English Language Learners, English Language Learners, Learning Disabilities, & Learning Disabilities, &

Overrepresentation: A Multiple Overrepresentation: A Multiple Level AnalysisLevel Analysis

Robert RuedaRobert RuedaUniversity of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California

Michelle WindmuellerMichelle WindmuellerCalifornia State University, Los AngelesCalifornia State University, Los Angeles

NCRESST Research Conference on English Language Learners StrugglingTo Learn: Emergent Research on Linguistic Differences and Learning

Disabilities, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, November 2004

BackgroundBackground 3 “big issues” in special ed*:3 “big issues” in special ed*:

– Continued use of discrepancy model Continued use of discrepancy model and need for better identification and need for better identification modelsmodels

– Continued debate over Continued debate over programmatic issues (e.g., inclusion programmatic issues (e.g., inclusion v. self-contained)v. self-contained)

– Overrepresentation of certain groups Overrepresentation of certain groups especially in LD category especially in LD category *Hallaghan, D.P., & Mock, D.R. (2003). A brief history of the field of learning disabilities. In HlL. Swanson, K.R. Harris, & S.

Graham (Eds). Handbook of learning disabilities. (pp. 16-29. New York: The Guilford Press.

Unpacking Unpacking OverrepresentationOverrepresentation

Early work (Mercer, 1973; National Research Early work (Mercer, 1973; National Research Council, 1982) – Latino & African American Council, 1982) – Latino & African American students in classes for mild retardationstudents in classes for mild retardation

Much work over last two decades Much work over last two decades documenting the same issuedocumenting the same issue

Changes: more diversity in schools; Changes: more diversity in schools; distribution of students in different distribution of students in different categories; legislation and policy changes categories; legislation and policy changes (school reform, English-only, accountability, (school reform, English-only, accountability, reading initiatives, mandated curricula)reading initiatives, mandated curricula)

Most recent National Research Council Most recent National Research Council (2002) report (2002) report

NRC (2002)NRC (2002) Controversy about indicators (% Controversy about indicators (%

difference, risk index, difference, risk index, composition index, odds ratio)composition index, odds ratio)

Problems in national databases Problems in national databases – Lack of precision in definitionsLack of precision in definitions– Lack of consistency in definitions Lack of consistency in definitions

over time and placeover time and place– Inaccuracy of self-report dataInaccuracy of self-report data– State to state variationsState to state variations

General FindingsGeneral Findings ““Epidemic” increase for Epidemic” increase for allall

racial/ethnic groups in LD category racial/ethnic groups in LD category African American have slightly higher African American have slightly higher

rate of placement, Latinos slightly rate of placement, Latinos slightly lower than Whites (aggregated data lower than Whites (aggregated data across 12 categories)across 12 categories)

No evidence of overrepresentation No evidence of overrepresentation for any single racial/ethnic group for any single racial/ethnic group across all categories across all categories

Unpacking the DataUnpacking the Data Other findings suggest that overrepresentation is Other findings suggest that overrepresentation is

more problematic when large aggregate data sets more problematic when large aggregate data sets are unpacked are unpacked – > minority numbers in a district = > representation> minority numbers in a district = > representation– > the ed. program, > the disproportion> the ed. program, > the disproportion– Specific disability and ethnic/racial group variability Specific disability and ethnic/racial group variability

when examined closely (Artiles & Trent, 1994)when examined closely (Artiles & Trent, 1994)– District SES is related to placement patterns (low SES District SES is related to placement patterns (low SES

district = > LD and ED placement) (Oswald et al, 1998, district = > LD and ED placement) (Oswald et al, 1998, 2000)2000)

– Grade level, language placement, and English Grade level, language placement, and English language proficiency matter (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, & language proficiency matter (Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, & Higareda, 2002, in press)Higareda, 2002, in press)

ExplanationsExplanations??NRC (2002) suggested 2 NRC (2002) suggested 2

hypotheses:hypotheses:–Systematic Bias HypothesisSystematic Bias Hypothesis–Achievement Difference Achievement Difference HypothesisHypothesis

We suggest a third alternative:We suggest a third alternative:–Misalignment/Imbalance Misalignment/Imbalance HypothesisHypothesis

How Does It Work?How Does It Work? Draws on sociocultural analyses of learning & Draws on sociocultural analyses of learning &

development, in particular recent extensions development, in particular recent extensions by Rogoff and othersby Rogoff and others

3 3 Planes of DevelopmentPlanes of Development– IndividualIndividual (cognition, motivation, etc.) (cognition, motivation, etc.)– InterpersonalInterpersonal (discourse, social, and cultural (discourse, social, and cultural

factors of activity settings and actors as factors of activity settings and actors as mediators of teaching/learning outcomes)mediators of teaching/learning outcomes)

– Community/InstitutionalCommunity/Institutional (factors such as (factors such as past & current power relationships among past & current power relationships among different groups, including how they are different groups, including how they are embedded in social institutions and embedded in social institutions and perceived and experienced by individuals perceived and experienced by individuals and their communities – eg, English-only and their communities – eg, English-only battles, anti-immigrant legislation, SES battles, anti-immigrant legislation, SES inequities)inequities)

Problems with Existing Problems with Existing EffortsEfforts Much work in special ed has focused heavily on Much work in special ed has focused heavily on

individual factorsindividual factors Much less has considered social organizational factorsMuch less has considered social organizational factors Little to none has considered community/ institutional Little to none has considered community/ institutional

perspectivesperspectives Virtually no work considers all threeVirtually no work considers all three We argue most current efforts are imbalanced (ie, We argue most current efforts are imbalanced (ie,

focus exclusively on one level to the exclusion of the focus exclusively on one level to the exclusion of the others) or misaligned (factors at one level work others) or misaligned (factors at one level work against factors at another level) against factors at another level)

Moreover, the “holy grail” search for Moreover, the “holy grail” search for scalable, scalable, replicablereplicable approaches ignores context – the unique approaches ignores context – the unique dynamics of local settings and communities dynamics of local settings and communities

What to Do?What to Do? Realize that education is Realize that education is NOTNOT business or business or

medicine – and models derived from them medicine – and models derived from them do do not generalizenot generalize

Realize that overrepresentation is best treated Realize that overrepresentation is best treated as an as an indicatorindicator of underlying problems rather of underlying problems rather than as an than as an outcomeoutcome in and of itself in and of itself

Commit to a cultural value of collecting, Commit to a cultural value of collecting, unpacking, and acting on relevant data and unpacking, and acting on relevant data and indicators is essentialindicators is essential

Once problems are identified, systematic action Once problems are identified, systematic action research approaches in general are suited to research approaches in general are suited to examining local problems and contextsexamining local problems and contexts

One ApproachOne Approach In our paper, we explore a derivative called In our paper, we explore a derivative called “gap “gap

analysis”analysis” – a systematic problem-solving approach – a systematic problem-solving approach from human performance and organizational from human performance and organizational psychology fieldspsychology fields

Involves setting negotiated goals, determining Involves setting negotiated goals, determining indicators (NOT necessarily test scores), indicators (NOT necessarily test scores), determining gaps between current and desired determining gaps between current and desired performance, systematically exploring the causes, performance, systematically exploring the causes, and deriving theory-driven and research-based and deriving theory-driven and research-based solutions appropriate for solutions appropriate for this specific contextthis specific context

Mainly used in business, but may have potential to Mainly used in business, but may have potential to be adapted to educational settings – be adapted to educational settings – sensitively!sensitively!