FASCISM

An Overview

Definition

An ultra-nationalist, totalitarian ideology opposed to democracy, Liberalism and left-wing dissent. Highly authoritarian and militaristic, desiring a monopoly of power centred on a single leader.

(See ‘General Features’ below)

Origins

The term originates from Latin – fasces

Fasces was a symbol from ancient Rome – signified social unity and was carried before the consuls

Mussolini adopted the name for the movement he brought to power in Italy in 1922

General Features

Ultra-nationalism

Hostility to democracy and other values of Enlightenment

Cult of leader

Respect for collective organisation

Love of symbols and parades

Anti-communist and anti-liberal

Explicitly totalitarian

General Features

Nazis were distinctively anti-semitic

The term now is generally used as a catch all term of abuse – usually directed towards right-wing or authoritarian targets

Main Fascist Regimes

Mussolini in Italy (1922 – 1943)

Hitler in Germany (1933 – 1945)

Franco in Spain (1936 – 1975)

Mussolini

“ The keystone of fascist doctrine is the conception of the state, of its essence, of its tasks, of its ends. For fascism the state is an absolute before which individuals and groups are relative. Individuals and groups are ‘thinkable’ insofar as they are within the state…When one says fascism one says the state.

Mussolini – contd.“…The Fascist conception of the state is all

embracing; outside it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value…Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist state…interprets, develops and potentiates the whole life of a people…This is a century of authority, a century tending to the ‘right’, a Fascist century” (Fascism:Doctrines and Institutions, 1932)

Core Ideas:Human Nature

Pessimistic view

Masses considered to be weak, apathetic and ignorant

Strong leader needed for masses to follow

People will forego some freedoms to gain security and strong leadership

Fascism usually prospers at times of insecurity – e.g. economic crisis

Core ideas:Nationalism

The nation is the most important structure in human affairs

Nation must be strong and united to avoid being at mercy of other nations

Fascists seek to subordinate capitalism to needs of nation

Fascists believe they can unite a nation and lead it from degeneracy to national greatness

National regeneration usually involves territorial expansion, war and imperialism

Core ideas:Anti-Leftism

Violently opposed to left-wing and egalitarian movements and ideasInternationalism of socialism threatens national unity, as does class-baseOrganised labour – and trade unions – also threaten unityRace and nation more important than class

Anti-Leftism

Liberal Democracy is divisiveLiberalism encourages individualism, democracy, civil rights, constitutionalism – all weaken sense of national unity and obedience to leaderFascist regimes invariably outlawed non-government parties and movements

Development of Fascism

Although essentially a 20th. Century ideology, some of the intellectual and political roots of fascism can be traced to the nineteenth century, and the ideas of ultra-conservatism, anti-semitism and eugenics

Roots: Ultraconservatism

Philosophers such as the German Nietszche, and the Italians Pareto and Mosca, provided some of the intellectual ballast for the ultra-conservative tradition.

Nietzsche believed in the need to create a ‘superman’ by collective experiments in discipline and breeding.

Pareto (1848-1923) and Mosca (1858-1941) were sociologists who believed in laissez-faire economics, but also that democracy was a dream, stressing the superiority of elites in society.

Ultraconservatives (e.g. in France and Germany) were authoritarian and strongly opposed democracy and liberal traditions

They embraced racist ideologies, such as that of Count Joseph Gobineau (1816-1882) – “Races which retain their purity are superior to others. Best of all is the Aryan race”

Ultraconservatism and Racism – contd.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1885-1927) was the composer Wagner’s son-in-law, and Englishman who became a naturalised German – a leading theorist of German racial superiority and Jewish inferiority

Richard Wagner himself (1813-1883) was also a fierce anti-semite

In France, ultra-conservatives were fiercely patriotic, anti-republican and nostalgic for past glories

Some ultras were also keen to establish anti-semitism as a popular force

The Dreyfus Affair of 1894 proved an opportunity to do this – Dreyfus, the sole Jewish member of the French general staff, was falsely accused of spying.

The Dreyfus Affair divided France, and revealed anti-semitism as a populist force. Although ultra-conservative movements in Europe were near success in the late nineteenth century, economic recovery in the 1890s led to a falling away of support. Their ideologies, however, were still ready for incorporation into fascism.

Fascism so far

Ultra-nationalist ideology

Opposed to Enlightenment ideas

Anti-rationalist

Totalitarian

Doctrine of single leader

Social Darwinism/Struggle

Philosophical roots in continental ultra-conservatism

Fascism so far

Key historical period – inter-war to 1945.

Key leaders – Mussolini and Hitler

Philosophical contributors include – Gentile; Nietzsche; Houston Chamberlain.

Key Issues in Fascism

Will to Action/Struggle

Warfare

Leadership

Racialism

Nationalism

Totalitarianism

Will to Action

Derives from Nietzsche’s ideas, as expressed in “The Will to Power”.

Concept of Ubermensch – ‘superman’

He proposed that a society may produce one individual who demonstrates higher qualities than others

The Ubermensch principle

This ‘superman’ would demonstrate his superior will to power by rising above the masses. He would stand above concepts such as good and evil. All that matters is that he should act, and inspire others to act, in a decisive way. Great men, Nietzsche insisted, can inspire the collective instincts of the people.

Will to Action (contd.)

Thus, fascists driven by desire to achieve great deeds, and transform whole societies.

Such decisive action could only be realised through the leaders

Acting decisively involves struggle against those forces which threaten the will of the individual – democracy, intellectualism, self-interest, religion.

Struggle

Nations as well as individuals are involved in this struggleItalian fascists pointed out the example of ancient Rome, which succeeded in conquering virtually the whole of the known world.The struggle of wills gives rise to social Darwinism – ‘survival of the fittest’.

Giovanni GentileFascism wants men to be active and to

engage in activity with all their energy; it requires that they should be manfully aware of the difficulties besetting them and ready to face them. Life is conceived as a struggle in which a man is bound to win for himself a really worthy place…As it is for the individual, so it is for the nation, and for all mankind.

Warfare

Warfare is the ultimate expression of many fascist values – struggle, survival of the fittest, will to action…“The nation that gives up war and conquest is ripe for democracy and rule by shopkeepers..” – Nietzsche.Fascist nationalist ambitions also endorse warfare.

Key questions in Fascism

What are the main distinctions between fascism and Nazism?Can fascists claim to be democratic?Why do fascists honour war and conquest?Why are fascists irrational?What links fascism and socialism?How coherent is fascism?