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![Page 1: Engineering of Biological Processes Lecture 2: Biosynthesis Mark Riley, Associate Professor Department of Ag and Biosystems Engineering The University.](https://reader030.fdocuments.us/reader030/viewer/2022032803/56649e1b5503460f94b09d2c/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Engineering of Biological Processes
Lecture 2: Biosynthesis
Mark Riley, Associate ProfessorDepartment of Ag and Biosystems
EngineeringThe University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
2007
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Objectives: Lecture 2
Biosynthetic processes (anabolic)
Precursors for structural and functional compounds
Case studies - proteins & cholesterol
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Anabolic processes• Biosynthesis – builds larger molecules from
smaller ones– formation of cellular components
• amino acids for proteins• storage of sugars (glycogen)• nucleic acids• lipids and hormones• cholesterol and vitamins
– growth and mineralization of bone and increase of muscle mass.
http://www.doegenomestolife.org/technology/proteinproduction.shtml
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Integration of metabolism• Universal energy currency
– ATP generated by oxidation of fuel molecules (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids)
• Biosynthesis vs. degradation– NADH primary reducing power for degradative reactions– NADPH is the major electron donor in reductive
biosyntheses– Biosynthetic and degradative pathways are almost
always distinct– Biomolecules are constructed from a small set of
building blocks (often components of catabolic cycles)
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Is ATP a high energy compound?
No, it has an intermediate level of energy compared with other biological molecules.
The G for hydrolysis is intermediate compared to that for other reactions.
The energy released in cleaving ATP is used to support reactions that are normally thermodynamically unfavorable.
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Example
Synthesis of glutamine from glutamateGlutamate- + NH4
+ Glutamine G= + 14.2 kJ/mol – not thermodynamically favored
2 step processGlutamate- + ATP 5 Phosphoglutamate + ADP5 Phosphoglutamate + NH4
+ Glutamine + Pi
Overall:Glutamate- + ATP + NH4
+ ADP Glutamine + Pi
G = -16.3 kJ/mol
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Manufacturing biological products
1. Cell
2. Environment (T, pH, flow, O2)
3. Nutrients (sugars, amino acids)
4. Control schemenutrient feeding, product removal, cell growth
5. Bioseparation train
6. Integration planhow does this all work?
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How to stimulate production of desired compounds
Generate a lot of precursor molecules
Turn off degradative pathways and / or pathways which consume precursor to make other products
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Hormones - molecular signals that switch metabolism
Classic anabolic hormones include * Growth hormone
* IGF1 and other insulin-like growth factors
* Insulin
* Testosterone
* Estrogen
Classic catabolic hormones include * Cortisol
* Glucagon
* Adrenaline and other catecholamines
* Cytokines
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Amino acids are precursors for many biomolecules
• Building blocks for proteins (of course)• Purines (adenine, Base A in DNA)• Pyrimidines (cytosine, Base C in DNA)• Histamine (potent vasodilator)• Nicotinamide (NAD)• The amino acid glycine + acetate is used to form
porphyrins (heme groups, hemoglobin)
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Formation of AA’s
• Non-essential amino acids– formed by fairly simple reactions
• Essential amino acids– produced through complex pathways– humans and most mammals do not have
the necessary enzymes to produce these
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Glycolysis
TCA cycle
Glucose Glucose 6-Phosphate
Fructose 6-Phosphate
Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate
Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
Pyruvate
Acetate Acetyl CoA
Citrate
-Ketoglutarate
Succinate
Fumarate
Oxaloacetate
Phosphogluconate
Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
AcetaldehydeLactate
Ethanol
MalateIsocitrate
CO2+NADHFADH2
CO2+NADH
NADH
NADH
GTP
GDP+Pi
Phosphoenolpyruvate
Anabolic processes - Biosynthesis
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-Ketoglutarate
Glutamate
Glutamine Proline Arginine
Oxaloacetate
Aspartate
Asparagine Methionine Threonine Lysine
IsoleucinePyruvate
Alanine Valine Leucine
Phosphoenolpyruvate
Phenylalanine Tyrosine Tryptophan
Tyrosine
3-Phosphoglycerate
Serine
Glycine Cysteine
Ribose 5-phosphate
Histidine
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Amino acid biosynthesis is regulated by feedback inhibition
Threonine -Ketobutyrate Isoleucine
Inhibited by isoleucine
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Types of feedback control
1) Sequential feedback control
A → B → C
D → E → Y
F → G → Z
Inhibited by Y
Inhibited by Z
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Protein productionCentral dogma of biology
DNA → RNA → Protein
Proteins are composed of 20 base amino acids arranged in a specific sequence
After being produced, proteins must fold properly (-helices, -sheets) and be post-translationally modified (phosphoryl, carboxy, carbohydrates).
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Steps in protein production
• DNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase generating an mRNA sequence
• In prokaryotes, the mRNA requires no further processing• Since prokaryotes lack a nucleus, transcription and
translation to protein occur in a common compartment• Translation often begins before mRNA synthesis has been
completed
• In eukaryotes, the mRNA receives a 5’ cap, 3’ poly-A tail, and is spliced to remove introns from the primary RNA transcript
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Steps in protein production
• Protein synthesis is performed by the ribosome which reads the base sequence of the mRNA• Ribosomes in bacteria add 20 amino acids / sec. • Ribosomes are composed of 2/3 RNA and 1/3
protein making them really ribozymes
• In general, the synthesis of most protein molecules can occur in 20 sec – 5 min, although multiple ribosomes may act on each mRNA, thus speeding production.
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Steps in protein production
• Proteins must fold into the proper 3-D shape in order to be functional.• Secondary structures
• -helix, -sheet, -turn, random coil
• Folding begins while the protein is being synthesized.• Molecular chaperones help guide the folding of many
proteins.• Classified as heat shock proteins (hsp60, hsp70)
• Recognize exposed hydrophobic patches on proteins and serve to prevent protein aggregation (hydrophobic protein-protein interactions)
• Synthesized at higher rates after cells are exposed to elevated temperatures.
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Steps in protein production
Incompletely folded proteins are digested and degradedUbiquitin-conjugation marks proteins for degradation
Roughly 1/3 of all newly made proteins are marked for degradation using quality control processes.
Some proteins (and their activity) are controlled by a regulated rate of destructionMitosis related proteins
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Abnormally folded proteins
Proteins that are not properly folded can cause disease in humansPrion disease
Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD)
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE- mad cow)
Alzheimer’s disease (20 M people)Forms amyloid plaques
Mis-folded (or un-folded) proteins which are remarkably resistant to proteolysis
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Kinetics of protein folding
Proteins do not fold by trying all of the available possible conformations (takes MUCH too long).Must be some rational process through which proteins fold
Many small, monomeric proteins show wide variation in folding rates, from microseconds to seconds.
What determines the rate of folding?chain length (# of amino acids)
topology (shape and structure formed)Proteins with similar shapes (topology) may have
different amino acid sequences and so have different folding rates
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Kinetics of protein folding
Consider a protein with 100 AA's (residues).
If each residue can assume 3 different positions, the total number of structures is 3100 = 5x1047.
If it takes 10-13 seconds to test each structure, the protein would reach its native configuration in 1.6x1027 years.
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Kinetics of protein folding
• 3 state• unfolded, intermediate (partially folded), folded
• this was the long standing assumption of how proteins searched through the possible folded states
• the intermediate can consist of microdomains that are properly folded
• 2 state• unfolded, folded• stable intermediates are not a prerequisite for the fast,
efficient folding of proteins and may in fact be kinetic traps and slow the folding process.
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2 state model
NuUfN Pk - Pk
dt
dP
PN is the fraction of protein in its native state N; PU is the fraction of protein in the unfolded state U.
The folding rate is kf the unfolding rate is ku.
PU + PN = 1
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What controls the amount of protein produced?
• The answer depends on what type of protein you are trying to produce – Is it constitutively produced?– Is it linked to the cell's normal metabolic or
reproductive properties?– Have you engineered the microbe to
generate the protein? If so, what kind of promoter is used and how is it induced?
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Inhibitors of protein synthesis
Many of the most effective antibiotics work by inhibiting protein synthesis in prokaryotic cells
Tetracycline – blocks binding of aminoacyl tRNA
Streptomycin – prevents chain elongation
Chloramphenicol – blocks peptidyl transferase
Erythromycin – blocks translocation of ribosomes
Cycloheximide - blocks translocation of ribosomes (but only in eukaryotes)
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Biosynthesis of lipids and hormones
• Biological membranes are composed of – phosphoglycerides– sphingolipids– cholesterol
HO
CH3
CH3
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Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
Acetate → mevalonate → isopentenyl pyrophosphate → C2 C6 C5
squalene → cholesterol C30 C27
Squalene is composed of 6 isoprene (C5) units.
Synthesis of mevalonate is the committed step in the process.This reaction is the site of feedback regulation.
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Cholesterol synthesis
Cholesterol can be obtained through the diet or produced in the liver
An adult on a low cholesterol diet typical will produce 800 mg of cholesterol per day
Most mammalian cells (except liver) do not produce cholesterol, but need to uptake from their environment
The liver is the primary source of cholesterol, but some is also made in the intestine
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Cholesterol uptake
Triacylglycerols (fat), cholesterol, and other lipids obtained from the diet are carried from the intestine to adipose tissue and liver by large chylomicrons (80-500 nm in size).
Their density is low (< 0.94 g/ml) because they are rich in triacylglycerols and low in protein (<2%).
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Plasma lipoproteins carry fat and cholesterol into cells
Lipoprotein Core lipids Mechanisms of lipid deliveryChylomicron triacylglycerol hydrolysis by lipoprotein lipase
Very low densitylipoprotein (VLDL) triacylglycerols hydrolysis by lipoprotein lipase
Intermediate-density receptor-mediated endocytosis bylipoprotein (IDL) cholesterol esters liver and conversion to LDL
Low-density receptor-mediated endocytosis bylipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol esters liver and other tissues
High-density transfer of cholesterol esters tolipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol esters IDL and LDL
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High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
Circulate continuously in plasma
Contain an enzyme, phosphatidyl choline cholesterol acyltransferase
that converts free cholesterols to cholesterol estersaids in the transport of cholesterol
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Low density lipoprotein (LDL)
• The LDL receptor on the cell surface controls the uptake of LDL
• The cholesterol content of cells having an active LDL pathway is regulated by:– injected and released cholesterol
suppresses production of new LDL receptors
– the LDL receptor itself is subject to feedback regulation
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Biosynthesis of cholesterol
Acetoacetyl CoA + Acetyl CoA → mevalonate + CoA
C4 C2 C6
mevalonate + 3 ATP → isopentyl pyrophosphate + CO2 + Pi + 3 ADP
C6 (C5, contains 2 Pi)
3 isopentyl pyrophosphate → farnesyl pyrophosphate
C5 C15
2 farnesyl pyrophosphate → squalene + 4 Pi
C15 C30
squalene → cholesterol + 3 CO2
C30 C27
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Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol
Cholesterol (C27)
Pregnenolone (C21)
Progestagens (C21)
Glucocorticoids (C21)
Mineralocorticoids (C21)
Androgens (C19)
Estrogens (C18)
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Pregnenolone Progesterone Cortisol(hydrocortisone)
Estrone
Androstenedione
O
O
CH3
O
O
CH3
Testosterone
Estradiol
O
OH
CH3
O
OH
CH3
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How to stimulate production of hormones
Generate a lot of cholesterol
By:
Turning off degradative pathways or pathways which consume precursor to make other products
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HW #1 questions
1) What kind of cell would you use to produce androstenedione? Your answer should describe the attributes of such a cell (don't just state, "a cell that produces andro"). An answer longer than 4 sentences is too much.
2) Producing cholesterol is an energy intensive process. How much energy (in terms of # of ATP molecules) is consumed in producing one cholesterol molecule from a source of glucose?