Emergence and Ideals of Emergence and Ideals of Nationalism and LiberalismNationalism and Liberalism

NationalismNationalism The idea of a nation consisting of people unified by common The idea of a nation consisting of people unified by common

culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one governmentgovernment

Reaction against Reaction against Cosmopolitanism Cosmopolitanism • Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one

family.family. Enlightenment culture had emphasizedEnlightenment culture had emphasized

A common language A common language The universality of Reason.The universality of Reason. Common intellectual world of the educated middle class and Common intellectual world of the educated middle class and

nobility.nobility. Opposition to the Opposition to the Congress of ViennaCongress of Vienna,,

• Principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties,Principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties,• Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor for Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor for

boundariesboundaries

First phaseFirst phase (first half of the 1800s) (first half of the 1800s)

Small nationalist groupsSmall nationalist groups Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other

scholars) scholars) Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the

people people

Meanings of Nationhood Meanings of Nationhood Some nationalists Some nationalists

Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group would help Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group would help economic and administrative success economic and administrative success

Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or compared nationhood to divinity compared nationhood to divinity

Difficulties in classifying nations Difficulties in classifying nations Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with

legitimacy to claim political and territorial independence? legitimacy to claim political and territorial independence? Would nationhood only be classified on which groups Would nationhood only be classified on which groups

managed to create a stable economy and culture? managed to create a stable economy and culture? Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps

for independence?for independence?

The Impact of the French Revolution: The Impact of the French Revolution: Liberty, Equality and FraternityLiberty, Equality and Fraternity

French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of the people. The people come to have their own the people. The people come to have their own significance as a unit.significance as a unit.

Reaction to French Revolution Reaction to French Revolution French spread their ideals all over Europe.French spread their ideals all over Europe.

dominated the other countries. dominated the other countries. Other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev. Other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev.

and applied them to their own situation, especially in and applied them to their own situation, especially in Germany. Germany.

• Never been a united German state, but Germans saw what Never been a united German state, but Germans saw what power a united France had achieved.power a united France had achieved.

Centers of European NationalismCenters of European Nationalism

IrelandIreland Ireland became directly governed by the Ireland became directly governed by the

British Crown after 1800, British Crown after 1800, • Irish people elected members to the Parliament Irish people elected members to the Parliament • Nationalists demanded either independence or Nationalists demanded either independence or

autonomy autonomy Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into

the 20th centurythe 20th century

Polish Polish NationalismNationalism Since the loss of Polish independence in the Since the loss of Polish independence in the

Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed struggle to regain independence from Austria, struggle to regain independence from Austria, Prussia, and Russia Prussia, and Russia

Most disturbances in the Russian portion of Poland Most disturbances in the Russian portion of Poland November Insurrection of 1830-1831November Insurrection of 1830-1831

January Insurrection of 1863-1864) January Insurrection of 1863-1864) Both doomed by bad military leadership or disunity Both doomed by bad military leadership or disunity

Nationalist groups survived in Poland,Nationalist groups survived in Poland, After 1864, no uprisings occurredAfter 1864, no uprisings occurred All social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be All social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be

improved and equalized before independenceimproved and equalized before independence

Liberalism Liberalism Roots in Enlightenment, English liberties, and principles Roots in Enlightenment, English liberties, and principles

of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Citizen Establishment of legal equality, religious tolerance, and freedom Establishment of legal equality, religious tolerance, and freedom

of press of press Less autocratic government Less autocratic government

Government relied on the consent of the people Government relied on the consent of the people Parliament would represent the people Parliament would represent the people Ministers in government should be responsible to the legislature Ministers in government should be responsible to the legislature

rather than the monarch rather than the monarch Sought democracy limited to the property-owners Sought democracy limited to the property-owners

• Had contempt for the lower class Had contempt for the lower class • Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to be a concept of privilege Aristocratic liberty was thought by liberals to be a concept of privilege

based on wealth and property rather than birthbased on wealth and property rather than birth

Economic Goals Economic Goals

Sought the removal of mercantilism and Sought the removal of mercantilism and regulated economy regulated economy Promoted capitalism Promoted capitalism Favored removal of international tariffs and Favored removal of international tariffs and

internal trade barriers internal trade barriers France and Great Britain flourished with France and Great Britain flourished with

liberal establishmentsliberal establishments Germany was full of anti-liberal nobilityGermany was full of anti-liberal nobility

Conservative Order in EuropeConservative Order in Europe

Conservatism Conservatism Pillars of Support Pillars of Support

• Absolute Monarchies Absolute Monarchies • Landed Aristocracies Landed Aristocracies • Established Churches Established Churches

Conservative ViewsConservative Views Only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois governments Only aristocratic and/or upper-bourgeois governments

could be trusted could be trusted Aristocrats felt that their power was threatened by representative Aristocrats felt that their power was threatened by representative

governments governments Conservatives would not agree to constitutionalism unless they Conservatives would not agree to constitutionalism unless they

created the documents created the documents Clerics only supported popular movements if they were Clerics only supported popular movements if they were

based around the Church based around the Church Clerics supported the status quo, and detested ideas Clerics supported the status quo, and detested ideas

of the Enlightenment of the Enlightenment Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave up Upper classes felt surrounded by enemies and gave up

some former privileges some former privileges Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems after Post-Vienna Europe confronted internal problems after

external ones seemed to disappearexternal ones seemed to disappear

Hungarian NationalismHungarian Nationalism

Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the Magyar nobility of HungaryMagyar nobility of Hungary Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining privileges Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining privileges

Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg Empire until its end in World War I Empire until its end in World War I Nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated Nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated

in the "in the "Spring of NationsSpring of Nations" in the Revolutions of 1848 " in the Revolutions of 1848 • Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867

Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in a personal union under the Habsburgsa personal union under the Habsburgs

Threat of Nationalism to the EstablishmentThreat of Nationalism to the Establishment Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along

ethnic lines ethnic lines Would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian, Would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian,

and Russian empires and Russian empires Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked

together, adding to the concern of absolutists together, adding to the concern of absolutists and ultraroyalists and ultraroyalists

Nationalism eventually succeeded, Nationalism eventually succeeded, United the German and Italian states into unified, United the German and Italian states into unified,

strong countries, challenging French and strong countries, challenging French and Austrian ambitionsAustrian ambitions

Reaction in Austria and Germany Reaction in Austria and Germany Austria Austria

Prince Prince Klemens von MetternichKlemens von Metternich • Architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement, Architect of the Congress of Vienna settlement, • Symbol of conservative political reaction against nationalism and Symbol of conservative political reaction against nationalism and

liberalism liberalism Austria was threatened as the most multi-ethnic country in Europe Austria was threatened as the most multi-ethnic country in Europe Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups = Dissolution of Recognition of aspirations of any ethnic groups = Dissolution of

the empire the empire Representative government was feared - national groups could Representative government was feared - national groups could

gain their ambitions legally through parliaments gain their ambitions legally through parliaments

To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism even further, the To prevent success of nationalism and liberalism even further, the Austrians wanted to dominate the states of the Austrians wanted to dominate the states of the German German ConfederationConfederation, ,

Replaced the HREReplaced the HRE Loose organization of 39, nominally independent kingdoms and Loose organization of 39, nominally independent kingdoms and

principalities principalities

Moves toward constitutional government in each of the states of the Moves toward constitutional government in each of the states of the Confederation were opposed and blocked by AustriaConfederation were opposed and blocked by Austria

PrussiaPrussia

King King Frederick William IIIFrederick William III promised promised constitutional government in 1815, but went constitutional government in 1815, but went back on his word in 1817 back on his word in 1817 Council of StateCouncil of State was formed, which was not was formed, which was not

constitutionally-based, but effective constitutionally-based, but effective 1819-1823 - Further steps away from liberalism 1819-1823 - Further steps away from liberalism

had been undertaken by the King, had been undertaken by the King, • Establishment of eight Junker-dominated provincial Establishment of eight Junker-dominated provincial

estates (diets), estates (diets), • Reaffirmed link between Prussian monarchy, army, Reaffirmed link between Prussian monarchy, army,

and landholdersand landholders

German ConfederationGerman Confederation Constitutional Governments established in three Constitutional Governments established in three

south German states of Baden, Bavaria, and south German states of Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg, Wurttemberg,

• Did not recognize popular sovereigntyDid not recognize popular sovereignty• Confirmed powers of the monarchs Confirmed powers of the monarchs

Young Germans were loyal to the nationalism and Young Germans were loyal to the nationalism and liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic liberalism that emerged from the Napoleonic occupation occupation University students circulated nationalist writings and University students circulated nationalist writings and

formed the formed the BurschenschaftenBurschenschaften (student associations) (student associations) • Sought to sever old provincial loyalties and replace them Sought to sever old provincial loyalties and replace them

with national loyalty to a greater German state with national loyalty to a greater German state

Student UprisingsStudent Uprisings 1817 Jena 1817 Jena

Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the Bonfires and celebrations were organized for the anniversaries of the Battle of Leipzig and Luther's Ninety-anniversaries of the Battle of Leipzig and Luther's Ninety-five Theses five Theses

Nationalist celebrations accentuated the rise of the Nationalist celebrations accentuated the rise of the movement throughout Germany movement throughout Germany

March 1819 March 1819 Karl Sand,Karl Sand,

• Member of one of the student clubs,Member of one of the student clubs, Assassinated the conservative dramatist August von Assassinated the conservative dramatist August von

Kotzebue and was tried and executedKotzebue and was tried and executed• Became a martyr for the young nationalists Became a martyr for the young nationalists

Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the Metternich used the Sand incident to suppress the societiessocieties

July 1819July 1819the Carlsbad Decreesthe Carlsbad Decrees

Metternich persuadedMetternich persuaded Dissolution of the Dissolution of the BurschenschaftenBurschenschaften Press and university censorship Press and university censorship Final Act limited the subjects discussed in Final Act limited the subjects discussed in

the constitutional assemblies of Bavaria, the constitutional assemblies of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden Wurttemberg, and Baden

Right of monarchs to resist Right of monarchs to resist constitutionalist demands constitutionalist demands • Led to the constant harassment of potential Led to the constant harassment of potential

dissidents by the German monarchsdissidents by the German monarchs

Repression in BritainRepression in Britain

Prime Minister Lord Liverpool Prime Minister Lord Liverpool Unprepared for the emergence of the internal Unprepared for the emergence of the internal

problems after the Napoleonic wars problems after the Napoleonic wars Tory ministry sought to placate and protect Tory ministry sought to placate and protect

the interests of the landed and wealthy the interests of the landed and wealthy classes classes

1815 - Corn Law 1815 - Corn Law Maintain high prices for domestic grain Maintain high prices for domestic grain

through import duties on foreign grain through import duties on foreign grain 1816 - Parliament abolished the income 1816 - Parliament abolished the income

tax for the wealthy,tax for the wealthy, Replaced it with excise taxes on consumer Replaced it with excise taxes on consumer

goods paid by the wealthy and the poor goods paid by the wealthy and the poor

English DiscontentmentEnglish Discontentment Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the Lower classes began to doubt the wisdom of the

rulers rulers Calls for reform were intensified Calls for reform were intensified Radical newspapers formedRadical newspapers formed

• Demanding change of the political system, including William Demanding change of the political system, including William Cobbett's Cobbett's Political RegistrarPolitical Registrar

Government Government • Feared workers as possible repetitions of France's Feared workers as possible repetitions of France's sans-culottessans-culottes

ready to murder the elites ready to murder the elites • Regarded the radical leaders, including Cobbett, John Cartwright, Regarded the radical leaders, including Cobbett, John Cartwright,

and Henry Hunt as demagogues betraying national allegiances and Henry Hunt as demagogues betraying national allegiances December 1816 - Discontent mass meeting occurred at Spa December 1816 - Discontent mass meeting occurred at Spa

Fields;Fields;• Government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of March 1817, Government reacted by passing the Coercion Act of March 1817,

Suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious Suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious gatheringsgatherings

"Peterloo""Peterloo"

After temporary stability, radical After temporary stability, radical reformism grew again reformism grew again August 16, 1819 - Radicals met in August 16, 1819 - Radicals met in

Manchester at Saint Peter's Fields Manchester at Saint Peter's Fields • Royal troops were called to keep orderRoyal troops were called to keep order• Panic broke out, making the massacre famed Panic broke out, making the massacre famed

as the "Peterloo Massacre" as the "Peterloo Massacre" Liverpool supported the Manchester Liverpool supported the Manchester

administration's decision administration's decision • Became determined to stop the radical Became determined to stop the radical

movements movements Radical leaders were arrested Radical leaders were arrested

The Six ActsThe Six Acts December 1819 - Six Acts passed December 1819 - Six Acts passed

Forbade large unauthorized public meetings Forbade large unauthorized public meetings Raised the fines for seditious libel Raised the fines for seditious libel Sped up the trials of political agitators Sped up the trials of political agitators Increased newspaper taxes Increased newspaper taxes Prohibited training of armed groups Prohibited training of armed groups Allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed Allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed

countiescounties

February 1820- the Cato Street Conspiracy was February 1820- the Cato Street Conspiracy was discovered discovered

Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood, extreme Under the leadership of a man named Thistlewood, extreme radicals plotted to assassinate the entire British Cabinet radicals plotted to assassinate the entire British Cabinet

Leaders were arrested and tried, four of them being executed Leaders were arrested and tried, four of them being executed Conspiracy served only to discredit the reform movementConspiracy served only to discredit the reform movement

Bourbon Restoration in FranceBourbon Restoration in France Louis XVIII returned to power Louis XVIII returned to power

• Louis XVI's son, though he never formally Louis XVI's son, though he never formally ruled France, was regarded as Louis XVIIruled France, was regarded as Louis XVII

Permitted a constitution, but it was Permitted a constitution, but it was largely his own creation - the Charter largely his own creation - the Charter

• Hereditary Monarchy Hereditary Monarchy • Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper Bicameral legislature - royally-appointed upper

house; lower house (Chamber of Deputies) house; lower house (Chamber of Deputies) elected on a very narrow franchise with high elected on a very narrow franchise with high property requirements property requirements

• Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the Guaranteed the rights of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Rights of Man and Citizen

• Religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism Religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism as the official religion as the official religion

• Property rights of current owners of land Property rights of current owners of land would not be challengedwould not be challenged

Rise of UltraroyalistsRise of Ultraroyalists Count of Artois (the King’s brother) led the extreme royalists in

demanding revenge against former revolutionaries and Napoleonic supporters

• After “Waterloo” a "White Terror" occurred in the southern and western regions

Extreme royalists also controlled the Chamber of Deputies, • Louis XVIII dissolved the chamber

February 1820 - Duke of Berri, son and heir of Artois, was assassinated

King persuaded the murder was the result of the royal concessions to liberals

• Issued repressive measures Electoral laws were revised to give the wealthy two votes Press censorship and arrest of suspected dissidents Secondary

education was given to control of the Roman Catholic clergy Reversed much of the appearance of liberal constitutionalism in

France

Challenges to the Conservative OrderChallenges to the Conservative Order Spanish Revolution of 1820 Spanish Revolution of 1820

1814 - Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain following 1814 - Bourbon Dynasty restored to Spain following Napoleon's defeat Napoleon's defeat

• Ferdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionallyFerdinand VII, promised to rule constitutionally Dissolved the Dissolved the CortesCortes, the Spanish Parliament , the Spanish Parliament

1820 - Group of army officers rebelled 1820 - Group of army officers rebelled • March 1820 - King Ferdinand restored the constitution March 1820 - King Ferdinand restored the constitution

July 1820 - revolution broke out in the Italian states July 1820 - revolution broke out in the Italian states • Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Outside the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and

Sicily), the revolutions failed to establish constitutional Sicily), the revolutions failed to establish constitutional governments governments

Austrians were frightened by the Italian Austrians were frightened by the Italian insurrectionsinsurrections

• Hoped to dominate the peninsula as a buffer against Hoped to dominate the peninsula as a buffer against spread of the revolution into its southern domains spread of the revolution into its southern domains

Britain opposed interventionBritain opposed intervention

October 1820 - Congress of Troppau and October 1820 - Congress of Troppau and the Protocol of Troppau the Protocol of Troppau

Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia, Meeting between Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, and France Britain, and France Stable governments can intervene to bring back Stable governments can intervene to bring back

rule of law in unstable and revolutionary countries rule of law in unstable and revolutionary countries • Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction Austrian Powers were hesitant, however, to sanction Austrian

intervention in Italy intervention in Italy January 1821 - Congress of Laibach authorizes January 1821 - Congress of Laibach authorizes

Austria's intervention Austria's intervention • Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished the Austrian troops marched into Naples and abolished the

constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies constitution, making the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies absolutist again absolutist again

• Metternich attempted to foster policies that would improve Metternich attempted to foster policies that would improve administration of the Italian governments to give them administration of the Italian governments to give them more direct local supportmore direct local support

1822 - Congress of Verona1822 - Congress of Verona

Met to resolve the Spanish conflict Met to resolve the Spanish conflict • Britain refused to sanction joint action and Britain refused to sanction joint action and

withdrew from continental affairs withdrew from continental affairs • Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French Austria, Prussia, and Russia supported French

intervention in Spainintervention in Spain• April 1823 - French troops enter Spain and April 1823 - French troops enter Spain and

within months suppress the Spanish within months suppress the Spanish Revolution, occupying the country until 1827 Revolution, occupying the country until 1827

Significance of the Spanish situationSignificance of the Spanish situation French intervention was French intervention was notnot an excuse to expand an excuse to expand

territory or power territory or power No other interventions of the era were undertaken to No other interventions of the era were undertaken to

increase power at another country's expense increase power at another country's expense

New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who New British Foreign Minister George Canning, who led Britain out of continental affairs, was interested led Britain out of continental affairs, was interested in British commerce and trade in British commerce and trade

• Sought to prevent political reaction from Sought to prevent political reaction from seeping into Spanish Latin America seeping into Spanish Latin America

• Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin Sought to exploit the revolutions in Latin America to crush the Spanish monopoly on America to crush the Spanish monopoly on trade trade

Britain recognized the Spanish ex-colonies Britain recognized the Spanish ex-colonies as independent nationsas independent nations

Balkan NationalismBalkan Nationalism Numerous ethnic groups wanted Numerous ethnic groups wanted

independence, including Greeks, Serbs, independence, including Greeks, Serbs, Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians Serbs and Greeks gained independence in Serbs and Greeks gained independence in

1830 and 1821, from the Ottoman Empire 1830 and 1821, from the Ottoman Empire Serbs envisioned a "Greater Serbia", Serbs envisioned a "Greater Serbia",

including Ottoman and Austrian controlled including Ottoman and Austrian controlled Serbs Serbs • Most immediate cause of World War I Most immediate cause of World War I

Greek Revolution of 1821Greek Revolution of 1821 Attracted liberals and Romantics from all over Europe as a "rebirth of Attracted liberals and Romantics from all over Europe as a "rebirth of

ancient Greek democracy" ancient Greek democracy" Many fought among the revolutionariesMany fought among the revolutionaries

Ottomans could hardly hold on to its European holdings Ottomans could hardly hold on to its European holdings European powers wanted Balkans European powers wanted Balkans Could not determine what to do if Ottoman’s fell apartCould not determine what to do if Ottoman’s fell apart

Britain, France, and Russia Britain, France, and Russia An independent Greece would benefit them strategically and maintain domestic An independent Greece would benefit them strategically and maintain domestic

status quo status quo 1827 - Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek 1827 - Treaty of London signed, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek

independence independence 1828 - Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania 1828 - Russia sent troops into Ottoman Romania 1829 - Treaty of Adrianople 1829 - Treaty of Adrianople

• Russia gained control of Romania Russia gained control of Romania • Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the fate of Ottoman Empire would have to allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the fate of

Greece Greece 1830 - Second Treaty of London affirms an independent Greek Kingdom 1830 - Second Treaty of London affirms an independent Greek Kingdom

Otto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the first king of GreeceOtto I, the Bavarian King's son, becomes the first king of Greece

Serbian IndependenceSerbian Independence 1804-1813 – Kara George waged a guerilla war against the 1804-1813 – Kara George waged a guerilla war against the

Ottoman EmpireOttoman Empire Built national self-identity Built national self-identity Attracted attention of the great powers Attracted attention of the great powers

1815-1816 Milos negotiated greater administrative autonomy 1815-1816 Milos negotiated greater administrative autonomy for some Serbian territory, for some Serbian territory, few Serbs lived within the autonomy few Serbs lived within the autonomy

1830 - Serbia formally given independence 1830 - Serbia formally given independence 1833 - Milos becoming hereditary prince1833 - Milos becoming hereditary prince

Pressured the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders Pressured the Ottomans to extend Serbian borders • Serbs would seek more territory, creating tension with Austria and the other Serbs would seek more territory, creating tension with Austria and the other

minority groups in Serbia minority groups in Serbia 1856 -Serbia became under collective protection of the great 1856 -Serbia became under collective protection of the great

powerspowers Deeper relationship had begun between Serbia and RussiaDeeper relationship had begun between Serbia and Russia

Revolutions in Revolutions in Latin AmericaLatin America

HaitiHaiti Started by a slave revolt led by Started by a slave revolt led by Toussaint Toussaint

L'OuvertureL'Ouverture and and Jean-Jacques DessalinesJean-Jacques Dessalines in 1794 in 1794

Popular uprising of a repressed social group, Popular uprising of a repressed social group, rather than discontented Creoles rather than discontented Creoles

Haiti became independent in 1804 Haiti became independent in 1804 Success of the Indians, blacks, mestizos, Success of the Indians, blacks, mestizos,

mulattos, and slaves in Haiti haunted the mulattos, and slaves in Haiti haunted the Creoles in Latin America Creoles in Latin America

Creoles became determined that revolutions Creoles became determined that revolutions not threaten their own powernot threaten their own power

Reasons for Creole discontent Reasons for Creole discontent Wanted to trade freely within the region and with North Wanted to trade freely within the region and with North

America and Europe America and Europe Detested increase of taxes by the Spanish monarchy Detested increase of taxes by the Spanish monarchy

Resented the Resented the peninsularespeninsulares who were favored for who were favored for political and military promotions, political and military promotions,

Elites readand adopted the ideas of the Enlightenment Elites readand adopted the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophes, philosophes,

Napoleon's overthrow of the Portuguese (1807) and Napoleon's overthrow of the Portuguese (1807) and Spanish (1808) governments started rebellionsSpanish (1808) governments started rebellions

Disappearance of Bourbon monarchy provided an opportunity Disappearance of Bourbon monarchy provided an opportunity and political vacuum for the Creoles in Latin America and political vacuum for the Creoles in Latin America

• Feared the liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would try to Feared the liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would try to implement reforms endangering their own power implement reforms endangering their own power

• Feared Napoleon would drain the resources and economies of Latin Feared Napoleon would drain the resources and economies of Latin America to fund his war effort America to fund his war effort

1808-18101808-1810 Creole political committees (Creole political committees (juntasjuntas))

Claimed the right to govern regions of the Claimed the right to govern regions of the continent, continent,

Claiming they ruled in the name of the Claiming they ruled in the name of the deposed Bourbon monarchy deposed Bourbon monarchy

JuntasJuntas did away with the privileges of did away with the privileges of the the peninsularespeninsulares

Spain was permanently ousted from Spain was permanently ousted from Latin AmericaLatin America

Rio de La PlataRio de La Plata (Argentina) (Argentina) Started with a revolt in Buenos Aires,Started with a revolt in Buenos Aires, 1810 - Junta overthrew Spanish authority and sent troops into 1810 - Junta overthrew Spanish authority and sent troops into

Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate the two regions Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate the two regions The armies were defeated, but Paraguay became independent The armies were defeated, but Paraguay became independent

on its own, and Uruguay eventually became part of Brazil on its own, and Uruguay eventually became part of Brazil After the failure in Paraguay and Uruguay, Buenos Aires After the failure in Paraguay and Uruguay, Buenos Aires

junta was determined to liberate Peru junta was determined to liberate Peru • A stronghold of royalism and loyalism in Latin America A stronghold of royalism and loyalism in Latin America

1814 - Jose de San Martin, 1814 - Jose de San Martin, • General of the Rio de La Plata forcesGeneral of the Rio de La Plata forces• Led an army across the Andes Mountains Led an army across the Andes Mountains

1817 - San Martin occupied Santiago, Chile, 1817 - San Martin occupied Santiago, Chile, • Allowed Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins Allowed Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins

to become dictatorto become dictator• San Martin organized a naval force and by 1820 set out to San Martin organized a naval force and by 1820 set out to

attack Peru by sea attack Peru by sea By 1821, San Martin defeated the royalists in Lima and By 1821, San Martin defeated the royalists in Lima and

declared himself Protector of Perudeclared himself Protector of Peru

VenezuelaVenezuela 1810 - 1810 - Simon BolivarSimon Bolivar organized a junta in Caracas organized a junta in Caracas

Bolivar advocated republicanism Bolivar advocated republicanism 1811-1814 - Civil war broke out between royalists and 1811-1814 - Civil war broke out between royalists and

their supporters (slaves and their supporters (slaves and llanerosllaneros - Venezuelan - Venezuelan cowboys) and the republican government cowboys) and the republican government

• Bolivar forced into exile in Colombia and Jamaica Bolivar forced into exile in Colombia and Jamaica 1816 - With help from Haiti, Bolivar invaded Venezuela 1816 - With help from Haiti, Bolivar invaded Venezuela

• Captured Bogotá, the capital of Captured Bogotá, the capital of New GranadaNew Granada (Colombia, Bolivia, (Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador), securing a base for attack on Venezuela and Ecuador), securing a base for attack on Venezuela

1821 - Bolivar captured Caracas and became president 1821 - Bolivar captured Caracas and became president July 1822 - Bolivar joined San Martin to liberate Quito,July 1822 - Bolivar joined San Martin to liberate Quito,

Disagreed on the political future of Latin America, since San Disagreed on the political future of Latin America, since San Martin was a monarchist Martin was a monarchist

• San Martin soon retired and went into exile, San Martin soon retired and went into exile, • Bolivar established control over Peru in 1823Bolivar established control over Peru in 1823

New SpainNew Spain (Mexico,Texas,California)(Mexico,Texas,California)

A junta was organizedA junta was organized Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called for Creole priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called for

rebellion to the Indians in his parish rebellion to the Indians in his parish • Indians and other repressed groups responded Indians and other repressed groups responded • Father Hidalgo proposed social and land reform, Father Hidalgo proposed social and land reform, • Controlled a loose organization of 80,000 followers, Controlled a loose organization of 80,000 followers,

capturing several major cities and marching on to Mexico capturing several major cities and marching on to Mexico City City

July 1811 - Hidalgo was captured and killed, July 1811 - Hidalgo was captured and killed, Leadership went to mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y Leadership went to mestizo priest Jose Maria Morelos y

Pavon,Pavon,• Called for an end to forced labor and much more radical Called for an end to forced labor and much more radical

land reform land reform 1815 - Morelos was executed, and the uprising 1815 - Morelos was executed, and the uprising

ended ended United Spanish and Creole conservative groups in United Spanish and Creole conservative groups in

MexicoMexico• Determined to halt all kind of reform Determined to halt all kind of reform

New Spain continued. . New Spain continued. .

1820 - Conservatives' power was challenged, 1820 - Conservatives' power was challenged, from the Bourbon monarchy in Spainfrom the Bourbon monarchy in Spain

• forced to adopt a liberal constitution forced to adopt a liberal constitution Conservatives rallied behind royalist general Conservatives rallied behind royalist general

Augustin de Iturbide Augustin de Iturbide • Declared independence in 1821Declared independence in 1821• Supported his declaration as emperor Supported his declaration as emperor

Imperial government did not last long, but Imperial government did not last long, but Spain was never again in power in MexicoSpain was never again in power in Mexico

BrazilBrazil Brazilian independence was peaceful Brazilian independence was peaceful

Portuguese royal family came to Brazil and Portuguese royal family came to Brazil and transformed Rio de Janeiro into a court city transformed Rio de Janeiro into a court city

• Prince regent Joao addressed local complaints Prince regent Joao addressed local complaints and expanded trade and expanded trade

1815 - Brazil became a kingdom, no longer being a 1815 - Brazil became a kingdom, no longer being a colony of Portugal colony of Portugal

1820 - Portuguese revolution demanded that Brazil 1820 - Portuguese revolution demanded that Brazil be restored to colonial status and Joao return to be restored to colonial status and Joao return to Portugal Portugal

• Joao left his son Dom Pedro as regent as he Joao left his son Dom Pedro as regent as he returned to Portugal, encouraging him to be returned to Portugal, encouraging him to be sympathetic to the Brazilians sympathetic to the Brazilians

September 1822 - Dom Pedro embraced Brazilian September 1822 - Dom Pedro embraced Brazilian independence and became Emperor of Brazil, the independence and became Emperor of Brazil, the imperial government surviving until 1889imperial government surviving until 1889

ConsequencesConsequences

New Latin American countries, except for f New Latin American countries, except for f Brazil, were often economically and Brazil, were often economically and politically unstable politically unstable Disaffected populations threatened the Disaffected populations threatened the

stability of the new post-Spanish republics stability of the new post-Spanish republics Economies plunged and trade suffered Economies plunged and trade suffered Wealthy Wealthy peninsularespeninsulares fled to Spain or Cuba, fled to Spain or Cuba,

causing the Latin American governments to causing the Latin American governments to seek trade relations with Britainseek trade relations with Britain

RussiaRussia

Army Unrest and Dynastic CrisisArmy Unrest and Dynastic Crisis Russian officers were exposed to ideas of the Russian officers were exposed to ideas of the

French Revolution French Revolution • Radicals, in the Southern SocietyRadicals, in the Southern Society

Advocated representative government and abolition of Advocated representative government and abolition of serfdom serfdom

• Moderates, in the Northern Society,Moderates, in the Northern Society, Advocated constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdomAdvocated constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdom Protection of the aristocracy Protection of the aristocracy

Death of Tsar Alexander I caused two crisesDeath of Tsar Alexander I caused two crises• Unexpected death occurred when he had no direct heir Unexpected death occurred when he had no direct heir • Constantine, his brother, married a commoner and was Constantine, his brother, married a commoner and was

excluded from the line of succession excluded from the line of succession • Eventually, Nicholas, his younger brother, became Tsar Eventually, Nicholas, his younger brother, became Tsar • Legality of Nicholas's claim was uncertain, until a Legality of Nicholas's claim was uncertain, until a

suspected conspiracy made Nicholas declare himself Tsarsuspected conspiracy made Nicholas declare himself Tsar

Decembrist RevoltDecembrist Revolt Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under their Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under their

command to reformism command to reformism • December 26, 1825 - most of the army swore loyalty to Nicholas,December 26, 1825 - most of the army swore loyalty to Nicholas,

less popular and more conservative less popular and more conservative

• Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in St. Petersburg, Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in St. Petersburg, Refused to swear allegianceRefused to swear allegiance Called for a constitutionCalled for a constitution Demanded that Constantine become Tsar Demanded that Constantine become Tsar

• Peaceful negotiation failed Peaceful negotiation failed • Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents, Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to attack the insurgents,

and 60 people were killed in the melee and 60 people were killed in the melee

1826 - Nicholas presided over the sentencing of the 1826 - Nicholas presided over the sentencing of the Decembrists, executing or sending the plotters to exile Decembrists, executing or sending the plotters to exile in Siberiain Siberia

Absolutism of Absolutism of Nicholas INicholas I after the after the Decembrist RevoltDecembrist Revolt

Nicholas I came to symbolize extreme Nicholas I came to symbolize extreme absolutismabsolutism

Knew economic and social improvement was Knew economic and social improvement was necessary, he feared change necessary, he feared change • Abolition of serfdom would undermine aristocratic Abolition of serfdom would undermine aristocratic

support of the monarchy support of the monarchy • State repression and censorship flourished State repression and censorship flourished

Official Russian NationalityOfficial Russian Nationality

Program presided over by Program presided over by Count S. S. UvarovCount S. S. Uvarov Slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and

Nationalism" Nationalism" Russian Orthodox Church Russian Orthodox Church

• Basis for morality, education, and intellectualityBasis for morality, education, and intellectuality• Part of the secular government Part of the secular government • Russian youths were taught to oppose social mobility Russian youths were taught to oppose social mobility

Autocracy championed absolute monarchy and absolute Autocracy championed absolute monarchy and absolute power of the Tsar power of the Tsar

Nationality glorified the Russian nationality and urged Nationality glorified the Russian nationality and urged Russians to see religion, language, and customs as Russians to see religion, language, and customs as source of wisdom separating them from the Westsource of wisdom separating them from the West

November InsurrectionNovember Insurrection in Poland in Poland Since the Congress of Vienna, Since the Congress of Vienna,

Grand Duke Constantine controlled the government, Grand Duke Constantine controlled the government, Tsar was the official King of Poland Tsar was the official King of Poland

Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their Russian overlords for Polish aristocrats and Sejm fought with their Russian overlords for the Russians' constant violation of the Polish Constitution the Russians' constant violation of the Polish Constitution

Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium encouraged Polish Liberal revolutions in France and Belgium encouraged Polish nationalists but had the reverse effect on the Russian Tsar nationalists but had the reverse effect on the Russian Tsar

The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to crush the revolutions The Russians planned to use the Polish Army to crush the revolutions The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on November 29 soon spread The Poles protested and a riot in Warsaw on November 29 soon spread

to revolution across the country to revolution across the country

December 13, 1830 - Sejm declared a national uprising and officially December 13, 1830 - Sejm declared a national uprising and officially dethroned Nicholas I on January 25, 1831 dethroned Nicholas I on January 25, 1831

Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France, supported the Neither Britain, nor revolutionary France, supported the Insurrection Insurrection

Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for the rebels Prussia and Austria deliberately made it hard for the rebels By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen, the troops By the end of 1831, the Insurrection had fallen, the troops

disarmed in Prussia disarmed in Prussia

February 1832 - The Tsar issued the Organic Statute, making Poland February 1832 - The Tsar issued the Organic Statute, making Poland a part of Russiaa part of Russia

July RevolutionJuly Revolution in France in France Louis XVIII died in 1824Louis XVIII died in 1824

Count of Artois became Count of Artois became Charles XCharles X Very ultraroyalist Very ultraroyalist First action was to have the Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and First action was to have the Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and

1825 assist aristocrats who lost property in the revolution by 1825 assist aristocrats who lost property in the revolution by lowering interest rates on government bonds lowering interest rates on government bonds

• Middle-class bondholders resented the measure Middle-class bondholders resented the measure Restored the rule of primogeniture Restored the rule of primogeniture Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death

Elections of 1827 - liberals gained majority in Chamber of Elections of 1827 - liberals gained majority in Chamber of Deputies and forced conciliatory actions from Charles, Deputies and forced conciliatory actions from Charles, who appointed a less conservative ministry who appointed a less conservative ministry

• Laws against the press were eased, but liberals were not satisfied Laws against the press were eased, but liberals were not satisfied • 1829 - Charles decided his appeasement policy failed and appointed 1829 - Charles decided his appeasement policy failed and appointed

a new ultraroyalist ministry a new ultraroyalist ministry • Liberal opposition, in desperation, negotiated with the liberal Liberal opposition, in desperation, negotiated with the liberal

OrleanistOrleanist branch of the Bourbon family branch of the Bourbon family

Outbreak of revolution Outbreak of revolution 1830 - Charles called for new elections, and liberals again won a vast 1830 - Charles called for new elections, and liberals again won a vast

majority majority King decided to attempt a royalist political coup and sent a fleet to King decided to attempt a royalist political coup and sent a fleet to

Algeria, taking control of the pirate government Algeria, taking control of the pirate government • Reports of the victory reached the capital by July 9, and Charles Reports of the victory reached the capital by July 9, and Charles

took advantage of the euphoria to enact the took advantage of the euphoria to enact the Four OrdinancesFour Ordinances,, Restricted freedom of the press,Restricted freedom of the press, Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies,Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, Restricted the franchise,Restricted the franchise, Called for new elections under the new royalist, conservative Called for new elections under the new royalist, conservative

franchise franchise Liberal press called on national opposition to the Four Ordinances Liberal press called on national opposition to the Four Ordinances

• People of Paris erected barricades in the street, People of Paris erected barricades in the street, Battles with royal troops took more than 1,800 livesBattles with royal troops took more than 1,800 lives Troops were unable to crush the uprisings Troops were unable to crush the uprisings

• August 2 - Charles abdicated and fled into exile in Britain August 2 - Charles abdicated and fled into exile in Britain • Chamber of Deputies appointed a new ministry which supported Chamber of Deputies appointed a new ministry which supported

constitutional monarchy constitutional monarchy Louis PhilippeLouis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, as the new King of France, the Duke of Orleans, as the new King of France

The Monarchy of Louis Philippe The Monarchy of Louis Philippe Political developments Political developments

• New constitution was regarded as a right of the people rather New constitution was regarded as a right of the people rather than privileges of the monarch than privileges of the monarch

• Catholicism became the religion of the majority, but not the Catholicism became the religion of the majority, but not the official state religion, the new government being strongly official state religion, the new government being strongly anticlerical anticlerical

• Censorship was abolished Censorship was abolished • Voting franchise was extended moderately Voting franchise was extended moderately • King had to cooperate with the Chamber of DeputiesKing had to cooperate with the Chamber of Deputies

Social order Social order • Revolution did not improve the standards of the lower class Revolution did not improve the standards of the lower class

Money was the only method of influence in government Money was the only method of influence in government Plight of the poor was ignored Plight of the poor was ignored

• late 1831, the troops suppressed a workers' uprising in Lyons late 1831, the troops suppressed a workers' uprising in Lyons • July 1832, more than 800 people were killed in an uprising that July 1832, more than 800 people were killed in an uprising that

happened during a Napoleonic general's funeral happened during a Napoleonic general's funeral • 1834 - Another disturbance in Lyons was brutally crushed1834 - Another disturbance in Lyons was brutally crushed

International development International development King Louis Philippe retained control of Algiers, King Louis Philippe retained control of Algiers,

the city that Charles X conquered, and began to the city that Charles X conquered, and began to expand the territory beyond just the coastal city expand the territory beyond just the coastal city

• Occupation of Algeria opened new markets for France Occupation of Algeria opened new markets for France • Structures of the Ottoman government were dismantled in Structures of the Ottoman government were dismantled in

Algeria Algeria • French empire in Africa expanded further and flourished, French empire in Africa expanded further and flourished,

French settlers coming in to Algeria in large numbers French settlers coming in to Algeria in large numbers • Immigration of French people into Algeria compelled the Immigration of French people into Algeria compelled the

French government to regard Algeria as a province rather French government to regard Algeria as a province rather than colony of France than colony of France

• The ethnic integration would pose a problem in the post-The ethnic integration would pose a problem in the post-World War II decolonization later onWorld War II decolonization later on

Belgian RevolutionBelgian Revolution Causes Causes

Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the Since 1815, Belgium had been merged with the Kingdom of Holland Kingdom of Holland

• Two countries differed in culture and economyTwo countries differed in culture and economy• Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule Belgians refused to accept Dutch rule

Encouraged by the July Revolution in FranceEncouraged by the July Revolution in France Outbreak Outbreak

August 25, 1830 - Riots broke out in Brussels August 25, 1830 - Riots broke out in Brussels • Municipal authorities and property-owners formed a Municipal authorities and property-owners formed a

provisional government provisional government • Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by King Attempt at compromise failed and troops sent by King

William of Holland were defeated by November 10 William of Holland were defeated by November 10 National congress wrote a liberal constitution, which National congress wrote a liberal constitution, which

was put into effect in 1831was put into effect in 1831

International Reactions International Reactions Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a distortion of the borders Major powers saw the Belgian Revolution as a distortion of the borders

set by the Congress of Vienna, but none were willing to act set by the Congress of Vienna, but none were willing to act Russia was fighting the Polish rebels Russia was fighting the Polish rebels Prussia and the German Confederation were crushing insurgencies Prussia and the German Confederation were crushing insurgencies

in their own land in their own land Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy Austria was crushing disturbances in Italy France favored Belgian independence in the hopes of dominating it France favored Belgian independence in the hopes of dominating it Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long as it was not Britain would tolerate Belgian liberalism as long as it was not

influenced by other nations influenced by other nations

December 1830 - Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Minister, December 1830 - Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Minister, gathered the major powers in London to persuade them to recognize gathered the major powers in London to persuade them to recognize Belgium as a neutral independent state Belgium as a neutral independent state

July 1831 - July 1831 - Leopold of Saxe-CoburgLeopold of Saxe-Coburg became King became King Convention of 1839Convention of 1839 guaranteed Belgian neutrality guaranteed Belgian neutrality

Great Reform BillGreat Reform Bill of 1832 of 1832 Great BritainGreat Britain

1830 - 1830 - House of CommonsHouse of Commons considered the first major bill to reform the British considered the first major bill to reform the British political system political system

Catholic Emancipation Act Catholic Emancipation Act • Britain was determined to maintain control of Ireland Britain was determined to maintain control of Ireland • In the 1820s, the Irish nationalists agitated for Catholic emancipation In the 1820s, the Irish nationalists agitated for Catholic emancipation • Catholics could now become members of Parliament, ending Anglican monopoly of Catholics could now become members of Parliament, ending Anglican monopoly of

British politics British politics Measure alienated Anglican supporters of the Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister, Measure alienated Anglican supporters of the Duke of Wellington, the Prime Minister,

King William IV turned to the leader of the liberal Whigs, King William IV turned to the leader of the liberal Whigs, Earl GreyEarl Grey, , to form a new governmentto form a new government

The Whig ministry The Whig ministry • Riots broke out when the Whig's attempt at passing a massive reform bill was Riots broke out when the Whig's attempt at passing a massive reform bill was

blocked by the House of Lords blocked by the House of Lords • To stop the riots, William IV agreed to persuade a majority in the House of Lords to To stop the riots, William IV agreed to persuade a majority in the House of Lords to

pass the pass the Great Reform BillGreat Reform Bill Expanded the size of the electorate by almost 50% while keeping a property Expanded the size of the electorate by almost 50% while keeping a property

qualification and keeping it only for men qualification and keeping it only for men Some franchise rights were taken away and actually disenfranchised some Some franchise rights were taken away and actually disenfranchised some

working class people working class people Act laid the foundations for further reform Act laid the foundations for further reform

Liberal vs. Conservative NationalismLiberal vs. Conservative Nationalism

In the first half of 19In the first half of 19thth c. nationalism and c. nationalism and liberalism went hand in handliberalism went hand in hand Liberal nationalists believed love of country led to Liberal nationalists believed love of country led to

love of all humanitylove of all humanity Liberal ideals included equality, freedom, and Liberal ideals included equality, freedom, and

representative governmentrepresentative government

By 2By 2ndnd half of 19 half of 19thth c. extreme nationalism c. extreme nationalism subverted liberal values, contributed to World subverted liberal values, contributed to World War I, and led to the rise of fascism.War I, and led to the rise of fascism.