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FINAL EXAMREVIEW!!!
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FINAL EXAM FACTS
Monday, January 26th – Odd
Tuesday, January 27th – Even
60 minutes – Final Exam schedule
100 multiple choice questions
5 extra credit questions
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FINAL EXAM FACTS
Units 1 – 6
Modules: 1 – 7, 12 – 20, & 31 – 33.
15 questions on units 1, 2, 5, & 6.
20 questions on units 3 & 4.
40-50% from previous quizzes.
Rest are newly formed questions.
You may use a single 3” x 5” note card, front and back.
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FINAL EXAM FACTS
Unit 1: History and Approaches
Unit 2: Research and Statistics
Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior
Unit 4: Sensation and Perception
Unit 5: States of Consciousness
Unit 6: Testing and Individual Differences
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UNIT 1HISTORY AND APPROACHES
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Roots of Psychology: philosophy and biology (physiology)
Dualism: the philosophy that the mind and the body are two different things that interact.
Monism: the mind and body are different aspects of the same thing.
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
John Locke: Believed our minds were a “tabula rasa”. (blank slate)
Wilhelm Wundt: Set up 1st psych lab in Germany in 1879.
G. Stanley Hall: Set up psych lab at Johns Hopkins Univ and helped found the APA (American Psychological Association).
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Williams James: “father” of functionalism. Interested in function or purpose of behavior.
Mary Calkins: Denied her Ph.D., became 1st woman president of APA.
Edward Titchener: “father” of structuralism (look inside ourselves to explore the human mind).
Margaret Washburn: 1st woman to complete Ph.D. in psychology under Titchener.
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Francis Sumner: 1st African-Amer to receive Ph.D. in psychology.
Inez Prosser: 1st African-Amer woman to receive Ph.D. in psych.
Carlos Miranda: One of the first Latinos to earn Ph.D. in psych.
Martha Bernal: 1st Latina to earn Ph.D. in psych.
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Charles Darwin: Law of natural selection. “Survival of the fittest” Only dominant genes are passed on to next generation.Seven Basic Approaches to Psych: 1. Neuroscience 4. Cognitive 2. Evolutionary 5. Behavioral 3. Social-Cultural 6. Psychodynamic
7. Behavior Genetics
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Neuroscience: (Biological) Examines how biological processes within nervous and endocrine system are related to behavior.
Evolutionary: Based on Darwin’s natural selection. Survival of the fittest.
Behavior Genetics: How genetics and environment determine who we are. Dominant genes are passed on to future generations.
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Social-Cultural: Effects of social and cultural issues on behavior.Cognitive: Examine how thoughts in terms of how we interpret, process, and store memories effect behavior.Behavioral: Examine observable behaviors and how conditioning changes behavior.Psychodynamic: unconscious internal conflicts explain behavior.
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Other significant approaches:
Humanistic: We choose our behaviors and these choices are guided by our needs. Humans are free to make choices.
Eclectic: a combination of approaches.
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UNIT 1: HISTORY & APPROACHES
Types of psychologists:
Counseling: help people make lifestyle changes.
Clinical: evaluate and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
Psychiatrist: a MEDICAL DOCTOR that specializes in diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. Can prescribe drugs, others can’t.
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UNIT 2RESEARCH AND STATISTICS
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Ethical principles:1. Get permission of participants.
2. Protect them from harm and discomfort.
3. Keep information confidential.
4. Explain the research afterwards.
Animal testing: treat them humanely, dispose of properly, and minimize their discomfort.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Little Albert Experiment: conditioned a baby to be afraid of any furry animal.
Milgram Experiment: tested to see how to what extent people would obey an authority figure, even if it went against their personal beliefs.
Genie: Feral Child: girl locked in a room for first 13 years of her life. Never acquired a language.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Hindsight Bias – the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Overconfidence – thinking we know more than we really do.
Skepticism – questioning things that are believed to be fact.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Scientific method – make observations, form theories, and then refine theories.
Scientific theory – an explanation using a set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis – testable prediction
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Operational definition – a statement of the procedures used to define research variables.
Culture – shared ideas, attitudes, and traditions amongst a group of people which are passed on from one generation to the next.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
1954 – Brown vs. Board of Education ruled that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal”.
First case that a social psychologist participated.
Mamie and Kenneth Clark found that under segregation, Black children were internalizing anti-black prejudice.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Case Study – studying one individual in detail, thinking it will lead to information about all people.
Surveys – Ask people to report on their behavior/opinions.
Naturalistic Observations – watching and recording behavior in their natural environment.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Population – everyone you want to study and describe.Random sample – a sample that fairly represents the population.Correlation – When two things have a relationship and are dependent of each other. It allows one to predict the other.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Positive Correlation – Two things rise and fall together.
Negative Correlation – Inverse relationship. When one rises, the other falls.
Illusory Correlation – When we think two things are correlated, we look for things that confirm our belief even if they aren’t really correlated.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Placebo – a drug that has no medical value given to deceive a participant into thinking they are receiving an actual treatment. Used for control groups.
Double-blind procedure – when both the participant and the research staff are unaware of who received a placebo.
Placebo Effect – improvement of medical condition when given a placebo.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Experimental Condition – A group of people who receive an actual treatment.
Control Condition – A group of people who do not receive the treatment.
Independent Variable (IV) – The experimental factor that is being manipulated.
Dependent Variable (DV) – the variable that may change depending on the independent variable.
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UNIT 2: RESEARCH & STATISTICS
Measures of central tendency – mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (appears most).
Range – The difference between the lowest and highest scores.
Skew – When unusually high or low scores distort the mean.
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UNIT 3BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Neuron: a nerve cell.
Three major functions: receive information, process it, and transmit it to the rest of your body.
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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE NEURON
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin Sheath
Axon Terminal
Schwann’s Cells
Cell Body
Nucleus
Node of Ranvier
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that travel synaptic gap between neurons.
Endorphins: natural opiate, body’s painkiller.
Agonists: may mimic a neurotransmitter
Antagonists: block a receptor site inhibiting the effect of the neurotransmitter or agonist.
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
The two major subdivisions are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS): made up of the brain and spinal cord.
3 types of neurons: sensory (sends info TO brain), motor (send info FROM brain), interneurons (communicate between sensory and motor neurons).
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): made up the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Somatic Nervous System: Controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. (All automatic functions)
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
The Autonomic Nervous System is divided into two parts: Sympathetic Nervous System (helps deal with stressful events) and Parasympathetic Nervous System (calms your body)
Reflex: automatic response to stimuli.
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Endocrine system: consists of glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones in your blood.
Hormones are chemical messages that travel to target organs.
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Ways to measure brain function:
EEG – Wave cap; studies brain waves
PET – Inject glucose, track where it goes. Shows brain activity.
MRI – Uses magnetic fields to produce an image of soft tissue.
fMRI – Track blood flow through brain.
CAT – 2D x-ray of slice of brain.
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Brainstem: connect brain & spine.
Medulla: regulate heart, blood, etc.
Reticular formation: arousal (wake)
Thalamus: receives signals and relays to brain.
Cerebellum: maintains balance.
Hippocampus: memories
Amygdala: anger and fear
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
4 Lobes of the brain
Frontal: speaking and muscles
Temporal: hearing
Occipital: vision
Parietal: thinking and info processing
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
Chromosomes – Structures made of DNA molecules that contain genes.
-We have 46 chromosomes, 23 from your mother and 23 from your father.
-Males are XY, Females are XX!
If the male contributes a Y chromosome, the baby is male.
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Turner Syndrome - girls with only one X chromosome (XO).
Klinefelter’s syndrome - males with an XXY sex chromosomes. Has 47 chromosomes, an extra female X.
Down syndrome - individuals with three copies of chromosome #21.
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…DNA – a molecule that contains genetic information.
Genes – a segment of DNA that contains units of heredity.
Heredity – passing of traits to offspring from parents or ancestors.
Genome – The complete instructions for making an organism.
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UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES…Identical twins (monozygotic twins) – developed from a single fertilized egg that splits in two.
Fraternal twins (dizygotic twins) – developed from separate fertilized eggs.
Adopted children are more similar to their biological parents than their adoptive parents.
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VARIATION ACROSS CULTURENorms - rules for accepted and expected behavior. They dictate what “proper” behavior looks like.
Individualist – Cultures that nurture a person’s identity.
Collectivist – Cultures that nurture a group identity.
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GENDER ROLESGender roles – expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave.
Gender identity – how a person views himself or herself in terms of gender.
Occam’s Razor –The simplest answer is usually the correct one. (also called Ockham’s razor)
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UNIT 4SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONSensation: how we receive information from our environment.
5 Senses: See, hear, touch, taste, & smell.
Perception: what our body does with the information we sense.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTION
Absolute threshold: the weakest level you could detect a sound, light, etc. half the time.
Subliminal stimulation: receiving messages below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
Sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity because of constant stimulation.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONWavelength: the distance from one wave peak to the next. It determines the hue.
Amplitude: height of the wave.
Intensity: brightness
Selective attention: Focusing on one thing allows us to block out other things going on.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONCornea: where light enters the eye.
Pupil: regulates the amount of light.
Iris: colored ring of muscle, constricts or dilates depending on the amount of light.
Lens: focuses the light rays on the retina.
Acuity: The sharpness of vision.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONRetina: absorbs light, processes images. Contains rods and cones.
Rods: detects black & white & allows you to see in low light.
Cones: detects color & allows you to see in bright light. Most concentrated at the fovea.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONOptic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. Fovea: Central point in the retina where cones (no rods) cluster. Point where images focus.Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTION
Nearsighted: nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects.
Farsighted: distant objects are seen more clearly than nearby objects.
LASIK – laser eye surgery in which a flap is cut into the cornea to access tissue behind it.
PRK – laser to reshape the surface of the cornea.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONYoung-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory: retina has 3 types of color receptors for red, blue, and green.
Opponent-Process Theory: opposing retinal processes enable color vision. Red & Green, Yellow & Blue, White & Black.
Afterimages: images continue to briefly appear even after the actual image is removed.
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SENSATION & PERCEPTIONAudition: the sense or act of hearing.
Amplitude: The height of the sound wave the determines the loudness. Frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given amount of time.
Pitch: the highness or lowness of a sound.
Decibels – measuring unit for sound energy.
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Auditory Canal
Ear Drum
HammerAnvil
Stirrup Semicircular Canals
Cochlea
Auditory Nerves
(Goes to throat)
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THE EAROuter Ear: auditory canal & eardrum
Middle Ear: hammer, anvil, & stirrup.
Inner Ear: cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
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HEARING LOSSConduction hearing loss: eardrum is punctured or any of the tiny bones in middle ear lose their ability to vibrate.
Sensorineural hearing loss: damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory neurons.
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TOUCH
Made up of four skin senses:•Pressure•Warmth•Cold•PainItching is gentle stimulation of pain receptors.Gate-Control Theory: pain messages can pass through a “gate” in the spinal cord on their way to the brain.
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TASTEGustation: the chemical sense of taste with receptor cells in taste buds on the tongue, on the roof of the mouth, in the throat.
Five basic taste sensations are:
SweetSourSaltyBitterUmami (Meaty Taste)
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SMELLOlfaction: the chemical sense of smell.
Pheromones – chemicals released by animals that triggers a social response by another animal.
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PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONSVisual Capture – the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.
Gestalt – organizing pieces into a meaningful “whole”.
Figure – Object
Ground – Surroundings
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GROUPINGProximity – Group nearby figures together.
Similarity – We group together figures that are similar to each other.
Continuity – We see smooth, continuous patterns.
Connectedness – We see objects as a single unit.
Closure – We fill in the gaps to create a complete, whole object.
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PERCEPTIONDepth Perception – Seeing two dimensional objects as three dimensional.
Visual Cliff – test of depth perception in babies.
Binocular Cues – depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.
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MONOCULAR CUESMonocular Cues – depth cues using 1 eye.
Relative Size – The closer of two same size objects looks bigger.
Interposition – one object partially blocks our view of another, we see it as closer.
Relative Clarity – closer objects appear sharper than more distant, hazy objects.
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MONOCULAR CUESTexture Gradient – far away objects that appear more densely packed or smooth.
Relative Height – Images higher in the picture seem farther away.
Relative Motion (Motion Parallax) – As we move, objects appear to move.
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MONOCULAR CUESLinear Perspective – Parallel lines seem to converge in the distance.
Light and Shadow (Relative Brightness) – Closer of two identical objects reflects more light to your eyes.
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SHAPE AND SIZE CONSTANCIESShape Constancy – an object appears to maintain its normal shape regardless of the angle.
Size Constancy – an object appears to stay the same size despite changes in the size of the image.
Size-Distance Relationship – Farther objects seems larger.
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LIGHTNESS CONSTANCYBrightness Constancy – an object maintains a particular level of brightness regardless of the amount of light reflected from it.
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ESPESP (extrasensory perception): the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input.
Parapsychology: the study of paranormal events that investigates claims of ESP.
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ESPA. Telepathy: Communicating with our minds only.
B. Clairvoyance: Ability to see remote events, things that happen at another location. (Psychics, Long Island Medium, etc.)
C. Precognition: Ability to see the outcome of future events.
D. Psychokinesis: Ability to move objects with your mind.
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UNIT 5STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
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STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESSConsciousness – our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Sigmund Freud – Father of Psychoanalysis. Studied subconscious.
Four types of biological rhythms:•Annual cycles•28 day cycles•24 hour cycles•90 minute cycles
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SLEEP AND DREAMSCircadian Rhythm – cycles of change that recur approximately every 24 hours. “Biological Clock”
Alpha waves are brain waves between awake and sleep.
Beta waves are awake brain waves.
Hypnagogic Sleep - This is the very relaxed and drowsy state that you pass through before entering sleep.
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SLEEP AND DREAMS – STAGES
Stage 1 Sleep – quick sleep stage with gradual loss of responsiveness to outside, drifting thoughts, and images.
Stage 2 Sleep – Can be awakened without difficulty.
Brain waves are characterized by sleep spindles.
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SLEEP AND DREAMS – STAGES
Stage 3 Sleep – Beginning of deep sleep.
“Delta Sleep” begins (Stage 3 & 4)
Stage 4 Sleep – deepest sleep stage.
Bedwetting and sleepwalking occurs in this stage.
After stage 4, you return to stages 3 & 2, before entering stage 5, REM.
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SLEEP AND DREAMS – REM STAGE
REM Stage – REM sleep (Stage 5)
REM – Rapid Eye Movement
Brain waves resemble beta waves of being awake.
Dreams and nightmares occur.
Also called “paradoxical sleep”.
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SLEEP AND DREAMS – REM STAGEREM Rebound – An increased percentage of time spent in REM sleep when we are deprived of REM sleep during previous nights.
Sleep Debt – the amount of sleep owed to your body for lack of sleep in previous nights.
Sleep Deprivation – not having enough sleep.
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SLEEP THEORIESWhy do we sleep?
1. Protection – kept our ancestors from venturing around at night.
2. Recuperate – Repairs and restores brain tissues.
3. Remembering – Builds and restores our memories.
4. Growth – During deep sleep, growth hormones are released.
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SLEEP DISORDERSInsomnia: the inability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep.
Narcolepsy: sudden and uncontrollable lapse into sleep
Sleep apnea: temporary pauses of breathing
Night terrors: characterized by bloodcurdling screams and intense fear
Sleepwalking: usually in stage 4.
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DREAMSLucid dreaming: awareness that we are dreaming
Manifest content: the remembered story line of a dream.
Latent content: the underlying meaning of a dream.
Hypnosis: state with deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility.
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DRUGSDependence: Compulsive use of a substance (addiction)Tolerance: More substance is required to obtain the original effectWithdrawal: Physical discomfort when the substance is stopped
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Psychoactive drugs: chemicals that alter perception, thinking, behavior, and mood.
Stimulant (Uppers): Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system. (Increase energy)
Depressant (Downers): Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system. (Decrease energy)
DRUGS
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Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates
Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, Crack, Amphetamines, methamphetamine (Speed, Crystal Meth), and ecstasy (MDMA).
Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana (THC is active ingredient in marijuana)
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
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UNIT 6TESTING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
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INTELLIGENCEIntelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
General Intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that is in every specific mental ability.
Savant Syndrome: a person with one exceptional ability, but limited mental ability in the others.
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THEORIES ON INTELLIGENCE
Spearman – g (general intelligence).
Thurstone – Primary mental abilities (7 factors/clusters).
Gardner – 9 independent intelligences.
Sternberg – 3 areas that predict success.
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCEEmotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
•Perceive: recognize emotions in faces, music, and stories.
•Understand: to predict them & how they change and blend.
•Manage: to express them in situations.
•Use: to enable them.
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INTELLIGENCECreativity: The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Alfred Binet: invented the first intelligence test.
Lewis Terman: adapted Binet’s test for American school children. (Stanford-Binet test)
William Stern: German psychologist who created the IQ.
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IQ = Mental age
Chronological agex 100
Mental age: the age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.
INTELLIGENCE
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ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTINGEugenics: encourage only smart and fit people to reproduce.
Aptitude: the capacity to learn.
Aptitude tests: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance.
Achievement tests: a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
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TEST CONSTRUCTIONPsychological tests must meet 3 criteria to be accepted: standardized, reliable, and valid.
Standardization: It defines what the score you get means!
Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results.
Validity: what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
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TEST CONSTRUCTION
Normal Curve: a bell shaped curve in which most scores fall near the average and fewer scores are at the extremes.
Mental retardation: low test score and difficulty living independently.
Head Start Program: Government funded preschool program.
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ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCESFlynn Effect: worldwide rise in IQ scores since the 1920s due to better nutrition and increasing years of schooling.
Bias: Differences in performances caused by cultural experiences detected on tests.Stereotype Threat: A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.