculturalandCooperatives.Thefisharecaughtfrombothdomesticwatersaswellas fromMalaysianand Indonesian territorialwaters. Itcouldbeconsideredasasmallregionalfisherymarketwhereall typesandall qualitiesofmarineanimalsaresorted,auctioned,anddistributedtodomesticandinternationalseafoodmarketsworldwide.

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Landing and Logistics of the Port

Ta Sa-aan (ท่าสะอ้าน) Port can be divided into three main areas: markets worldwide.

Figure 75: Ta Sa-aan Port

1)Localfishingboatlandingarea.(North)

2)Economicfishlandingarea(Middle)

3)Trashfishlandingarea(South)

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Firstly,commercialfishingboats landateconomicfishlandingarea(2),wherethemostvaluableseaproductsareimmediatelysortedbytheworkersandauctionedbythemiddlemenorPae-Pla(แพปลา)whousuallyhavetieswithexportersandinternationalbuyers,aswellasmajordomesticmarkets.Fromfieldobservation,wefoundthatsignificantamountoffishfromcommercialfisheryboatsare juvenilemarineanimalswhichshouldnotbecaughtat thesesizesandages.Mostmarineanimals landedherewillbeexportedtointernationalbrokers.61

Afterallvaluableseaproductshavebeenmovedfromboatstothepierandsorted,thesecommercialfisheryboatswilllatermovetothetrashfishlandingarea(3).Thetrashfishthatarenormallystoredatthebottommostareaofthe boatswill bemoved to the pier andtransporteddirectlytothefishmealfactories.

Localfishermenusually landat the localfishingboatlandingarea(1),wheretheirmarineanimals, namely squidandsmall fish, aresorted thensold to smallmiddlemen.Theproductslandedherearenormallysoldtolocalanddomesticmarkets.

Fishmeal Supply Chain at Ta Sa-aan Pier

Commercial Fishery Boats

Fishmealprocessorsusuallydealwithboatsdirectlytosecuretheirsupplychain.Itisunlikelythatthetrashfishwillbeauctionedatthepier likeother typesofmarineproducts.Eachboatownerhashisownrelationshipwitha certain fishmeal processor and usuallycontactshisbuyerdirectlypriortolanding.Sinceoneofthemajorthreatsinthisindustryisthesharpdeclineinfishstocksandmarineanimalsuppl ies, in some cases, the fishmealprocessorsprovidefinancialassistanceinformofcredit called “Giaw” (เกี๊ยว).Thecredit isnormallygiventotheboatownerinadvancetohelpwith theirpetrol, laborandothercosts,under thecondition that the laterwouldonlydeliverfishtothecreditor.62

Someof themiddlemenat theportarerepresentativesof thefishmealprocessingcompanies.Forexample,theownerofWallop(วัลลภ)Pae-plaalsoownsafishmeal factorycalledSangCharoen.Moreover,WallopPae-Plaalsoowns11boats.Togetherwithother

61InterviewwithMr.Rai(MaliwanPae-pla)62InterviewwithMr.Rai(MaliwanPae-pla)andrepresentativeofWallopPae-Pla

Figure 76: Ta Sa-aan Port Landing Area

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63SangCharoenfactory’scapacityis100ton/day(ifoperates24hrs.)64InterviewwithKhunJaneorMr.TheerawatPuttharo(082-036-1898)

boats in itsnetworks, thismiddlemanalonedeliverstrashfishdirectlytoitsmill10-20tonsaday.63

Local Fishery Boats

Althoughwith lessamount, thesesmallerplayersalsohavetrashfishproducts tosale.Unlike thecommercial fisheryboatswhichcontact factoriesdirectly, the localfishermensale their trashfishto the“broker”whichwillcollect and then later deliver trash fish tofishmealfactories.

Major Brokers at Ta Sa-aan

Accordingtotheinterviews,therearetwomajorbrokerswhobuyandcollectthetrashfishandfishparts from theport for sending tofishmeal factories,namely “Jane-Jub”and“ChokeSaiThong”

Normally the Jane-JubPae-Pla buystrashfishfromsmallerbrokersor thesmallermiddlemenwhodoesn’thavedirect tiewithfactories64. Anothersourceof theirsuppliescomesfromfishpartsandfishheadswhichareprimarilyseparatedat theport.The leftoverpartswillbesoldtoJane-Jub.Likethebigboats,Jane-Jubalsohasalong-termrelationshipwithcoupleoffactorieswhichitregularlysendsthetrashfishto,forexample,“Pacific(PFP)”and“Sripitak”.At themoment,Jane-Jubdeliversapproximately6-7tonsoftrashfishtofactoriesdaily.While10yearsago,theydeliveredabout20-30tons/day.

Other Information

lItisverydifficulttofindofficialdatathatwouldrepresenttherealnumberof trashfishamount landedanddelivered fromthisport.Although thereare recordskeptat theFishMarketingOrganization,thesenumberscouldnotportray the realamountwhichcouldbemany timesmore than what have beenrecorded.

lTheeconomicfishproductsfromthisportareconsideredvery freshcompared tofishlandedatMahachaiArea.However, thetrashfishherehasvery lowqualitybecause thefishermendon’treallypayattentionatkeepingthequalityhighbysortingoutthenon-proteinsubstancesandusingicetokeepthemfresh.This isbecause the icecostasmuchas thevalueof trashfish.Thehigh-quality trashfishusuallycomesfromAndamanSea.

lAnnually,thetrashfishsuppliesincreaseduringthemonthofJanuarytoMay.Thereforeit ishard to calculate theyearly trashfishamount fromamonthor twomonthsrecordsbecauseamountof seafoodsupplydiffersduringandbetweentheyears.

lThepriceof trash fisharenot reallyfixed to thepricesetby theThaiFishmealAssociation.Itdiffersdependingonthequality,the brokers, financia l condi t ions, andrelationshipbetweensellerandbuyer.ForexampleJane-Jubsalefishheadsat3.50Baht/kgand4.3-5Baht/kgforothertypesoftrashfish(withmoreproteincontent).

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cAsE sTUDy: sUsTAInABLE FIshInG In pERU8.

Atpresent,globalfisheriesarefacingconsequencesfromunsustainableuseofnatural resources.Nearlyone in fourfisheriescollapsedduring theperiod1950-2000(Mullonetal.2005),wherecollapsed isdefinedas90%reductionofawildfishstock.Therehasbeenacontinuousdeclineinglobalcatchessincelate1980s(Paulyetal.2003).Peruvianfisheryhasbeenafamouscasestudyonsustainablefishing formanyyears. Provensustainabilityoffishery inPeruwasnotachieved inashortperiodof time,butgraduallydevelopedthrough50yearsof trialanderrorandcontinuous improvement.Peru facedvarious issuesstemming from the lackofproper institutions,includingregulations,measuresandenforcement.Suchdeficienciesresultedinover-exploitationandcollapseoffisheriesin1970,beforerecoverythathavebeencontinuingfortwodecades.

TheFisheriesCenterattheUniversityofBritishColumbiarankedPeru’sfisheriesandmarineecosystemasthemostsustainableintheworldoutof53marinecountries(IFFO2009).Meanwhile,Chavezetal.(2008)alsodescribedPeruasthemostintenseandsuccessfulfisheryworldwide.

Peru’sexperienceisofparticularinterestforThailandbecausePeruisthelargestfishmealexporterintheworld.

8.1 Overview of Peru’s anchoveta industry

ThePeruviananchovyEngraulis ringensfisheryhasbeendescribedasthelargestmono-specificfisherythathaseverexistedonEarth(BakunandWeeks2008,Aranda2009b).Thislarge-scaleenterpriseaccountsalmost10%oftheworld’smarinefisherylandings(FAO2010),coversthecatchingareaof14,000km2withapotentialbiomassof15-20milliontonsannually(Pauly1992;Niquenetall.2000).ThePeruviananchovetafleethasthecapacitytolandinthreedayswhenfishingfleetsfromothercountriessuchasColombia,Germany,Australia,Panama,PolandandSwedenusuallylandinoneyear.(AriasSchreiber2013)Since1950,rapidindustrygrowthandincreaseinharvestledPerutobecomeoneof theworld’s largestexportersoffishmealandfishoil (FAO2008).Peruvianfishingindustryproduces30-40%oftheglobalproductionoffishmealandfishoil,andisthesecondlargestindustryofthecountryaftermining(Tacon2003,PRODUCE2005,2008a).Thefishingindustryemploystensofthousandsofjobsalongitscomplexsupplychains.In2010,exportedfishmealandfishoilreached1milliontons,valuedatUS$1.9billion(SNP2010).Approximate1,300purseseinersareintheindustryandtargetonlythePeruviananchovy.

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Peruviananchoveta isamarine,pelagic,coastal species which can be found atapproximately80-150kmoffthecoastofPeru.Anchoviesbreed throughout theyearwithamajorspawning inwinter/spring (August toSeptember)with lesserspawning insummer(FebruaryandMarch).Theytypicallygrowto8-9cm in length in5-6months,10cmin12monthsand12cmin18monthswithlongevityaboutthreeyears,reachingamaximumof20cm.(IFFO2009).

Theproductivityofanchovetacatch ishighlyvariablebasedonfluctuationsinclimate,oceanographic,ecosystemconditions,andseasons.OnevitalfactorthataffectstheamountoflandingsistheElNiñoSouthern-Oscillationphenomenon.(Ñiquen2004)TheElNiñoresultsinlimitingnutrientflux(BarberandChavez1983),creating changes in planktonassemblagecompositionthatleadstothedisruptionoftheanchovetafoodweb(Chavez2005).Inaddition,warmerwatersduringElNiñocausereductionof habitat, leading to extensive anchovybiomasslosses(Bertrandetal.2004).

Since1973,twoanchovypopulationshavebeenrecognizedinPeru:thenorthcentralstockfrom04°30’ to15°S,andthesouthernstockfrom15°StothesouthernlimitofthePeruvianmaritimedomain. (Checkleyetal.2009)ThenorthcentralstockiswhollyinPeru’sterritory,i.e.countryhasthefullauthorityinthearea.Ontheotherhand,thesouthernstockwatersaresharedwithChile.Sustainabilitypracticesandenforcementssuchasclosedfishingseasons

to reserve thestockarenot respondedbyChileanauthorities.

98%ofanchovycatchesareconvertedtofishmealandfishoilinPerutobeexportedtointernationalmarketsforaquacultureandanimalfeed;theremaining2%iscannedorfrozenforlocal human consumption. FAO (2013)estimatedthatthemajorityofPeruvianfishmealwassoldtoChina(52%),followedbyGermany(15%)andJapan(9%).Theanchovyprocessingindustryoffersavarietyoffishmealproductswithdifferentgradestotheinternationalmarket.Processing plants produce mainly thetraditional“fairaveragequality”ofFAQfishmeal,amounting to57%of the total,althoughwithcurrent investmentsmade innewprocessingmachineryandequipment, there isagrowingtrend towards theproductionofhighqualityfishmeal (SánchezandGallo2009).Anothermainexport isfishoil.Thestrongestexportmarkets forPeruvianfishoilcontinue tobeBelgium,ChileandDenmark.(FAO2013)Fishoil issoldprincipally for theaquaculture feedmarket.Withitsrichnessinlongchainomega-3fattyacids,itisalsoproducedasaproductfordirecthumanconsumption.

8.2 History of the Peruvian anchoveta fishery

ThesustainabilityofthePeruviananchovyhasevolvedoverfivedecades.Categorizedbyamountoffishery landings,AriasSchrieber

Photos Credit: www.sfgate.com and www.worldfishingnet.com

Figure 77: Peruvian anchoveta

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Figure 78: Historical Peruvian anchoveta landing, major El Niño and fishery phases

Source: Arias Schreiber, M., and A. Halliday. 2013

(2012) identified fourdistinctphasesof theanchovyfisheryinPeru.

1) Mid 1950s to 1972 – the first growth and unsustainable phase

Fisheries inPeruwere established inmid-1950s. Inorder to increaseexports, thegovernmentmandated the constructionoffishmealplantssinceearly1940s.(Laws1997,Olazo2000)Growthwasspurredbycapitalinvestment, foreigntechnologytransfer,statesupport,deregulations,andexpansions intointernationalmarkets. (Glantz1979,AguilarIbarraetal.2000)Duringthisanchovetaboomperiod,Peruvianfisherywasconductedinanopen-accessresourcewithoutbarrierstoentry,characterizedbyexplosiveanduncontrolledgrowth.

During1960-1970s, threeorganizationswhichbecamekeystakeholdersoftheindustrywerefounded.First,The Instituto del March

del Peru (IMARPE) isascientific institutionsetup toprovide informationandexpertisein oceanographic conditions andmarineresources to thegovernment.Even thoughIMARPEhasnolegislativepowerinmanagingtheanchovystock(Hammergren1981), theyplayasignificantroleofassessingsustainableyields,monitoringanddeterminingthehabitatanddistributionof this resource(“Marcación...”1970a)andrecommendsfishingquotaorsuspension of quota to the authorit ies.Thefoundingof IMARPEwasconsideredthebeginningofscience-baseddecisionmakinginPeruvianfishery.

Second,inthebusinesssector,Sociedad Nacional de Pesqueria (SNP- the National Fisheries Society)wasestablished.CurrentlySNPmembershipcomprisesapproximately70%of fishing companies. In 1970s, thegovernmentempoweredSNP toactas theagentinassigningexportlicensesinconformitywithworldmarketquotas (“Perú ratifica ...”

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1961).SNPhasengagedinintensivelobbyingon taxationandcreditpolicy (Hammergren1981)andfacilitatedconflictsbetweenresourceusers.In1970,the Ministry of FisherieswascreatedtodedicatetofisherymanagementandoverseeIMARPE.

Attheendof1960s,thesharpgrowthwithunsustainablepracticeshadcontinued.In1971,landingpeakedat12.3milliontons,thehighestleveleverexperienced forasingle-speciesfishery intheworld.Thecollapseoccurred in1972,likelyduetoacombinationofoverfishing,anunfavorable, decadal-scale ecosystemregimeshift;andastrongElNiñoevent thatyear(BakunandBroad2003;Bertrandetal.2004;ÑiquenandBouchon2004).

2) 1972 – 1984 – the collapsed phase

Afterthecollapse,theanchovetapopulationwasseverelydepressed.Anchovetabiomassand landingsremainedlowat theaverageofunder2.5milliontonsperyearbeforereachingthe lowestpointduringthesecondElNiño in1982–1983,with theharvestofonly0.024milliontons.(Olazo2000)

During themilitarygovernment’s statecontrol,thewholeindustrywasnationalizedin1973throughtheexpropriationofbothfishingfleetandfishmeal-processing facilities.Asapubliccorporation,PESCAPERU (Empresa Pública de Producción de Harinay Aceite de Pescado) wasformedunderstateownershipwithflexibility toconsolidateholdingsand restructureefforts,with the focusonprofitmaximization,notsustainability. (Deligiannis2000)

3) 1985 – 1993– the second growth phase

In this phase, anchovy catches grewdramaticallywithout theeffect fromthewarmclimaticchangeandreachedthe landingsofapproximately10million tons in1994.Therecoveryofanchovycatchesduringthisperiodwasadirectresultofaslewofnewlawsandregulations.

Anumberof legislativemeasureswereenacted. In1988, thenewGeneralFisheriesLaw replaced the original 1971 law, andthe catch quota violation sanctionswereestablished.Lateron,permitsarerequiredforanchovetafishing,followedbyclosingoffisheryaccess.Nonewindustrial licensewasissuedduringthisperiod,whiletheanchovetavesselsizewascappedby law. In1991, juvenilecatcheswereregulated.TheGeneralFisheriesLawwas renewedagain in1992withnewregulations to promote the sustainabilitydevelopmentandensure itscontinuityasanimportant sourceof food,employmentandincome (Arias Schreiber 2013); furtheramendmentsin1994addedlicensingrequiredforartisanalfleetsandenvironmentalmandates.

4) 1993-present – the sustainable period

AnnuallandingsinPeruhavebeenstableat around 5-9million tons in years withpropitiousoceanographicconditionsandhaverecoveredquickly fromperturbationscausedclimatechange,includingtheextremeElNinoin1997-1998.(AriasSchreiber2012)

Inorder topromotefisherysustainability,various new government directives havecontinuouslybeenenactedandenforced.TheGeneralFisheriesLawwasrevisedagainin2001withemphasisonsustainability,conservation,and socio-economic development, e.g.promotingdirecthumanconsumptionmarket.In2002,decision-makingandallmanagementregulationsauthoritywere transferred to theVice-MinistryofFisheries,asubdivisionoftheMinistryofProduction(PRODUCE)basedonscientific reports from IMARPE, after theabolishmentoftheMinistryofFisheries.

In2008, installationanduseofsatellitepositioningsystemsanddatabase integrationto prevent illegal and over-quota catchesbecamemandatory.Atthesametime,thenewquotasforindividualfishingvessels(IndividualVesselQuota: IVQ)was introduced andsubstantiallyalteredsomekey, long-standing,institutional features of Peruvian fishery.(Aranda2009a,AriasSchreiber2012)

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8.3 Toward fishery sustainability

Overcapacity Problem

Aranda(2009)pointedoutthatthroughouthistoryofPeruvianfishery, thecontinuousenlargement of fishing capacity hasbeendetrimentaltoitssustainability.Duringthefirstunsustainablegrowthperiod,accesstofisheryresourceswaswideopen.Therapidgrowthnumbers of fishing vessels and fishmealprocessing factorieshadbroadly followedchangesintheamountofanchovies.Inaddition,theavailabilityof fundingand the incentivesfromaglobalquotasystempouredintoPeru.Bothresulted in theovercapitalizationof theindustry(Ibarraetal.2000,Thorpeetal.2000,Fréonetal.2008,Aranda2009a),intheformofexcessfleetandprocessingplantcapacity.(Lemay1998;GrébovalandMunro1999)

Eventhough thefishing licensessystemwasintroducedtolimittheaccesstoresourcesasearlyas1956, itonly increasedcorruptionbefore thesystemwasabandoned in1962(ThorpandBertran1978).Theamount ofreg is tered fish ing vessels increasedsignificantlyfrom52in1953to1,309in1972,despitedecliningfromthepeakof1,744vesselsin1964 (Aranda2009b).After thecollapsein1972,with the formingofPESCAPERUunder thegovernment, thefishingfleetwasnationalizedandlargenumbersofvesselsandprocessingfacilitiesweredecommissionedbyapplyingamoratoriumonvessellicensingandconstruction (Laws1997).Thenumberofvesselsandprocessingfacilitiesdramaticallydeclined. Later on,with unaffordability insubsidizing, the government decided todenationalize thefishingfleet. (Glants1979)Manyof idlepurseseinerswereexported toothercountriesinLatin-America(Suerico1996)todecreasethenumberoffleets.

Figure 79: Fleet size and number of fishmeal factories: 1950–2006

Source: Adapted from Freon et al. 2008.

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Inaddition toaccelerateddepletionofnaturalresource,overcapacitydecimatedtheeconomicsof thefishing industryandcausedsocial tensions. This problem increasedthepoliticalpressure toachievehigherandincreasingquotas(Deligiannis2000).Duringseasonsof thepreviouscollapseorscarcityperiod likeElNiño,excesscapacitybecamedamagingasdebt accumulatedandcostsincreased,leadingtowidespreadbankruptcies.(Clark1976;Hammergren1981).

In1990s, therecoveryof theanchovetastocksincentivizedtheindustrytoonceagainexpand fleet and processing factories.Thegovernmentrevised theGeneralLawofFisheriestopreventcapacitybuilding,suchasrequiringthenewvesselentriestobebalancedbydecommissioningolderfleet(closeofentry).Manycompanieswereauthorized tobuildvesselsonly forhuman-consumptionfishery;some tried lateron toadjust thevessel tofit anchoveta fishing (Thropeet al. 2000).Noneofthesemeasurespreventovercapacity.Furthermore, theeffortof thegovernment tosupporteconomicsneedof theartisanalfleetsectorbyissuingthelawtopermitthe“Viking”fleet(thewoodenfleetofartisanalboatslargerthan30m3capacity)tocatchanchovyforthefishmeal industrycreatedsubstantiallymorefishingboats.(Aranda2009)

In2007,maximumannual sustainableyield for theentirePeruwasestimatedat8milliontonsinanaverageseason;thelevelofovercapacitywas70%fortheentirePeruvianfleetand89% for theprocessing factories.Estimatedovercapacityactuallyfluctuateswithannual quota assignments (Paredes andGutierrez2008).Infact,thequotameasurewasappliedsincethefirstphaseoffisherytocontrolovercapacity. IMARPE recommended thegovernmenttouseTotalAllowableCatch(TAC)since1960s,but theenforcementwasnotsufficientlystrongtoensurecompliance.TACunintentionallygavethe incentiveforfleetstotakeabiggerpieceofthequotaand“raceforfish”.Whenfishers invested in largervesselswith more modern catching equipment(Grevobal andMunro, 1999), improved

efficiencydrastically resulted inshorteningfishingseasonsbecausequotaswerebeingreachedevenfastere.g.asshortas54daysin2006(PRODUCE2006)andunavoidablyoftenshortenedseasonsof crewemployment tounder100days/year.(Freónetal.2008)

Inadditiontothegovernment’sattemptinrelievingovercapacityproblem,overcapacityhasbeenamajorconcernofstakeholderstoo.SNP,themostinfluentialassociationoffishingcompanies,alsoproposedadecommissioningprogram in1998. SNPproposed thatanycompanythatwishestostayintheindustrymustbuyout25,000m3fleetfromthosewhowishestoexit.Theassociationadditionallyproposedafundcontributedbyfishmealproducerswithafeeof$10pertonoffishmealexported(Anon1998). Later in 2007, the association ofsmall-scale fleet operators requested thegovernmenttobuybackfleetsforthemtobeabletoleavetheindustry,andsuggestedafundcontributedbyboatownerswithafeeof$2pertonofanchovetalanding.(PRODUCE2007)

Since2006, levels of capacity largelydepends on the concentration by largestoperators, for instance, the sevenbiggestcompanies own50%of fish-hold capacity(Arroyo2007).Therehasbeenanongoingconsolidationintheindustry.Largefishingfirmspurchasedfishingcapacitytogrow(Anon2007)As of early 2009, the Peruvian industryconsistedof140fishmealprocessingplantswithfleetof608steel industrialand592woodenvessels.(Aranda2009)

Individual Vessel Quotas (IVQs)

Despite numerous efforts f rom thegovernmentandSNP,overcapacitychallengesremained. In 2008, Peru adopted a newapproach called IndividualVesselQuotas(IVQs) tocontrolcapacityandeliminate the“raceforfish”.Industryconsolidation,drivenbyexpectationofIVQlegislation,helpedalleviateovercapacityproblem,andthemeasureitselfiswidelyconsidereda “regulatory innovation.”(Orlic2011)

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An IVQ system assigns rights to theresourcebyallocatingashareof theyear’stotalallowablecatch(TAC)toeachfishinguniti.e.,eachvesselintheanchovetafishingfleet.(GrébovalandMunro1999;Permanetal.2003).Thelarge-scaleandthesmall-scalefleetscanapply for initial allocationofTACwithdistinctive criteria for each group.Rightsallocationisbasedonthebestyearsoflandingin2004appliedto60%ofindustrialvessels.Theremaining40% is determinedby fish-holdcapacitylicensing.Specificseasonquotasaredeterminedbymultiplyingthesecoefficientsbythatyear’sTACwhichissetbyIMARPE.Everyfishingvesselmust install satellite trackingdevices toensureenforcementofseasonalclosures,andtoensurethatharvestingwillstopafterreachingindividualquotas.

The IVQallocation is carriedoutonatemporarybasiswiththevalidityof10years.Rightsareattachedwiththevesselitselfandthefishinglicense.Ifavesselisdecommissioned,itsremainingquotashallbeassignedtootherboatsunderthesameowner.Additionally,ifaboatdoesnotutilize itsquotawithinagivenseason,thequotacannotbecarriedovertothenextseason.Themodeldoesnotallowfullrighttransferability,acharacteristicwhichmayleadto concentration of wealth among a fewoperators,norallowanynewentries.

Orlic (2011)suggests that IVQends thecompetitionforincreasinglylargersharesoftheTACandallowseffort tobedistributedoverlonger fishing seasons. Fleet operatorsmaximize their efficiency through carefulplanningoffishingtripschedules,accountingforabundanceandproximitytoshoretoachieveshorter andmore successful fishing trips.Consequently,thefleetoveralldeliversfresherlandings,allowing forhigher-qualityfishmealproductionandultimatelyhigherprofitswithlowercostsduetolessfuelconsumption.

Since the IVQ legislationwas issued in2008and implemented in2009, it isstill tooearlyto identifytheimpact.However,thefirstseasonshowedpromising results towardsachievingsustainability.(Orlic2011)First, thecompetitiontoincreaselargerportionoftheTAC

quotanolongerexisted.Second,theaveragedailycatchhasdeclinedbymorethan100,000milliontonsperdaytoapprox.35,000milliontonsperday,whichextended thecatchingseasontobe longer than100days, fromthepreviousaverageof lessthan55days.Third,unusedvesselswerescrapped,soldorshiftedthe focus to other pelagic species;whichdirectlycontributedtoreductionofovercapacity.

In addition, thewhole fishery gainedeconomicssaving.Petrolconsumptionofthefleetwasonly60%fromthepreviousseason.Costsoffishmealproductionplungedaround30%. Most sav ings were f rom vesseldecommissionandshortenedjourney.Fishmealprocessing facilities also benefited fromhigher-qualitygrade,generating10%pricepremiumintheexportmarket.

Despite theearlyprovensuccessof theIVQscheme,adiversesetofchallengeshavebeen identified.On theonehand, the IVQsystemimprovesefficiencyofcompaniesthatremainprofitable.On theotherhand, inanovercapitalizedfishery,manycompaniescannotbeassignedasufficientquota tocover theirinvestmentandoperatingcosts.Asaresult,suchriskscanleadtobankruptcyandunemployment.However, inPeru,alternativeemploymentforfishermenhaslongbeenadoptedfromregularshortenedseasonsfromovercapitalizedfishery.Forinstance,TheFishersCompensationFund(FondodeCooperaciónparaelDesarolloSocial,FONCOPES)was founded to relievefishermen’sburden;thisorganizationisfundedbyfleetownersonamandatorybasis.Thefundsupportsearlyandvoluntaryretirementoftheirstaffwithupgradedpensionandseverancepackages.Thefundalsoincludesre-educationfundsforworkerrelocationintoothersindustries.

Overfishing and El Niño events

ElNiñoandsevereoverfishingweremajorchallenges that causesharpplungeof thePeruviananchoveta industry, to thepointofcollapseinthe1970s.Toachievesustainabilityinlaterphases,thePeruvianauthoritieshavemadedecisionssince1964basedoncontinuouslycollectedscience-baseddatafromIMARPE.

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IMARPEisagovernmentmarineresearchagencyrecognizedasaworldclassauthoritybyUNFAO,UNESCO,ICESandCIAT(IFFO2009).Theyproducereportstotheauthoritiesonmaximumsustainable yield,ecosystemconservation, and resource sustainabilityconsiderations. IMARPEconductsacousticsurveystoassessfishpopulationsthreetimesa year, togetherwith plankton surveys toestimatefishabundancebasedoneggandlarvae density in situ. Further analysis isconductedondata from the satellite or insitumonitoring, including informationon thespatialdistribution,sizestructureandschooldepthoffishandwatertemperature,anddailyrealtimeverificationoflandingsfromallports.

Theseareessentialpiecesofinformationthat theVice-MinistryofFisheriesuses toregulatefishing.PriortosettingofTACortherecent-launchedTVQquotaofeachseason,IMARPEplaysakey role inmakingquotarecommendat ion to ensure resourcesustainability.Since1994,anymanagementmeasurehashadtobebackedupbyawrittenrecommendationfromIMARPE.Scientistsandpoliticiansagree that dynamic changes inanchovetastockcall foranequallydynamicresponse e.g. fishing suspension can beimplementedin36hours(IFFO2009).Severalministerialsolutionsenforced toregulate theindustry tend to increaseduring theElNiñoeventswhen theresource isvulnerableanddepressed.

Arias Schreiber and Haliday (2013)describedthatcongruencebetweenrulesandlocalenvironmentconditionsoftheresourcehasalways been an important feature of thePeruviananchovetafishery’ssustainability.Thefirstclosedseasonwasannouncedin1965foramonth long (“Agosto….”1965) in thepeakspawningperiodofanchovypopulation(Checkletetal.2009).Measuresweretakentoban catching if 50%ormoreof the catchconsistedoffishthatare12cmlongorless(Theaveragesizeis14cmandthemaximumsizeis20cm(Froese et.al2012)andaweekendlandingprohibitionwasapplied.

Figure 80: Peruvian rapid decision flow on fishing closure (IFFO 2009)

In general , May–July andAugust–Septemberaretwoclosedannualseasonstoallow spawning.Duringperiodsof instantoceanographicorclimatechanges,short-termclosuresarerecommendedonanadhocbasis.In thepast40years,catchquota limitswereenactedwithannuallimitsbetween8-9milliontons, in linewith IMARPE’ssustainableyieldassessment.(Clark1976,Chavezetal.2008)Asaruleofthumb,thelevelofexploitationortheamountoffishwhichcanbetakenmustensurethatatleastaround5milliontonsofspawningbiomassremainsatsea(AriasSchreiber2013).

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Atpresent,annualexpensesof IMARPEarearound$15million (DeLaPuenteetal.2011), 60%ofwhich is used for anchovypopulationmonitoring.Theseexpensesrepre-sentlessthan1%ofannualexportvaluesofthePeruviananchovetafishery.

Another keychallengeof thePeruvianfishery isElNiñoevent.Despitedecadesofmonitoring thekey resourcedata toensuresustainability, the degree of control thatmulti-decadal climate variability exerts onanchovetastocksstill remainsuncertain,withcatchdataandbiomassestimatesonlyavailablefor a fewdecades (onlyabout twoPacificDecadalOscillation(PDO)cycles).Uncertaintyabouttheimpactofclimatechangecompoundsthesechallenges,asdiscrepanciesbetweenmodelpredictionsexist(Bakun1990;BakunandWeeks2008),makingitmoredifficulttoenacteffectivelong-termfisheriespolicy.Theideaofsettingupafundtostabilizethe industryhasbeensuggestedtomitigatetheeconomicrisksduringextendedclosedseasonsonfutureElNiñoevents;such initiativehasnotyetbeenrolledout.

Illegal fishing

Themonitoringtoensurecompliancewithruleshasbecomemoreextensive,intensiveandeffectiveduringthesustainablephaseinPeru,comparedtothepreviousunsustainablephasewhenIMARPE’spersonnelundertookcatchesmonitoringbutdidnothaveanauthority toenforcecompliance.Withlimitedofresources,monitoringa largeamountoffishingvesselsduringthelongfishingseason,forexample,223daysperyear,whilecontrollingoverallfishingactivitieswasveryproblematic.Inthepastwhenlocation trackingdevicewasnotavailable,IMARPE’s landingassessmentwasusuallyunderestimatedby20%between1952and1982(CastilloandMendo1987)

In thesustainablephase,although thenumberofvesselsdecreased, themonitoringoneoftheworld’slargestfisheriescontinuestobechallenging.Since1999,bylegislation,each

fishingfleethasbeenobliged topayfishingrights(“drechosdepesca”)equivalentto$3pertonofanchovetalanding.Thecollectedfundsareusedtofinancetheoperationsof relatedgovernmentunits including IMARPE.Non-paymentwillcausethesanctionintheformoffishinglicensewithdraw.

In2000,thelawrequiredallfishingvesselstobeequippedwithVesselMonitoringSystemwith satellite tracking system. (GobeirnodelPeru,MinisteriodePesqueria,2000)Allcommercialvesselswhichmustoperateoutside5nautical-mile-limitreservedforartisanalboats(bylaw)arefittedwiththemonitoringsystem.Therefore, the government can track thevessel’s real-timemovementand location toensureenforcementof seasonal closures,non-catchingactivitiesafterreachingindividualquotas,andcatchingterritoryregulations.Forinstance,spatialrestrictionsallowonlyartisanalboatstooperatewithinfivemilesofthecoast;commercialvesselsthatpossessfishinglicensearepermittedtofishwithinthe200-mile limit.Thevesselmonitoringsystem ison24-hourindependentrecordingandreportingoflandingsat134unloadingpoints,toensurethattheentirefleetiscomplyingwiththerulesineachterritory.

The cost of thismonitoring system isabsorbedbyfleetowners.ThetrackingsystemallowsIMARPEandinspectorsfromtheFishingand LandingMonitoring andSurveillanceprogramtomonitorlandingsatallportsbeforetransferring thesurveillanceof regulationscompliance toan independent internationalcompanythatisfinanciallysupportedbyfishingfirms.Annualcostofthismonitoringsystemwasbudgetedat$7millionfromthefundraisedbyalevyof$1.4pertonoflanding.

Fishing operatormust keep track ofannouncementspublished inPeru’s state-ownednewspaper andonline through theMinistry’swebsite,forinformationonwhenthefisheriesareopenandclosed.Therewillbetemporalrestrictionsandportsclosureswhenlandings reportmore than10%of juvenileby-catch.

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Pollution and Environmental Degrada-tion

Direct impact of fishery exploitationincludesecosystem impacts fromby-catchof nontarget species and trophic linkagedegradation.Thesehavebeenshowntoimpactecosystemproductivity,stability,andresilience(Brunneretal.2009).Tolessenenvironmentalimpact, Peruvian government released amaximum10%by-catchregulation; themeshsizeisattheminimumof½inch(13mm)andbegunoutliningmarineprotectedareas forfutureimplementation.

Inaddition to thecatchingactivities, thefishmealprocessingindustryhascreatedbothairandwaterpollution.In2008,Perupassedalaw to regulate both fishmeal plantwaterdischargeinpHvalue,solidandlipidcontent;(PRODUCE2008b),andintroducedMaximumPermissibleLimits(MPLs)onemissionsin2009withthepolicytointroducecleantechnologies.In2004,ascheme,atthecentercityoffishmealprocessing,Apropisco,was introducedat theportofPiscowhichcomprisesthetreatmentofeffluentateachof thesevenfishmealplants(whichisthecaseforeveryplant)andthenthetreatedeffluentispumpedtoacentralstationfromwhere it ispumped farout tosea.Theschemecontinuedin2007,whenadecreewasintroducedto implementasimilarschemeatChimboteforallseaproductfactories-thatistreatedwastefromfishmeal,andfreezingandcanning.(IFFO2009)

Therearealsootherrequirementsfromthegovernmenttocontroltheprocessingindustry.Today,thePeru’stotalfishmealplantcapacityhasbeencapped,andlicensesareonlyissuedtomove,merge,orreplacepreviouslyexistingplants.FishmealplantsmustpossessaworkingpermitconferredbytheMinistryofProductionand a health certification fromPeruvianTechnological Institute (InstitutoTecnológicoPesqueroor ITP) toensurecompliancewithsafety regulationsandcontrollingcapacityg r ow t h and d i s t r i b u t i o n t o manageenvironmental impact(FIN2006;PRODUCE2006).Everyday,theMinistryofProductionwill

publishon itswebsite(www.produce.gob.pe)thenameof thevesselsauthorizedtogooutfishing,aswellasnamesofthevesselsthatareprohibitedfromdoingso;processingplantsarenot permitted to receive fish coming fromvesselswithoutavalidlicenseornotlistedontheMinistries’website.Furthermore,incaseofany failure in theprocessingequipment, theprocessingplantmuststopreceivingfishifthereisaswellasintheirequipmenttoprotecttheenvironment.Processingplantsarealsonotallowedtooperateoutsidethefishingseason.

Orlic (2011) found from the fishmealprocessing facilitysurvey thatsome leadingfishmealcompaniesmitigatedtheirenvironmentalimpactthroughapplyingnewtechnologytobothrecoverwaste from fishmeal plantwaterdischarge,andreduceairemissionsbyreplacingconventionalmealdryerswithsteamdryers,with the added benefit of higher qualityproductionandincreasedoperationalmargins.

8.4 Lessons from Peruvian sustainability

Ingeneral,fisherysustainabilitycannotbeachievedbyrelyingononeormoreinstitutionalchangesoranyoneplayer’s initiativesalone.ThesustainabilityofthePeruvianfisheryistheresultofamulti-facetedandcontinuingprocessofhistorical transformationandadaptations(AriasSchreiber2013).Constantattemptshavenotbeenfocusedonaparticularsetofissuesoranyonestakeholdergroup.Abroadersetofsolutionscoveringnumerousstakeholdershavebeen implemented inorder tomanage thiscomplexandlargeindustry.

KeyfactorsofsuccessinachievingfisherysustainabilityinPeruincludethefollowing:

1) Continuationofflexible,adaptiveandrapidmanagementstrategies

Throughout decades, the Peruviangovernmenthasapplied thebestavailablelong-recordand latestsciencedata tobasemanagementdecisioninmanagingthefishery.

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PoliticalexpediencyallowsPerutorapidlydriveregulativeactions,forexample,announcementofstatutoryandtemporalrestrictionsandportsclosureswhenfindingmorethan10%ofjuvenileby-catchwhich could be achievedwithin36 hours. The authorities also carefullyconsiderclimatecycleswithanefforttoimprovepredicting the variability and frequencyofrelevantclimatevariableswhichcancauseanchovypopulationvulnerability.

2) Strongcollaborationamongvariousgroupofstakeholders

Stockquotas in the formof bothTACandIVQschemesareeffectiveandnecessarytools toaccomplish sustainability inPeru.Thecatchquotaineachseasonisestablishedviaconsensusamong theworkinggroupofscientistsandpoliticians.Forfishingcompanies,tradeassociationSNPactsasan institutionresponsible for the resolution of conflictsbetweenresourceusersandactively lobbiesfor taxandpolicybenefits for itsmembers.In addition, the government and diversestakeholders in thesector founded“SectorialWorkingCommission”todiscussandprovideadvicetotheauthoritieswhenconflictarisesorwhen the country entersa resource-crisisperiod.ThecommissioniscomprisedofofficialsfromtheMinistryofProduction,Treasury,andindustryrepresentativesfromSNP.

3) Congruencewith localenvironmentconditionsandcostsandbenefits

Periodicclosureoffishingseasonshasbeen one of the key tools to accomplishsustainability.Asmentioned,Peruviangeneralmanagement measures such as quotarecommendationor temporal restrictionsaremadeonadhocbasisbasedonscientificinformation from IMARPE.DuringElNiñoevents,numbersofministerialresolutionstendto increasetorelievestressand instabilityoftheaffectedresource.Congruencebetweencostsandbenefitshasalwaysbeenhighsincetaxes, fishing licenses;and funds tocovermanagement, monitoring and scientificresearch have been calculated based on

amountof landingsorfishmealprocessed.The pract ices are straightforward andenable thefishery industry tomaintain theequivalencebetweencostandbenefitinawaythatresourcesusersperceive fairness(AriasSchreiberandHalliday2013).

4) Clearlyestablishedboundarieswithregularadjustmentsofrulesandregulations

ThemainGeneralFisheriesLawprovidedthebasis for sustainablemanagement byclearlysettingboundariesi.e.determiningwhoispermittedtoparticipateinthefishery,whatistheir levelofaccess,whataredifferentrightsandboundaries between commercial andartisanalfleets,etc.Throughfivedecades,Peru’sfisherylawhasbeenamendedseveraltimes to add the context of sustainability,environmental conservation, and socio-economic development.Extendedgroupsof stakeholdershavebeen integrated intothe lawe.g.artisanalfishers.Whenpreviousmeasuresledtoweakresults,suchasthe“totalallowablecatch (TAC)which resulted in the“raceforfish”crisis,theauthoritieslearnfromtheoutcomeandsuccessfullyimproveditintothepresentsuccessfulIndividualVesselQuota(IVQ)scheme.

5) Centralizedtop-downmanagement

In thepast fewdecades,Peruwasruledby the mil i tary which then transited todemocratic governments, but the line oflegislativecontrolhasnotbeenchangedfromthecentralizedtopdownmanagement.Atopdownregimemaynothindersustainability intheanchovetafishery. Beingacommerciallarge-scale industrycomprisedofnumerousfishingcompanies incomplextiersofchains;all possiblyseeking tomaximizeprofitsonscarcecommonresources, thegovernment’stop-downmanagementapproachmaybethemostappropriate institution.For instance, insolvingthedecade-longovercapacityproblems,enforcement fromcentralizedauthoritieswasquiteefficientininterconnectingandcontrollingnumerousfleetownersinboththecommercialandartisanalscales,processingcompaniesas

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wellasotherswhofeltimpactfromthechanges.

6) Applyingtechnologyinmonitoringandenforcement

BecausethePeruvian’sfisherymeasuresandpolicieshavebeenlaunched,plannedandimprovedbasedonscientificoceanographicandlandingdata,precisionof information isvital.Mandatorilyfundedbyfishingcompanies,thegovernmenthasinvestedinarobustmonitoringsystemunder theoperationof IMARPEe.g.usingacoustic techniques toestimate fishb iomass. The recent launch of VesselMonitoringSystemwith satellite trackingsystemenforced ineveryvesselallows thegovernment to track thefleetson real-timemovementtoensuretheirregulationandquotacompliance.

Despitebeingoneof theworld’s large-scalefisheriesworkingwithavastnetworkof

stakeholders and complex tiers of supplychains,Peruhassuccessfullyproven thatfisherysustainability isapossible inpractice.Eventhoughthecountry,astheworld’sleadingexporteroffishoilandfishmealwithstrongincentivetoincreaseproductiontorespondtorisingdemand inworldmarket, thePeruvianauthoritieshaveseriouslymanagedanchovetaresourcestoachieve long-termsustainability,suchasclosingfishinggroundswhenthereisa resourcecrisisornatural disasters.ThePeruvianfishery,thecountry’ssecondlargestindustry, is clearly in pursuit of long-termenvironmental and social impact ratherthan short-term financial gains. Lessonslearned from suffering for over a decadefromthelandingcollapse,aswellasongoingclimatechanges,havedrivenPeru’sfisherytomovetoapathofsustainabledevelopment,to ensure that Peru canmaintain theircompetitivenessandgrowa robust sectorwithoutdepletingkeymarineresources.

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ImpAcT OF sUppLy chAIn AcTIvITIEs, GAp AnALysIs, AnD REcOmmEnDATIOns9.

9.1 Direct Impacts on Thai marine ecosystem

AmainactivitythatcreatesdirectimpactsonThaimarinesystemisfishing,particularlybyotterboardtrawlersandpushnetswhichareconsidereddestructivefishinggears.Fishmealandanimalfeedindustriesareusuallysaidtobeoneof thecausesofproblemsbecausefishmealproducersbuy trashfishcaughtbytrawlersandpushnets thatdestroymarineecosystemandusuallyoverfish,whileanimalfeedmillsbuyfishmealproducedfromthesetrashfish.

TrawlersandpushnetscreatenegativeimpactsonThaimarineecosystem in threeways:1)theysweepthebottomoftheseaanddestroycoralreefwhichishabitatsoffishandothermarine faunacausing thechangeofmarineecosystemstructure2)theyusuallyusesmallsizemeshwhichwillcatchjuvenilefish,and3)theyusuallyoverfish.

9.2 Indirect Impacts on Thai marine ecosystem

Someactivitiesofplayers in thesupplychainmaynot causedirect impacts to themarineecosystem;however, they supportcontinuedexistenceof problems.The twostakeholderswhoseactivitiescausethemostindirect impactsonThaiseaecosystemarefishmealproducersandanimalfeedmills.

Fishmeal producers’ activities createeconomic incentivesforfisherybusinessestocontinuetheirunsustainablepractices in fourways:

First,withoutbuyingcriteriaandsupplierscreening, trawlers and push nets areeconomically incentivized tocontinue theirpracticesaswhatevertheycaptured,nomatterhowbaditsconditionis,canbesoldtofishmealproducersasitstillyieldshighenoughprotein.InSongkhla,mostfishmealproducerssettheirbuyingcriteriaandscreentheirsuppliers;theyusuallybuy fromtheir regularsuppliers,andtheydonotbuyverybadconditionedtrashfishcaughtbytrawlersusuallyfortworeasons:1)theirfactoriesareinthecommunities,andusingthese t rash fish is too smel ly for thecommunities,and2) their factoriesproducegoodgradefishmeale.g.2ndgrade,sotheycannotbuythesetrashfishthatwillyieldlowergradefishmeal.

However,thereisonefishmealproducerinSongkhlathatdoesnothavebuyingcriteriafortrashfishsoldtoitsfactory,becausethefishingboatsownersarerelativesofthefactoryowners;Therefore, this fishmeal producerwill buywhatever issold to itnomatterhowbadthe

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condition,andtheconditionisusuallybad;trashfishismashedup,spoiledandverysmelly.Inthiscase,fishingboatownersareencouragedtocontinuetheirunsustainablepracticesastheyknowthattheycanalwaysselltoatleastthisonefishmealproducer.

Second,buyingtrashfishcreatesdemandsforthem.Thus,whenthefishingboatownersknowthattrashfishcanalwaysbesold, theywill continue their practicesasmentionedearlierthatincomefromtrashfishisonethirdofsometrawlerswhichisbetterthannothing.Iftheyknowthatthereisamarketforit,whywouldthey throwaway theirextra income,andafishingtripitselfcostsalotofmoney–wages,gas,foods,wateretc.

Third, mixing fishmeal can upgradefishmealtobesoldforabetterprice.Differentqualitiesofrawmaterialsyielddifferentgradesoffishmeal,anddifferentgradesoffishmealcanbesoldatdifferentprices.However,sincethereisnotmuchdiscrepancyofproteinbetweendifferentgrades,somefishmealproducerswillmixhigh-proteinfishmealwith lower-proteinfishmealinordertoupgradefishmealtosellforbetterprices.Thiscreatesdemands for lowproteinfishmealasfishmealproducersknowthatitcanbemixedtoincreasethepercentageofprotein lateron.Therefore,demands forlow-quality trash fish continue unabated,and therefore unsustainable trash fishingcontinues.

Animal feedmills’ activities that causeindirectimpactsaresimilartothoseoffishmealproducers,sinceanimalfeedmillsarethemainconsumersoffishmealproducedfromtrashfishorfishcaughtunsustainably;thereforetheyaretheoneswhoactuallycreatedemandsfortrashfish. It startswhen theysetbuyingcriteria.Animalfeedmillssetbuyingcriteriaandpricesbasedonqualitiesofthefishmealalone,notbyhowfish– rawmaterialsoffishmeal–werecaught.Thus,fishmealproducedfromtrashfishcaughtbytrawlersandpushnetsthatdestroymarineecosystemcanbesoldtoanimalfeedmills.Thisencouragesfishingboatownerstocontinuetheirunsustainablefishingpractices.

WeobservethreekeylimitationsofcurrentsustainabilitystandardsandcertificateschemesascurrentlypracticedinThailand:

1. There is currently no sustainablesourcingschemeorstandardthatallmajorfeedmillssubscribeto.Unlessanyscheme/standardincorporatesall large feedmills, therewouldstillbeamarket forfishmealproduced fromirresponsibly-sourcedrawmaterialssuchastrash fish, and therefore this practicewillcontinue.

2. Most schemes relyonaself-reportmechanism.Nothingcanassurefulltraceabilityorguarantee that thefishermen themselvesfillout thenecessarydocumentation.Morespecifically,thesourceoffishmealrawmaterialscannotbeverifiedduetothelackof location-specific auditmechanisms, e.g. satellite-positioning tools toascertain that thefishingboat is reallyfishingat thestated location.Therefore,itiscurrentlyonlypossibletocheckwhetherthedocumentsarefilledoutcorrectly,notthecorrectnessofthedocumentcontents.

3. Currentlyeverysustainablesourcingscheme and standard is based on theinternationally accepted definition of IUUFishing – the catchmust not be Illegal,Unreported,andUnregulatedtofitunder thisdefinition.But due toThailand’s outdatedfishery law, what is widely considereddestructivefishingconducte.g.smallmeshsize of trawls, is not illegal inThailand.In addition, every il legal conduct underfisheries law isconsidered illegalonlywhenthefishermaniscaughtintheact.Therefore,dest ruct ive fish ing in Thai land is notconsidered IUUFishing, and thereforenostandard based on IUU can effectivelyd iscourage trash fish trawl ing. This isexacerbated by insufficient control andmon i t o r i n g s y s t ems due t o l im i t e dresources.Consequently, illegally-caughtmarineproductscanbelandedlegally.

Keystakeholders’activitiesandimpactsonThaimarineecosystemaresummarized inFigure81.

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ent-checkingprocess.

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9.3 Gap analysis and recommendations

LessonsthatThailandcanlearnfromthecasestudyofPeru’ssustainablefishingindustryalsoshow“gaps”inthecurrentattemptstowardsustainablepracticesasfollows:

1. Sinceoverfishinganddestructivefishingare “tragedyof the commons” problem ineconomicsparlance,whereeffortsofa fewunscrupulousplayersi.e.

“free riders” can ruin the resources foreveryone, it is necessary to implementsolutionsandstandardsacrosstheboard,i.e.encompassing every stakeholder. Perusuccessfullyutilizesacombinationof laws(e.g. IVQs,meshsize,by-catch regulation,seasonalclosure,fishingrights)and industryinvolvement and self-regulation (SNP’sparticipation insettingquotaand resolvingconflicts)acrosstheboard,whileThailandstillhasseriousgapsfromthelegaldefinition(e.g.trash fishing still not categorically illegal,practicesconsideredonly illegalwhencaughtin theact),weakenforcement, topiecemealparticipation of standards and voluntaryschemes (e.g.onlyone feedmill isofferingmonetaryincentivesunderfishmealcertificatescheme).

2. Science-baseddataand technologyarebothvitaltoensurefisheriessustainabilityandeffectiveenforcement. IMARPE,majorgovernmentmarineresearchagencyinPeru,isrecognizedgloballyasaworldclassauthority,continually reportingmaximumsustainableyield,ecosystemconservation,andresourcesustainabilityconsiderationstothegovernment

onwhich tobasedecisionssuchasquotasetting.Onthetechnologyfront,allcommercialfishingvessels inPeruarerequiredto installsatellitetrackingdevicestoensureenforcementofseasonalclosuresand individualquotas,sincethegovernmentcantrackthemovementandlocationofvesselsinreal-time.InThailand,thereisyetnosustainabilitystandardorschemewhichincludessatellitetrackingoffishingboatstoensure that traceabilitydocumentation iscorrect,andmaximumsustainableyieldisnotyetapartofsystematicdecision-makingatpolicylevel.

3. The clearer the “business case forsustainability,”themoreincentivesplayershavetocomplywithsustainability laws/standards/schemes.InPeru,IVQshelpedencouragefleetoperatorstomaximizetheirefficiencythroughcarefullyfishingtripscheduling,accountingforabundance,andproximitytoshoretoachieveshorter andmore successful fishing trips.Consequently, the fleet receives fresherlandings,providinghigher-quality fishmealproductionandultimatelyhigherprofitswithlower costsdue to less fuel consumption.Incontrast, there isasyetnoclearbusinesscase forsustainability inThailand’sfishmealindustryinSongkhla;mostfishmealproducersthat participate in the fishmeal certificateschemedosoonlybecause theyarepaidapricepremiumbythebuyer(currentlyonlyCPF),ortheymustdoitaspartofthebuyer’srequirement. There is only one fishmealproducer thatcites “competitiveness”as thereason they participate in the scheme;since theycannotcompeteonquality, theyoffer full traceability tobuildcredibilityandtrustworthiness.

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Figure 82: Gulf of Thailand at night, as seen from space

Figure 82. Thousands of fishing boats doing “lit fishing” show up as green lights clustered the Gulf of Thailand are seen in this still from a night video of East Asia taken by astronauts aboard the International Space Station, released by NASA in February, 2014.65

65SaraSchonhardt,“What’stheOneThinginThailandVisibleFromSpace?”,WallStreetJournal,February28,2014.http://blogs.wsj.com/searealtime/2014/02/28/whats-the-one-thing-in-thailand-visible-from-space/

Given theabovemajor gapsbetweencurrentpracticesand“bestpractice”inPeru,webelieveitisimperativethatallcurrenteffortstomovethefishmealindustryinThailandtowardsamore sustainable pathway – from newfisheries lawtothe industry’s latestFisheries

ImprovementProject–aresynchronizedandtrulyencompassallstakeholders,designedtoclosetheabovegapsasmuchaspossiblewithaviewtowardlong-termsustainabilityofmarineecosystemsinThailand.

137

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Trash fish composition

AreportpreparedforFAO(Kungsawan1996,http://www.fao.org/docrep/w6602e/w6602e09.htm)assertedthatvery littlediscardingnowtakesplaceatsea intheThaifishingindustry;thisgelswithobservationsmadeatfishlandingsinsouthernThailand.

Thetrashfishcomponentofthecatchwhichiscalled“truetrash”andmadeintofishmealismadeupanumberofspeciesthepredominanceofwhichdependsonthefishingmethodsandareas.Themostcommonfamilies/groupsaregiveninTable1below.

Table 1 below. Table 1. Main species in the “true trash” component

Species group Rough proportions in trash

Leiognathidae High

Trashcrab High

Apoginidae Medium

Gobiidae Medium

Balistidae Medium

Biohidae Medium

Tetraodontidae Smalltomedium

Callionymidae Smalltomedium

Pentapodidae Small

Dayaspp Small

Periophthalmidae Small

Platycephalidae Small

Scorpaenidae Small

Bragmacerosspp Small

Synancedae Verysmall

Pentaprionlongimanus Verysmall

Siganusspp Verysmall

AppEnDIx

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Smallspeciesoffishsuchasthreadfinbreams,monoclebreamsandcroaker,areespeciallysortedfromtherestforproductionofsurimitypeproductsandfishballs.Localtraditionalproductssuchassalteddriedfish,fishsauce,fermentedfish,shrimppasteanddriedcephalopodsarealsomade frombycatch. Note thatmanyspecies fromseveralof thesegroupshavenowbeenreclassifiedas“foodfish”,bothinpracticeandinfisheriesstatistics.

Table 2. Main commercial fish species caught as juveniles in the Thai shrimp bycatch

CommonName ScientificName

Indiananchovy Rastrelligerkanagurta

Lizardfish Sauridaisarankurai

Lizardfish S.undosquamis

Lizardfish S.elongata

Threadfinbream Nemipterushexodon

Threadfinbream N.mesoprion

Purplespotbigeye Priacanthustayenus

One-finletscad Atulemate

Yellowstripescad Selaroidesleptolepis

Monoclebream Scolopsisteaeniopterus

Tonguesole Cynoglossusspp

Flatheadfish Platycephalusspp

Deepbodiedtrevally Atulekalla

Source: Kungsawan A (1996) Regulations, practices and statistics with regard to by-catch in the shrimp industries in Thailand. Paper prepared for FAO - mimeo 1996

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List of Interviews

Date Organization Participants/Interviewees

21/7/2013 ThaiSeaWatchAssociation BanjongNasae,Chairman

23/7/2013 PaesaeSongkhla SuneeApinuntanapong,FactoryManager

AquaticScience,FacultyofNaturalResource,PrinceSongkhlaUniversity

JaruneeChiayvareesajja,Dr.,Researcher

24/7/2013 SouthernFishPowderFactory1969 PisitSuksriwan,FactoryManager

SongkhlaFisheryDepartment SayanEamrod,DirectorSahas,Official

PacificFishmealIndustrial SakLertwanangkul,FactoryManager

7/8/2013 ThaiFishmealAssociation SanguansakAkaravarinechai,PresidentNichkamolKumaree,Manager

22/11/2013 MarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries

SuchadaBoonpukdee,FisheriesSeniorTechnicalSpecialist

26/11/2013 MarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries

NawapornLert-umnuaychok,FisheriesBiologistWarapornNorsit,FisheriesBiologist

4/12/2013 MarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries

ManochRoongratri,DirectorMarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureauKomonpanAwaiwanont,Dr.,FisheriesSeniorTechnicalSpecialist

21/1/2013 ThaiunionFeedmill SupisThongrod,Dr.,DirectorofProductResearch&Development

27/1/2014 SongkhlaMarineFisheriesSuppressionandPreventionCenter

SeriPetchrit,Chief

PaesaeSongkhla SuneeApinuntanapong,FactoryManager

SongkhlaFishInspectionandResearchCenter

SuntornKumsuk,Director

28/1/2014 SouthernFishPowderFactory1969 PisitSuksriwan,FactoryManager

ThaiCharoenAnimalFeed SukanyaPankerd

PacificFishmealIndustrial SakLertwanangkul,FactoryManager

29/1/2014 SongkhlaMarineProducts SuvitTanratanakorn,Owner

JanaFishIndustries PichartPiwbangkul,DeputyFactoryManager

MarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries

SuchadaBoonpukdee,FisheriesSeniorTechnicalSpecialist

152

Date Organization Participants/Interviewees

30/1/2014 MarineFisheriesResearchandDevelopmentBureau,DepartmentofFisheries

SuchadaBoonpukdee,FisheriesSeniorTechnicalSpecialist

10/2/2014 ThaiFeedMillAssociation PornsilpPatcharintanakul

13/2/2014 CharoenPokphandFoods LucksameePaiboon,SeniorVicePresidentAquacultureFeedTechnologyOfficePitipongDejjarukul,AssistanceVicePresident,FeedRawMaterialOfficeAQUA FEED BU

Companies in Songkhla fishmeal supply chain that declined to be interviewed

Company Stated Reason

Betagro,Animalfeedmill Thecompanyusesverylittlefishmeal.

Krungthai,Animalfeedmill Thecompanyhasnopolicytobeinterviewedanddisclosetheinformation.

LeePattana,Animalfeedmill Thecompanyhasnotofficiallyrejected,butithasnotrespondedtoourseveralrequests.

SongkhlaFisheryTrading,Fishmealproducer

Thecompanyisaverysmallcompanycurrentlyoperatingonceaweek.However,thecompanygavepartialinformation.

SangcharoenWattanaFishery,Fishmealproducer

Couldnotbereached.

Sinakorn,Fishmealproducer Outofbusiness.