1

A Source Book on Solid and Liquid Waste Management for Rural

Areas

2015

Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation

Paryavaran Bhavan

CGO Complex, Lodhi Road

New Delhi

Ministry logo CEE logo

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan logo

Final Draft

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Foreword – Minister

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Preface – Secretary

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Introduction to the Sourcebook – KVS

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Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge and thank Mr. Vijay Mittal for awarding us this work and Ms. Pratima

Gupta, former Director of the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA), present Director Mr. Sujoy

Mojumdar, Sri Saraswati Prasad, Joint Secretary, NBA for guiding us and providing feedback.

We also acknowledge and thank the team of reviewers of the book, Dr. Dinesh Chand, Sri. G.

Balasubramaniam, Sri. Salim Haider, and Dr. Gangadhara Murugan for extensively reviewing the

book, providing us with relevant information, suggestions, feedback and advice for improving the

book and making it a valuable source book for helping to achieve effective solid and liquid waste

management in India.

We also acknowledge the contribution of Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani, Professor, National Institute

of Urban Affairs (NIUA) for providing extensive inputs and expert review for the document and

providing the relevant photographs and illustrations to fulfil the requirement of the source book as

envisaged by Swachh Bharat Mission.

Centre for Environment Education

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Credits

Development and Editing: Madhavi Joshi, Reema Banerjee, Ketki Gadre, Centre for

Environment Education

Reviewed by: Dr Shyamala Mani, Professor, National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, Dr.

Gangadhara Murugan, Consultant, Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (MDWS), New

Delhi

Illustrations and Photographs: Original photographs from projects implemented by CEE,

photographs from the sources as mentioned in respective reference sections and those provided

by experts.

Design and Production: Mahendra Dadhania,

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Glossary

1) Acidogenic bacteria: Bacteria that convert water soluble substances into volatile

acids.

2) Amoebiasis: A gastronomical infection caused by the Entamoeba histolytica

amoeba.

3) Ascariasis: A disease which spreads through drinking water; it is mostly

asymptomatic but may cause fever and diarrhoea.

4) Ataxia: A neurological impairment which prevents voluntary coordination of

muscle movements.

5) Bagasse: The fibrous matter that remains after extraction of juice from sugarcane

stalk. It can be used as biofuel or for manufacturing pulp and other useful

products.

6) Benthic Community: Community of organisms that live at the bottom of the

ocean floor including worms, clams, crabs, lobsters and sponges.

7) Bioaccumulation: The accumulation of toxic substances such as pesticides or

heavy metals in an organism’s body over a period of time.

8) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The measure of availability of oxygen or

its depletion due to organic matter decomposition in the water body which in turn

indicates whether the water body can support life

9) Biomethanation: The process of production of methane by the action of bacteria

on organic matter under anaerobic conditions.

10) Black Water: Sewage or wastewater containing faecal matter and urine, which

cannot be reused without purification.

11) Botulism: A fatal disease which spreads through the entry of bacteria into a

wound, usually from a contaminated water source. Slow paralysis of the body

usually leads to death by respiratory failure.

12) Briquette: The act of compressing organic matter such as coal dust and charcoal

into bricks which can later be used as fuel or fodder.

13) Campylobacteriosis: A bacterial infection that spreads through drinking water

and causes dysentery.

14) Carcinogenic: Substances capable of causing cancer.

15) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The measure of availability or depletion of

oxygen due to chemical reactions in the water body, which in turn indicates the

ability of the water body for supporting life.

16) Coenurosis: A parasitic infection which spreads through drinking water.

17) Cyclosporiasis: An infection which spreads through faeces-contaminated water

and leads to nausea, fever and other similar symptoms.

18) Dracunculiasis: A water-borne disease which can cause allergic reactions,

diarrhoea, vomiting and even asthmatic attacks.

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19) Echinococcosis: A disease caused by tapeworm through drinking water

contaminated with faeces containing eggs. It mostly affects the liver.

20) Enterobiasis: A human parasitic disease that spreads through water and causes

anal itching.

21) Fasciolopsiasis: A water-borne intestinal infection which affects the

gastrointestinal tract and the liver.

22) Fluff: Light and low-density waste such as rice husk or straw.

23) Furfural: A colourless, sweet-smelling and oily liquid made from cellulosic

wastes and used for manufacturing plastics and other products.

24) Giardiasis: A parasitic disease of the digestive tract, which may cause diarrhoea

and loss of appetite.

25) Greywater: Domestic wastewater with low organic loading, which can be reused

for some purposes without purification.

26) Helminthiasis: A parasitic worm infection which is transmitted mostly through

the soil.

27) Hydrolytic breakdown: The process of breaking down of complex polymers into

simpler units in the presence of water.

28) Hymenolepiasis: A disease caused through drinking water contaminated with

tapeworm eggs; symptoms include abdominal pain and anorexia.

29) Immuno-compromised: Possessing an immune system which has had its

functioning compromised, generally by a disease.

30) Interstitial Species: Organisms that live between the grains of sand, usually on

sandy shores.

31) Intracranial: Occurring within the cranium, which is the protective bony dome

protecting the brain.

32) Leachate: A liquid that extracts a component, such as suspended solids, from the

material it passes through. It may have environmentally harmful consequences.

33) Legionellosis: A water-borne bacterial disease which may lead to pneumonia,

anorexia and other symptoms in its severe form and Pontiac fever in its milder

form.

34) Leukoencephalopathy: Diseases that affect the white matter of the brain and are

fatal in nature.

35) Löffler's syndrome: An infection which causes the accumulation of a type of

white blood cells in the lungs.

36) Methanogenic bacteria: Anaerobic bacteria that mainly produce methane after

their respiration process.

37) Offal: The internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal

38) Pelleted: The act of compressing matter such as agricultural wastes into dense,

spherical bodies which can later be used as fuel or fodder.

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39) Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP): Organic substances that do not easily

undergo environmental degradation and contribute towards bioaccumulation.

They are capable of harming human health and environment.

40) Pontiac fever: An acute upper respiratory infection with mild fever; it is the

milder form of Legionellosis.

41) Schistosomiasis: A parasitic disease of the urinary tract or intestines, caused by

contact with water containing worms of the Schistosoma type.

42) Septage Management: Processes designed for the treatment of the contaminated

wastewater known as septage.

43) Sullage: Silt or sediment deposited by flowing water.

44) Taeniasis: A parasitic disease caused by tapeworms; its symptoms includes

intestinal disturbances and loss of weight.

45) Trachoma: A bacterial infection which may cause a breakdown of the outer

cornea of the eye and may lead to blindness.

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Contents

1. Introduction 1.1 What is waste? 1.2 Waste generation 1.3 Categorisation of waste 1.4 Characterisation of solid waste 1.5 Environmental and health impacts of waste 1.6 Waste: problem or resource 1.7 Importance of waste management 2. Environmental and health implications of improper waste management 2.1 Environmental hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste 2.2 Health hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste 3. 4Rs of waste management 3.1 Reduce (and prevention) 3.2 Reuse 3.3 Recycle 3.4 Recover 3.5 Easy steps to reduce, reuse, recycle and recover 4. Segregation, collection and transportation of waste 4.1 Separation at source

4.1.1 Waste utilization at source 4.2 Primary collection of waste 4.3 Transportation of collected waste 5. Treatment of biodegradable waste 5.1 Composting 5.1.1 Introduction to composting 5.1.2 Different methods of composting 5.1.3 Composting strategies for households 5.1.4 Composting strategies for community, farms and agricultural lands

5.1.5 Vermi-wash 5.2 Biogas generation 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 The science of biogas generation 5.2.3 Fuel efficiency of biogas 5.2.4 Use of biogas technology for solid waste management 5.2.5 Feed materials for biogas plant 5.2.6 Types of designs of biogas plants 6. Treatment technologies for non-biodegradable waste 6.1 Waste recycling 6.2 Recycling of paper 6.3 Plastic bags and plastic waste recycling 6.4 Inert waste 6.5 Management of non-recyclables

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6.6 Sanitary landfill 7. Wastewater management 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of wastewater 7.3 Sanitation beyond toilets 7.4 Factors affecting toilet use 7.5 Ecological and health issues related 8. Wastewater treatment and management 8.1 Treatment of wastewater 8.2 Benefits of wastewater recycling 8.3 Decentralised wastewater treatment facility 8.4 Technological options at household level 8.4.1 Twin pits 8.4.2 Septic tank 8.4.2 Ecosan toilet 8.4.3 Biodigester 8.5 Technological options at community level 8.5.1 Stabilization pond for wastewater treatment 8.5.2 Wastewater treatment using Duckweed technology 8.5.3 Root zone technology 8.5.4 DEWATS 8.6 Greywater and blackwater management 8.7 Use of treated wastewater 9. Participatory approach to effective waste management 9.1 Aim of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaign 9.2 Need for direct intervention and participation of community stakeholder 9.3 Public information, education and communication methods 9.4 Recommended method of participatory approach in implementation of effective waste

management system 9.5 Learnings

Case studies Case study 1 CEE-ERU (CEE Eco Recycling Unit) Coorg, Karnataka

Case study 2 Satyanagar’s Biogas-based Community Toilet, Bangalore, Karnataka

Case study 3 Converting Dhansura block of Sabarkantha district into a plastic-free zone,

Gujarat

Case study 4 Pammal’s Green Exnora, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

Case study 5 Waste to wealth: Vermicomposting from solid waste by KGS, Kanpur, UP

Case study 6 Solid waste management and sanitation activities at Kihim, Maharashtra

Case study 7 Making night soil-based biogas plants viable in Maharashtra’s Pune

district

Case study 8 Rural waste management in a South Indian village

Case study 9 Greywater treatment plant in Kokawad ashram school,

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Solid and liquid waste management are becoming issues of great concern in rural India.

The changes in consumption patterns including that of people living in rural areas have

an impact on the quantity and kind of wastes generated. “It is estimated that rural people

in India are generating liquid waste (greywater) of the order of 15,000 to 18,000 million

liters and solid waste (organic/recyclable) of the order of 0.3 to 0.4 million metric tons

per day respectively”1. While there is an increase in non-biodegradable components in

the waste generated in rural areas, a large part of the waste is biodegradable in nature.

This poses great health risks if not treated and managed in a sustainable way.

In the absence of proper treatment and disposal of solid and liquid waste (greywater and

blackwater), vector borne diseases such as diarrhea, malaria, polio, dengue, cholera,

typhoid, and other waterborne infections such as schistosomiasis are increasing. Close to

88 per cent of the total disease burden in rural India is due to lack of clean water and

sanitation and improper solid and liquid waste management, which exacerbate the

situation. For example:

• 5 of the 10 top killer diseases of children aged 1-14 in rural areas are related to water

and sanitation

• Almost 1500 children die every day from diarrheal diseases

• High rate of infant and under-5-children mortality. The rural Infant Mortality Rate

(IMR) is 62 as compared to urban which is 42

• The water and sanitation related diseases not only affect the nutritional status of

children but also impact their attendance in the school. Close to 50 per cent of school

going children in rural areas do not reach class V1.

The Government of India initiated the Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) in

1986, primarily with the objective of improving the quality of life of people living in the

rural areas and to provide privacy and dignity to women. The concept of sanitation was

expanded to include personal hygiene, home sanitation, safe water, garbage disposal,

excreta disposal and wastewater disposal. With this broader concept of sanitation,CRSP

in 1999, adopted a “demand driven” approach with the name “Total Sanitation

Campaign” (TSC). The revised approach had a strong emphasis on Information,

Education and Communication (IEC), Human Resource Development, Capacity

Development activities to increase awareness among the rural people and generation of

demand for sanitary facilities. This enhanced people’s capacity to choose appropriate

options through alternate delivery mechanisms as per their financial capabilities. The

Programme was implemented with focus on community-led and people centered

initiatives. Financial incentives were provided to Below Poverty Line (BPL) households

for construction and use of individual household latrines (IHHL). Assistance was also

extended for construction of school toilet units, Anganwadi toilets and Community

Sanitary Complexes (CSC) apart from undertaking activities under Solid and Liquid

Waste Management (SLWM). To give a fillip to the TSC, Government of India also

launched the Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) that sought to recognise the achievements and

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efforts made in ensuring full sanitation coverage. Encouraged by the success of NGP, the

TSC was renamed as “Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan” (NBA) in 2003. The objective was to

accelerate sanitation coverage in the rural areas so as to comprehensively cover the rural

community through renewed strategies and saturation approach. In 2014, the Swachh

Bharat Mission announced aims to achieve not only toilet saturation but also total Solid

and Liquid Management along with total septage management by 2019.

This calls for creating awareness and understanding of the issue among various

stakeholders and hence this publication. The issue of solid waste will be dealt with first

followed by liquid waste.

1.1 What is waste?

Waste is any article that is unwanted and is discarded due to that article no longer being

useful to the possessor. Rural areas traditionally did not generate waste as we know it, as

whatever is produced eventually goes back to earth. The practice of a community dump

for agricultural waste and converting the same into compost to plough back into their

field is a part of village life in India. However, in the modern era, changes in technology

and access of rural community to many of them, connectivity to urban centres, adapting

to modern ways of living by the villagers and changing levels of living and literacy have

changed the way of life of the villagers. An obvious impact of the changing lifestyle of

people living in rural areas is the increasing problem of solid waste both in terms of

quantity and its characteristic.

Waste management is a complex process involving a number of methods, and

technologies, simple to complex in nature. To have a general idea, various terminologies

used in waste management are discussed.

1.2 Waste generation

About 960 million tonnes of solid waste is generated annually in India as by-products

during industrial, mining, municipal, agricultural and other processes. Of this, 350

million tonnes are organic wastes from agricultural sources; 290 million tonnes are

inorganic waste from industrial and mining sectors and 4.5 million tonnes are hazardous

in nature2. Although rural citizens in India produce half the quantum of waste compared

to their urban counterparts, the quality and characteristics of waste in rural areas is

changing and is a cause for concern.

There is global consensus to find a socio, techno-economic, environmentally friendly

solution to the ever-growing problem of solid waste in order to sustain a cleaner and

greener environment. An efficient and sound waste management system is possible if the

system addresses the heterogeneous nature of wastes and ways to treat them individually.

The issue is complex not just because of the quantum but also because of the varied

nature of components in the waste stream.

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1.3 Categorisation of waste

Waste can be classified into different types depending on their composition, sources,

nature and properties.

Solid Waste Solid Waste can be broadly classified into the following categories depending on their

physical, chemical and biological properties. These are:

a) Biodegradable waste: Wastes which break up into simpler substances naturally, by

the action of microorganisms are called biodegradable waste, e.g. food waste, garden

waste, wet paper, cotton wool, rags, sweepings, agriculture waste etc.

b) Recyclable waste: Wastes which are complex in nature and cannot be broken down

into simpler substances by the action of microorganisms but stay in the environment

without changing their physical properties but can be reused or recycled or

manufactured into newer products are called as recyclable waste. They include

broken glass, plastic bottles and pouches, metal cans, pieces of metal, plastic

containers, synthetic cloth, packaging, broken toys etc. Paper, although degradable,

can also be recycled if it is not fused with plastic or foil. Many of such waste

components can emit extremely hazardous gases when burnt.

c) Soiled waste: This waste is infectious and if not treated separately and disinfected, it

can cause disease. Examples include diapers, sanitary napkins, bandages, infected

cotton, tubings, syringes etc.

d) Domestic Toxic Waste: Wastes generated from homes, commercial establishments

and institutions, which are potentially hazardous in nature and can cause harm to

human beings, animals, plants and the environment and need to be disposed with

special care are called domestic toxic waste, for e.g., unused expired medicines,

discarded cassettes and CDs, paints, light bulbs, Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs),

fluorescent tubes, pressurized spray cans, pesticide containers, used billets, batteries,

shoe polish etc.

e) Inerts: Construction and Demolition waste2, 3

, dirt, stones and debris fall under the

inert category of waste. They are generated in huge quantities and occupy large

amounts of space on land.

Special categories of solid waste in rural areas Solid wastes generated in rural areas, even those which are biodegradable consist of

materials with different physical and chemical characteristics. These come from various

sources such as agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, domestic, rural industries etc.,

which need defining and characterization.8

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Agricultural waste: This comprises crop residues such as paddy straw, wheat straw,

straws and stalks of other cereals and millets, stalks of oil seeds, pulses and vegetables,

sugarcane bagasse, sugarcane trash, maize cobs, groundnut shell, banana pseudo stem,

jute sticks, potato haulm, stalks of cotton, husk of rice, oats, barley and sunflower seeds,

coconut shell and husk, cover of arecanuts, cover of cocoa pods, weeds, leaves of the

trees, fruits and vegetable wastes etc.4

Animal Husbandry: Wastes from the animal husbandry sector consists of dung and

droppings of domestic animals, their urine, leftover fodder, rotten thatching material used

for animal shelters, waste from fodder and forage crops or any other materials generated

as waste in and around animal husbandry practices. Other kinds of animal wastes include

slaughter wastes such as blood, clippings, non-edible portions of the animal carcass,

feather, bones, contents of the visceral organs, hoofs, horns etc.4

Rural industrial wastes: These are materials generated from agricultural processing units

such as rice and flour mills, vegetable oil extraction, shelling of pulses, polishing of rice

and pulses, sugar cane processing and vegetable and fruit processing and packaging units

set up in the villages.4

Waste from Trading Activities: Rural areas generate waste such as dry leaves, plastic,

ropes, coir etc from trading activities.

Liquid waste: These can be sewage, sullage or wastewater from small eateries, dairies,

cottage industries, small and medium industries and medical establishments.

Gaseous waste: Smoke from kitchens, fire places, brick kilns, cottage industries, small

and medium industries, garbage dumps and vehicles make up the gaseous waste in rural

areas.

1.4 Characterisation of solid waste

A good knowledge about the characteristics of rural waste is fundamental for the

development of appropriate waste management systems which involve separation of

various types of wastes, collection, processing and disposal depending on the type and

quantity of waste. The percentage of moisture content, the bulk density, the acidity or

alkalinity, compactability, viscosity, heating value, volatile matter, total ash, total organic

matter, total carbon etc. of the rural wastes are important parameters that are to be

considered in adopting a waste management technology. Table 1 enumerates the general

composition, physical and chemical parameters of the rural wastes.

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Table 1 General composition, physical and chemical parameters for

characterization of rural waste4

Sl. No. Type of waste Description and Parameters

A. General composition

1 Plant waste Stalk, straw, pod shells, leaves, flowers, spikelets etc.

2 Animal waste Dung/dropping, urine, carcass, spoilt fodder etc.

3 Domestic waste Human excreta, house sweepings and kitchen waste,

sullage, etc.

4 Rural industrial waste Ash, broken earthenware, tannery effluent, leather

trimmings, rice husk and bran, bagasse, wood chips

and saw dust, cotton rags, plastic bags etc.

B. Physical parameters 1 Total wastes Size, shape, volume, weight, density, surface area,

compatibility, temperature, colour, odour, physical

state (total solids, liquids and gases etc.)

2 Solid wastes Percentages of soluble, combustible and volatile

substances, hardness, percentages of the components of

ash which are soluble

3 Particle characteristics Size distribution, shape, surface, porosity, adsorption,

density, aggregation etc.

4 Liquid wastes Turbidity, colour, odour, taste, temperature, viscosity

(specific gravity and stratification) etc.

5 Percentage of total

solids

Percentage of soluble, suspended and settleable solids;

dissolved oxygen, vapour pressure, effect of shear rate,

effect of temperature, gel formation etc.

6 Gaseous wastes Temperature, pressure, volume, density, the percentage

of particulate and liquid etc.

C. Chemical parameters

1 General PH, alkalinity, hardness (CaCO3), biochemical oxygen

demand, chemical oxygen demand, rate of availability

of phosphorus, crude fibre, percentage of organic

material etc.

2 Combustion

parameter

Heat content, oxygen requirement, flame temperature,

combustion products (including ash), flash point, gas-

fusion characterization, toxicity, biological stability

and attractiveness to vermin etc.

3 Inorganic and

elemental

Moisture content, carbon, hydrogen, phosphate etc.

4 Organic Percentage of soluble oxygen, protein nitrogen,

phosphorus, lipids, starches, sugars, hemicellulose,

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lignite, phenols, benzene oil, alkyl benzene oil, alkyl

benzene sulphonate, carbon chloroform extract,

polychlorinated biphenyls, polynuclear hydrocarbons,

vitamins, insecticides, sulphur, toxic materials,

eutrophic material (nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus)

etc.

The different categories of waste generated take their own time to degenerate (as

illustrated in the table below)5

Table 2 - Type of waste generated and the approximate time it takes to degenerate

Type of waste Approximate times it takes to degenerate

Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit

peels, leftover foodstuff, etc.

A week or two weeks. Agricultural waste,

because of the hardiness and fibrous

content, would take about one month to

degrade.

Paper 10-30 days

Cotton cloth 2-5 months

Wood 10-15 years

Woolen items 1 year

Tin, aluminum and other metal items such

as cans

100-500 years

Plastic bags One million years

Glass bottles Undetermined

1.5 Environmental and health impacts of waste

Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste

from households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of

infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures

that in turn spread disease. Normally, it is the wet waste that decomposes and releases a

bad odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in health problems.

Plastic waste is another cause for ill health when burnt or recycled inefficiently. Waste

therefore needs to have an effective management system in place, beginning from the

source of generation.

Wastes that end up in water bodies affect all life forms existing in the water. They can

also cause harm to animals that drink from such polluted water. Hazardous chemicals that

get into the soil (contaminants) can harm plants when they absorb the contaminants. If

humans eat plants and animals that have been in contact with such polluted soils, there

can be negative impact on their health. For e.g., chemicals and sludge waste from leather

tanning contains heavy metals which when disposed in soil or water are absorbed by

plants. The bioaccumulation of these heavy metals in animals and in humans is known to

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cause health impacts. Leachate from used batteries discarded in the environment also has

damaging impact upon exposure.

Water pollution due to dumping of waste in the water body

Air pollution owing to burning of wastes can cause respiratory problems and other

adverse health effects as contaminants are absorbed from the lungs into other parts of the

body. Leachate from unscientifically disposed waste on land forms a very harmful

mixture of chemicals that may result in hazardous substances entering surface water,

groundwater or soil.

The increasing amount of waste and lack of an adequate and efficient system of waste

management in villages contributes to the overall health and hygiene problems in these

areas. We are quite familiar with the frequent outbreak of diseases such as malaria,

diarrhea, dysentery, cholera etc. especially among young children. Therefore the most

urgent need for waste management comes from the point of view of health4.

From an environmental context, the large amount of agricultural waste is a resource that

can enrich the soil. But, if left unattended and mixed with other kinds of waste, this can

pollute the environment. Clean environment is essential for healthy living. The decaying

waste including dung can contaminate the soil, water and air causing nitrite pollution of

soil and water and release of methane and hydrogen sulphide into the atmosphere.

Depending on the type of waste whether chemical, physical or biological, the degree of

pollution will vary. Some of the pollutants may be poisonous or toxic and may affect the

lives of the people and animals. Some of the pollutants may be absorbed by the crop

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plants and edible portions may become unfit for consumption while others may pollute

the air or water5.

1.6 Waste: problem or resource?

A large part of the rural wastes are valuable raw materials for the production of useful

things in our daily life provided they are recycled properly. Above all, most of these

waste materials can be processed or recycled to meet our energy deficit. For example,

from the rice bran we can extract rice bran oil, cattle feed, wax, rice husk board and rice

husk cement from rice husk, silica, black ash for bricks and use it along with other fluff

to burn in boilers to generate heat or electricity. From straw, we can produce straw board,

straw paper, straw bags, packing material etc. besides using excess straw, husk or saw

dust as bulk material for composting domestic wet waste as well as excreta in Ecosan and

other dry toilets.

Most of the agricultural wastes yield furfural which is a colorless, oily liquid having an

aromatic odour, used chiefly in the manufacture of plastics and as a solvent for refining

lubricating oils. The groundnut shells can provide vanillin, building board, adhesive

extender, activated charcoal and cellulose. Agricultural waste can also be briquetted or

pelleted for use as fuel and cattle feed. Agricultural wastes contain abundance of starch

material which can be fermented to produce alcohol and this can be a substitute for fossil

fuel4.

Similarly animal wastes such as blood, offal, slaughter house wastes are used in the

manufacture of high protein feeds for farm animals. The hooves and horns are used for

making buttons and handicrafts. The bones are used to prepare bone meal. We can

produce methane gas from human and animal faeces besides using the spent slurry of

biogas as manure. The methane gas can be used as a fuel to run generators to produce

electricity, to run water pumps, for cooking, and for lighting. The guts of cattle, buffaloes

and pigs are used as sausage casings. Animal hair is used to prepare brushes besides the

wool being used for making woolen clothes.4

Thus, most of the waste materials are of great economic value to us if they are processed

according to their physical and chemical characteristics. Hence a fairly good knowledge

about the characteristics of the rural wastes is essential for efficient and effective

processing, recycling and utilization of this wastes.6

Today waste is increasingly recognised as a resource by those involved in waste

management as strategies are being adopted to utilize waste across the world. This is

reflected in the shift away from disposal and towards recycling and recovery.

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Wastes are misplaced resources

A few examples are given below:

(i) A large volume of organic matter is generated from agricultural activities,

dairy farms and animal shelters, agro based trading and manufacturing

activities in rural areas. This valuable resource can be utilised by composting/

transforming it into a value added end product called manure. The chief

objective of composting organic wastes should not be for the disposal of solid

organic wastes but to produce superior quality manure to feed our "nutrient-

organic-matter-hungry" soils.

(ii) Plastic waste recycling also has a great potential for resource conservation and

Green House Gas emissions reduction, such as producing diesel fuel from

plastic waste. This resource conservation goal is very important for most of

the national and local governments, where rapid industrialization and

economic development is putting a lot of pressure on natural resources.

(iii) The average person in our country generates about 300-400 gms of waste per

day. The good news is that we can reuse it to generate clean, renewable power

like biogas (methane). That's enough to power 650,000 homes every day. In

addition, this form of energy production has been recognized by the MNRE as

creating "less environmental impact than almost any other source of energy."

1.7 Importance of waste management

Safe disposal of waste can lead to:

• Health benefits from safe disposal of waste that would otherwise contaminate the

environment;

• Economic benefits and Environmental benefits through reuse/recycling of

products that would have been discarded as waste;

• Aesthetic benefits from a clean environment.

References:

1. India Sanitation Portal (2014) Guidelines Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan, July 2012.

[Online] Available from

[http://indiasanitationportal.org/sites/default/files/NBA%20Guidelines%20Fin

al_3.pdf ] accessed on Sept.19, 2014, 16:55 hours.

2. Asokan Pappu, Mohini Saxena, Shyam R. Asolekar (2007), Solid wastes

generation in India and their recycling potential in building

materials (Citations: 23) , Journal: Building and Environment - BLDG

ENVIRON , vol. 42, no. 6, pp

3. The Planning Commission of India. Waste to Energy, June 2014, Available

from http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_wte1205.pdf and

http://planningcommission.gov.in/reports/genrep/rep_energyvol2.pdf;

accessed on Sept. 19, 2014, 17:00 hours

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4. Practice Green Health (2014) Waste Categories & Types [Online], Available

from https://practicegreenhealth.org/topics/waste/waste-categories-types,

5. Zhu, Da, Asnani, P. U., Zurbrugg, Christian, Anapolsky, Sebastian, Mani,

Shyamala K. (2007), Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management in India.

World Bank Institute.

6. Chandy, K. T. Basics of Rural Waste Management, Booklet No. 531, Ecology

and Environment: EES - 16, Agricultural & Environmental Education.

7. Edugreen. Types of Solid waste [Online], Available from

edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/types.htm

8. Ernest Hester Ronald, Harrison Roy M. (2002), Environmental and health

impact of solid waste management.

22

Chapter 2

Environmental and health implications of improper waste management

The state of health of living organisms mostly depends on a healthy and clean

environment. Inefficient waste management practices pollute our natural resources such

as the land, water and air. The accumulating waste not only pollutes but can cause further

degradation of the soil and freshwater. . The main source of freshwater pollution can be

attributed to discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluents, and run-off

from agricultural fields1.

Waste that is not properly managed especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste

from households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of

infectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other animals

that in turn can carry vectors which spread disease. Normally, it is the wet waste that after

decomposing leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in health problems.

Plastic waste is another cause for ill health when burnt or recycled inefficiently. Thus

excessive solid waste that is generated should be controlled by taking preventive

measures

2.1 Environmental hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste

Solid waste acts in many ways as a source of disease. It attracts disease vectors such as

flies, mosquitoes, birds, rodents and dogs, which scavenge on the waste piles, get infected

and spread the disease in human population. Often epidemics have caused death and

destruction in communities due to inefficient waste management.

Solid waste is also a huge source of many pollutants, which when left unattended will

leach into the underground aquifers or mix with the local water bodies due to run-off

during rainy season. Leachate from unscientifically disposed waste on land leads to

formation of a harmful mixture of chemicals that may result in hazardous substances

entering surface water, groundwater or soil. These substances include pesticides, toxins

like dioxins, phthalates, and organic compounds. Heavy metals like cadmium, arsenic,

chromium, mercury are also found in this leachate, which are highly toxic to humans as

well as to animals and plants.

Many volatile organic compounds are also released from the landfills which pollute the

surrounding region’s atmosphere causing respiratory diseases and other complications.

23

Open burning of solid waste causes air pollution

Air pollution owing to burning of wastes can cause respiratory problems and other

adverse health effects as contaminants are absorbed from the lungs into other parts of the

body. Domestic households also generate considerable amounts of air pollution, due to

various activities like burning of fuels for cooking (fuels such as Charcoal, firewood,

cow-dung cakes generate a lot of smoke and particulate matter), agricultural activities

and waste disposal. Kitchens, especially in rural and poor households generate enormous

amounts of smoke and particulate matter, which leads to pollution of indoor air, making it

unhealthy for the residents. Household insecticides, incense sprays and chemicals also

lead to air pollution although limited to a smaller area.

Agricultural activities like insecticide spraying, burning of agricultural waste also give

rise to local air pollution. Unhygienic disposal of waste is also an important source of

pollutants. The burning of domestic waste in an open manner results in the release of

toxic and carcinogenic pollutants into the air. Landfills and open dumps of waste also

play a part in air pollution by releasing gases of high greenhouse potential like carbon

dioxide and methane.

24

Domestic Sewage refers to wastewater from households that contain huge amounts of

suspended as well as dissolved solids in it. The major amount of these solid impurities

includes organic substances like food, market waste, sanitary waste, etc. which degrade

and produce foul smells. Domestic sewage also carries a lot of chemicals, detergents and

disease-causing microorganisms which are harmful to human health. Domestic sewage,

since it contains human wastes, also contains large numbers of microorganisms and some

of these can be pathogenic. Inorganic constituents include chlorides and sulphates,

various forms of nitrogen and phosphorous, as well as carbonates and bicarbonates.

Proteins and carbohydrates constitute about 90 per cent of the organic matter in domestic

sewage. These arise from the excreta, urine, food wastes, and wastewater from bathing,

washing, and laundering. Washing and laundering release soaps, detergents, and other

cleaning products, which are responsible for eutrophication of surface water bodies.

When excess of these chemicals such as phosphates and nitrates from detergents, and

organic matter enters a water source, it accelerates the growth of plants and algae. This

unprecedented growth of plant life in the water source leads to depletion of Oxygen (O2)

and leads to the death of most of the aquatic life. As the plants and algae later die due to

lack of nutrients, their detritus is decomposed by anaerobic microorganisms to start

releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide and other toxic aromatics. This

process is called Eutrophication which results in the death of the water body.

Most of the Indian rivers and their tributaries viz., Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna,

Sone, Cauvery, Damodar and Brahmaputra are reported to be grossly polluted due to

discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents directly into the rivers. Similarly,

many smaller rivers and rivulets in the country are also polluted because of untreated

sewage flowing into them. These wastes usually contain a wide variety of organic

Eutrophication in a water body

25

and inorganic pollutants including solvents, oils, grease, plastics, plasticizers, phenols,

heavy metals, pesticides and suspended solids. The indiscriminate dumping and release

of wastes containing the above mentioned hazardous substances into rivers might lead to

environmental disturbance which could be considered as a potential source of stress to

the biotic communities in these water bodies2.

In rivers, oceans and seas, water pollution affects the flora and fauna thriving in and

around them. Birds and animals that consume this contaminated food supply can perish.

Fertilizers and pesticide residues which runoff into streams and rivers contain nitrates and

phosphates which encourage the excessive growth of algae and other water plants, and

deplete oxygen supply in water. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may cause decline,

deformities and death of fish life. Too much sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may

kill animals. All these in turn affect human health as human beings consume fish from

rivers or milk and meat of animals, which can lead to accumulation of carcinogenic

substances in them.

Table 3 Environmental implications of discharged wastewater2

Sewage and Industrial effluents

S.N. Factor Principal

environmental

effect

Potential ecological

consequences

1. High Reduction in Elimination of sensitive species,

Polluted river

26

biochemical

oxygen

demand

(BOD) caused

by bacterial

breakdown of

organic matter

dissolved oxygen

(DO)

concentration

increase in some tolerant species;

change in the community

structure

2. Partial

biodegradation

of proteins and

other

nitrogenous

material

Elevated ammonia

concentration;

increased nitrite

and nitrate levels

Elimination of intolerant species,

reduction in sensitive species

3. Release of

suspended

solid matter

Increased

turbidity and

reduction of light

penetration

Reduced photosynthesis of

submerge plants; abrasion of

gills or interference with normal

feeding behavior

4. Deposition of

organic sludge

in slower

water

Release

of methane and

hydrogen sulphide

as matter

decomposes

anaerobically,

modification of

substratum by

blanket of sludge

Elimination of normal benthic

community, loss of interstitial

species; increase in the species

able to exploit increased food

source

Other poisons

1. Presence of

poisonous

chemical

substances

increasing its

COD

Change in water

quality

Water directly and acutely toxic

to some organisms, causing

change in community

composition; consequential

effect on pray- predator relation;

sub - lethal effects on some

species

Inert solids

1. Particles in

suspension

Increased

turbidity. Possibly

increased

abrasion

Reduced photosynthesis of

submerged plant. Impairing

feeding ability through reduced

vision or interference with

collecting mechanism of filter

feeders (e.g. reduction in

nutritive value of collected

27

material).Possible abrasion

2. Deposition of

material

Blanketing of

substratum and/or

substrate

instability

Change in benthic community,

reduction in diversity ( increased

number of a few species)

2.2 Health hazards of improper management of solid and liquid waste

When sewage and liquid wastes are discharged into the rivers, pollutants enter

groundwater, rivers, and other water bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up in our

households, is often highly contaminated and can carry disease-causing microbes.

Untreated or improperly treated wastewater contains biological contaminants known to

cause disease. These contaminants are known as germs or pathogens. Pathogens fall into

five main categories: bacteria, viruses, protozoans, fungi and worms. Most of these

pathogens use the faecal/oral route to spread disease. Pathogens can also contaminate

water supplies when the wastewater is allowed to reach the water table before adequate

treatment occurs.

People with prolonged contact with wastewater face a greater risk of health and

environmental problems. This also leads to contamination of surface water and creates a

favourable environment for growth of mosquitoes and other disease causing vectors. Due

to these conditions, health risks such as transmission of intestinal helminth infections to

agricultural workers working in wastewater irrigated fields and transmission of faecal

bacterial diseases, like diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid and cholera, increase.

The lack of toilet facilities in rural areas also presents a major health risk. Open

defecation is rampant in most of the rural areas of India. Inadequate sanitation can cause

several diseases, which are transmitted from faeces to humans via contaminated hands,

soil, water, animals and insects. Sanitation and hygiene provides a barrier to faecal

diseases by isolating human excreta and removing traces of faecal material from hands,

after contact. It is estimated that globally, up to 5 million people die each year from

preventable waterborne diseases as a result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene

practices3. The effects of sanitation have also had a huge impact on society.

World over, one of the most significant diseases that arise from poor sanitation is

diarrhea. Deaths resulting around the world from diarrhea are estimated to be between 1.6

and 2.5 million every year. Young children below the ages of five are the most vulnerable

to the impact of this disease. About 19,000 children under the age of five – 13 each

minute – die every day in some part of the world, mainly from preventable causes. And

the bulk of the global under-five deaths are preventable. Two-thirds of the deaths occur

from infectious diseases. About 40 per cent of under-five deaths occurred within the first

month of life. During post-neonatal period, pneumonia, diarrhea and malaria are the main

killers of children. Many of the deaths occur in children already weakened by under-

28

nutrition; worldwide, more than a third of all under-five deaths are attributable to this

condition3. Other diseases caused by poor sanitation include schistosomiasis, trachoma,

and soil transmitted helminthiasis.

Waterborne diseases Waterborne diseases are any illness caused by drinking water contaminated by human or

animal faeces which contain pathogenic microorganism. Waterborne diseases are caused

by pathogenic microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated fresh

water is consumed. Over the past decades, the picture of water-related human health

issues has become increasingly comprehensive, with the emergence of new water-related

infection diseases and the re-emergence of the ones already known.

Types of Waterborne Diseases due to Contamination with Solid and Liquid Waste Water is contaminated by various sources, and it is evident that the microbes present in

water are responsible for the outbreak of various diseases .Waterborne disease can be

caused by protozoa, viruses, or bacteria, many of which are intestinal parasites.

The major types of diseases include

● Protozoal Infections

● Parasitic Infections

● Bacterial Infections

● Viral Infections

Table 4 Types of diseases, sources of agent and symptoms

Protozoal Infections

Disease and

Transmission

Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in

Water Supply

General

Symptoms

Amoebiasis (hand-to-

mouth)

(Entamoeba

histolytica) (Cyst-like

appearance)

Sewage, non-treated

drinking water, flies

in water supply

Abdominal

discomfort,

fatigue, weight

loss, diarrhea,

bloating, fever

Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora

cayetanensis)

Sewage, non-treated

drinking water

Cramps,

nausea,

vomiting,

muscle aches,

fever, and

fatigue

Giardiasis (oral-

faecal) (hand-to-

mouth)

(Giardia lamblia) Most

common intestinal

parasite

Untreated water, poor

disinfection, pipe

breaks, leaks,

groundwater

contamination, camp

grounds where

humans and wildlife

Diarrhea,

abdominal

discomfort,

bloating, and

flatulence

29

use same source of

water.

Parasitic Infections

Disease and

Transmission

Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in

Water Supply

General

Symptoms

Dracunculiasis

(Guinea Worm

Disease)

Dracunculus

medinensis

Stagnant water

containing larvae

Allergic

reaction,

urticarial rash,

nausea,

vomiting,

diarrhea,

asthmatic

attack.

Taeniasis Tapeworms of the

genus Taenia Drinking water

contaminated with

eggs

Intestinal

disturbances,

neurologic

manifestations,

loss of weight,

cysticercosis

Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolopsis buski Drinking water

contaminated with

encysted

metacercaria

Gastro

Intestinal Tract

(GIT)

disturbance,

diarrhea, liver

enlargement,

cholangitis,

cholecystitis,

obstructive

jaundice.

Hymenolepiasis

(Dwarf Tapeworm

Infection)

Hymenolepis nana Drinking water

contaminated with

eggs

Abdominal

pain, anorexia,

itching around

the anus,

nervous

manifestation

Echinococcosis

(Hyatid disease)

Echinococcus

granulosa

Drinking water

contaminated with

faeces (usually canid)

containing eggs

Liver

enlargement,

hyatid cysts

press on bile

duct and blood

vessels; if cysts

rupture they can

cause

anaphylactic

30

shock

Coenurosis Multiceps multiceps contaminated

drinking water with

eggs of worm

increases

intracranial

tension

Ascariasis

Ascaris lumbricoides Drinking water

contaminated with

faeces containing

eggs

Mostly, disease

is asymptomatic

or accompanied

by

inflammation,

fever, and

diarrhea. Severe

cases involve

Löffler's

syndrome in

lungs, nausea,

vomiting,

malnutrition,

and

underdevelopm

ent.

Enterobiasis

Enterobius

vermicularis Drinking water

contaminated with

worm eggs

Peri-anal itch,

nervous

irritability,

hyperactivity

and insomnia

Bacterial Infections

Disease and

Transmission

Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in

Water Supply

General

Symptoms

Botulism Clostridium botulinum Bacteria can enter a

wound from

contaminated water

sources. Can enter

the gastrointestinal

tract by consuming

contaminated

drinking water or

(more commonly)

food

Dry mouth,

blurred and/or

double vision,

difficulty

swallowing,

muscle

weakness,

difficulty

breathing,

slurred speech,

vomiting and

sometimes

diarrhea. Death

is caused by

respiratory

failure.

31

Campylobacteriosis Most commonly

caused by

Campylobacter jejuni

Drinking water

contaminated with

faeces

Produces

dysentery like

symptoms

along with a

high fever.

Usually lasts 2–

10 days.

Cholera

Spread by the

bacterium Vibrio

cholerae

Drinking water

contaminated with

the bacterium

In severe forms

it is known to

be one of the

most rapidly

fatal illnesses

known.

Symptoms

include very

watery

diarrhoea,

nausea, cramps,

nosebleed,

rapid pulse,

vomiting, and

hypovolemic

shock (in severe

cases), at which

point death can

occur in 12–18

hours.

E. coli Infection Certain strains of

Escherichia coli

(commonly E. coli)

Water contaminated

with the bacteria

Mostly

diarrhea. Can

cause death in

immuno-

compromised

individuals, the

very young, and

the elderly due

to dehydration

from prolonged

illness.

Dysentery Caused by a number of

species in the genera

Shigella and

Salmonella with the

most common being

Shigella dysenteriae

Water contaminated

with the bacterium

Frequent

passage of

faeces with

blood and/or

mucus and in

some cases

vomiting blood.

32

Legionellosis (two

distinct forms:

Legionnaires’ disease

and Pontiac fever)

Caused by bacteria

belonging to genus

Legionella (90% of

cases caused by

Legionella

pneumophila)

Contaminated water:

the organism thrives

in warm aquatic

environments

Pontiac fever

produces milder

symptoms

resembling

acute influenza

without

pneumonia.

Legionnaires’

disease has

severe

symptoms such

as fever, chills,

pneumonia

(with cough

that sometimes

produces

sputum), ataxia,

anorexia,

muscle aches,

malaise and

occasionally

diarrhea and

vomiting

Leptospirosis Caused by bacterium of

genus Leptospira

Water contaminated

by the animal urine

carrying the bacteria

Begins with flu-

like symptoms

then resolves.

The second

phase then

occurs

involving

meningitis,

liver damage

(causes

jaundice), and

renal failure

Salmonellosis Caused by many

bacteria of genus

Salmonella

Drinking water

contaminated with

the bacteria. More

common as a food

borne illness

Symptoms

include

diarrhea, fever,

vomiting, and

abdominal

cramps

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Ingestion of water

contaminated with

faeces of an infected

person

Characterized

by sustained

fever up to

40°C (104°F),

profuse

33

sweating,

diarrhea, less

commonly a

rash may occur.

Symptoms

progress to

delirium and

the spleen and

liver enlarge if

untreated. In

this case it can

last up to four

weeks and

cause death

Vibrio Illness Vibrio vulnificus,

Vibrio alginolyticus,

and Vibrio

parahaemolyticus

Can enter wounds

from contaminated

water. Also got by

drinking

contaminated water

or eating

undercooked oysters

Symptoms

include

explosive,

watery diarrhea,

nausea,

vomiting,

abdominal

cramps, and

occasionally

fever

Viral Infections

Disease and

Transmission

Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in

Water Supply

General

Symptoms

Adenovirus infection

Adenovirus

Manifests itself in

improperly treated

water

Symptoms

include

common cold

symptoms,

pneumonia,

croup, and

bronchitis

Gastroenteritis

Astrovirus,

Calicivirus, Enteric

Adenovirus, and

Parvovirus

Manifests itself in

improperly treated

water

Symptoms

include

diarrhea,

nausea,

vomiting, fever,

malaise, and

abdominal pain

SARS (Severe Acute

Respiratory

Syndrome)

Coronavirus Manifests itself in

improperly treated

water

Symptoms

include fever,

myalgia,

lethargy,

34

gastrointestinal

symptoms,

cough, and sore

throat

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A virus

(HAV)

Can manifest itself in

water (and food)

Symptoms are

only acute (no

chronic stage to

the virus) and

include Fatigue,

fever,

abdominal pain,

nausea,

diarrhea, weight

loss, itching,

jaundice and

depression.

Poliomyelitis (Polio) Poliovirus Enters water through

the faeces of infected

individuals

90-95% of

patients show

no symptoms,

4-8% have

minor

symptoms

(comparatively)

with delirium,

headache, fever,

and occasional

seizures, and

spastic

paralysis, 1%

have symptoms

of non-paralytic

aseptic

meningitis. The

rest have

serious

symptoms

resulting in

paralysis or

death

Polyomavirus

infection

Two of Polyomavirus:

JC virus and BK virus

Very widespread, can

manifest itself in

water, ~80% of the

population has

antibodies to

Polyomavirus

BK virus

produces a mild

respiratory

infection and

can infect the

kidneys of

immuno-

35

suppressed

transplant

patients. JC

virus infects the

respiratory

system, kidneys

or can cause

progressive

multifocal

leukoencephalo

pathy in the

brain (which is

fatal).

As evident from the tables in the earlier pages, chief causes of some critical diseases in

humans are related to the contamination of potable or drinking water. Enteric diseases are

transmitted mainly by intake of food or water contaminated with faeces. Typhoid fever,

dysentery (bacterial and amoebic), cholera and other enteric diseases are all associated

with consumption of contaminated water.

A child suffering from diarrhea

An emerging threat to water quality is due to the use of persistent organic pollutants

(POPs). These are chemicals that degrade very slowly and remain in the environment for

years. POPs bioaccumulate in the fat tissue of organisms once exposed, which means that

they are not excreted from the body. The POPs used widely in India are DDT, with an

annual consumption of 10,000 metric tonnes; polychlorinated biphenyls used widely in

capacitors and transformers and dioxins and furans used in the cement and pipe industry.

Ground water in some locations in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi

has reported levels of DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and Heptachlor that are in excess of

prescribed standards4.

36

Table 5 Indian States affected by various water quality problems5,6,7

Parameter Maximum

permissibl

e limits

Affected States Health Impact

Fluoride 1.5 mg/l Andhra Pradesh,

Assam, Bihar,

Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

Haryana, Jharkhand,

Karnataka, Kerala,

Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Orissa,

Punjab, Rajasthan,

Tamil Nadu, Tripura,

Uttar Pradesh, West

Bengal

Immediate symptoms

include digestive disorders,

skin diseases, dental

fluorosis

Fluoride in larger

quantities (20-80 mg/day)

taken over a period of 10-

20 years results in crippling

and skeletal fluorosis

which is severe bone

damage

Arsenic 0.05 mg/l Assam, Bihar,

Chhattisgarh,

Jharkhand, Tripura,

West Bengal,

Uttar Pradesh

Immediate symptoms of

acute poisoning typically

include vomiting

oesophageal and abdominal

pain, and bloody ‘rice

water’ diarrhea.

Long-term exposure to

arsenic causes cancer of the

skin, lungs, urinary

bladder, and kidney.

There can also be skin

changes such as lesions,

pigmentation

changes and thickening

(hyperkeratosis)

Iron 1 mg/ l Arunachal Pradesh,

Assam, Bihar,

Chhattisgarh,

Jharkhand, Jammu

and Kashmir,

Karnataka, Kerala,

Manipur, Meghalaya,

Mizoram, Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Nagaland, Orissa,

Punjab, Rajasthan,

Sikkim, Tripura,

Tamil Nadu, Uttar

Pradesh, West

Bengal, A&N Islands,

A dose of 1500

mg/l has a poisoning effect

on a child as it can damage

blood

tissues

Digestive disorders, skin

diseases and

dental problems

37

Pondicherry

Nitrate 100mg/ l Bihar, Gujarat,

Karnataka, Kerala,

Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Punjab,

Rajasthan, Tamil

Nadu, Uttar Pradesh

Causes

Methaemoglobinemia

(Blue Baby disease) where

the skin of infants becomes

blue due to decreased

efficiency of hemoglobin

to combine with oxygen. It

may also increase the risk

of cancer.

Salinity 2000 mg/l Andhra Pradesh,

Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

Haryana, Kerala,

Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Orissa,

Punjab, Rajasthan,

Tamil Nadu, Uttar

Pradesh, West

Bengal, Pondicherry

Objectionable taste of

water.

May affect osmotic flow

and movement of fluids

Heavy

Metals

Cadmium

– 0.01 mg/

l

Zinc – 15

mg/ l

Mercury –

0.001 mg/

l

Gujarat, Andhra

Pradesh, Delhi,

Haryana, Kerala

Damage to nervous

system, kidney, and other

metabolic disruptions

Persistent

Organic

Pollutants

None Delhi, Himachal

Pradesh, Jharkhand,

West Bengal,

High blood pressure,

hormonal dysfunction, and

growth retardation

Transmission of Waterborne Diseases Waterborne diseases are spread by contamination of drinking water systems with urine

and faeces of infected persons or animals. Runoff from landfills, septic fields, and sewer

pipes, residential or industrial developments also contaminate surface water. This has

been the cause of many dramatic outbreaks of faecal-oral diseases such as cholera and

typhoid. However, there are many other ways in which faecal material can reach the

mouth, for instance from the hands or through contaminated food. In general,

contaminated food is the single most common way in which people become infected.

38

The following picture shows the faecal-oral routes of disease transmission:

The only way to break the continued transmission is to improve the people’s hygiene

behaviour and to provide them with basic needs such as safe drinking water, washing and

bathing facilities and sanitation. Malaria mosquitoes, tropical black flies, and bilharzias

snails can all be controlled with efficient drainage because they all depend on water to

complete their life cycles.

Waterborne diseases can have a significant impact on the economy, locally as well as

(inter) nationally. People who are infected by a waterborne disease are usually confronted

with related costs and not seldom with a huge financial burden. This is especially the case

in less developed countries. The financial losses are mostly caused due to costs for

medical treatment and medication, costs for transport, special food, and by the loss of

work days for the person/s and the families. On an average, a family spends about 10 per

cent of the monthly household income in getting treatment for diseases caused due to

such infection. This can be avoided if adequate preventive measures are adopted.

In countries like India, direct wastewater use projects are normally centered near large

metropolitan areas. The direct wastewater use project refers reusing treated wastewater

for beneficial purposes such as agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial processes,

toilet flushing, and replenishing a ground water basin (referred to as ground water

recharge). Water recycling offers resource and financial savings. These schemes often

use a small percentage of the wastewater generated. The result is that indirect use of

wastewater prevails in other parts of the country. Indirect use occurs when treated,

partially treated or untreated wastewater is discharged to reservoirs, rivers and canals that

supply irrigation water to agriculture. Indirect use of wastewater poses the same health

39

risks as planned projects, but may have a higher potential of health problems as the water

user is unaware of the presence of wastewater. Where indirect use occurs, the primary

objective must also be to ensure that it is in a manner that minimizes or eliminates

potential health risks. The introduction of wastewater reuse for agriculture depends on

amount of nutrients in it. Most health authorities prohibit the irrigation of vegetables,

garden, berries or fruits with partially treated or untreated sewage. Only nursery stock

vegetables raised exclusively for seed purposes, cotton and field crops such as hay, grain,

rice, alfalfa etc. can be allowed to be watered with sewage. In India, to grow leafy

vegetables on lands irrigated with sewage water is a very old practice. This is also due to

the fact that there are no guidelines for such use of wastewater. Soils on which the

effluents are applied should be studied periodically from the viewpoint of physico-

chemical characteristics, to ensure that they are not damaged and ground water is not

polluted. Hydraulic loading rates depend upon the land available and are different for

different types of soil.

The existing wastewater treatment facilities in India are inadequate. India neither has

enough water to flush out city effluents, nor does it have enough sewage treatment plants.

The remaining water makes its way into streams and rivers inducing major problem-

water pollution. Polluted water is also breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes,

carriers of diseases like Malaria and Dengue fever are responsible for another 300,000

deaths in our country annually.8

References

1. Edugreen, (Health impacts of water pollution[Online], Available from

http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/water/health.htm

2. EOEarth(2009 ), Indian river systems and pollution [Online], Available from

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/153800

3. UNICEF (2003) Common water and sanitation-related diseases [Online],

Available from www.unicef.org/wash/index_wes_related.html.

4. Drinking Water Quality in India (2004), SDE workshop.

5. Compiled from: BIS Standards: IS 10500(991)., 6. DDWS (2007) [Online], Available from http://www.ddws.nic.in/popups/submissionfunds-

200607-195.pdf 7. CSE India (2006) [Online], Available from

www.cseindia.org/programme/health/pdf/conf2006/a69industrydelhi.pdf 8. Youth Ki Awaaz (2011), Urgent Need For Sanitation In India: A Step Towards

Better Health Care [Online], Available from

http://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2011/02/sanitation-in-india/

40

Chapter 3

4 Rs of waste management

The collection, transport and safe disposal of waste material are termed as waste

management. The phrase refers to materials produced by human action and the process of

monitoring and management is generally undertaken to reduce their impact on health and

environment. Waste management accounts for all types of wastes such as solid, liquid,

gaseous or radioactive.

Various studies reveal that about 90 per cent of waste is disposed off unscientifically

creating problems to public health and the environment1. The overall waste amount is

expected to increase significantly in the near future as the country strives to attain an

industrialized nation status by the year 20201. Keeping our environment safe demands

that we all need to reduce the amount of natural resources that we consume and

ultimately throw away as waste. Therefore, every citizen/human being has to be very

cautious and responsible while disposing the waste in their surroundings.

The waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past decade but the basic concept has

remained the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste

hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the

minimum amount of waste.

Some waste management experts have recently incorporated an additional R: "Re-think",

with the implied meaning that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and that a

thoroughly effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way of

looking at waste.

Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by

modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes in

manufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and product formulation. At times, the

term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction.

41

In waste management, the four ‘R’s refer to reduce, reuse, recycle and recover. This helps

remind us of the actions that we can employ to prevent and minimize waste. A brief

description of the 4 Rs is provided in the paragraphs that follow.

3.1 Reduce (and Prevention)

Source reduction is the most effective step of 4Rs because it encourages people to think

about their consumption. The following principle should always be borne in mind: the

easiest waste to manage is waste that is not generated in the first place.

Reducing the amount of products means that fewer resources are consumed and fewer

resources are required to recycle what is discarded. Reducing consumption reduces the

amount of solid waste that litters the land and occupies space in community landfills or

water bodies. It also cuts down on the amount of transportation that is required to deliver

the goods to the communities and for recyclables to be shipped elsewhere to be

transformed.

While consumptive behavior is still largely an urban phenomenon, as mentioned earlier

in this publication, it is on the increase in rural areas as well. Therefore it would be useful

to mention a few practices that can be exercised in day to day life to reduce and prevent

generation of waste. These may be as follows:

• Before buying something, ask yourself if you need it

• Carry your own bag when you go shopping

• Try to avoid buying items that have a lot of packaging. Select products with

no packaging or with compostable, reusable or recyclable packaging

• Buy in bulk or economy-sized packages and refill your containers when

possible

• Avoid disposable and single-use products (cups, cutlery, dishes, napkins,

batteries, etc.)

• Avoid single serving-sized products (for eg. small single use pouches)

• Buy durable goods, and repair them when possible

• Avoid buying products that contain toxic materials

3.2 Reuse

Reusing things before they are recycled or disposed off is the next best way to decrease the

amount of consumption of resources and the amount of waste produced. Reusing offers similar

benefits as reducing—we use less new materials, we transport less and we waste

less. Traditionally, there is a lot of reuse of material in Indian families. Some things we can do to

revive the tradition of reusing old material and reducing waste: ● Reuse jars, bottles or yogurt containers for storage containers, planters or

lanterns

● Use old newspapers for making paper bags, lining shelves etc.

● Give away or sell items not useful

● Use rechargeable batteries

42

3.3 Recycle

When an item is recycled, it is broken down and physically or chemically altered in order

to make a new item. The new item could be the same as the original form or it might be

an entirely different product. Recycling, unlike reducing or reusing, is not considered as

waste prevention, since it still creates waste. Recycling a material requires resources to

transport it and transform it into a new material. The manufacturer then turns it into a

new product, and sends it to consumers. This can add up to a lot of transportation costs

when you consider remote locations. Making products from recycled materials is better

than making them from virgin materials, but when possible, it is best not to create any

waste at all. When a product is recycled into something of greater quality than its original

form, it is called ‘up cycling’. Conversely, when a product is recycled into something of

lower quality than its original form, it is called ‘down cycling’. A plastic bottle that is

recycled into a fleece sweater would be an example of up cycling, while that same plastic

bottle mixed with other plastics to make a lower quality plastic would be an example of

down cycling.

Few ways to promote recycling are:

• Try to buy products that are made with materials that can be recycled

• Buy recycled products—it is important to close the loop and create more

demand for goods made of recycled materials

• Find out how and where you can recycle your old cell phones and

rechargeable batteries

• Get creative and recycle at home

• Use old materials for art and craft projects – newspapers and magazines

can be rolled or woven to make frames or baskets; make your own paper

out of old paper

Table 6 Recycling facts

Aluminium Recycling one kilogram of aluminium

saves up to 8 kilograms of bauxite, four

kilograms of chemical products and 14

kilowatt hours of electricity.

It takes 20 times more energy

to make aluminium from

bauxite ore than using recycled

aluminium.

Glass For every ton of recycled glass used,

approx 315 kilos of Carbon dioxide and

1.2 tons of raw materials are spared.

A 20% reduction in emissions

from glass furnaces and up to

32% reduction in energy

usage.

Paper One ton of paper from recycled material

conserves about 7,000 gallons of water,

17-31 trees, 60 lb of air pollutants and

4,000 KWh of electricity.

Milling paper from recycled

paper uses 20% less energy.

3.4 Recover

After reduction, reuse and recycling all the products and materials, the waste that remains

ends up in either land or water resources. This is where ‘Recovery’ comes in—it is still

43

possible to recover some of these materials from the said resources. Using a variety of

processes, we can transform waste into energy. For example, by capturing and

combusting gases emitted by the decomposition of organic materials in a landfill, we can

produce electricity.

Cradle to Cradle (C2C) Approach2

In this approach, all materials used in industrial or commercial processes such as

metals, fibres and dyes are either ‘technical’ or ‘biological’. Technical materials or

nutrients are those that are non-toxic and cause no harm to the environment. They can

be used in continuous cycles as the same product without losing quality or integrity.

These materials can be used without being down cycled into lesser products and

ultimately become waste.

Biological nutrients are those made from organic materials and can be disposed in any

natural environment and will decompose in the soil, become food for smaller life forms

without affecting the natural environment of a particular geographic location. The

two types of materials each follow their own cycle in the regenerative economy

envisioned by Keunen and Huizing.

Currently, many human beings come into contact or consume, directly or indirectly,

many harmful materials and chemicals daily. In addition, countless other forms of plant

and animal life are also exposed. C2C seeks to remove dangerous technical nutrients

(synthetic materials such as mutagenic materials, heavy metals and other dangerous

chemicals) from current life cycles. If the materials we come into contact with and are

exposed to on a daily basis are not toxic and do not have long term health effects, then

the health of the overall system can be better maintained. For example, a fabric factory

can eliminate all harmful technical nutrients by carefully reconsidering what chemicals

they use in their dyes to achieve the colours they need and attempt to do so with fewer

base chemicals.

How Panchayats/Municipalities can use C2C approach: Sewage sludge processing plants are facilities that create fertiliser from sewage sludge.

This approach is green retrofit for the current (inefficient) system of organic waste

disposal; as composting toilets are a better approach in the long run.

An example of C2C design is a disposable cup, bottle, or wrapper made entirely out of

biological materials. When the user is finished with the item, it can be disposed of and

returned to the natural environment; the cost of disposal of waste such as landfill and

recycling is eliminated. The user could also potentially return the item for a refund so it

can be used again. We can also avoid toxicity through C2C. For instance, today a

computer housing made of polystyrene with all toxic brominated flame retardants is

made into flimsy coffee/tea cups and we poison ourselves drinking from it and then

throw it into the environment where it poisons the ecosystem and poison comes back to

us again from food, fish or water. We also put it into landfill poisoning land or burn it

and pollute air.

44

3.5 Easy steps to Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

The points mentioned will help to a great extent in reducing, recycling and reusing of

waste. Every citizen needs to be much more concerned about the surrounding

environment and should take necessary steps to protect it. Furthermore, the minimization

of waste generation in the day to day life will be useful. In addition to the individual

responsibilities, the community level organizations should be active in handling the

wastes. For recycling, it is very much essential to separate the waste at source,. Later,

they can be treated as per the characteristics of the waste viz. recyclable, non-recyclable,

biodegradable and non-biodegradable etc.

Just to recapitulate:

● Segregate recyclables like waste papers, plastics, glass, metals, etc as much as

possible from waste at your end.

● Adopt a community recycling program.

● Encourage friends and family to get involved in recycling at home, at school and

in the workplace.

● Purchase recycled products and green labelled products.

Ideal solid waste management strategy

Solid waste

Segregate at source

Biodegradable

Domestic waste

Compost

/Vermicompost

Community level

Non Biodegradables

Paper

Cloth

Plastic

Glass

Metal

Recycle at

village level

To central

recycling

chain through

scrap dealers

45

References

1. Sharholy Mufeed, Ahmad Kafeel, Mahmood Gauhar and Trivedi R.C. (2008),

Municipal solid waste management in Indian cities – A review, Available from Waste

Management. Pg 459–467.

2. Wikipedia, Cradle-to-cradle Design, Available from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design

46

Chapter 4

Segeregation, collection and transportation of waste

The approach to waste management in villages of India has been rather marginal –

concentrating on certain aspects of waste management, e.g. collection or disposal.

However, the Solid and Liquid Waste management forms an important component of the

Government of India’s Total Sanitation Campaign which along with the Nirmal Gram

Puraskar, provide an impetus to this issue in our villages. Experience of dealing with

solid waste in cities can help find solutions towards integrated waste management

looking at waste as a resource.

There is a clear need for strategies to redesign conventional waste generation systems in

such a way that they can effectively and efficiently handle growing amounts of waste

with diversified waste streams. Integrated solid waste management (ISWM) proposes to

promote an integrated approach to solid waste management, which will enable authorities

to reduce the overall amount of waste generated and to recover valuable materials for

recycling and for the generation of energy. This has the potential to augment the revenue

of waste management activities, which could, in turn, help to compensate the

expenditures for solid waste management.

4.1 Segregation: separation at source

As discussed earlier, different wastes have varying characteristics and these need to be

treated differently for the purpose of disposal. It is therefore important to separate wastes

at source. This helps in keeping biodegradable and recyclable wastes separate. Ideally it

would be good to also keep a separate bag/container for toxic wastes such as medicines,

batteries, dried paint, old bulbs, and dried shoe polish. It is now becoming more and more

essential to look for ways by which the load of waste on land can be reduced.

47

Segregation of waste at source helps in allowing less waste going to the landfill.

4.1.1 Waste utilization at source In rural areas, there is a huge scope of utilizing most of the waste segregated at source

within the homestead. For instance, biodegradable waste comprising kitchen and food

waste are generally fed to domestic animals like cows, goats, pigs, chicken and aquatic

animals like fish, frog and ducks. Furthermore, rotting food, bones, shells etc., are often

composted within the compound in heaps or pits. Introduction of pipe composting and

drum composting which can be installed and managed within the compound helps in

maintaining cleanliness while giving the residents good quality compost for their plants.

Those who have household biogas plants benefit by getting biogas for cooking and

heating after adding the macerated waste and cow urine into the plant. Non-

biodegradable waste can be accumulated and stored and those items which cannot be

reused at all, can be given away or sold to waste recyclers who can be made to visit

households once a month.

4.2 Primary collection of waste

Collection of household solid waste when utilization at source is not possible happens

mainly in the following ways-

Stage-I Collection from Point Source This stage includes door-to-door collection of waste. The vehicle used in this stage for

collection, is small and simple and varies from place to place. It may be two-wheeled cart

pulled by an individual or bell ringing vehicles (ghanta gadi).

Collection of waste in Rural Areas In those villages where all the waste cannot be managed at household level, segregated

and non-managed household waste needs to be transported either to the community bins

at the village level or to the treatment plant sites at community level where household

level biodegradable waste can be treated by community treatment plant and recyclable

and non-biodegradable waste can be sorted out and sold to the kabadiwalas by gram

panchayats. Waste which cannot be composted, reused or recycled may be disposed at

community level at the landfill sites (this option should be resorted to as the last

preference) following appropriate procedure.

48

Self Help Groups (SHGs) or group of unemployed persons in the village may be

identified for collection and transportation of household waste to community

storage/treatment site.

Collection of segregated waste in tricycles by women

SHG members may be given suitable number of carts or tricycles for collection and

transportation of waste to community storage bins. The number of tricycles may be

decided based on the size of the village and the density of population. Normally one

tricycle for 100-200 households should suffice the requirement.1

There should be at least two-three spare tricycles so that the collection system is

sustainable even in the case of breakdown of few tricycles.1

Shop-owners in the 'sabzi mandi' (market places) should be directed to directly place their

waste in the nearest dumper container. In addition, sweepers employed by the private

party shall pick up any waste littered and place it in the common dumper container.

The village panchayat should ban open burning/ dumping of waste. Burning of waste

causes hazardous/toxic gaseous pollutants and must be avoided.

As it has been recommended to practice door-to-door collection of waste from residential

areas, litter bins need to be provided only in public areas, tourist places and market areas.

4.3 Transportation of collected waste from household/markets

The transport vehicles should be closed and the transfer of waste from garbage dumps to

the vehicles should be done with safety devices. Generally in most of the places, no

safety gear is used and manual handling is observed.

49

Transportation of waste

Waste collected through door to door collection system should be placed in dumper

container. These dumper containers should be transported by dumper placer vehicles to

the waste processing and disposal site.

In order to make the transport effective, following actions are to be strictly followed.

• Transportation of waste from waste storage depots except construction and

demolition waste (in urbanized villages) should be directly to waste processing plant.

• The waste has to be transported to the waste processing and disposal facility by

closed vehicles.

• There should not be any littering of solid wastes during the transportation.

• As far as possible the transportation route should not be circuitous.

50

Transportation of waste to the dumpsite

These do’s and don’ts are in accordance with the best practices for Solid Waste Handling

and Management in the country.

References:

1. UNICEF, GOI. (2012), Solid and Liquid waste management in Rural Areas.

51

Chapter 5

Treatment technologies for biodegradable waste

Of all functional elements involved in solid waste management, treatment is the most

important element as it includes planning, administrative set up, finance, technology

support and their interdisciplinary relationships. The crucial aspect of this stage is the

selection of proper treatment technology.

One of the important methods of waste treatment is composting. There is, however, no

single technique which is suitable in all situations.

5.1 Composting

5.1.1 Introduction to composting

Composting, often described as nature’s way of recycling, is the biological process of

breaking up of organic waste such as food waste, vegetable and fruit

peels, manure, leaves, grass trimmings, etc., into an extremely useful humus-like

substance by various microorganisms including bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in the

presence of oxygen.

Actinomycetes are similar to fungus in the way they grow and spread, but its

distinguishing elements are the types of materials they are efficient at decomposing. The

active nature in this microscopic bacteria and the sheer number present (about 10 million

per 1 gram of soil), make them highly effective at breaking down materials like tree

bark, newspaper, and other hard organic material.

Today, the use of composting to turn organic wastes into a valuable resource is

expanding rapidly, as landfill space becomes scarce and expensive, and as people become

more aware of the impact they have on the environment.

5.1.2 Different methods of composting

Composting can be of different types based on the materials and the equipments used.

Generally three types composting methods are used. These are aerobic composting,

anaerobic composting and vermicomposting.

52

Aerobic composting: This means to compost in the presence of air. High nitrogen waste

(like grass clippings or other green material) will aid the growth of bacteria that will

create high temperatures (up to 160 degrees). In this process, organic waste breaks down

quickly and is not prone to smell.

This type of composting is high maintenance, since it will need to be turned every few

days to keep air in the system and the temperatures maintained. It is also likely to require

accurate moisture monitoring. This type of composting process is good for large volumes

of organic waste. It generally requires 20-30 days to get well-composted manure.

Anaerobic composting: This method is composting without the presence of air.

Anaerobic composting is low maintenance since organic waste is collected in a pile and

allowed to rest for compost to form. If the waste is collected in a pile, it will generally

compact to a point where there is no available air for beneficial organisms to live.

Instead one gets a very slow working bacteria growing that does not require air. The

compost may take years to break down (this is what happens when food waste is thrown

in the waste that goes to the landfill). Anaerobic composts create the awful smell most

people associate with composting. The bacteria break down the organic materials into

harmful compounds like ammonia and methane.

Vermicomposting: This is most beneficial for composting food waste. Garden variety

earthworms cannot be used for vermicomposting. Red wriggler earthworms or red

worms along with bacteria, fungi, insects, and other bugs are used for this process. They

are also called tiger worms. These worms often hide in mature compost heaps or manure

piles. Red worms eat the bacteria, fungi, and the food waste, and then deposit their

castings. Oxygen and moisture are required to keep this compost healthy. Worms don’t

have big appetites so they feed on little food at a time. Feeding them with large quantities

of food at one time will end up with rotting waste and dead worms.

Converting organic waste into manure by composting

53

The earthworms feed on vegetable wastes and other kitchen scraps like fruit peels,

shredded paper, cooked leftovers, coffee grounds etc. They transform this waste material

into highly fertile manure. The worms can be housed in used boxes, plastic bins or crates.

Vegetables and similar kitchen scraps come with a lot of moisture so it is important to

make sure that the worm bins have adequate drainage. If moisture collects, the worms can

drown. This is medium maintenance compost since it is necessary to feed the red worms

and monitor conditions regularly. The worm bin must be kept insulated, maintaining a

50-77 ºF temperature. These are the ranges where the worms are at their decomposing

peak. It generally takes 15-20 days to yield good compost.

5.1.3 Composting strategies for households1, 2, 3

At each household, two manure pits can be dug. The size of the pit will depend upon the

quantity of refuse to be disposed of per day. Each day the household waste, cattle dung,

straw, plant and agriculture wastes are dumped into the manure pit. When one pit is

closed the other one is used. In 5 to 6 months time, the refuse is converted into manure,

which can be used in the fields. This is a simple method of disposal of waste for the rural

households. Cow dung can also be disposed of easily by this method. Mixing of cow

dung slurry with the garbage will help greatly in converting the waste into compost and

get good manure.

Household level composting pits may be constructed by adopting either lined or unlined

pits as described below:

Simple technologies with costing, maintenance and operation

These are:

i) Underground, unlined manure pit or garbage pit and

ii) Underground brick lined manure pit or garbage pit

Vermicomposting with the help of earthworms

54

These pits are applicable in areas with low rainfall and the houses where the pits are

being dug, should have an open space of about seven square metre. The house owner can

make this pit with very little technical knowhow. The house may or may not have cattle.

In the underground unlined manure pit or waste pit, two pits of 1m x1m x 1m dimension

have to be dug and then lined with a single layer of broken bricks at the bottom and ridge

made with the help of mud at the periphery of the pit and compacted by light ramming.

The cost of the pit is Manual labour (2 person days) to dig the pit.

In underground brick lined manure pit or waste pit, two pits with 1m x 1m x 1m

dimension have to be dug, and a circular pit having an inner diameter of 1m, in honey

comb 100mm thick brick masonry with pit height of 100m above ground has to be

constructed. The top layer of the pit has to be plastered and the bottom is not to be

cemented. Approximately 200 bricks, 1/3 bag cement, 3 cft sand, one person day of

unskilled and half a person day of skilled labour are required to make such a pit.

Approximate cost is Rs. 2000 per pit.

Use and maintenance of the both the pits

• Keep adding the householde biodegradable waste over the layer of bricks

• When the waste material in the pit attains a height of about 150mm, add dung

slurry, mix it with the waste and level it. Spread a very thin layer of soil over it

(once a week) to avoid odour and fly nuisance.

Digging composting pits

55

• Continue to add waste every day. Follow this procedure and repeat the layers till

the pit is full.

• It is recommended to fill the pit up to about 300 mm above ground level.

• After 3-4 days, the waste material above ground settles down.

• Plaster it with soil. Leave the pit as it is for 3-6 months for maturation.

• After 3-6 months take out the compost and use it. Till the manure in the pit

matures, use another pit of the same dimensions, dug at a minimum distance of

1m from the first pit.

Limitations

Not suitable for heavy rainfall areas and rocky terrain.

Over ground heap can be built in rural areas with high rainfall and rocky terrain and

houses having an open space of about seven square metres. It does not require much

technical knowhow. And the household does not need to have any cattle. It is built on a

raised platform of 1m x 1m dimension at a suitable site by ramming the soil or by paving

with bricks. The cost of the pit is manual labour (2 person days) to construct the platform.

Use and maintenance of the heap • Keep adding the household biodegradable waste over the platform

• When the heap attains a height of about 150mm, add dung slurry, and mix

• Spread a very thin layer of soil over it (once a week) to avoid odour and fly

nuisance

• Continue to add waste everyday

• Follow the above procedure and repeat the layers till the heap attains the height of

1m

• After 3-4 days the waste above the ground settles down

• Plaster it with soil

• Leave the heap as it is for 3-6 months for maturation

• After 3-6 months, take out the compost and use it

• Till the manure in the heap matures, make another heap of the same dimensions at

a minimum distance of 1m from the first heap.

Over ground brick-lined compost tank can be done in rural areas with high rainfall and

rocky terrain. These houses should have an open space of about seven square metres.

This method needs very little technical knowhow. This is done in two compost pits of 1m

x 1m x 1m dimension tanks. A circular/square tank having an inner dimension of 1 m, in

honey comb 225mm thick brick masonry with 0.8m height above the ground has to be

constructed and the top layer of the tank has to be plastered. The cost of the tank is

approximately 400 bricks, 1/2 bag cement, 5 cft sand, and one person-day unskilled and

1/2 person-day skilled labour.

Use and maintenance of the tank • Keep adding household biodegradable waste into the tank

• When the waste material in the tank attains a height of about 150mm, add dung

slurry and mix

56

• Spread a very thin layer of soil over it (once a week) to avoid odour and fly

nuisance

• Continue to add waste everyday

• Follow the above procedure and repeat the layers till the heap attains the height of

1m

• After 3-4 days the garbage above ground settles down

• Plaster it with soil

• Leave the heap as it is for 3-6 months for maturation

• After 3-6 months take out the compost and use it

• Till the manure in the tank matures, make another tank of the same dimensions at

a minimum distance of 1m from the first tank.

5.1.4 Composting strategies for community level farms and agricultural land1, 2, 3

In agriculture, windrow composting is used. It is the production of compost by piling

organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues, in long

rows (windrows). This method is suited to producing large volumes of compost.

The material in the windrows is generally turned to improve porosity and oxygen content,

mix in or remove moisture, and redistribute cooler and hotter portions of the pile.

Windrow composting is a commonly used farm scale composting method.

Community level composting may be resorted to when management of solid waste at

household level is not possible. For community level composting, community/ Panchayat

should select a suitable site as Compost Yard for the village. Site should be selected

taking into consideration wind flow direction, so that the inhabited areas don’t get any

foul odour. The site should be easily accessible for transportation of waste and manure. It

should not be a low lying area to avoid water logging.

Size of the pit of the pit should not be more than 1 meter and width should not exceed 1.5 meter. Length

of the pit may go up to 3 meter. In the pit, waste takes about 4-6 months to compost.

Hence, adequate number of pits will be required. Distance between two pits should be

more than 1.5 meter. While digging pits, care should be taken to ensure that there is

adequate facility to transport the garbage and store the manure.

Construction of the pit The construction of composting pit or heap is very simple and user friendly. Gram

Panchayat (GP) can easily construct compost pit with some technical support..

Underground unlined manure pit or garbage pit

It is applicable for rural areas with low rainfall. Adequate number of pits of not more than

1m (depth) x 1.5m (width) x 3m (length) dimension depending upon quantum of garbage

generated has to be dug. A ridge made of soil by compacting it needs to be made at the

periphery of the pit. Follow the same process of maintenance and use as provided in the

earlier descriptions. The cost will be about the same as indicated earlier.

57

Underground brick-lined manure pit or garbage pit

Applicable in rural areas with low rainfall. Dig adequate number of pits of not more than

1m (depth) x 1.5m (width) x 3m (length) dimension depending upon quantum of garbage

generated. Rectangular pits having inner dimensions of 1m x 1.5m x 3m in honey comb

225mm thick brick masonry have to be constructed. The height of the pit should be

100mm above ground with the top layer plastered and bottom of the pit cemented. Follow

the same process of maintenance and use as provided in the earlier descriptions. The cost

will be about the same as indicated earlier.

Heap

Applicable in rural areas with high rainfall and rocky terrain and villages having lack of

space for household composting. Make a raised platform of 1.5 m x 3m dimension at a

suitable site by ramming the soil or by paving with bricks. Use, maintenance and cost are

same as given above.

Vermicomposting at Community Level

The steps to be followed for vermicomposting at community level are:

Initial steps • Appropriate site selection: the site should be protected from direct sunlight and

should not be in low lying areas.

• Vermiculture site preparation; Proper ramming of soil or preparation of platform

is required before preparation of vermicompost beds.

Beds for vermicomposting

58

Construction of appropriate shed

The shed could be thatched roof/tin sheds on bamboo/metal poles with proper slope to

drain rain water, and proper ventilation.

The biodegradable waste should be pre-digested in a separate bed before transferring to

the treatment beds.

Vermiculture bed preparation steps • Make a basic bed of size 24 cft (Length 8ft, Breadth 3ft,Height 1ft) with one brick

(9 inch x 4 inch x 3 inch) size containment all round the bed

• Alternatively, brick tanks of same dimensions having 2 feet height may be

constructed. With this worms will not escape to the surroundings. The worms are

also protected from natural enemies. The tank may be easily covered with a wire

mesh

• Apply a layer of cow dung slurry on the base

• Put one inch sand on the cow dung slurry plastered bed

• Followed by putting 2 inch thick organic waste

• Put 9 inch thick feeding material (cow dung/biodegradable organic matter such as

leaves, kitchen waste) for earthworms in 1:5 ratio of raw cow dung and organic

waste.

Process • Transfer the pre-digested material in heaps to the vermicompost beds.

• Add about 100 gm of earthworms for every square feet of surface area of the

compost bed.

• Cover the entire bed immediately with gunny bags to reduce light penetration and

create a dark environment, and to maintain required moisture content in the feed

bed for better performance of the earthworms for digestion of the feed material.

• To maintain moisture, sprinkle water on alternate day/every day in summer and at

3 to 4 days intervals/twice a week in winter.

• After 1 month of introducing the earthworms, remove the gunny bags and keep

the heaps open to air for a day, collect the top 2 inch layer of earthworm compost

by slow and smooth scraping of the top layer of the compost bed till you observe

the earthworms. When you see earthworms, stop scraping; this is done to send the

earthworms down into feeding materials in the feed bed.

• Screen the harvested vermicompost through an appropriate sieve and reintroduce

the course material as well as separated earthworms to the empty treatment beds.

• Again add the pre-digested material in the bed and repeat the process.

Precautions to be taken • Proper covering of feed bed (local available materials such as coconut leaves etc.

may be used for covering of the vermicompost pit)

• Avoid excess water (only sprinkling)

• Protect the shed area and the beds from red ants, cockroaches etc. by using haldi

(turmeric) sprinkling atta (flour) all around the perimeter of the shed and the bed

59

• Keep the feed beds away from birds/chicken/ducks/rodents from eating the

worms.

Vermitank at Community Level

Vermitank is a specialized unit constructed in brick masonry, capable of converting

biodegradable solid waste into high quality organic manure in a short period. It is very

easy to operate and maintain.

Salient features of vermitank

• Fast process: It takes only 40-45 days for the conversion of organic waste as

compared to the conventional methods which require about 4-6 months.

• Zero pollution: Vermicompost made in closed vermitanks is completely free of

pollution of air, water and soil.

• Freedom from foul odour: The process does not emit any foul odour; hence the

vermitanks can be constructed in the vicinity of homes.

• Protection from natural enemies: Vermitank is designed to render full protection

to earthworms from natural enemies like rodents and big ants.

• No pre-decomposition of garbage: Vermitanks have 2 - 4 compartments, hence,

no decomposition of waste is required as in case of vermibeds.

• Organic manure: The process converts waste into rich organic manure ready for

use and sale.

• Economic potential: 1kg of biodegradable waste can produce about 0.40kg of

vermicompost.

Operation of Vermitank

A vermitank has four pits, which are interconnected by partition walls constructed in

honeycomb masonry. The four pits are to be used one by one in a cyclic manner. Each pit

has a capacity to accommodate waste for 15 days. Thus the total duration of one cycle is

nearly 60 days. When the fourth pit is full, the vermicompost in the first one is ready for

harvesting.

Feeding material

• Quantity: 25 to 30 kg per day

• Nature of waste: Agro-waste, garden waste, floral waste (from temples), kitchen

waste

• Additional feeding material required: cow dung: minimum 15 to 20kg per week

• Earthworms required: 1kg (1000 to 1200 live worms) for initial commissioning

only

• Species of earthworms recommended: 1. Eisenia foetida and 2. Eudrilus euginiae.

Movement of earthworms This is a special feature of the vermitank. The earthworms from pit number 1

automatically move to pit no.2 and further to no. 3 and 4 in search of food, when the

60

contents from the respective pit are fully consumed i.e. converted into manure. This

makes the maintenance of vermitank easy since it is not necessary to handle the worms.

Limitations • Lack of organized marketing

• Lack of awareness on agro-farming concepts with regard to benefits of efficient

waste management

• Resistance of farming community to a new process

• Lack of demand of vermicompost (manure) from farmers

• Seasonal variation of composting process and production due to temperature and

moisture differences

• Lack of institutional arrangements for dissemination of information for vermin

composting technology.

Over ground brick lined compost tank

Make adequate number of compost tanks of dimension 0.8m height, 1.5m width and 3m

length in honey comb 225mm thick brick masonry and plaster the top layer of the tank.

All the other details regarding applicability, use, maintenance and is same as specified

above. The tank would approximately require 1200 bricks, 3 bags of cement, 20 cft sand,

3 person-days of unskilled and 2 person-days of skilled labour. The approximate cost is

Rs. 4000 - 5000 per pit.

5.1.5 Vermi-wash4

Description

Vermi-wash is a foliar spray based on the nutrients of vermi-compost. It has a similar

composition and similar benefits as vermi-compost, but has some additional advantages.

Vermi-wash makes more efficient use of the excrements and the body secretion of the

worms. This provides additional growth stimulating hormones and nutrients to the

fertilizer. Because the vermi-wash is liquid, it can be applied frequently and whenever

needed.

Details

Vermi-wash units can be set up in barrels, in buckets or even in small earthen pots. The

procedure explained here is for setting up a 200 litre barrel.

An empty barrel open on one side is taken. On the other side, a hole is made to

accommodate the vertical limb of a ‘T’ jointed tube in a way that about 0.5 to 1 inch of

the tube projects into the barrel. A tap is attached to one end of the horizontal limb. The

other end is kept closed to serve as an emergency opening to clean the ‘T’ jointed tube if

it gets clogged. The entire unit is set up on a low pedestal made of a few bricks to

facilitate the easy collection of vermin-wash.

Keeping the tap open, a 25 cm layer of broken bricks or pebbles is placed. A 25 cm layer

of coarse sand follows the layer of bricks. Water is then made to flow through these

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layers to enable the setting up of the basic filter unit. On top of this layer, a 30 to 45 cm

layer of loamy soil is placed. After moistening this layer, about ½ kg surface (epigeic)

and sub-surface (anecic) earthworms are introduced. Cattle (preferably cow) dung-cakes

and hay is placed on top of the soil layer. On top of this again a 5 cm layer of soil is

placed and gently moistened. The water tap is kept open for the next 15 days. Water is

added every day to keep the unit moist.

On the 16th

day, the tap is closed and on top of the unit a metal container or mud pot

perforated at the base as a sprinkler is suspended. 5 litres of water (the volume of water

taken in this container is one fiftieth of the size of the main container) is poured into this

container and allowed to gradually sprinkle on the barrel overnight. This water percolates

through the compost and the burrows of the earthworms, and gets collected at the base.

The tap of the unit is opened the next morning and the vermi-wash is collected. The tap is

then closed and the suspended pot is refilled with 5 litres of water in the evening to allow

collection again the following morning. Dung-cake and hay may be replaced periodically

depending on the need. The entire set-up may be emptied and reset after 10 to 12 months

of use.

Before spraying, the vermi-wash should be diluted with water: 1 litre vermi-wash with 9

litres of water. If needed, vermi-wash may be mixed with cow urine and water (1 litre of

vermi-wash, 1 litre of cow urine and 8 litres of water) and sprayed on plants to function

as an effective foliar spray and pesticide. The cost of setting up a vermi-wash unit,

including the tank and dripper is approximately Rs. 700.

Benefits

• It make the plants stronger and increase the resistance of the plants against pests

and diseases

• It enhances the growth and the health of the crop

• A decrease in immature flowers and fruits

• Vermi-wash has no adverse impact on human health and can be used safely

Cross section on a vermi-wash tank

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5.2 Biogas generation1, 2, 3

5.2.1 Introduction

Biogas technology provides an alternate source of energy in rural India. The anaerobic

technology uses local resources, such as cattle dung and other organic wastes, to obtain

fuel and manure. Realization of this potential and the fact that India supports the largest

cattle wealth led to the promotion of National Biogas Programme in a major way in the

late 1970s as an answer to the growing fuel crisis. Biogas is produced from organic

wastes by concerted action of various groups of anaerobic bacteria. When biodegradable

organic solid waste is subjected to anaerobic decomposition, a gaseous mixture of

Methane (CH4) and Carbon-dioxide (C02) known as Biogas is produced under favourable

conditions.

The decomposition of the waste involves a series of reactions by several kinds of

anaerobic bacteria feeding on the raw organic matter. Microbial conversion of organic

matter to methane is a method of not only waste treatment and resource recovery but also

financially viable.

5.2.2 The science of biogas generation

The anaerobic digestion of the organic waste matter occurs in three different stages:

Hydrolysis

Organic waste which is subjected to the process of bio-methanation contain

macromolecules like cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which are insoluble in water.

During digestion, these macromolecules are subjected to breakdown into micro-

molecules with the help of some enzymes which are secreted by the bacteria. In the initial

step, oxygen in the feed materials is used up by oxygen loving bacteria and large amounts

of carbon-dioxide (CO2) are released and the major end product of this process is

glucose.

Acid Formation

The components released during the hydrolytic breakdown become the substrate for the

acid forming bacteria. The acid forming bacteria convert the water soluble substances

into volatile acids. The major component of the volatile acid is acetic acid. Beside this,

some other acids like butric acid, propionic acid etc. and gases like CO2 and H2 are also

produced. The acid forming bacteria during the conversion process utilize the amount of

oxygen remaining in the medium and make the environment anaerobic.

Methane Formation

This is the last stage of the biogas generation. In this stage, the methanogenic bacteria

convert the volatile acids formed in the second step by the acidogenic to methane and carbon dioxide. Some excess CO2 in the medium is also converted to methane gas by

reacting with the hydrogen present in the environment.

63

The end products of biogas are:

• Biogas: a mixture of Methane (55-65%), Carbon dioxide (35-45%), and trace

amounts of Hydrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide and Ammonia. It is a combustible gas and

can be used for heating, lighting, powering irrigation pump, generating electric power

and for local use for cooking purpose. The gas is smokeless, environment friendly

and efficient fuel.

• Left over slurry: Environmentally friendly manure which can be used as organic

fertilizer for gardening and in agriculture. It can be used to enrich the soil. It can also

be combined with a vermicomposting process to enrich mineral value of compost

resulting at the end.

5.2.3 Fuel efficiency of Biogas

The fuel efficiency of cattle dung is 11 per cent and that of biogas from same dung is 60

per cent. The biogas technology has potential to contribute to the overall energy security

needs especially in rural areas besides conserving forest and preventing soil erosion.

Normally, a 3 cubic meter capacity biogas plant is considered sufficient to meet the

heating and lighting needs of a family of 6 to 9 persons.

5.2.4 Use of Biogas technology for solid waste management

The biogas technology can be used for management of biodegradable solid waste

generated from:

a) Household Level

Kitchen waste, cattle dung, garden waste, leaves of trees can be digested and digested

product reused at household level.

b) Community Level

Community biodegradable waste such as cattle dung of stray and from Gaushalas, garden

waste, leaves of roadside trees, human excreta from individual/community toilet etc, can

be digested in community biogas plant and end products can be reused.

c) Commercial Establishment

Commercial biodegradable waste generated from hotels, parks and gardens, subzi mandis

(vegetable markets) and roadside tree leaves etc. can be digested in a commercial biogas

plant and the end products can be utilized commercially in applications such as a gas

engine, CNG production, lifting water for irrigation purposes etc.

The gas production varies from 0.29 cum per kg of volatile solids added per day to 0.19

cum 0.16 cum per kg added per day in different seasons. The volatile solids destruction

ranges from 40 to 55 per cent. The sludge has good manure value of Nitrogen,

Phosphorous, and Potassium (NPK ratio is 1.6: 0.85: 0.93). The process gives a good

performance at a retention time of 30 to 55 days which may vary as per season.

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5.2.5 Feed materials for biogas plant

Organic materials are used as feed materials for Biogas plant. Generally, the following

organic materials are used:

• Cattle dung (gobar) (any model)

• Human excreta (floating dome type with water jacket and fixed dome type)

• Kitchen/Vegetable waste (Floating dome model).

5.2.6 Types of designs of biogas plants

There are many designs and models of biogas plants in operation with each having some

special characteristics. Different types of biogas plant recognised by MNES (Ministry of

Non-Conventional Energy Sources). After Gate, 1999.

• Floating-drum plant with a cylinder digester (KVIC model)

• Fixed-dome plant with a brick reinforced, moulded dome (Janata model)

• Floating-drum plant with a hemisphere digester (Pragati model)

• Fixed-dome plant with a hemisphere digester (Deenabandhu model)

• Floating-drum plant made of angular steel and plastic foil (Ganesh model)

• Floating-drum plant made of pre-fabricated reinforced concrete compound units

• Floating-drum plant made of fiberglass reinforced polyester

Classification of Biogas Plants Based on Nature of Feeding

Based on nature of feeding, the biogas plant may be broadly divided into three types:

• Batch Type

• Semi-continuous Type

• Continuous Type

Of the above three types, it is semi-continuous type that is more popular for field

application.

Community level biogas plant suggestion:

a) Floating drum plant

This design was developed in India and is usually made of masonry. It runs on a

continuous basis and uses mainly cattle dung as input material. The gasholder is usually

made of steel although new materials such as ferro-cement and bamboo-cement have

already been introduced. The original version of this floating gasholder plant was a

vertical cylinder provided with partition wall except for the small sizes of 2 and 3 m3 of

gas per day. The main characteristic of this type is the need for steel sheets and welding

skill. The mode of functioning of these plants is depicted in the following drawing:

65

KVIC Model

Biogas plants in India were experimentally introduced in the 1930's, and research was

principally focused around the Sewage Purification Station at Dadar in Bombay,

undertaken by S.V. Desai and N.V. Joshi of the Soil Chemistry Division, Indian

Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi. The early plants developed were very

expensive and were not cost effective in terms of the gas output; indeed the early models

were not producing enough gas to supply a small family (KVIC, 1993). Some of the early

models were also prone to burst, so overall, the technology was not viable for

dissemination.

Over the next twenty years, Jashbhai Patel designed and made several small-scale biogas

digesters, envisaging farm labourers as the user. Although other individuals and

institutions were also designing biogas plants, in 1961 the Khadi and Village Industry

Commission chose to promote Patel's design, which, although more costly than other

models, was more productive, had a longer life, and required minimal maintenance

(KVIC, 1993).The basic plant, which came to be known as the KVIC model, consists of a

deep well, and a floating drum, usually made of mild steel. The system collects the gas,

which is kept at a relatively constant pressure. As more gas is produced, the drum gas

holder consequently rises. As the gas is consumed, the drum then falls. The biomass

slurry moves through the system, as the inlet is higher than the outlet tank, creating

hydrostatic pressure. Only completely digested material can flow up a partition wall,

which prevents fresh material from 'short-circuiting' the system, before flowing into the

outlet tank. Dimensions of the plants depend upon the energy requirements of the user

(Lichtman, 1983). The basic system can be seen in figure. By the early1980's, there were

thought to be about 80,000 systems built by KVIC.

KVIC Model (Floating drum plant)

66

Research into anaerobic digesters continued around the country, and the Planning

Research and Action Division (PRAD) based in Uttar Pradesh, northern India developed

the 'Janata' fixed-dome plant, based on a modified design widely used in China. Key

features of the Janata model, is the fixed-dome, in contrast to the floating dome of the

KVIC model. With this design, the inlet and outlet tank volumes are calculated for

minimum and maximum gas pressures based on the volumes displaced by the variation of

gas and slurry within the system. The Janata system is about 30 per cent cheaper to

construct than a KVIC model of the same capacity with added advantages that there are

no moving parts, making local construction possible and maintenance easy. Lichtman

(1983) notes that savings may diminish with scale and hence Janata model may be more

appropriate for small-scale users. One disadvantage with the fixed-dome design is that

gradual accumulation of sludge is likely within the system, making periodic cleaning

necessary. (Lichtman, 1983).

Anaerobic digester design has continued to evolve over the years, but systems are

generally variations around the theme of the floating-dome and the fixed-dome design.

Often construction materials vary, or loading positions differ. Table below shows some of

the most common biogas plants that are recognised by the government.

Selection of Site for Biogas Plant

• An even surface. Marshy land to be avoided and ground water level should be

below 6-7 m

• At a higher elevation than the surrounding so that there are no chances of water

logging in rainy season

• As near as possible to the source of feed materials (animal waste-cattle dung,

human waste-excreta and urine, kitchen/food wastes

• As near as possible to the points of utilization of biogas, say kitchen, in rural

homes/hostels/food establishments/mandis

• Located such that there is enough open space to build the biogas plant and to store

digested slurry for management by its side

• A place fully exposed to sunlight

• Away from drinking water well or similar source of water

• Such that there are no big trees in its vicinity, as they may prevent the sun’s rays

falling on the biogas plant and roots may cause damage to the digester.

Design Criterion for a Biogas Plant

• Volume of digester – which is dependent on quality or quantity of feed and its

hydraulic retention time

• Storage capacity of the gas holder – which is dependent on the requirement of gas

and the intervals at which substantial quantity of gas is required

• Delivery pressure of the gas

• Volume of the mixing tank which is dependent on the quantity of daily feeding and

proportion of water to be mixed

• Arrangement of heating and insulation

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• The unit should be strong to have a long life, using local raw materials and labour

for construction/installation and it should be leak proof for liquid and gas.

• Another very important aspect is that the cost should be as low as possible.

Applying the above design criterion, appropriate model of biogas plant should be

selected.

Proper size (capacity) of the plant should be fixed based on the number of cattle and

waste produced in the community. Proper site should be selected for the installation of

biogas. Construction of biogas plants requires trained and skilled masons for proper

installation. It is advisable that local resource institutions having proven expertise in

setting up biogas plants should be engaged for training and supervision of the

construction work.

Applicability

It can be used by households, communities and commercial establishments. The

community biogas plant can also be linked to rural schools, where waste from the mid

day meal preparation can also be included and can lead to more feed for the plant.

Advantages

• Release of gas is at constant pressure

• Construction of digester is known to masons but fabrication of gas holder requires

workshop facility

• Location of defects in the gas holder and repairing are easy

• Requires relatively less excavation work

• In areas having a high water table, horizontal plants could be installed

Limitations

• High cost for the lower middle and low income group in rural areas

• Lack of availability of required technical infrastructure in rural areas.

b) Fixed dome plant

This plant runs on a continuous or batch basis. Accordingly, it can digest plant waste as

well as human and animal waste. It is usually built below ground level hence it is easier

to insulate in a cold climate. The plant can be built from several materials, e.g. bricks,

concrete, lime concrete and lime clay. This facilitates the introduction and use of local

materials and manpower. The available pressure inside the plant doesn’t cause any

problems in the use of the gas.

Deenbandhu model

The Deenabandhu model consists of segments of two spheres of different diameters

joined at their base, where this model requires lower costs in comparison to KVIC model.

The Pragati model is a combination of Deenabandhu and KVIC designs, where the lower

68

part of the digester is semi spherical with conical bottom and the floating drum acting as

storage for gas.

The Deenbandhu model biogas plant has been developed by making use of the principles

of structural engineering as well as the long experience of AFPRO (Action for Food

Production) of working with fixed-dome biogas plants. The advent of Deenbandhu

biogas plant is mainly to reduce the initial cost of installation as well as the subsequent

maintenance cost. The design essentially consists of segments of two spheres of different

diameters joined at their bases. The structure thus formed acts as the digester and the gas

storage chamber, and also provides for empty sphere over the contents of the digester.

The higher compressive strength of the brick masonry and concrete makes it preferable to

go in for a structure which could be always kept under compression. A spherical structure

loaded form the convex side will be under compression and, therefore, the internal load

will not have any residual effect on the structure.

During the initial filling, fill the plant with slurry up to second step level of the outlet

(bottom of the gas chamber). The regular loading of the plant should be commenced only

after automatic ejection of the slurry through the outlet opening. Proper loading of the

plant will avoid the scum formation because of the slurry movement. The entire biogas

plant should be covered with soil to a minimum thickness of 15 cm.

The different sections of Deenbandhu biogas plant are as given below:

• Foundation

• Digester cum fixed dome

• Inlet cum mixing tank

• Outlet slurry chamber

• Biogas outlet pipe

Deenbandhu plant (fixed dome model)

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Advantages

• Capital investment in the corresponding size of biogas unit is low

• Steel gas holder is not required

• As there is no moving part, the maintenance cost is minimized

• Life span of the unit is expected to be comparatively more

• As the unit is an underground structure, the space above the plant can be used for

other purposes

• Effect of low temperature will be less

• It can be easily adapted / modified for use of other materials along with dung

slurry

c) Night Soil Based Biogas Plant

Human excreta have been experimented with as an alternative feed material to biogas

plant. At present, human excreta treatment is a major sanitation problem in the country.

Human excreta management in a biogas plant has three benefits-health, energy and

organic manure. However for generating one cubic meter biogas per day in a toilet linked

biogas plant, excreta of 25-30 persons per day is required. For community toilets, where

the number of users per day is more, this has proved to be a viable method for generation

of biogas from human excreta. For individual family toilets, for about 5-10 users per day,

biogas generation proves to be inadequate for any practical use.

General parameters for design In the initial stages, the design which was found to be suitable for cattle dung was used

for human excreta without any change in the design. Excreta have physical, chemical and

microbial characteristics which markedly differ from those of cattle dung. Therefore, the

parameters, design criteria etc. fixed for cattle dung biogas plants were found not valid

for human excreta based biogas plants. Owing to associated hygiene and socio-cultural

considerations, the following precautions become necessary:

• There should not be any direct handling of human excreta. Undigested excreta

should not get exposed to surroundings and should be inaccessible to insects and

animals

• Aesthetically there should be freedom from odour

• There should not be any contamination of subsoil or surface water

• Maintenance of the treatment process should be easy to manage

• The recycling should give maximum possible advantages

• The social and behavioral aspects need to be tackled by educational process.

Specific Parameters for Design

• Quantity of human excreta: 200 to 300 grams/person/day

• Quantity of gas generated from the night soil produced by one person is about 30

to 40 litres per day

• For optimum digestion, expected water use per person per day: 2.2 litres

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• Optimum temperature range for effective digestion and optimum economic

viability: 25 to 30 degree centigrade

• Solid content for optimum biogas generation: 5 per cent

• Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT): 45 days for destruction of all pathogen.

It was reported that while developing the design, consideration of the relevant hygiene

factors along with parameters for biomethanation of human excreta had been taken into

account. The relevant social factors and convenient latrine use were also considered.

Special Consideration

For the use of human excreta as feed material and efficient functioning of such plant, the

parameters and the design criteria with respect to the procedures for the feeding and

handling of the feed, the physical and chemical characteristics of the feed, the movement

of slurry, odour, aesthetics, etc. need to be considered so as to create optimum conditions

for the use of human night soil.

Further, from health point of view, it will be necessary to see that the raw excreta are not

exposed to environment, insects, animals etc. and are not manually handled. During the

digestion process, it should not be exposed to environment. The most important

parameter from health point of view will be the extent of pathogen killed or pathogen

inactivation achieved, during the process so that the effluent is not pathogenic.

Cost of the biogas plant

The cost of a biogas plant varies according to which area it is constructed in (for

example, it would differ from hilly areas to plains). On an average, the cost might vary

from Rs.10,000 - 18,000/- per household.

Having examined the possibilities of generating resources from biodegradable waste, we

now move on to the management of non-biodegradable waste.

References:

1. India Sanitation Portal (2007). Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural

Area. [Online] Available from

http://indiasanitationportal.org/sites/default/files/SLWM_20-08-07.pdf

2. Chandrasekar, A. (2006). Demonstration of Hydrogen Production from Dairy

Manure Derived Biogas, Proceedings of 2006 ASABE Annual International

Meeting, Biogas plant Construction Guidelines, Published by Vivekananda

Kendra, Natural Resources Development Project, Technology Resource Center,

Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu.

3. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (2003). A Practical Hand Book for

Biogas Managers. Published by Regional Centre for Biogas Development,

Chemical Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. 4. Centre for Environment Education (2006). Small Steps Big Leap, A Handbook on

Livelihoods for Sustainable Development.

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Chapter 6

Treatment technologies for non-biodegradable waste

Waste which cannot be decomposed by biological process is known as Non-

biodegradable waste. Most of the inorganic waste is non-biodegradable. Non-

biodegradable wastes which can be recycled are known as Recyclable waste and those

which cannot be recycled are known as non-recyclable waste. Non-recyclable wastes are

those, which at present do not have economic value e.g. carbon paper, Styrofoam etc.

Households may be encouraged to keep such waste separately and sell them to the rag

pickers and kabadiwalas (itinerant waste pickers) and keep the non-recyclable products

for subsequent transportation for community level management. There are many

technologies available now which help separate the lamination from paper and hence

make recycling of such paper possible. Similarly, feedstock recycling of plastics and

polymers is helping in converting some non-recyclable plastics like Styrofoam to fuel oil.

More items which were earlier thought to be non-recyclable are being recycled today

because of improved technologies. The following is a list of recyclable and non-

recyclable wastes.

Recyclable Non-recyclable

Paper

Newsprint, Office paper, Computer paper,

Phone Books, Paper Grocery Bags, Paper

egg cartons

Soiled paper, Wax or Plastic coated papers;

Paper laminated with Foil or Plastic; Used

paper towels, Napkins, Tissues and Plates;

Cardboard

Corrugated (packing boxes), Single wall

cartons (cereal boxes)

Waxed Cardboard, Waxed milk cartons,

Soiled Pizza or Frozen food boxes

Glass

Bottles (clear, green or brown) Light bulbs, window panes, glassware

(cups, glasses, plates etc.), Mirror

Metal

Aluminum cans (soda pop cans), scrap

metal, Tin cans.

Bottle and jar lids with plastic liners, Cans

used for chemical or paint, Aerosol spray

cans

Petroleum products

Antifreeze, oil contaminated with solvents

Plastics

Plastic soda and juice bottles, milk jugs,

some detergents, oil and antifreeze bottles.

Grocery bags and plastic bags, Styrofoam

(cups, plates, packing materials)

Batteries

Wet cell auto batteries, dry cell household

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batteries

Others

Clothes, concrete, building materials, wood

waste

Varnish, paint, oil,

6.1 Waste recycling

As discussed in the earlier chapters, recycling of waste helps reduce the amount that goes

to the landfill. It also helps save resources that would otherwise have been used for

making new material.

6.2 Recycling of paper

In India only about 20 per cent waste paper is being currently recovered annually. Low

recovery is on account of alternate use of paper in wrapping, packing, etc. Lack of source

segregation results in waste paper getting contaminated and becoming unusable.1

A ton of paper from recycled material conserves about 7,000 gallons of water, 17-31

trees, 60 lb of air pollutants and 4,000 KWh of electricity. 50 per cent of the industry's

requirement of waste paper is met through import which is on the increase. India lacks

collection, sorting and grading system of waste paper for proper utilization.

The increase in demand for waste paper by the expanding number of mills using it as raw

material in their production processes, has almost doubled the cost of waste paper, within

a year. Waste paper costs around Rs 10 a kg, almost double of what it used to cost a year

ago. Central Pulp & Paper Research Institute (CPPRI) in its report stated that by 2010

about half of the global amount of fibers used in papermaking will be recycled fibers. 1

In the early 70’s, the share of waste paper used as raw material was only 7 per cent,

whereas now it constitutes the major raw material base for paper industry with 47 per

cent share in total production. As of date, about 550 mills in India use waste paper as

primary fibre source for paper, paperboard and newsprint production. This waste paper is

sourced indigenously as well as through imports.2

Paper can be easily recycled; however its quality deteriorates with each cycle. The quality

can be replenished if cotton rags having long fibres can be recycled along with the waste

paper. Paper or cardboard from recycled paper requires less energy to produce. It is also

possible to convert waste paper into useful recyclable products. Making pulp from waste

paper is an old art which has now been refined as new technologies come in. Besides

making paper out of recycled paper, various articles including showpieces can be made

using the pulp. The articles are so sturdy that they can be an alternative to wood in some

cases.

Advantages of recycling paper

• reduction of garbage by recycling of waste paper in a decentralized manner

• generation of income out of waste

73

• prevention of burning of waste paper and reduction in pollutants being released in

the air leading to a clean environment

• saving on wood articles since some of the pulp articles can be used in place of

wood e.g. serving trays, fruit baskets etc.

• some articles made of paper or papier-mâché can be alternatives to plastic articles

6.3 Plastic bags and plastic waste recycling

According to studies by the Plastic Development Council under the Department of

Chemicals and Petrochemicals, India will emerge as the third biggest consumer of

plastics in the world by 2013. Over one million plastic bags are being used every minute

and their indiscriminate disposal is damaging to our environment. Research says that

India's plastics consumption is one of the highest in the world. Yet, much remains to be

done to recycle, reuse and dispose of plastic waste. Plastic bags are difficult and costly to

recycle and most end up in landfill sites where they take years to photo degrade. They

break down into tiny toxic particles that contaminate the soil and waterways and enter the

food chain when animals accidentally ingest them. But the problems surrounding waste

plastic bags start long before they photo degrade. Plastic bags and plastic waste are also

the biggest contributors of environmental pollution in India

Plastics have become a major cause of concern due to the very characteristic of non-

biodegradability and durability that makes them so widely used in almost all activities of

our life. Inefficient and indiscriminate disposal of plastic bags causes blocked drains and

sewerage lines. Random burning of such waste causes air pollution. Absence of a

collection and disposal system renders them unmanageable.

Waste plastic can be reused productively in the construction of roads. Various studies

conducted in this regard suggested that waste plastic when added to hot aggregate will

form a fine coat of plastic over the aggregate. Such aggregate when mixed with the

binder is found to give higher strength, higher resistance to water and better performance

over a period of time. Research carried out by Professor Vasudevan of Thiagarajar

College of Engineering (TCE), Madurai, Professor Justo and Professor Veeraragavan of

Bangalore University and the scientists at Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), New

Delhi has proved that roads constructed using waste plastic popularly known as Plastic

Roads2

have a longer life than those without the use of plastics. The plastic roads are

found to perform better when compared to those constructed with conventional

technology.

An alternative mode to mere disposal for used polybags is a sustainable method of

reusing discarded polybags in the form of woven products, which are more durable, and

eco friendly. This prevents the poly bags from polluting our environment. This concept

has been popularized by CEE through its network of offices and various training

programmes using polylooms (a handloom slightly modified to weave plastic strips with

cotton threads) at a zero-waste facility called CEE-ERU3. The polybags are washed,

dried, cut into strips and woven in handlooms to make mats which are fabricated into

attractive bags, mats, folders, pencil cases, wall charts, curtains for windows and doors

etc. This process, which helps in diverting the plastics away from the landfill, prevents

74

environmental degradation and leads to employment opportunities, is the basis of the

CEE-ERU movement. The product is also environmentally safe and can be used for over

five years. It can be made easily in any location and helps in removing lakhs of such

unwanted plastic carry bags from our environment. This leads to cleaner and greener

environment.

The complete process can be depicted pictorially as below3:

Cleaning and Disinfecting Plastic Waste

Some plastic carry bags may have been picked up from roadsides and unclean surroundings.

Hence it is important to first clean them with detergent and water and soak them in 0.5%

hypochlorite solution for half an hour before drying them out in the sun. This will ensure

75

destruction of all pathogens (including Ebola – see Box) and make it safe for weaving and also

for using the products made from such an activity.

Example 1 – Using Liquid Bleach

Chlorine in liquid bleach comes in different concentrations. Any concentration can be

used to make a dilute chlorine solution by applying the following formula:

Example: To make a 0.5% chlorine solution from 3.5%§ bleach:

It is required to add 1 part 3.5% bleach to 6 parts water for each part bleach.

*“Parts” can be used for any unit of measure (e.g. ounce, litre or gallon) or any container

used for measuring, such as a pitcher.

§ In countries where French products are available, the amount of active chlorine is

usually expressed in degrees chlorum. One degree chlorum is equivalent to 0.3% active

chlorine.

Example 2 – Using Bleach Powder

If using bleach powder*, calculate the amount of bleach to be mixed with each litre of

water by using the following formula.

Example: To make 0.5% chlorine solution from calcium hypochlorite (bleach) powder

containing 35% active chlorine:

Bleach: A Trusted Ally

In the rapidly unfolding saga of the West African Ebola outbreak, the critical role of

surface disinfection is highlighted repeatedly by public health professionals along with

public education, isolation and quarantine, contact tracing, good hygiene and personal

responsibility. From sanitizing healthcare environments used for Ebola patient care, to

airplanes used for international travel, to homes formerly inhabited by Ebola patients,

chlorine bleach proves time and again to be a trusted ally in the raging battle against

Ebola.

76

It is required to dissolve 14.3 grams of calcium hypochlorite (bleach) powder in each litre

of water used to make a 0.5% chlorine solution.

*When bleach powder is used; the resulting chlorine solution is likely to be cloudy

(milky).

6.4 Inert waste

Inert waste is waste which is not chemically or biologically reactive and will not

decompose. Some examples of this type of waste include sand, bricks, ceramics concrete

etc. from construction waste. The characteristics of inert waste according to the landfill

regulations, is the waste that will:

• not undergo any significant physical, chemical or biological transformations

• not dissolve or burn

• not physically or chemically react and not biodegrade

• not adversely affect other matter with which it comes into contact in a way likely

to give rise to environmental pollution or harm to human health

• has insignificant total leachability and pollutant content

• produces a leachate with an ecotoxicity that is insignificant

6.5 Management of non-recyclable inert waste

The non-recyclable wastes should be separated from the point of its origin. Out of the

entire solid waste generated, only 5-10 per cent of the same are Inerts or non-recyclables

i.e. for which till date the treatment technology is not specified. For such kind of waste,

the construction of a common regional landfilling option is suggested. A common

regional landfilling depicts a scientifically developed landfill, where two or three gram

panchayats can together dispose their inert waste collected from the households/ markets/

institutions of respective villages. The Gram panchayats can also make use of the village

Youth group members/ Women’s Self Help Groups to maintain the landfill site. The

system being labour intensive primarily requires earthwork for disposal of non-recyclable

solid waste. The size of the landfill will depend upon the quantity of non-recyclable solid

waste to be disposed off into the pit daily4.

A landfill site (rubbish dump or dumping ground) is a site for the disposal

of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically,

landfills have been the most common methods of organized waste disposal and remain so

in many places around the world. Some landfills are also used for waste management

purposes, such as the temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for processing of

waste material (sorting, treatment, or recycling).

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6.6 Sanitary Landfills

Sanitary landfills (SLFs) are built to isolate wastes from the environment and render them

innocuous through the biological, chemical and physical processes of nature. It has the

following functions:

• receiving and depositing solid waste • controlling disease vector (pest) populations • managing/monitoring landfill gas production, leachate, and storm water

Landfills do have drawbacks, such as the fact that they eventually leak and can cause

environmental hazards and public nuisance (e.g., odours and pests). Successful

maintenance and landfill operation requires continuous budgeting for leak repair and

general upkeep, and for eventual closure. The gas generated from landfill consists of

about 50 per cent methane (CH4), the primary component of natural gas, about 50 per

cent carbon dioxide (CO2), and a small amount of non-methane organic compounds.

Instead of allowing landfill gas to escape into the air, it can be captured, converted, and

used as an energy source. Using landfill gas helps to reduce odors and other hazards

associated with these gas emissions, and it helps prevent methane from migrating into the

atmosphere and contributing to local smog and global climate change.

Having examined the management and handling and reuse of non-biodegradable waste,

we now move on to examining the type, nature and solutions for management of liquid

waste.

78

References 1. IPMA, Recycling of Waste Paper (Online), Available from

http://www.ipma.co.in/recycle.asp. 2. Discussion paper on collection and recycling of waste paper in India, Available from

http://www.ipma.co.in/other/Discussion_Paper_on_Collection_and_Recycling_of

Waste_Paper_in_India.pdf. Sourced on 22nd January, 2015 3. [Online], Available from pmgsy.nic.in/WM_RR. 4. Zhu, Da, Asnani, P. U., Zurbrugg, Christian, Anapolsky, Sebastian, Mani, Shyamala K. (2007),

Improving Municipal Solid Waste Management in India. World Bank Institute.

5. Government of India.,Solid and liquid Waste Management in Rural Areas, A

Technical Note,

79

Chapter 7

Waste water management

7.1 Introduction

In the early part of the 20th century and even at the time of independence, India had

negligible sanitation coverage. Underground sewerage was almost absent in rural areas,

with only some percentage of some cities having underground sewerage systems. People

in the rural areas preferred to go to the open fields for defecation. It is estimated that

people in rural India are generating 0.3 to 0.4 million metric tons of organic/recyclable

solid waste per day and that 88 per cent of the total disease burden is due to lack of clean

water, sanitation and improper solid waste management1

. The term "wastewater" is a

broad term which includes liquids and waterborne solids from domestic, industrial or

commercial uses as well as other waters that have been soiled owing to human activities,

whose quality has been degraded, and which are discharged to a sewage system. The

term "sewage" however has been used for many years and generally refers to waters

containing only faecal matter and sanitary wastes.

7.2 Types of wastewater

Wastewater is generally categorized into: industrial wastewaters and domestic

wastewaters. Industrial wastewaters, originate from manufacturing processes, are usually

of a variable character, and are generally difficult to treat. Domestic wastewaters

originate from household activities and include discharged waters from homes,

commercial complexes, hotels and educational institutions. It also includes storm water

runoff. Domestic wastewaters are usually of a predictable quality and can be further

divided into 2 types:

a) Sewage (black water): Water that has been polluted due to toilet flushing, in

households, commercial complexes and institutes. It can be further classified into

domestic (household) sewage, which is almost completely excreta from human and

animal source and industrial sewage. Industrial sewage is obtained from industrial and

commercial areas which may contain organic compounds mixed with chemicals and

heavy metals.

b) Sullage (grey water): Water that has been polluted by washing of utensils and clothes

excluding toilet flushing. Sullage is collected and conveyed separately in closed or open

gutters, which makes them unhygienic. Since sullage contains both liquid and semi-liquid

mass, the solid mass tends to settle down, causing the flow to slow down. It requires

regular maintaining by sweepers as the solid mass needs to be removed regularly.

Sewage includes sullage, discharge from latrines as well as industrial waste at most

times. Sewage is liable to decay which produces large quantity of foul smelling gases and

also contains disease producing bacteria. In Indian villages the outlet of sullage is

80

generally on the street. This leads to stagnation of water at one place ultimately leading in

the formation of breeding place for mosquitoes. Unavailability of gutters is due

inadequate supply of water.

Types of liquid waste in rural area

7.3 Sanitation beyond toilets

Sanitation crisis would be a real thing in the coming years. A current study says about 65

per cent of population does not have proper toilet facilities in rural India. A holistic

definition of sanitation includes safe water; liquid and solid waste management,

environmental cleanliness and personal hygiene. Failing to ensure any one of these can

have direct implications on the individual/family/community health which directly has an

effect on environment and economy. It is also a public health issue because diarrhea is

one of the major killers of children under five years of age in developing countries.

Improved sanitation and hygienic behavior prevents water sources from contamination.2

7.4 Factors affecting toilet use

A number of factors have been found to play an important role in determining toilet use.

Toilet-using habit depends on construction aspects such as a good and well maintained,

user friendly structure that protects privacy, has availability of water and where the

owners are aware of the benefits of good sanitation3.

Experiences on the use of public toilets in urban areas of the country have also identified

that a number of factors have found to lead to poor use of toilets. These include:

Non-maintenance of toilets in terms of cleanliness

Lack of checks on water leakages, blockages or presence of taps

Lack of water in the overhead tanks

Poor consideration of gender-based factors such as security concerns, no separate

entrance for women, etc. have further led to reduced use of toilets among women.

81

Sometimes the public toilets are present at a long distance which also deters

people to go all the way to use it.

Operational aspects such as well-defined institutional roles and mechanisms, appropriate

plans for management of funds, coordination between the departments to deal with all the

aspects of sanitation, empowerment and capacity building of people within these

institutions and use of improved and appropriate technologies have also been found to be

important determinants for improving sanitation outcomes. Current evidence indicates

that there is a gap between the number of toilets provided and the actual existing toilets4.

Evidence also suggests that there cannot be blanket centralized solutions for all the parts

of the country. There are significant differences among urban and rural populations in

terms of the attitudes, perceptions, and resources available, local needs as well as by

states as well as geographical areas, which need to be taken into consideration while

meeting the sanitation needs of the people. It has now been realized that there is a need to

focus on what can be called as software or addressing a range of factors that affect

demand generation of toilets among people, which is as important as the hardware or in

other words, social engineering as much as conventional construction.

7.5 Ecological and health issues related

Ecological issues:

Untreated sewage if discharged into river bodies increases the Biological Oxygen

Demand (BOD) load and depletes the dissolved oxygen. This majorly affects all

aquatic life present in the water body. Furthermore, to treat water which is

contaminated with sewage, more quantities (40 to 50 times) of clean water are

required, instead of which if the septage is treated at source, both wastage of

water and negative impacts of sewage contamination on water and other resources

can be avoided.

Mosquito breeding is a problem leading to various health problems it is famous

for if the sewage is not properly collected, pumped and treated in sewage

treatment plants.

Some gases like methane, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, etc. are formed in

sewage and escape into atmosphere causing air pollution and accelerating global

warming by green house gases.

Health issues:

A child dies every minute in India because of simple, avoidable illnesses caused by lack

of basic sanitation facilities. This is how it happens:

82

Transmission of diseases

References:

1. Planning Commission (2013), Evaluation study on Total Sanitation Campaign,

Planning Commission, Government of India

2. WHO/UNICEF. 2008. Report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring

Programme on water Supply and Sanitation. New York, Geneva, United Nations

Children’s Fund and the World Health Organization.

3. Srinath, Pavan (2013), Toilets and access

[http://catalyst.nationalinterest.in/tag/total-sanitation-campaign/]

4. Khambate, Aarti (2013), The sanitation crisis in India - An urgent need to look

beyond toilet provision [http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/sanitation-crisis-

india-urgent-need-look-beyond-toilet-provision]

83

Chapter 8

Wastewater treatment and management

8.1 Treatment of wastewater

Unlike urban wastewater treatment which involves a combination of physical, chemical,

and biological processes and operations to remove solids, organic matter, and sometimes,

nutrients from wastewater, in the rural scenario, households can take measures to reduce

the volume and load of wastewater by using an appropriate technology. Ideally, a

comprehensive wastewater management should include the following:

• design, installation and use of a particular technology according to local context

and need

• periodic inspection and desludging of muck/debris

• transportation of debris to a proper place for use or disposal

• self monitoring of technology by keeping a track record

Apart from this, households should take all possible measures to reduce the volume and

load of wastewater.

8.2 Benefits of wastewater recycling

• Recycling is extremely important as drinking water can be conserved.

• Water transportation cost is reduced in case it needs to be brought from remote

locations and helps maintain water in groundwater table.

• It helps reduce and prevent pollution by decreasing the wastewater discharged

into the environment.

• It is beneficial to plants, wildlife, and aquatic life because less fresh water is

removed from streams, rivers and other bodies of water.

• Sustainability of wetlands and related ecosystems can be greatly enhanced

through the practice of recycling and reusing wastewater.

8.3 Decentralized wastewater treatment facility

For wastewater treatment in rural areas, the operation of a technology should be decided

based on the type of liquid (grey or black), quantity generated, geography and/or geology

of the area and the available finance. Under normal circumstances, designing and

implementation of technology should be done at village or Gram Panchayat level.

Decentralized wastewater treatment can be an option for treatment at village level. It can

be defined as the collection, treatment, and reuse of wastewater at or near the point of

generation. The system operates without mechanical means and sewage flows by gravity

through different components of the system. The scale of operation can be decided based

on different technology available. For example a sullage stabilization pond or duckweed

treatment ponds utilize a lot of space but can serve multiple villages in the vicinity.

84

8.4 Technological options at household level

8.4.1 Twin Pit

Twin-pits for pour-flush toilets are two underground leaching pits linked to one single

pour-flush toilet by a Y-junction. The two pits are used alternately. Blackwater (i.e.

excreta, flushing water and anal cleansing water) is directed into one of the pits. The pits

are lined either with a porous material or holes in the walls allowing the liquid to

infiltrate into the surrounding soil. During soil infiltration, most of the pathogens are

filtered or die-off with time and distance - but in densely populated areas, it can still lead

to the pollution of ground water. Solids accumulate on the bottom of the pit and start to

decompose by a combination of composting and anaerobic digestion processes. When

one pit is full, it is sealed and left aside for complete decomposition of solids, while the

other is brought in use. When the decomposition of solids is completed (in general after

two years), the end product is sanitized but still contains organic matter and nutrients that

can be reused on-site, much like compost, to improve soil fertility and fertilizer crops.

The construction of twin pits is generally 1.5 times the cost of normal pit latrines.

However, once the twin pits have been installed, they can virtually be used without end.

8.4.2 Septic tank

Septic tank was one of the earliest treatment devices developed for domestic waste

disposal. It is the most widely used method which consists of a series of influent tank,

settling tank, dosing tank and adsorption field.

A septic tank works simply by acting as a settling tank for household sewage. The wastes

pass from the house to the tank by the force of gravity. The waste products settle to the

Twin pit toilet system

85

bottom and the clarified liquid remains near the top. The clear effluent leaving the tank is

directed to an adsorption field for further degradation and final disposal.

A septic tank for a family of four-five persons would require an investment of Rs.

15,000-17,000.

8.4.3 ECOSAN Toilet

ECOSON is short for ‘Ecological Sanitation’. This type of toilet has two pits with holes

which are to be used alternatively. The pan is made such that the urine and faeces are

separated. The bottom of the toilet is lined with cement so that the excreta don’t come in

contact with the soil. After defecation the user sprinkles ash/ sawdust etc. over excreta so

that there will not be any fly or mosquito menace. He/she then closes the drop hole with a

lid. Care should be taken that the toilet seat is at least 1.3 m above the ground so as to

avoid flooding of the compost chamber.

A medium family consisting of four or five members can use this pit for about eight to

nine months. Once it is full it is sealed with by cement from top. It will turn into compost

after five to six months. A detachable concrete slab at the rear portion of the ECOSAN

Compost Chamber enables the easy removal of the compost. When the first chamber is

sealed the family uses the second chamber. An Ecosan toilet for a family of four-five

persons would require an investment of Rs. 20,000-25,000. If the labour is donated by the

family, then the cost can be further reduced to Rs.15,000.

A typical septic tank system

86

8.4.4 Biodigester Biogas systems use bacteria to break down wet

organic matter like animal dung, human sewage or food waste. This produces biogas,

which is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, and also a semi-solid residue. The

biogas is used as a fuel for cooking, lighting or generating electricity. Using biogas can

save the labour of gathering and using wood for cooking, minimise harmful smoke in

homes, and reduce deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions, considerably. Biogas

plants can also improve sanitation, and the residue is useful as a fertilizer. Capturing

biogas is beneficial because the anaerobic digestion generates odours and hence in a

closed biogas chamber, the odors are controlled. This technology helps in areas that are

close to residential housing complexes. A household biodigester for a family of four-five

persons would require an investment of Rs. 10,000-15,000.

Ecosan toilet for family

Institutional level biogas plant

87

8.5 Technological options at community level

8.5.1 Stabilization pond system for wastewater treatment

Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) are a low-cost, low-energy, low-maintenance and,

above all, a sustainable method of wastewater treatment. Waste stabilization ponds are an

extremely appropriate method of wastewater treatment in the rural areas of India as the

climate is favourable for the efficient operation. Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are

shallow man-made basin into which wastewater flows and from which, after a retention

time of few days a well-treated effluent is discharged. WSP systems comprise of a series

of ponds – anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds in series. All these ponds have

different functions. The advantages of WSP systems, are simplicity, low cost and high

efficiency, but require large land area. Hence only if sufficient land area is available one

can recommend.

8.5.2 Wastewater Treatment through Duckweed

Duckweed based wastewater treatment technology is a completely indigenous and

biological method having direct economic return in terms of pisciculture and employment

avenue in rural areas with least recurring expenditure on operation and maintenance of

the system. Duckweed is a group name belonging to botanical family Lamnaceae that

consists of four genera namely Spirodela, Lemna, Wolffia and Wolfiella; first 3 genera

are commonly found in India. It is cosmopolitan and found everywhere in organic

nutrients rich stagnant water. It has very high growth rate; at optimum nutrient

environment it doubles within 2-3 days. The most important feature with this plant is that

it contains up to 30 per cent edible protein, vitamins A and C. It is a complete feed for

Stabilization pond

88

certain species of fish like Grass carp, Silver carp, Common carp, Rehu and Mrigal. High

yield of fish has a direct linkage with economic return and thus extremely important.

8.5.3 Root zone technology

The Root Zone Treatment System (RZTS) has been used widely for treatment of

wastewater through nutrient removal. In spite of having its more adaptability in tropical

regions, its use to treat wastewater has not been exploited on large scale in India. Root

zone Treatment Systems (RZTS) use natural processes to effectively treat domestic

effluents. They are eco-friendly and also have low operational costs, producing high

water quality (up to bathing water standards), suitable for reuse and reliable in both the

short and long term. The technology requires simple construction and is free of energy

and chemical inputs. It can handle large variety of pollutants and is O&M free.

A duckweed system

89

RZTS are based on filtration mechanism; therefore, they are sensitive against clogging.

Overloading of RZTS with organic matter can also cause clogging. These problems can

be avoided by appropriate pretreatment of wastewater, proper design of the filter bed and

proper operation of the system. Land requirement of RTZS is more than the stabilization

and other technologies.

8.5.4 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS)

This approach is an effective, efficient and affordable wastewater treatment solution for

rural households. It consists of a settler, anaerobic baffled septic tank, filter bed of gravel,

sand, plantation-beds and a pond. The open pond or the polishing tank stores the

remedied water and keeps it available for reuse. The system can operate in individual

households which are not connected to sewage lines. The recycled water is used for

irrigation or for growing plants and is absolutely safe for human use.

DEWATS system

Root zone wastewater treatment

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8.6 Greywater and blackwater management

The water from washing clothes, utensils and bathing can be categorized as greywater. It

is not water that has come into contact with faeces, either from the toilet. However

greywater may contain traces of dirt, food, grease, hair, and certain household cleaning

products. Aesthetically greywater is not appealing to use but is a safe source for farming.

If released into water sources around the village like lake, pond or river, the nutrients in

greywater become pollutants, but to plants, they are valuable fertilizer. Reusing of

greywater has obvious in savings in terms of finances but reusing greywater keeps it out

of the sewer or septic system, thereby reducing the chance that it will pollute local water

bodies.

The easiest way to use greywater is to pipe it directly outside and use it to water farms or kitchen

gardens. Greywater can be used directly on vegetables as long as it doesn't touch edible parts of

the plants. In any greywater system, it is essential to put nothing toxic down the drain--no bleach,

no dye, no bath salts, no cleanser, no shampoo with unpronounceable ingredients, and no

products containing boron, which is toxic to plants. It is crucial to use natural, biodegradable

soaps whose ingredients do not harm plants. Most powdered detergent, and some liquid

detergents are sodium based. Sodium can prevent seeds from sprouting while they also destroy

the structure of clayey soils.

Greywater can be directly diverted from the shower or bathroom sink for toilet flushing as long as

it is used immediately and not stored for more than 24 hours before reuse or disposal to sewer. It

requires coarse filtration. A greywater treatment and disinfection system must be installed to

reuse greywater indoors for toilet flushing and clothes washing, in case stored beyond 24 hours.

The greywater treatment plants employ treatment techniques such as screening, equalization,

settling, filtration and aeration.

Blackwater requires treatment by chemical or biological agents and disinfection.

Blackwater is not suitable for use indoors after any treatment, hence needs to be sent to a

sewage treatment plant where it is treated. In the rural area it can be treated using

Anaerobic and DEWATS system as mentioned earlier.

8.7 Use of treated wastewater

a. Community Parks

Technology has really evolved even when it comes to effluent treatment. The treated

effluent is well suited for the direct reuse for recreational purposes such as contact water

sports, park watering, establishment of ponds for boating and recreation, maintenance of

wildlife ponds, etc.

For recreational reuse, wastewater should be treated to meet the standards set by the

health authorities. For recreational boating, the wastewater used should be settled,

chemically precipitated or should be treated with a biological treatment process.

Sometimes, aeration, heavy chlorination or addition of diluting waters is needed.2

91

b. Agricultural Farms

Irrigation of vegetables, garden, berries or fruits with partially treated or untreated

sewage is prohibited under law. Watering of areas where fruit lie on ground is also not

advisable. Only nursery stock vegetables grown exclusively for seed purposes, cotton and

field crops such as hay, grain, rice, alfalfa, etc. can be allowed to be watered with sewage.

Also, milk cows and goats are not permitted to be pastured on irrigated land moist with

sewage and must be kept away from irrigation ditches. Whenever the produce from

sewage irrigated areas is to be cooked, irrigation with sewage must be stopped at least a

month prior to harvest.3

c. Community Fisheries

Wastewater reuse for aquaculture has been practiced in many countries for a considerable

period of time. Community fisheries or aquaculture has been developed so as to use the

nutrients present in wastewater rather than its treatment. In most aquaculture systems,

wastewater is not reused directly and the nutrients contained in the wastewater are used

as fertilizer to produce natural food such as plankton for fish. These nutrients, mainly

nitrogen and phosphorus, are also taken up directly by large aquatic plants such as

duckweed which is cultivated for animal feed, and aquatic vegetables such as water

spinach and water mimosa cultivated for human food.3

d. Orchards and Lawns

For health and aesthetic reasons, reuse of treated sewage effluent is presently limited to

non-potable applications such as irrigation of non-food crops and provision of industrial

cooling water. Wastewater reuse is a technology that has had limited use, primarily in

small-scale projects in the region, owing to concerns about potential public health

hazards. The treatment recommended in order to use wastewater for orchards and lawns

is secondary disinfection after treatment wherein the fecal coli form count should be

200/100 mL and residual chlorine to be 1mg/L.3

References:

1. Singh, R. N. (2006), Municipal water and wastewater treatment, TERI press

2. Environmentally Sound Technologies in Wastewater Treatment for

Implementation of UNEP Global Programme of Action (GPA), Chapter 6.

3. Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin

America and the Caribbean, UNEP - International Environmental Technology

Centre

92

Chapter 9

Participatory approach to effective waste management

Public participation is a key to effective and sustained practice of successfully managing

waste. As it is a complex activity having many people involved from generation to the

collection and final disposal of the waste, technical and systems solutions have to be

planned together with a robust information, education and communication strategy. Long

term and effective waste management requires behavior change and this requires a

concerted effort at education aimed at facilitating change in mindsets, building capacity

at various levels and strengthening systems for sustaining positive change.

The Supreme Court had directed every concerned authority responsible for collection,

segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of solid waste in all parts of the

country to implement the provisions laid down in Municipal Solid Waste (Management

& Handling) Rules 2000, by December 31, 2003. These Rules aim at facilitating

sustainable waste management practices in the cities and villages of our country by the

active participation of citizens, munipalities, community-based organizations, NGOs and

private sector entrepreneurs1.

The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) launched by the

Government of India aims to achieve Swachh Bharat by 2019. This means improving the

levels of cleanliness in rural areas through Solid and Liquid Waste management activities

and making Gram Panchayats Open Defecation Free (ODF), clean and sanitized. The

SBM guidelines give as two of their objectives, the focus on awareness and education

and importance of community managed sanitation systems1.

The Panchayati Raj Institutions have a key role in solid and liquid waste management in

villages. Therefore, awareness and education campaigns should target Panchayat

officials, the elected Representatives, schools, NGOs working in the villages, the shop

keepers, families and the public at large. To economically and efficiently manage solid

and liquid waste, the strategy to be adopted would need significant cooperation from the

generators of waste, that is, the community. Public involvement is necessary in waste

management and disposal. The following sections explain the methods and media of

communication and education using the example of solid waste.

9.1 Aim of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaign

The overall aim should be to reduce the load of waste being dumped or put into landfill

by requesting citizens to segregate their garbage at source, educating the Panchayat

officials and their employees not to burn or merely dump mixed waste but ensure door to

door segregated collection, composting and recycling.

• The role of an IEC campaign is to make citizens and the local panchayat understand that to

keep the village clean, it is important to generate awareness among the general public and

motivate them to become responsible citizens and ensure community participation. Such

campaigns also help in encouraging citizens and visitors in keeping the village/rural area

clean by not littering, defecating and urinating in public places.

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• Before initiating an IEC campaign, it is important to find appropriate solutions to the major

issues regarding waste management in the concerned area, so that the messages that need to

be given through the campaign reflect clearly what needs to be done and who should do it.

• One of the main objectives of an IEC campaign is also to promote optimum utilization of the

wasted resources to make the village clean and green and to this end educate and make the

community implement the best practices of waste management such as following the four Rs

of waste management - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover.

• It is essential for local panchayats to involve NGOs, CBOs, other stakeholders and

community leaders for achieving better waste management and sanitation, better community

health in the village and also generate employment and revenue through waste management. • Active participation of school children, nearby college students and others in the

academia for environmental awareness programs is an essential part of an effective

IEC campaign.

• Rural areas should promote entrepreneurship in waste management and hence proper

and effective guidance to the existing NGOs, CBOs and other citizen groups towards

establishing environmentally and economically sustainable waste management

systems should be provided.

It is equally important to motivate tourists, pilgrims and others who come for tourism or

social visits to keep the village clean in a similar way.

9.2 Need for direct intervention and participation of community stakeholder

Despite strong democratic traditions, introduction of democratic processes in keeping the

village/city clean has not been a priority issue in India. Therefore, almost by default,

SWM is assigned a low priority because of other pressing issues, which cannot wait.

Although it is evident that many diseases are caused by improper management of solid

waste, the Surat plague episode in 1994 is the only concrete example in recent years

where it has been possible to relate poor management of solid waste to health hazards.

We need to learn and understand the following:

• Garbage if left unattended even for 24 hours has direct impact on the health of the

people coming in contact with it and/or residing nearby.

• A number of diseases like Typhoid, Cholera, Hepatitis A, Leptospirosis, Filariasis,

Malaria, Dengue, Chickengunia and several others are easily spread due to

mismanagement of garbage

• Subsequent stagnation of water either on the surface or in drainage and sewerage can

also spread of diseases through vectors breeding in them.

However, due to lack of feasible and manageable strategies, there seems to be no

concrete and permanent action to alleviate the problem.

Although citizens have been ignorant or apathetic in the past, it would not be appropriate

to completely blame them for being responsible for mismanagement of solid waste. In the

last few years, due to increased concern for health and environment, citizens have

become highly sensitized and are willing to give some of their time for appropriate solid

waste management. The village panchayat officials therefore, need to change their

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mindset and improve their approach and methods for involving citizens in day-to-day

governance of their villages, especially to manage solid and liquid waste.

Involving the community can bring in innovativeness and entrepreneurship in managing

of waste. Scientific management of waste lies in providing space and powers within the

governance structure where a rag picker, a destitute woman, rural dwellers, small and

medium entrepreneurs can work alongside the Health officers, Engineers, Commissioners

and the educated, employed citizens of both urban and rural areas.

As mentioned in the earlier part of this chapter, solid waste management unlike other

highly centralized services requires a decentralized approach, which needs active citizen

participation rather than mere representation. Citizens are required to actively participate

at all stages of waste management from the point of generation to its final disposal.

Waste Management aspects where community participation is essential to back the

scientific management by a gram panchayat: • In achieving the principles of Reduce, Reuse and Recycling and Recovery from

waste.

• In reducing littering of the waste on the streets, into drains, open spaces, water bodies,

etc.

• Storage of waste at source, segregated as biodegradable and non-biodegradable

(keeping hazardous and infected waste separately).

• Making arrangements for primary collection of waste through /Self help

groups/NGOs or individual waste collectors by paying for the services provided.

• Encouraging and assisting local composting and recycling initiatives.

• Reducing open defecation, improve sanitation and sound management of liquid waste

9.3 Public information, education and communication methods

Door-to-door Motivation

Door to door motivation by the Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI) officials/volunteers,

gives every household a chance to clear their doubts and ask questions regarding the

waste management system being proposed2. Printed educational material such as posters,

brochures and pamphlets could be given to each house or shop and the entire concept of

segregation of waste could be explained using these materials. Volunteers need to be

trained to go from door to door interacting with all the residents especially the women of

the households and the shops to not only consult them on various issues related to solid

waste using detailed questionnaires developed but also to orient them towards the best

practices of waste management available as options for addressing the issues delineated

by them. This lends certain continuity to a phase of intense mobilization or campaigning.

IEC Material is very useful while door to door awareness programmes are being

conducted. The IEC materials on solid waste management may include posters, leaflets

and handouts which can be distributed amongst the householders, shop owners and be

displayed at prominent locations in the village, for example, at the Panchayat office, in

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the school, or a community meeting place2. The information and the message in these

materials should be focused and clear.

Stickers for bins

Survey and Analysis To make the whole project effective, it has been shown that it is important to identify

indicators and code the questionnaires whether it is for the households and commercial

establishments’ surveys or for the ward surveyors. This helps to document the baseline,

monitor the progress periodically and highlight achievements. Hence the survey and

analysis of the status of the cleanliness parameters worked out after careful and detailed

deliberations should be done before and after implementation and is repeated

periodically.

Organizing, training of Rag pickers, Waste collectors and Kabadiwallahs In case of bigger villages or in rural areas on the fringes of cities, informal waste

collectors exist. The local body should mobilize NGOs or co-operatives to take up the

work of organizing rag-pickers and turning them into door step "waste collectors" by

motivating them to stop picking soiled and contaminated solid waste from the streets,

bins or disposal sites and instead collect recyclable clean material from the doorstep at

regular intervals of time1. The local bodies should pay for the cost of transportation of

such waste; even consider extending financial help to NGOs and co-operatives in

providing some tools and equipment to the waste collectors for efficient performance.

Health concerns of the waste retrievers are of prime importance, as they are constantly

handling different types of waste. Also there is a need to evaluate occupational hazards if

any, in door-to-door waste picking and sorting. Training on the right method of

segregation and collection of waste should be imparted. They should also be provided an

orientation on time management and taking a planned approach for routing, good

behavior with the residents and congenial working with their partners.

Training and Motivating the Self Help Groups Training and motivating entrepreneurship in waste management especially recycling of

waste products (sale of compost, paper and plastic recycling) involving the self help

groups (SHGs) and women of the community is an important aspect. The SHGs can

benefit from the economic gains they can get from recycling of waste products. The

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training should introduce them to a variety of possible value addition product

development from waste including establishing paper or plastic recycling units and

selling the same in the local markets. They can also be trained for marketing of compost

and recycled products in the local markets. Local NGOs can do the training for the SHGs

and involve them in various activities.

Community participation is the key to sustainable waste management

Celebration Important Days and Occasions Waste management and sanitation can be integrated into awareness and education

activities conducted during festivals and celebration of environmental days such as the

World Environment day, Earth day or Health day. These activities can be conducted by

the community to build a sense of responsibility and the importance of the issue.

Rallies Organizing rallies on various occasions creates an excitement among the onlookers and

have propelled the rally doers to motivate the society.

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Street Plays As a tool for building awareness about waste management and motivating the non-

participating residents, street plays are very useful tools. Street plays can help motivate

and provide understanding about the importance of segregation and disposal of household

waste, keeping streets and the environment litter free, importance of recycling of waste,

discouraging use of plastic bags in daily life, importance of hand washing and keeping

the toilets and surroundings clean for a healthy life.

Youth spreading the message

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Clean-up Drives

Organizing regular clean up drives involving the local community and the District

Administration is very useful in ensuring community participation and for building a

sense of ownership. Clean-up drives have always made the community realize the

advantages of cleanliness.

Signature Campaigns Signature campaigns for community can be used for getting the opinion of various

stakeholders on topics like ban of plastics, temple waste management, segregation of

waste, sanitation, etc.

Open Forums Organizing open forums in a locality helps to collect views of the community and rectify

the mistakes if committed.

School Programmes Children are strong communicators. Emphasis on educating school children in order to

make them aware about the importance of a clean environment and waste segregation is

useful. This can be done by organizing activities like painting competition, slogans

writing, helping them organize clean up drives. Students should also be trained for

making recycled products (reuse paper and plastic carry bags, use recycled paper etc.)

The gram panchayats/block office should hold regular meetings with principals, teachers

and students to explain the need for change, and the usefulness to society of new ways to

manage waste. The message can be reinforced by holding essay, debate or drawing and

painting competitions on the subject and giving prizes to the contestants.

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Environment Education through fun-filled activities, games

Involvement of National Cadet Corps (NCC), National Social Service (NSS) and

Scouts: The NCC and NSS have a strong social service component. Students from the schools

and colleges where these activities exist, can be involved in awareness creation and

education campaigns and in demonstrating action in their schools and colleges.

NSS Camp in a village in Gujarat

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Involvement of Religious Leaders Religious leaders play a significant role in bringing about a change in the mind set of the

people. If they advise their devotees/disciples to keep their surroundings clean by not

littering and by managing their waste as advised by the local body, it can go a long way

in improving the situation in the rural and urban areas.

Involvement of Mahila Mandals (Women’s Associations) Women are generally more concerned about maintenance of health and hygiene of their

families and are involved in domestic waste management on a day to day basis.

Awareness among women could be raised through Mahila Mandals/Women’s

Associations who could be given talking points and necessary literature in a simple

language along with graphics for creating awareness among other women.

Mass Communication Methods

Print Media

Advertisements and appeals may be given in a planned manner to educate community at

large and local newspapers can also be requested to insert the given messages on SWM at

regular intervals. The local panchayat can also use newspaper delivery services for

distributing handbills for readers in a particular locality to announce the start of campaign

or incentives for compliance to the systems.

TV / Cable TV / Radio/Web Site

This is a very powerful medium and can be used through local programmes to inform the

citizens of new waste collection arrangements made by the local body as and when they

become operational and advise them to participate effectively. Contact numbers of the

concerned officials for problem solving or redressal may be publicized. This media may

be used to publicize successful efforts in some localities to motivate other citizens to

perform likewise.

Cinema Halls

Slides in cinema theaters can be displayed to inform and motivate the public.

9.4 Recommended method of participatory approach in implementation of effective

waste management system Consultations with community for taking stock of existing situation The local body needs to decide the methodology to be adopted for reaching out to the

community and seeking their cooperation and effective participation in solid waste

management services. This needs to be done very meticulously and seriously. This can

be done by consulting the representative groups to ascertain the perception of people

about existing SWM services, their expectations and the extent to which they are willing

to support and participate in the process. Their choice of approach and technology

options should also be considered. The local rural body may take the help of NGOs,

School and College students for conducting consultations.

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Community consultations to take stock of situation and decide strategy

Process for formulating strategy is as follows:

Identification of problems and perceptions through a consultative process

Work out the optimal solutions

Consult community on the options available

Work out the strategy for implementation

The most effective method of eliciting participation is to visit every household or

commercial establishment and establish a personal rapport with its owners/residents.

Communication material describing the different aspects of waste management should be

distributed. Volunteers can also be drawn from a resource pool of college/school students

for the same.

Consultation process should end with a Citizen Charter capturing the voice of the

citizens. A Stakeholder Committee needs to be formed to take the implementation

forward.

Feedback

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Formation of Stakeholder and Waste Management Committees .

A strong stakeholder committee needs to be formed to ensure maximum participation and

ownership of SWM initiatives. Cooperation between these stakeholders would give long

lasting results.

A Waste Management Commitee at work

• Maximum representation needs to be ensured from stakeholders such as lower

economic groups, disadvantaged and others especially those like waste pickers,

women, students, children and senior citizens.

• Co-opting of local traders, recyclers, media, market associations, religious institutions

and associations should be regularly taken up.

• Regular meetings, minutes, implementation of decisions and follow up should be

maximized and ensured.

• Facilitation of delegation of responsibilities, project management, fund raising and

correct monitoring is essential.

Identification of Pilot areas for Implementation of Pilot Projects

Once the overall SWM strategy along with the IEC plan and implementation is ready, the

local gram panchayat should take up pilot projects, selecting the areas where better

participation is expected. Pilot projects should be used to demonstrate the success to other

areas and gradually implementation in rest of the city or town should begin. It is

important to implement the new program in few areas while monitoring and assessing the

success and the lessons learnt should be carefully recorded and subsequently extended to

other areas with suitable modifications wherever necessary.

Door to Door awareness programmes have been the key for the success of many projects

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From each pilot initiative, certain lessons need to be learnt about the role they can play in

waste management in the entire village/block and their possible contribution to the

‘Strategic Plan for Waste Management’. The community involved in the initiative

provides extensive knowledge of the local needs, the suitable systems required and the

skill and willingness to manage the initiative. The initiatives developed through

indigenous means and tools to deliver the services should also adopt appropriate locally

available technologies for processing waste.

Evaluation of the Pilot Projects

Evaluation has to be planned right from the beginning of the pilot project since the

success of evaluation lies in not only clearly spelling out and delineating the parameters

to be evaluated but the scope and scale of achievement which is being envisaged during

or after the pilot. Further, in all projects involving the community and its participation the

effectiveness of IEC cannot be perceived or measured only by physical quantification but

by the change in behavior or attitude towards age-old beliefs and traditions, which are

often the key to measurable changes as well. To evaluate this, we require insight,

empathy and a good understanding of the needs of the community.

9.5 Learnings

It has taken a long time to get recognition for the important role of education and

communication play in bringing about an effective and sustained solid waste

management. However, this struggle is just beginning to bear fruit because some people

have started understanding that action without understanding and results without

reinforcement are unsustainable. While the policy and programmes clearly articulate the

need for community participation and the central role of education and communication,

there is still a gap in their implementation in a way that would be socially, economically

and environmentally just. We hope that the sourcebook helps provide the required

information and tools to the local decision makers and facilitators to develop inclusive

solid and liquid waste management strategies and programmes.

References

1. Guidelines for Swachh Bharat Mission (Grammen). Ministry of Drinking Water and

Sanitation. Available at

http://www.mdws.gov.in/sites/upload_files/ddws/files/pdf/SwachBharatGuidlines.pdf

2. MoUD – GOI (2000), Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management.

3. MOEF [Online], Available from http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-

information/Roadmap-Mgmt-Waste.pdf

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CASE STUDIES

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Case Study 1- CEE-ERU (CEE Eco Recycling Unit) Coorg, Karnataka

A woman working on the loom weaving waste polybags

To address the dry recyclable wastes such as paper and polybags, which are a major

problem in Coorg, Centre for Environment Education (CEE) set up a handmade paper

making unit and a plastic weaving loom. This unit was called CEE’s Ecological Reuse

and Recycling Unit (CEE-ERU).

As an alternative mode to mere disposal for used polybags generated in this district, a

novel sustainable method helps in reusing discarded polybags in the form of woven

products, which are more durable, and eco friendly. This prevents the poly bags from

polluting our environment.

The waste polybags are collected at the unit through a collection system set up to

collected segregated plastic bags. These are washed, dried, cut into strips and woven in

handlooms to make attractive bags, mats, folders, pencil cases, wall charts, curtains for

windows and doors etc.

Cleaning and Disinfecting Plastic Waste: Some plastic carry bags may have been picked up from roadsides and unclean

surroundings. Hence it is important to first clean with detergent and water and soak in 0.5

per cent hypochlorite solution for half an hour before drying them out in the sun. This

will ensure destruction of all pathogens and make it safe for weaving and also for using

the products made from such an activity.

Benefits to our Environment

• These woven products can be used for longer period and are durable.

• This novel method of polybag weaving prevents environmental pollution.

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• While collecting used carry bags and selling these products, messages are given to

avoid the environmental hazards of disposing these in our environment

Components of Plastic Weaving unit

• Green loom (Multi Activity Loom) comprising a set of 48” width looms + warping

(spooling) machine + 2 Charkas, bobbin stand, heeled stand, khargosh and wooden

plank.

• Shed of 100 sqft covered

• Raw material– cotton thread, liner cloth and plastic carry bags collected from our

environment.

• Human power to do the weaving

• Cleaning and drying of waste carry bags (Vats, Tanks, tubs, pipes)

• Sewing Machine and accessories.

Recycling of Plastic Carry Bags with Poly Loom

• Collection of discarded “plastic carry bags/poly bags” from houses, roadsides,

schools, colleges, hostels etc

• Washing with soap water and drying

• Plastic Polybags cut into strips

• Thread taken from Charka

• Reel to be arranged in Bobbin stand

• Thread rolled to Warping Machine from Bobbin stand

• Thread set to loom from warping Machine

• Weaving to produce plastic woven fabric with different designs

• Tailoring and fabricating different products such as Mats, Awnings, Bags, Files and

Cases

• Marketing the products and conducting training for creating more opportunities

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Process

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Details of the Product

• The product is designed keeping in view the present trend of the market. Although

made out of recycled plastic, the hygiene aspect along with aesthetic and utility

aspects is always taken into consideration while preparing the final product for

marketing. • Electricity is not required for setting up the loom, which helps it to be integrated with

other electricity dependent activities to fully utilize the services of the workers during

power shutdowns and periods of no electricity in the rural areas. Creation of new

business opportunities with minimal investments and space requirements is possible.

Machinery is easily transportable and easy to assemble. Addressing the growing

urban menace it has led to merging of rural technology and to curb the ever-

increasing problem of plastics being unthinking dumped in our environment. • The new technology has led to increase job opportunities among women due to its

easy and user friendly process. • This process, which helps in diverting the plastics away from the landfill, prevents

environmental degradation and leads to employment opportunities. The product is

also environmentally safe and can be used for over five years. It can be used regularly

in any location and helps in removing lakhs of such unwanted plastic carry bags from

our environment. This leads to cleaner and greener environment.

CEE wins Award for Innovation in Recycling Technology

Centre for Environment Education (CEE) was awarded the ‘Plasticon 2005 Award’ on 1st

October 2005 in Mumbai by the PlastIndia Foundation in the category of ‘Innovation in

Recycling Technology’ for its innovation of the ‘Polyloom’.

The first CEE-ERU established in Coorg, Karnataka was subsequently set up through

various CEE offices, also in Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Delhi, and Tirupati. Today, the

concept has been taken up by many women’s self-help groups who gather raw material

either by door to door collection or by buying it from rag pickers. This provides them

livelihood while taking the plastic carry bags away from the environment.

List of Plastic Recycled products

• Seminar kit bags and folders

• Double Cot mat

• Single Cot mat

• Dining mat

• Small Yoga mat

• Box type Market bag

• Fancy Market bag

• Shoulder bag

• Fancy Jhola bag (Big/small)

• Tiffin carrier bag

• Puja bag with stick handle

• Hand purse

• Dining set

• Mobile case

• CD case

• Pencil case

• Travelers bag • Cloth markt bag • Travelers kit bag • Fancy long handle bag • Puja bag with rope handle

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Lessons Learnt

Dry waste separated at source can be utilized for creating jobs and generating revenue

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Case Study 2 – Satyanagar’s biogas based community toilet complex,

Bangalore, Karnataka

Project Location: Bangalore, Funding Agency: NORAD

CEE carried out a systemic and stepwise planning for upgrading the living conditions of

the residents of Satyanagar, a suburban pocket at the outskirts Bangalore. Data on socio-

economic profile of the people and environmental features of the existing civic amenities

was also collected and analysed. The whole project broadly involved 3 phases:

▪ Preparation of a Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) for Satyanagar.

▪ Estimation and costing for implementing the CDP.

▪ Actual Implementation of the CDP.

The data collection was done through Geographic Information System (GIS), one to one

questionnaire surveys, using participatory approach, frequent site visits, etc. This report

came up with the detailed study of the quality and quantity of waste being generated,

socio-economic structure of the residents and existing infrastructure in Satyanagar.

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Strategy components

Strategy

• Identifying issues involved in improving infrastructure &quality of life of people

residing in slums

• Developing action plan for upgrading living conditions (Basic Amenities etc.

including community & individual toilets)

• Through participatory processes, involvement of communities in identifying

lacunae in existing infrastructure etc.

• Capacity Building programmes (for Communities, Panchayats, NGOs and others)

• Developing GIS, Building partnership ( among NGOs, Local Community,

Government)

Achievements

• As a part of providing Satyanagar with urban services, providing fuel and

electricity to benefit 6000 residents was one of the achievements.

• In this regard we approached Karnataka Khadi Village Industries Corporation

(KVIC) Bangalore to explore the possibilities of fuel utilisation which is generated by the

toilet linked biogas plant, constructed and maintained by CEE.

• This has been implemented by providing fuel for those households near the

complex including the persons residing in the toilet complex for the purpose of

maintaining it.

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• The environmental awareness programmes conducted at Satyanagar has led to

increase in awareness to keep the area clean. Many of the residents who were going out

for open defecation have started using the toilets. Moreover chain-link fencing of the

vacant piece of land adjacent the toilet complex has compelled many of the people to use

the community toilet.

• The community toilet complex at Satyanagar is an asset to the community

• Association with Development Education Society (DEEDS), an NGO working at

Satyanagar has helped in conducting the awareness programme effectively. The teachers

from DEEDS were able to mobilize housewives to attend the awareness programme.

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Case Study 3 - Converting Dhansura Block of Sabarkanta district into a

plastic-free zone, Gujarat

Dhansura is one of the talukas of Sabarkantha district, Gujarat. It consists of 33 Gram

panchayats with a total population of 96,389 (50,310 men and 46,079 women).

Agriculture and animal husbandry are Dhansura’s main livelihoods. The total sanitation

Campaign (TSC) program was initiated in this taluka in 2004. The District Rural

Development Agency (DRDA), under the leadership of its director, is responsible for

implementing the TSC programme. The Block Development Office (BDO) provides

technical and monitoring support to the Gram panchayats and communities for the TSC's

effective implementation. In July 2011, as part of the TSC's integrated Waste

management campaign, a special drive was launched to convert Dhansura into a ‘plastic

free’ taluka, with the cooperation of block and village panchayats. This campaign was

initiated and managed by Amruthbhai Bhambi, Assistant Project Officer of the TSC in

Sabarkantha district.

Project planning meeting

A state-level meeting was organised under the leadership of the TSC state Program

Officer to identify and work out a strategy for creating plastic-free GPs and blocks. The

team agreed to make Dhansura block in Sabarkantha district a plastic-free zone on a pilot

basis. A workshop was organised in Dhansura block under the leadership of the director

of DRDA in Sabarkantha district to orient all key stakeholders on the issues of plastic

waste and its impact on the environment and human life. participants include the

sarpanch and secretary of all 33 GPs in Dhansura block, all consultants of district 60

Pathway to success and block TSC units, the State Program Officer, Block Development

Officer and BDO team, the Director and relevant officers of DRDA, regional consultants,

various local scrap traders, etc. at the end of the workshop, an action plan was prepared in

view of making Dhansura a plastic-free block.

IEC activities

The district deputed all district TSC community mobilizers (13 members) to create

awareness and organize communities for the safe disposal of plastic waste. Each

mobilizer was assigned three GPs in which to undertake various IEC activities. In

addition, teachers and students throughout the district were oriented on the issue of

plastic waste; they, in turn, organized rallies and door-to-door campaigns to raise

awareness within their respective communities. A series of Gram sabha meetings was

held in every Gram panchayat to sensitize GP members and communities with respect to

the importance of safely disposing of plastic waste. subsequently, a resolution was passed

in the Gram sabha to end the dumping of litter—including plastic waste—in public places

and along roads, urging citizens to instead collect plastics at the household level and sell

them to authorized local scrap vendors at the rate of `3 per kg.

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Organizing scrap vendors

Before holding the Gram sabha, meetings took place among the sarpanch, Gram

panchayat secretary, Community mobilizer, and local shopkeepers to discuss the

purchase of plastic waste collected by households. In every GP, one local trader was

identified and was asked to sign a letter of consent. It was decided that a village trader

would buy plastic waste at a rate of `3 per kg; the resale price this vendor would obtain

from a taluka scrap vendor would be `4 per kg.

Impact of Best Practice

Every GP is now more or less free from plastic waste and looks very clean. This

campaign created public awareness about the adverse impact of plastic waste on humans

and animals and, to a certain extent, it helped to curb the purchase of plastics. The

awareness and commitment of households in Dhansura block when it comes to the safe

disposal of plastic waste is very high. Until very recently, plastic was discarded as waste

material; now it generates a small income for conscientious households. Many local

traders and taluka scrap vendors reported earning between `500 and `2,000 per month

thanks to this new trade in plastic waste. This campaign also created a demand for

household toilets.

References

WSP (2014), WSP-Compendium of Best Practices Rural Sanitation India [Online],

Available from http://www.wsp.org/files/publications/WSP-Compendium of Best

Practices Rural Sanitation India

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Case Study 4 - Pammal’s Green Exnora, Pammal, Tamil Nadu

Using People-Public-Private-Partnership (PPPP) to establish sustainable waste

management system in a small town’s door-to-door collection, transportation and waste

processing services by Exnora Green Pammal has paid off well. Pammal town is situated

on the periphery of the city of Chennai in southern India. The grave condition of waste in

the area made a resident take initiative to form an informal group and start creating

awareness about waste management among local residents. Their efforts began to pay off

when they started collecting user fees and involved some waste pickers to clean their

area. Once they got noticed, they were funded by PepsiCo and registered themselves as

Exnora Green Pammal and initiated several activities to deal with solid waste in Pammal

town. Their journey from a few hundred households to their reach of 75,000 households

currently, speaks of success from 1994 to 2014.

Pammal is a part of Kancheepuram District and is located 25 km from Chennai in Tamil

Nadu. Pammal has a population of 75,870 according to 2011 census while the floating

population is approximately 20,000. The town primarily comprises residential,

commercial, institutional and industrial area and is famous for tanneries, which are

located in and around the municipal boundary.

The total municipal waste generated in the town is 35 MT per day. The waste

management in the town is entrusted with the municipal sanitary staff and a team of 7

groups. The municipality is responsible for solid waste management in 5 of the 21 wards

(in ward number- 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11). The municipality lifts 18.5 MT per day. Waste

collection, transportation and disposal of waste from remaining 16 wards is carried out by

an NGO- Exnora Green Pammal

In 1994, Pammal was a town panchayat and had a team of 70 sanitary workers, 22 of

whom were permanent and 48 temporary. Of the 48 temporary workers, only 29 worked

on waste collection. The other 19 were deputed to other departments. The panchayat

could not employ additional required staff due to lack of finance. In 1994, a local resident

initiated the formation of a civil society organization to address the issues of solid waste

collection and cleanliness. Ten women residents, who were also interested in these issues,

volunteered and joined in to form an informal citizens group called Shri Shankara Nagar

Mahalir Mandram. They initiated a campaign to involve the local residents in cleaning

the area. They organized a mass cleaning campaign for the first time in Shri Shankara

Nagar area of Pammal.

House to house discussions were done to educate citizens to store their waste in bins and

not throw it in open spaces and also to segregate waste. The Mandram explored

possibilities of collecting a service charge of Rs. 10 per month per household for the

waste collection services. However, residents opposed the idea saying that this was the

municipality’s duty. In 1995 with some financial support from a private company -

Sterling Tree Magnum, the Mandram bought tricycles for door to door collection and

appointed two street cleaners. The waste collected was then disposed in the town’s

secondary collection bins.

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In 1996, as the Mandram’s influence grew, they started facing various challenges from

the municipality as well as from the residents. Mandram’s crew collected waste from

individual households and disposed it in secondary bins of the town. The residents felt

that this was not enough and the panchayat did not want the Mandram to collect user

charges from residents. In late 1996, the Mandram members explored composting of

waste on an experimental basis under a tree. A monthly service charge of Rs. 10 was

collected from households who gave their waste. This money supported salaries of the

waste collectors and to erect a shed. With more households segregating waste at source,

most of the compostable waste was converted to manure. Further support came from an

eye hospital that provided space for vermicomposting and the Mandram, now registered

as a self-help group obtained a loan for construction of a shed.

80 per cent of the total waste generated in the Shri Shankara Nagar was now composted

and sold. The recyclable materials such as paper, plastic, metal, glass and rubber was also

sold. Hence, only 10 per cent of the total waste generated in the Shri Shankara Nagar was

disposed at the town’s dumpsite.

By mid-1998, more than two-thirds of residents regularly paid service charges for this

waste management service. Their work caught attention of many officials including the

Executive Officer of Pammal Municipality.

Institutionalization of the Mahalir Mandram: Formation of Exnora Green Pammal

Zero Waste Programme

This success of the Mahalir Mandram’s community-based solid waste management

project started getting published and got noticed by an international NGO- Exnora

International1. The initiative was also applauded and encouraged by the Mayor of

Chennai. Inspired by this citizen led initiative in Pammal, the mayor of Chennai city also

organized awareness rallies in Chennai. He advised the elected council of Pammal town

panchayat, to take up vermicomposting on a large scale. He also inaugurated the

municipality’s “Pasumaiyana Pammal” or the Green Pammal Zero Waste Programme

that reached out to six wards of Pammal.

In 2004, representatives of a multinational beverage company PepsiCo visited the project

and suggested that the Mandram's activities be expanded to cover a larger area. They

extended financial support of Rs 32 lakh for extending the Mandram’s initiative to seven

wards of the city. However, there were issues in accessing this money since the Mandram

was not registered as a formal institution. Here, Exnora International supported in

formalizing the Mandram and registered a NGO called Exnora Green Pammal, under the

Societies Act, 1860.

1Exnora International, a non-profit, environmental service organisation focuses on mobilizing and

empowering communities to participate in preserving nature and preventing environmental degradation.

Exnora's work includes solid waste management, liquid waste management, rain water harvesting and

recycling of inorganic waste.

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With PepsiCo’s support, door-to-door collection was expanded and a MoU was signed

with the Municipality. In 2005, the NGO employed 52 people as waste collectors and

also constructed a larger shed for vermicomposting. The land of 1.1 acres was provided

by the municipality. This shed had 108 cells for composting. To support the operations of

the waste management services, the service charge was increased to Rs 15 per household

in more affluent areas.

City-wide scaling up of the initiative

In 2007, the Pammal Municipality approached the Exnora Green Pammal (EGP) to

expand its services across all the 21 wards of the town. The NGO agreed to provide

services in 16 of the wards. The municipality and Exnora Green Pammal entered into a

MoU to provide waste management services including primary collection, segregation,

and secondary collection, lifting of debris from drains and disposal to the compost yard.

As part of the MoU, the Municipality and the NGO provided 70 and 80 tricycles each.

The municipality introduced an annual house tax that included SWM taxes as well and

hence it was decided to discontinue the collection of service charges. As per the MoU, it

was also decided that the municipality would pay Exnora Green Pammal at the rate of 95

paise per house per day.

The NGO now had a waste management team of 5 supervisors and 100 workers who

were called ‘Green Ambassadors’. EGP has trained and employed over 135 green

ambassadors. The workers and green ambassadors are all drawn from the same localities,

who were previously engaged in illicit liquor brewing and from leprosy rehabilitation

settlements. The workers are part of the SHG federation and they are employed as

federation workers. The workers are given dignity of labour and are paid a monthly

salary of Rs. 4000-5000 according to the Minimum Wages Act. The waste pickers also

get an additional income by selling the recyclables collected by them.

This arrangement continues to function in the 16 wards of the city. EGP has deployed 10

trucks and 2 mini trucks for the secondary transportation of municipal waste from the

wards to the compost and dumpsite at Vishweshapuram. The payment mechanism has

now changed with the municipality paying Rs. 850 per MT to Exnora Green Pammal.

After the waste is collected by green ambassadors in hand carts, it is transferred into

trucks for weighing.

Since the year 2010, a two-year contract has been formed based on which, the EGP will

pay Rs 500 to the Municipality for each MT of compost that EGP produces from the

municipality's waste, and Rs 100 per tonne of recyclable material recovered. This

payment from EGP to the municipality ranges between Rs 35,000 and Rs 45,000 per

month.

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IEC Campaigns

EGP along with the Pammal Municipality imparts education and training on livelihood

options for disadvantaged groups in the community. They also conduct training programs

for external self-help groups on income generation and livelihood options related to

waste, paper recycling, mushroom cultivation, etc. Summer camps focusing on

environmental issues and waste management are held for children. Street plays for

community awareness are also regularly conducted. Depending upon the IEC activity,

funding is sought from agencies such as PepsiCo for materials, toolkits, games, etc.

Employed with EGP since a decade, her day

begins from 6:00 am where she collects

segregated waste from 250-300 households

everyday. 90 per cent waste from households

is segregated. She says that she is happy to be

a ‘Green Ambassador’ and now she lives in

dignity and earns her living. She has been

able to educate 3 of her children due to the

salary paid by EGP and the benefit of loans

from SHGs. - Interview with Thilagavathy Mulaswami,

Green Ambassador, EGP

Summer programme for kids, training of women and street play as a part of IEC campaign

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Results and Waste Recovery

EGP has collected and segregated a total of 11,934 MT of waste from 16 wards in the

financial year, April 2012 to March 2013.

Month Municipal solid waste collected (in MT)

April – 12 1042.68

May – 12 970.24

June – 12 918.362

July – 12 1042.09

August – 12 1010.58

September –

12

968.78

October – 12 1028.87

November – 12 958.41

December – 12 1056

January – 13 1046.95

February – 13 850

March – 13 1024

4.1 Waste Recovery

Municipal solid waste is segregated and further sent for processing as vermicomposting,

biogas, or up scaling.

Vermicomposting: The segregated organic waste is partly utilized for feeding the biogas

plant and partly for the vermicomposting processing shed. A total of 383 MT of organic

waste was collected in the last financial year, of which 115 tons was utilized for biogas

production and 268 tons was utilized for vermicomposting process.

Vermicomposting of organic waste by EGP in Pammal

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Biogas: A considerable amount of food gets wasted in the restaurants. EGP uses

biomethanation technology to use the waste to produce electricity. The EGP has set up 3

biogas plants in the town, one to handle kitchen waste from restaurants and two in

temples to handle temple wastes.

The model biogas plant to handle kitchen waste from restaurants has a capacity of

producing 25 cum of gas and electricity output of 5 kva per day. The electricity is used to

power streetlights and to produce cooking gas.

Under the ‘Temple Green Project’, waste from temples such as flowers, milk, prasadam,

fruits and cow dung are used to produce biogas. The biogas is used for cooking of the

prasadams in the temple premises.

Waste treated in biogas plants and electricity generated, Source - EGP Annual Report, 2013

Month Food waste (kg) Units of electricity

produced, Kwh

April – 12 2491 6229

May – 12 2240 5898

June – 12 7843 7813

July – 12 7659 7799

August – 12 6509 7522

September –

12

7979 8309

October – 12 9041 8529

November – 12 12584 7780

December – 12 8851 7953

January – 13 6073 7873

February – 13 7529 8072

March – 13 6435 8109

Total 85234 91886

Biogas plants for processing organic waste; L-Model biogas plant for managing kitchen

waste; R- Temple Green initiative

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Up cycling plastic waste: A total of 6623 numbers of plastic carry bags and 41097 plastic

water pouches were segregated and utilized for the plastic upcycling initiative called

“Project Avthar”. This upcycling process diverted 47,720 numbers of plastic carry bags

and water pouches from the dumpsite and also from clogging drains and ending up in

water bodies. These plastic bags are then used to make into bags, mats, stationery items.

This technology was transferred to EGP by CEE Coorg through a series of workshops

and training programmes.

Monthly waste segregated and diverted from dumpsite, Source- EGP Annual report

Month Plastic carry bags Plastic water pouches

April – 12 426 3425

May – 12 533 3724

June – 12 590 5125

July – 12 523 5730

August – 12 513 4124

September – 12 557 1399

October – 12 423 6026

November – 12 622 4196

December – 12 566 3876

January – 13 364 1629

February – 13 923 985

March – 13 583 858

Total 6623 41097

Upscaling of plastic waste into innovative products

Briquette making: The coconut leaves collected from the wards are used for making

briquettes, which are used as a fuel in industrial boilers. The briquettes are prepared by a

slow pyrolysis process.

Briquette making from

coconut leaves

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Lessons learned

The reason that the segregated waste could be used efficiently for various waste recovery

processes is due to the fact that citizens segregate waste at the source itself.

When residents don’t segregate their waste, the

workload of green ambassadors increases because

they have to then segregate the waste. The value of

recyclable material also reduces considerably since

recyclables are mixed and become dirty. The quality

of biodegradable material deteriorates as well. In the

absence of source segregation or inefficient

segregation of waste at source, the amount of

landfilled material increases. A much more intensive

and sustained awareness campaign and a regulatory

framework are essential to encourage maximum

residents to segregate their waste at source. Raising awareness to achieve widespread

public cooperation in terms of segregation of waste requires continuous effort and is

likely to take several years. Changing people’s habits is a gradual process.

Although, Pammal has demonstrated a successful waste collection, segregation and waste

recovery process, it still lacks a scientific landfill site. Sanitary landfills urgently need to

be constructed for disposal of waste that cannot be recycled or composted.

Sustainability and Transferability

The involvement of waste pickers in solid waste management in towns or cities is of

utmost importance; especially in areas where it is difficult for the municipality to

undertake door-to-door waste collection. Formalizing them is not only environmentally

sustainable but has social and economical benefits. Proper channelizing of the waste

pickers for operation and monitoring is important for a trouble free waste management

system in the long run. Waste pickers should be supported by a registered body to

encourage them to stay in mainstream systems as well as to gain people’s trust.

This project offers good opportunity to mainstream waste pickers into the solid waste

management system. It can also provide door-to-door waste collection and street

sweeping services as well as added income by selling recyclables and up scaling products

to generate more income.

Small towns as well as ULBs can replicate this successful model for efficient services to

the community through their involvement, and add to the well-being of waste pickers.

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Case Study 5 - Waste recycling/waste to wealth: Vermicomposting from

Solid Waste by KGS, Kanpur in U.P.

This case study is about round-the-year production of vermicompost by recycling of

cattle dung and cow dung slurry from the village Gaushala (an organization which cares

for all cattle). Biogas plants are managed successfully through a low cost technology at

village Bhounti, which is promoted by Kanpur Gaushala Society (KGS), Kanpur, Uttar

Pradesh. It is a good example of income generation from solid waste management by

using low cost technology.

Main features

Vermicomposting involves the stabilization of cow dung through earthworms, which

converts cow/ cattle dung into worm castings. Vermicomposting is the result of combined

activity of microorganisms in cow dung and earthworms (Eisinia foetida). Microbial

decomposition of biodegradable organic matter occurs through these earthworms culture

activities of primary decomposition. Ingested feed substrates are subjected to grinding in

the interior part of the worms gut gizzard resulting in particle size reduction. The

technology consisting of a tripartite system that involves biomass, microbes and

earthworms, is influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, aeration etc.

Microbial ecology changes according to changes in these factors in the biomass. Hence

processing of waste like cow dung as well as providing favorable environmental

conditions necessary for vermicomposting. Conditions such as particle size of biomass,

the extent of its decomposition, very high temperature (May to July in Kanpur),

anaerobic conditions, toxicity of decomposition products etc. influence activity of worms

and production of manure. The technology has been used for composting of organic

agriculture waste, cow dung and its adoption in solid waste management in rural and

urban areas in India is of recent origin.

Economic viability

The project has qualitative and quantitative benefits. On an average 50 kg earthworms

produce 50 kg manure per day; thus, monthly yield about 4000 kg. Manure packets of 20

and 5 kg are sold at the cost of Rs 50/- & Rs 20/- respectively. The average yield is 4,000

kg per month and 1000 kg waste which is again reprocessed. Gross sales turnover from

the Vermiculture compost is 4000 kg x Rs 5/- = Rs 20,000/- per month. Also the un-

reprocessed waste is selling @ Rs 2.50 per kg i.e.1000kg x Rs 2.50 = Rs 2500/- per

month making the total earning of Rs 22,500/- per month from the vermiculture compost.

The cultivated earthworms are also sold @ of Rs 300/- per kg. During the last two years,

the society sold 200kg of earthworms to the farmers and earned Rs 60,000/- against the

total initial expenditure e.g. purchase of 50kg of earthworms @ Rs 500/- per kg= Rs

25,000/- + Rs 5,000/-. This had been recovered at the end of the 1st year of operation of

the plant.

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Precautions

A proper covering of the feed bed has to be provided. Sprinkling water, protecting the

shed area and the beds from red ants, cockroaches etc. by using Turmeric and flour

around the perimeter of the bed and the shed would sustain production. Keeping the feed

beds away from birds/chicken/ducks from eating the worms is important.

Constraints

• Lack of organized marketing, lack of awareness within the farming community of

benefits of EWC is responsible for poor replication

• Seasonal variation in the composting process due to temperature and moisture

differences may result in variation in production

• Lack of institutional arrangements for dissemination of information for

vermicomposting technology

Reference

India Sanitation Portal (2007), Solid and Liquid Waste Management in Rural Area

[Online], Available from http://indiasanitationportal.org/sites/default/files/SLWM_20-08-

07.pdf

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Case Study 6 - Project Kihim: Solid Waste Management and Sanitation

activities at Kihim, Maharashtra

In Kihim, it is estimated that nearly 2.2 tons of waste is generated per day. The storage of

waste at source is not a common practice and the households do not follow the concept of

segregation of waste at source. The Kihim beach also has high tourist inflow and hence

the waste is found thrown on the beach, streets and throughout the village treating the

village area as receptacle of waste.

The SWM scenario of Kihim The village does not have a system of street sweeping in place and hence the waste

strewn on the street is found lying there for long periods and spreads all over. Household

waste is collected by the ghanta gadi and then dumped at Chondi Naka, the unofficial

dumping point of the village. Open burning has been prevalent and no processing of

waste or scientific landfill was done. This led to an unhygienic and unaesthetic

atmosphere in the village.

Pile of garbage thrown and burnt openly is another major concern in the village. Open

defecation is still prevalent and around 37 per cent of the households do not have their

own toilets.

Looking into the conditions prevalent, Hindustan Construction Company (HCC)

identified Kihim village as a work area for solid waste management (SWM) and

sanitation activities as a part of the company’s corporate social responsibility and

appointed Centre for Environment Education (CEE) for implementation of the activities.

The Project Kihim involved setting up a scientific system for integrated waste

management, creating awareness and motivating the stakeholders for their active

participation in SWM and sanitation activities to make these activities sustainable. The

project emphasized the involvement of beneficiaries in participatory processes through

effective communication strategies and to use participatory capacity building exercises

involving community support to develop individuals as ‘Solid Waste Managers’ and

‘Community Outreach Agents’. The project also aimed to mobilize the local community

to understand the benefits of the SWM and sanitation strategies and support the role of

the local authority i.e. the Gram Panchayat in achieving the same.

System Setting for Waste Management

• CEE designed and implemented the completely functional system for solid waste

management. This system composed of:

• Identification of locations for placing of dustbins. HCC procured the dustbins and

handed over to Gram Panchayat Kihim; these bins were placed in the designated

locations with the aim of restricting littering.

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• The door to door collection of household waste through ghanta gadi is streamlined

(Detailed Route). For streamlining door-to-door collection, route for waste collection

is devised, timings for the waste collection ascertained, trial run of waste collection

from all the households from Kihim village, Chondi and Bamansure on daily basis is

undertaken and after the satisfactory trial run, the waste collection through ghanta

gadi is implemented on regular basis.

• The cleaning schedule of the dustbin is devised and followed.

• The residents were motivated and oriented for segregation of waste generated. The

segregated waste is handed over to the ghanta gadi from where it is transported to the

site of segregation and composting. Secondary segregation is carried out at the site;

the biodegradable waste is composted while recyclables are stored and later on sold to

the local recycler. The various items, which fall under the category of hazardous

waste were stored in black plastic liners and then in plastic tanks for the time being.

• The composting unit is established wherein composting of the collected

biodegradable waste was undertaken. The GP personnel were oriented for the process

of composting.

Lessons learnt and recommendations proposed

The beneficiary should come forward for the need of implementation of such projects; in

case such projects are implemented without the beneficiaries feeling the need, the

stakeholders seem to take such projects for granted. These results in negative effect on

the sustainability of the project after the responsibilities of the implementing agency and

funding agency get over.

The end users should take up equal responsibility in the project implementation; this will

ensure the sustainability of the project.

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128

Case Study 7: Making night soil-based biogas plants viable in

Maharashtra’s Pune district

Biogas generated from night soil serves a dual purpose of providing energy and helping

manage human waste. Human night soil is a good substrate for generating biogas.

However, night soil from 25-30 persons per day is required for generating 1 cubic metre

biogas. While biogas generated from night soil of community toilets, which are used by

larger numbers of people, have proved viable, gas produced from individual toilets used

by 5-10 persons are inadequate for any practical use. Keeping this in mind, a new

strategy has been evolved in Dehu village of Maharashtra’s Pune district, where some

families allow their neighbours to use their toilets for a nominal maintenance charge

making attached biogas plants economically viable. Currently, there are about 75 family-

owned human night soil-based biogas plants in Dehu providing kitchen fuel for villagers.

The strategy has also eased the village Panchayat’s responsibilities for human night soil

management and reduced environmental pollution due to open defecation. Improper

management of human excreta has long posed a major health and environment threat in

India. Open defecation, especially in rural areas, is a major sanitation problem. In a push

towards achieving universal sanitation various agencies have joined efforts to come up

with various low-cost, on-site technologies suited to local requirements. These are largely

based on two biological degradation processes: (1) aerobic digestion through two-pit

latrines and (2) anaerobic digestion as exemplified by an aqua privy or septic tank latrine.

The latter is more commonly used but it is now accepted that a total pathogen kill is not

ensured by the process. In addition, the methane produced is allowed to escape. This is

not environment-friendly as methane is an ozone-depleting gas. Besides, it is a source of

energy being wasted. But if the same human night soil is anaerobically digested through a

process of biomethanation, the wastes are better managed and valuable energy in the

form of biogas is recovered.

Initially, about two household-owned biogas plants functioning on the strategy of

involving neighbours were constructed. Usually, a person with the required space and

funds opts for the construction of the biogas plant. The experience in Dehu has shown

that this is most often a person who already feels the need for a latrine for his household.

Along with the latrine, he prefers to install a biogas plant as he is convinced through an

information, education and communication (IEC) campaign that the technology is

functionally better and financially viable. The capacity of the plant and the number of

latrines is based on the number of possible users from neighbouring families. The

capacity of the plant may vary from 1 cubic metre to 3 cubic metres.

The user families usually pay Rs.10-20 per month to the owner. Families that do not use

the latrine properly may be asked to discontinue. More user families mean more the

money for the owner. If latrine users are tenants, the rate of rent may be higher because

the latrine facility is available. Latrine maintenance is done by the owner.

By letting neighbours use their latrines, the owner benefits in three ways: (1) He gets

maintenance charges from the user families. (2) He uses the biogas generated in his own

kitchen. (3) Wherever possible, the recovery of manure is also an advantage. The latrine

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user families gain by access to latrines at a nominal cost. The village benefits because

open defecation is reduced and the latrines are maintained by the owners and are not a

responsibility of the Panchayat.

Biogas plants have enormous environmental benefits as well. It has been calculated that

the installation of the 75 biogas plants in Dehu village has reduced the demand for LPG

gas in the village by about 100 domestic LPG cylinders per month. The health benefits

are also significant as faecal pollution is reduced.

The cost of construction of a human night soil-based biogas plant is comparable to the

cost of a septic tank and is, therefore, a much better choice given its environmental,

health and financial advantages. The initial capital outlay may vary between Rs. 8000 and

Rs. 12,000 depending on the local rates of construction material. If the plant is used to

full capacity the designed quantity of biogas would be generated. One cubic metre of

biogas in energy terms is equivalent to 0.433 kg of LPG or 4 units of electricity or 4 kg

firewood. Thus, the comparable cost of firewood would be around Rs.10 per cubic metre.

The cost of biogas recovered in a year would be about Rs. 3,500. Thus, even after the

initial cost, interest and depreciation are considered, the recovered biogas itself provides

for a payback period of around five years. The health benefits, convenience and so on are

extra factors which are not considered in financial terms.

Reference:

Mapuskar V. (2012) Innovative strategy for viability of family owned night soil based

biogas plant.

Mapuskar S.V., Low Cost On-Site Integrated Waste Management Systems, Maharashtra:

Appa Patwardhan Safai W. Paryawaran Tantraniketan.

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Case Study 8 - Rural waste management in a South Indian Village

A micro-level study was carried out in a typical south Indian village to assess the quantity

and type of wastes generated and its present mode of management. This information was

used to identify the appropriate technologies which could enhance the value of the waste

produced and, at the same time, improve the economic conditions of rural people. The

study indicated that nearly 2364 tons of rural wastes in the form of crop residues, animal

manure and human excreta are produced annually in the village with a population of 510.

About 77 per cent of the waste generated in the village was used as domestic fuel, animal

fodder and organic fertilizer for crop production. The rest (23 per cent) was left out in

open fields for natural decomposition. The energy balance sheet of the village indicated

that the present consumption of biomass resources was 50 per cent less than that actually

required for various domestic and agricultural applications. Anaerobic digestion of

animal manure and human excreta produced in the village could yield 82 per cent of the

domestic energy required besides enriching the waste by 3–4 times as compared to

conventional storage on the ground. If the traditional mud Chula (stove) were replaced by

an improved Chula, each family unit could reduce their annual biomass (fire wood)

consumption by about 2/3. Commercializing the utilization of coconut and paddy

biomass using the village's man-power and facilities could increase the rural family

income several fold.

Reference

Science Direct, Available from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii

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Case Study 9 – Greywater Treatment in Kokawad Ashram School, MP

The case studies of construction and successful operation and maintenance of greywater

treatment plants in Ashram schools in tribal districts of westerns Madhya Pradesh are

presented in this chapter. Dhar and Jhabua are two districts of Madhya Pradesh in Central

Province of India which suffers recurrent water quantity and quality problems. Lack of

water is major reason for low sanitation coverage in schools.

In many residential schools in Dhar and Jhabua Districts, limited availability of

freshwater has prompted UNICEF, in collaboration with NEERI and other Governmental

and Non Governmental partners, to explore the use of greywater for appropriate purposes

such as flushing of toilets. A holistic water management is adopted in these Ashram

schools by integrating different water usages and corresponding quality requirements. It

has been found out in Ashram schools that water requirement is about 60-70 liter per

student per day as against drinking/cooking water requirement of 5 liter per day.

Considering the consumptive use of 20-30 per cent, greywater generation is in the range

of 23-35 liter per student per day. The greywater treatment plants have been constructed

by providing treatment techniques such as screening, equalization, settling, filtration and

aeration. This simple treatment has resulted in use of treated greywater in flushing the

toilets which were otherwise unclean and hence not used by the students.

Greywater treatment plant is constructed in Girls Ashram School in Kokawad, District

Jhabua in Madhya Pradesh. The details of the Ashram school are provided below:

• Total number of students: 50 tribal girls from rural area

• Education: 1 to 8 standards.

• Age group: 5 to 14 years

• Distance from pucca road: 8 km

• Total water requirement for Drinking and cooking: 90000 liter /year (For ten months/

300 days)

• Total water requirement for bath, toilets, etc.: 375000 liter / year (For ten months/ 300

days)

• Water source: One tube well

• Sanitation facility: Four latrines and three bathrooms

• Greywater generation: 1500 - 1750 l / day

The greywater treatment plant is constructed in Ashram school to make water available to

flush toilets, to improve sanitation, to use treated greywater for gardening and for floor

washing.

Greywater Treatment Plants in other Schools

UNICEF and NEERI along with Government and Non-government partners have

constructed six greywater treatment plants in Dhar and Jhabua districts. The operation

and maintenance of these greywater treatment plants are looked after by students and

Parent Teachers Association (PTA). Department of Tribal Welfare, Government of

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Madhya Pradesh has committed funds for regular maintenance of these plants. It is

proposed to build similar greywater treatment plants in 60 Ashram schools in Dhar and

Jhabua districts using funds available with Government of Madhya Pradesh.

Performance Evaluation of Greywater Treatment Plants

Microbial Performance

Performance evaluation of greywater treatment plant was undertaken by NEERI by

collecting samples from seven greywater treatment plants in Dhar and Jhabua district.

Physical and microbial parameters were analyzed. The turbidity removal efficiency of 50

per cent is observed in all the greywater treatment plants. Considering direct correlation

between turbidity and microorganism, it can be stated that microbial removal efficiency

of these greywater treatment plants is also approximately 50 per cent.

Financial Aspect

The acceptance of setting up greywater reuse system in Ashram school using

Government funds indicates that the financial implications of greywater treatment

systems provide greater environmental and social benefits. Greywater treatment

technologies adopted in these systems are economically feasible which make these

systems more attractive. Like the development of the other utilities, the implementation

of greywater reuse facilities generally requires a substantial capital expense. In addition

to capital costs associated to greywater reuse facilities, there are also additional

operations, maintenance and replacement (OM and R) costs.

The main objective of the greywater reuse system is to satisfy the water related needs to

the community at the lowest cost to the society whilst minimizing the environmental and

social impacts.

Reference

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (2007), Greywater Reuse in

Rural Schools Guidance Manual, Available from http://neeri.res.in/pdf/greywater.pdf.