Ethnographic fieldworkEthnographic fieldwork

ARCT 720 Research process in architecture Semester 1/2008 ARCT 720 Research process in architecture Semester 1/2008

Rawiwan OranratmaneeRawiwan Oranratmanee Faculty of Architecture Chiang Mai UniversityFaculty of Architecture Chiang Mai University

What is Ethnography?What is Ethnography? In Greek ‘Ethnos’ means people, race, culture, In Greek ‘Ethnos’ means people, race, culture,

class, nation; ‘Graphoein’ means writingclass, nation; ‘Graphoein’ means writing As a research, it refers to a fieldwork-based As a research, it refers to a fieldwork-based

method for a descriptive study of human societies’ method for a descriptive study of human societies’ Originally used in social and cultural anthropology Originally used in social and cultural anthropology Widely promoted by Chicago School of Sociology Widely promoted by Chicago School of Sociology

on urban life and been used in nearly all fields of on urban life and been used in nearly all fields of studiesstudies

Some ideas about Some ideas about EthnographyEthnography

Involve the researcher Involve the researcher immersing themselves in immersing themselves in the lives and situation of the lives and situation of the people and institutions the people and institutions being studied for an being studied for an extended period of timeextended period of time

Develop an understanding Develop an understanding and write up a detailed and write up a detailed account of that settingaccount of that setting

Participant observationParticipant observation- From Bryman (2001)- From Bryman (2001)

Makes regular observations on the Makes regular observations on the behavior of members of that settingbehavior of members of that setting

Listens to and engages in Listens to and engages in conversationconversation

Interviews on unobservable issuesInterviews on unobservable issues Collect documents about the groupCollect documents about the group

IssuesIssuesRelating to issues in qualitative Relating to issues in qualitative

research includingresearch including Ethics i.e. covert Ethics i.e. covert Researcher role as a strangerResearcher role as a stranger Relationship between Relationship between

researcher and participantsresearcher and participants Control of processControl of process Quality, validity, representationQuality, validity, representation Is it a research and just a Is it a research and just a

report ?report ?

Examples of researchExamples of research Particular: Balinese cockfightParticular: Balinese cockfight Street: Street corner society Street: Street corner society Belief: ShamanismBelief: Shamanism Tribes: Palaung of Shan stateTribes: Palaung of Shan state Group: Working class youthGroup: Working class youth Social issue: HomelessSocial issue: Homeless Marketing: Consumer behaviorMarketing: Consumer behavior New product developmentNew product development Business: Organizational valuesBusiness: Organizational values Education: Classroom studyEducation: Classroom study Politics: War victimsPolitics: War victims Planning: Space use and behaviourPlanning: Space use and behaviour Family: Roles, ages, genderFamily: Roles, ages, gender

Why use Ethnography?Why use Ethnography?

Ontological calls: see actions, Ontological calls: see actions, behaviors, interactions -> need behaviors, interactions -> need to see occurrences in their to see occurrences in their settingssettings

Epistemological calls: needs Epistemological calls: needs knowledge by participation in knowledge by participation in natural settingsnatural settings

Seek social explanation for Seek social explanation for hidden issueshidden issues

See researcher as active and See researcher as active and reflexive: Skillsreflexive: Skills

Can’t get data from any other Can’t get data from any other way way

More ethical to enter into the More ethical to enter into the unknown worldunknown world

Doing EthnographyDoing EthnographySome techniques are:Some techniques are: Direct, first-hand observation of daily Direct, first-hand observation of daily

behavior -> participant observationbehavior -> participant observation Conversation: from small talks to Conversation: from small talks to

interviewsinterviews Genealogical: a set of procedures Genealogical: a set of procedures

studying kinship and marriage using studying kinship and marriage using diagrams and symbolsdiagrams and symbols

Detailed work with key Detailed work with key persons/senior/gatekeeperspersons/senior/gatekeepers

Discovery of local beliefs and Discovery of local beliefs and perceptionsperceptions

Problem-orientedProblem-oriented Longitudinal researchLongitudinal research Team researchTeam research Case studiesCase studies

Hanging around Hanging around Snowball -> one to anotherSnowball -> one to another Provide incentivesProvide incentives Use friends and contactsUse friends and contacts Descriptive to focusDescriptive to focus

Foreshadowed questionsForeshadowed questions

Start with some initial focus Start with some initial focus and planand plan

Inductive approach usualInductive approach usual Can start from the site, from a Can start from the site, from a

concern with groups marginal concern with groups marginal to society, from a number of to society, from a number of questionsquestions

Important thing is to ‘pose Important thing is to ‘pose questions that illuminate some questions that illuminate some larger theoretical and social larger theoretical and social concerns and to craft research concerns and to craft research problems that are theoretically problems that are theoretically central and empirically focus’ – central and empirically focus’ – Gerson and Horowitz (2002)Gerson and Horowitz (2002)

Some considerationsSome considerations Open or closed communities?Open or closed communities?

Open i.e. communities, groups, Open i.e. communities, groups, gangs, streetsgangs, streets

Closed: Institutions i.e. hospitals, Closed: Institutions i.e. hospitals, flats, schools, hospitals, homesflats, schools, hospitals, homes

How to access the site? i.e float How to access the site? i.e float around, stay inside, get help, around, stay inside, get help, negotiate, honesty, build relationshipsnegotiate, honesty, build relationships

When will be the time? When will be the time? Common ->specificCommon ->specific How long How long How much involved?How much involved?

Role of researcherRole of researcher The researcher is in a ‘natural The researcher is in a ‘natural

setting’ doing something ‘un-setting’ doing something ‘un-natural’ natural’

How can a setting be natural if How can a setting be natural if there is a researcher there there is a researcher there affecting the situation?affecting the situation?

Front managementFront management Covert or overt role? Covert or overt role? Can’t be clear cut?Can’t be clear cut? Need different roles for different Need different roles for different

groupsgroups Need to work on these roles and Need to work on these roles and

constantly negotiate themconstantly negotiate them

Typologies of RoleTypologies of Role Complete participant: being a Complete participant: being a

member of the social setting, member of the social setting, likely to be covertlikely to be covert

Participant as observer: same Participant as observer: same but members of the groups are but members of the groups are aware that the person is aware that the person is undertaking researchundertaking research

Observer as participant: often a Observer as participant: often a role restricted to interviewingrole restricted to interviewing

Complete observer – no Complete observer – no interaction with the subjectinteraction with the subject

Some said the above can be Some said the above can be modified as modified as Total participant, researcher-Total participant, researcher-

participant, total researcherparticipant, total researcher

Issues when doing Issues when doing EthnographyEthnography

What are implication of roles, front What are implication of roles, front management and relationships management and relationships

Can a researcher be ‘invisible’?Can a researcher be ‘invisible’? Active or Passive?Active or Passive? Personal danger i.e gangs or drug Personal danger i.e gangs or drug

culturescultures Can or should a researcher be one Can or should a researcher be one

of them?of them? The dangers of ‘going native’The dangers of ‘going native’ The dual role of insider/outsider is The dual role of insider/outsider is

crucial to success crucial to success Bonds between researchers and Bonds between researchers and

participantsparticipants

What to look for?What to look for? Representation of events and peopleRepresentation of events and people How to ‘hang out’ effectivelyHow to ‘hang out’ effectively Data, interviewees, contactsData, interviewees, contacts InformalityInformality Prepare for snowballs and Prepare for snowballs and

supporting theoriessupporting theories Saturation -> when is it done?Saturation -> when is it done? Answers to key questionsAnswers to key questions Process from shallow to deep, from Process from shallow to deep, from

seen to unseenseen to unseen Look/ask for explanation and Look/ask for explanation and

clarificationclarification Indirect enquiries for worldviews and Indirect enquiries for worldviews and

beliefsbeliefs

Taking notesTaking notes What and when to record What and when to record

is crucial for ethnographer is crucial for ethnographer because role of researcher because role of researcher is not made obviousis not made obvious

The problem is memoryThe problem is memory Don’t wait too long to note Don’t wait too long to note

down -> The morning after down -> The morning after is the latestis the latest

Note it in details -> events, Note it in details -> events, behavior and researcher’s behavior and researcher’s reflection on themreflection on them

Some guidelines in note-Some guidelines in note-making (1)making (1)

Learn to make mental notesLearn to make mental notes Write down key words/phrases at the Write down key words/phrases at the

timetime Write up full notes ASAP after the event Write up full notes ASAP after the event

includingincluding Event, people, conversationEvent, people, conversation

Don’t try to abstract your notes; this is Don’t try to abstract your notes; this is for laterfor later

Learn how to find time/privacy to take Learn how to find time/privacy to take notenote

If time allows, code your notes on-site to If time allows, code your notes on-site to find what to ask further, links between find what to ask further, links between data, concepts to be defined or data, concepts to be defined or confirmed confirmed

Use some secret codes for sensitive Use some secret codes for sensitive issuesissues

Some guidelines in note-Some guidelines in note-making (2)making (2)

Record personal Record personal impression, feelings, impression, feelings, reaction-> can be useful for reaction-> can be useful for discourse analysisdiscourse analysis

Any doubt, write it downAny doubt, write it down Any comments on data, Any comments on data,

keep them separate from keep them separate from datadata

Identify quotations in the Identify quotations in the notes; any important notes; any important quotes relating to key quotes relating to key questions, remain their questions, remain their originality -> useful for originality -> useful for narrative analysis narrative analysis

When to leave the field?When to leave the field? Reach a deadlineReach a deadline A supervisor says soA supervisor says so A sense that enough A sense that enough

information has been information has been generated -> gain answers for generated -> gain answers for key questions with enough key questions with enough explanationexplanation

The research becomes too The research becomes too stressfulstressful

The position of the researcher The position of the researcher has become untenablehas become untenable

With good relationship, With good relationship, leaving can be difficultleaving can be difficult

Quality and validation (1)Quality and validation (1)

Position of first hand Position of first hand accountsaccounts

The researcher learns and is The researcher learns and is able to explain fruitfully the able to explain fruitfully the rules and norms of the group rules and norms of the group -> member validation-> member validation

Grounded theory, analytic Grounded theory, analytic deduction -. Work more from deduction -. Work more from raw data to find theoretical raw data to find theoretical contributioncontribution

Quality and validation (2)Quality and validation (2)

External validity and External validity and reflexivity according to reflexivity according to role and method set role and method set forthforth

Internal validity – audit Internal validity – audit trail, accuracy of notes trail, accuracy of notes and quality of field and quality of field notesnotes

Some evidences other Some evidences other than notes i.e. photos than notes i.e. photos and imagesand images

Subjective adequacySubjective adequacy

Time in fieldTime in field Place, closeness to Place, closeness to

participants/situatiparticipants/situationon

EvidencesEvidences Saturation -> no Saturation -> no

new data emergednew data emerged

EthicsEthics

Classic: The researcher Classic: The researcher being too kind being too kind (Deceptive), too friendly (Deceptive), too friendly (avoid dislike), dishonest (avoid dislike), dishonest (conceal their goals)(conceal their goals)

Use techniques: Precise, Use techniques: Precise, Observant, unobtrusiveObservant, unobtrusive

Ethnographic selfEthnographic self Manipulation and falseManipulation and false Opposite plagiarismOpposite plagiarism Prefabricate findingsPrefabricate findings

Concluding thoughtsConcluding thoughts

Share some characteristics to qualitative Share some characteristics to qualitative researchresearch

Ethnography entails participant Ethnography entails participant observation but in a wider views including observation but in a wider views including more methodsmore methods

It is more active than observingIt is more active than observing It leads to the end results, ethnographic It leads to the end results, ethnographic

monographmonograph Some emphasizes the lengthy period of Some emphasizes the lengthy period of

time but not always a casetime but not always a case

ReferencesReferences

Agar, M (1996) The professional strangerAgar, M (1996) The professional stranger Brownill S (2005) Qualitative data Brownill S (2005) Qualitative data

generation, ethnography and participant generation, ethnography and participant observationobservation

Bryman A (2001) Social research methodsBryman A (2001) Social research methods Fielding N (2001) Researching social lifeFielding N (2001) Researching social life Hammersely M and Atkinson P (1995) Hammersely M and Atkinson P (1995)

Ethnography, Principles in PracticeEthnography, Principles in Practice