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Ekdi fi Ha&;ESi fhay:v pD

Programmatic u so n fhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;ay:x Gu fv mjci f;

Ekdi fi Ha&;ESi fh ay:v pD

Politics Meets PoliciesThe Emergence of Programmatic

Political Parties

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Myanmar School of Politics



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&efu kef? Myanmar School of Politics ? yx rt Bu dr f?2016/ ' DZi fb m/

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rl&i f;t rn f - Politics Meets Policies

(1)Ekdi fi Ha&;ESi fhay:v pD

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Copyright

c 2016 International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance c 2016 Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy

' Dpmt kyf[ m ''Politics Meets Policies: The Emergence of Program-matic Political Parties'' ygwDq kdwJh 2014 ckESpfx kwf t *Fv dyfpmt kyfu kd jrefrmb mo mo kdYwkdu f½kdu fjyefq kdx m;jci f;jzpfygw, f/ International IDEA r leJYu GJv GJr Ir&Sdyg/ wu , fv kdYu GJv GJo n f[ k o Ho , &Sdygu r l&i f;t *Fv dyfr l (ISBN978-91-87729-42-3) eJY wkdu fq kdi fppfaq ;Ekdi fygw, f/


Ekdi fi Ha&;ESi fh ay:v pD

Programmatic u so n fhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;ay:x Gu fv mjci f;

Nic CheesemanJuan Pablo LunaHerbert Kitschelt

Dan PagetFernando Rosenblatt

Kristen SampleSergio Toro

Jorge Valladares MolledaSam van der Staak

Yi-ting Wang


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c International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2014International IDEA yHkESdyfx kwfa0r IawG[ m o D;jcm;pDjzpfwJhEkdi fi H?

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' DyHkESdyfazmfjyr I&JU t Dv u fx a&mepfAm;&Si f;u kd Creative CommonsLicence (CCI)-Creative Commons Attribute-NonCommercial-ShareAlike3.0 Licence at mu frSm&&SdEkdi fygw, f/ o i fht aeeJY v Gwfv yfpGmu l;, lEkdi fNyD;jzefYa0? jyefYyGm;Ekdi fo v kd pD;yGm;a&;t wGu fr[ kwfwJh&n f&G, fcsu feJY jyKjyi fajymi f;v Jt o Hk;jyKEkdi fygw, f/ ' Dpmr lu kd o i fhav smfpGmrSwf, lNyD; Identical Licensesat mu frSmjzefYa0yg/ ' D CCI eJYywfo u fv kdY o wi f;t csu ft v u fawGx yfrH&&Sdv kd&i fawmh http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ rSm Mu n fh½IEkdi fygw, f/

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International IDEA t aeeJY ¤i f;&JUav hv mcsu f? pmr lrsm;u kd jzefYjzL;jci f;u kd t m;ay;wkdu fwGef;NyD; jyefv n fx kwfa0cGi fh? b mo mjyefcGi fhawmi f;cHjci f;rsm;u kdv n f; rq kdi f;rwGwHkYjyefay;ygr , f/

Graphic design by: Santángelo DiseñoCover Design by: Santángelo DiseñoCover photos: © malerapaso; iStock


International IDEA t zGJU&JU t pD&i fcHpmjzpfwJh? 2005 u ae 2007ckESpft wGi f; u Refawmf*kP f, lpGmOD;aq mi fv kyfu dki fcJh&wJhjyi fq i fr IwpfckjzpfwJhygwDwGi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;v kyfi ef;pOfrsm;-Andean Ekdi fi Hrsm;rSEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;rsm;&JU t ajymi f;t v Jrsm;ESi fh t q u ft pyfrsm;q dkwJht pD&i fcHpmx Ju t x l;jcm;q Hk;awGU&dScsu fawGx Ju wpfcku awmh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m rMu mcP q kdo v kdrSm o lwkdY&JUProgrammatic t av ht x u dk aysmu fysu fo Gm;wwfNyD; , m, Da&G;au mu fyGJ0i f, EÅ&m;t o Gi fajymi f;v Jo Gm;wwfMu wmyJjzpfw, f/ u Refawmfhyl;wGJpma&;o lawGeJY u Refawmf[ m Andean a' o &JU t a&;t ygq Hk;ao m ygwDawGq Duacgi f;aq mi ft ajrmu ft rsm;eJY t i fwmAsL;awGjyKv kyfcJhMu NyD; o lwkdYt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m ay:v pDeJYt pDt pOfawGu dk zGHYNzdK;zkdYeJYq u fo G, fu l;v l;zdkYt a&;rSm pGrf;aq mi f&n ft m;en f;rIawG&dSaeNyD; t J' Dt m;en f;wJhpGrf;aq mi f&n fawGeJYyJ o lwkdY&JUwm0efawGu dk &i fq kdi faeMu w, fq kdwm av hv mrdcJhw, f/ x Hk;pHt wkdi f;ygyJ/ t J' Dt csu fuEkdi fi Ha&;u dk t ESpfrJho Gm;apcJhw, f/ u RefawmfwkdYau mu fcsu fq GJrdwmu awmhwcsdKU (' grSr [ kwf t rsm;t jym;) ao m Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;awG[ mEkdi fi Ha&;v kyfi ef;pOfawG v kyfaq mi fjci f;u dk &yfwefYypfv dku fMu NyDq kdwmygyJ/o lwkdY[ m o wi f;jzpfav mu fwJht aMu mi f;t &mawGrSm x dyfwkdu f&i fq kdi frI t ajctaet wGu f au mi f;rGef½Hkav mu fyJt v kyfv kyfMu w, f/ ' gayrJh zGHUNzdK;rI? q i f;&JrGJawrI? t v kyft u dki f&&dSa&;eJYwef;wln DrQr IwkdYv kd ajcajcjrpfjrpf&dSwJhu dpö&yfawG ab ;a&mu faer Iu awmh jr i fhwu faew, f/

' DaeYrSm Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfu i f;rJhr I[ m Andean a' o ?' grSr [ kwf v u fwi ft ar&du rSm acwåcP u dpör [ kwfo v kd t u efYt o wfeJYv n f;r [ kwfb l;q kdwmu dk u RefawmfwkdY o u fao jyEkdi fw, f/ ' Dpmt kyf[ m

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t J' Dv dkt aMu mi f;t &mawGu dk au mi f;pGmx i f&Sm;v mat mi fv kyfay;Ekdi fr , fv kdY arQmfv i fhx m;NyD; ' Dav hv mcsu f[ m t mz&du ? t m&S? t a&SUOa&myawGwi frut aemu fOa&my&JU' Drkdu a&pDt wGu f rSefu efygv dr fhr, f/

Ekdi fi Ha&;u i f;rJhjci f;[ m ppfwyft mP mo drf;r IawGrSm rMu mcP q kdo v kdt av ht x jzpfaeo v kdrsdK; ' Drkdu a&pDu dkt u sdK;, kwfapygw, f/ ' DjzpfpOfu dkt kyfcsKyfwJhacgi f;aq mi fawGu u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;&JUy#dyu ©awGeJY o lwkdYu mu G, f&r, fhw&m;0i fjzpfjci f;awGu dk ydkrkdq kd;&Gm;apw, f/ y#dyu ©eJY wn faq mu fyHkn d§EdIi f;rIq u fpyfjzpfpOfawGx JrSm o lwkdY[ m v lBu dKu frsm;wJht ajymawGeJY ' Drkdu a&pDax mu fcHo lawGt jzpf t NrJv kdv kd[ efaq mi fav h&dSMu ayrJh cdki frmwJhrl0g' v rf;pOfawmhr&dSMu b l;/' gaMu mi fh jyn fo lt rsm;pk&JUv lr Iv kdt yfcsu fawGu dk t ajz&SmzkdYt wGu fawmh o lwkdY[ men f;en f;yJ t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&dSat mi fv kyfEkdi fMu w, f/

a&G;au mu fyGJawGeJYt rsm;pk0g' u u s, fjyefYv maeayrJh Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m ' Du rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&mt a&;t ci f;awGu dk &i fq kdi faeMu &w, f/ o lwkdY[ m o lwkdY&JUv Iyf&Sm;r IawGu dk Manin u 'audience democracy' v kdYac:NyD; Sartori u'vediopolits' v kdYac:wJht &mawGu ydkrkdq kd;&Gm;apwJht q u ft pyft wGi f;rSm v kyfaq mi faeMu w, f/ u s, fjyefYwJhrD' D, mu Ekdi fi Ha&;en f;v rf;awGeJY' Drkdu a&pDt av ht u si fhawGu dk t Bu D;t u s, fajymi f;v Japat mi fv kyfaq mi fay;cJhNyD;NyD/ v u fwi ft ar&du Ekdi fi HwcsdKU (b &mZD;? csDv D? ru úpDu dkeJY O½ka*G;wkdYv kd) rSm Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu o lwkdY&JUo do mx i f&Sm;r Iu dk x def;o dr f;x m;ayrJh wjcm;ao mEkdi fi Hrsm;pGmrSmawmh ygwDawGeJY ygwDpepfawG[ m wpfpwpfp, kwfav smh av smhyg;o Gm;cJhNyD/ Ekdi fi Ha&;o pf[ m rsu fESmcsi f;q kdi fq u fq Ha&;q Du ae rD' D, mq u fET, frI?t pdk;&r l0g' pDrHu def;awGaysmu fysu fo Gm;r I? v mb fpm;rIawGBu D;pdk;v Tr f;rkd;v mrI?rJq Et "du t pdk;&eJY Ekdi fi Ha&;wefzkd;awGx Ju ckcHu mu G, fr IawGq Du kd a&TUajymi f;

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o Gm;jci f;t m;jzi fh x l;jcm;wJho Gi fjyi fu dkazmfjyw, f/ t J' Dt csu ft m;v Hk;[ m jcpm;rIawGeJY o m&mu l; o pömazmu frIawGu dkjzpfay:apNyD; ' Drkdu a&pDb 0u dk v lo Hk;u kefq efv mapjci f;eJJY yk*¾v du jyKjci f;awG jr i fhwu fv mapw, f/

' DjzpfpOfrSm Programmatic en f;ru swJhygwDawG&JUjzpfpOf[ m ' Drdku &u fwpft kdi f' D, mawGu dk ajymi f;jyefajymq kdw, f/ ' Drkdu &u fwpfawmfv Sefa&;[ mt kyfcsKyfcHv lx k(t rdefYay;cH&o lawG)t jzpfu ae Ekdi fi Ho m;(pn f;½Hk;o drf;o Gi f;jci f;cH&o lawG)t jzpf ajymi f;v Jay;wJhpDrHu def;awG? jzpfpOfawGeJYt wl ay:aygu fv mcJhw, f/ , aeYt csdeft cgrSm b , fv kdyJMu n fhMu n fh ' Drkdu &u fwpfNydKi fq kdi fr I[ mv lx kq DOD;wn faeyHkr&b J pm;o Hk;o l(zsm;a, mi f;ao G;aq mi fjci f;cH&r , fh)? ' grSr[ kwf azmu fo n f(a&mi f;csjci f;cH&r , fh)awGq DOD;wn faew, f/

' Drkdu a&pDu dk u wdu 0wfjyKwJh(o pömcHwJh) n DrQrIt kdi f' D, mu dk ½kyfo drf;wm[ m a&S;acwf*&du wn f;u t ajccHcJhwmjzpfNyD; t J' g[ m v lr Ix n fh0i fr IeJYEkdi fi Ha&;av mu rSm Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JUt u sdK;&dS&dSyg0i fywfo u fyl;aygi f;rIu dk t x l;&n fn Tef;wJh ' Drkdu &u fwpf' dki fref;&Si f;awGu dk t "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdzkdYeJY &Si f;v i f;zGi fhq kdzdkYt a&;ygw, f/ at mu fygt csu fawG[ m ' Drkdu a&pD&JU&n f&G, fcsu fawGeJY arQmfrSef;&v ' fawGyJjzpfw, f/ rJay;cGi fh? n DrQrIeJY o lwkdY&JUEkdi fi Hu Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu dkt v GJo Hk;rIjyKv kyfjci f;u aeu mu G, fay;x m;wJhyHkpHwu spn f;rsOf;awGeJY v kyfi ef;pOfawGjzpfo v kdyn ma&;? u sef;rma&;? t v kyft u dki f&&dSa&;eJY v lr Iv HkNcHKa&;wdkYyg0i fwJhv u fo i fhcHEkdi fav mu fzG, fjzpfwJhv lr Izlv Hka&;ax mu fyHhr It q i fhawGyJ/

q i f;&JrGJawrIu dk jzpfay:apwJh? ' grSr [ kwf jyefYyGm;apwJht csdefu mvawGrSm ' Drkdu a&pD[ m wn f;wn f;rQo m&dSNyD; csdKUwJhwJht aet x m;jzpfw, f/ckdi frmNyD;ppfrSefwJh' Drkdu a&pD[ m t m;v Hk;yg0i fcGi fh&dSNyD; rjzpfraer[ kwfb J o u fwrf;&i fhrmw, f/ v u fwi ft ar&du rSm ' Drkdu a&pDt kdi f' D, m[ m o u fwrf;&Sn fMu maeNyD

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jzpfayrJh ' Drkdu a&pD[ m csdKUcsdKUi Jhi JhyJ&dSaewkef;jzpfw, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmhx Hk;pHt wkdi f; t m;v Hk;yg0i fr Ir&dSv kdYb J/ ' Drkdu a&pDeJYywfo u fv kdY rau sreyfjzpfr IawGt wGu f v u fwi ft ar&du rSmu si f;ycJhwJh u kv o r*¾zGHUNzdK;r It pDt pOf[ m&v ' ft m;v Hk;eJYywfo u fv kdYyJjzpfw, f/ t J' DrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;rI? q i f;&JrGJawrIeJYrn DrQrIwkdYt ygt 0i f a' o &JUt "du jyó emawG&JUt Mu m; ydki f;u efYjcm;em;rIawG&dScJhw, f/ rMu mao ;rDESpfawGt wGi f;u &&dScJhwJhrJ&v ' fawG[ m t rsdK;rsdK;ao mv u fwi ft ar&du ' Drkdu a&pDt wGu f Ekdi fi Ho m;yHhydk;ax mu fcHr IeJY x da&mu fwJhv lx kyg0i fr It Mu m;u q u fET, fr Iu dk t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSjyo aecJhw, f/ a' o t wGi f;q i f;&JrGJawrIeJY rn DrQrIav smhu sjci f;&JU ckdi frmwJh&v ' fawG&JU a&mi fjyef[ yfr It jzpf' Drkdu a&pDt v kdu fo i hfjzpfjci f;[ m ao mi f;ao mi f;jzjzu dk Bu D;x Gm;v mwJhOD;wn fcsu fjzpfw, f/ b myJjzpfjzpfv lr IpD;yGm;t q i fht wef;t & ' Dv kdo ab mwln DrIawG[ mu GJjym;aew, f/ t q i f;&Jq Hk;Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m ' Drkdu a&pDeJYt v kdu fo i fht v sm;o i fht o m;u szkdY pdwf0i fpm;r It en f;q Hk;yJjzpfw, f/

' Dae&mrSm u Refawmf Amartya Sen u dk u dk;u m;csi fw, f/ pD;yGm;a&;eJYv lr It cGi fht a&;awGu dku si fho Hk;jci f;u ae v Gwfv yfr IawG&&dSEkdi fwJh Ekdi fi Ho m;jzpfrIzGHUNzdK;v mzkdYt wGu f t ckt x d v kyfp&mawGt rsm;Bu D;&dSaeao ;w, f/ t ck' Drkdu a&pDt "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdcsu frSm o rkdi f;0i fZpfjrpfawG&dSw, f/ u RefawmfwkdY[ m ' Drdku a&pD&JUpdwfu l;u dk *E¦0i feJYarmf' efawG;ac:yn m&Si fawGjzpfwJh Alexis de TocquevilleeJY Stuart Mill wkdY&JUEkdi fi Ho m;jzpfr IawGt Mu m;u n DrQr Iu dk&SmazGjci f;t jzpfawGU&dScJhw, f/ Oya' x u f OD;pm;ay;jzpfwJhn DrQwJht cGi fht v rf;awG&dSwJhn DrQrIt jzpfaygh/

o mwln DrQrIt kdi f' D, meJY rl0g' en f;u syef;wkdi fawGu dk jyefv n fu kpm;&wm[ m cu fcJw, fq kd&i fawmi frS b &mZD;? csDv D? ru úpDu dkeJY O½ka*G;wdkYv kdEkdi fi HawG&JU

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o rkdi f;aMu mi f;u pOfq u frjywfwJht m;pdku fx kwfrIawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk, fwkdi f&JUckdi frmwJh&n frSef;csu fawGt wGu f em;v n fEkdi fp&mjzpfwJh t u sdK;&v ' fawGu dkb , fv kdx kwfv kyfay;o v Jq kdwmu dk o ½kyfazmfjyaecJhw, f/ t m;v Hk;yg0i fa&;ay:vpD&JUt ajccHrSm , ci fu ab ;z, fx kwfcHx m;&wJht i ft m;pkawGeJY r[ mrdwfawGzGJUpn f;NyD; v lr It zGJUt pn f;&JUt pdwft ydki f;t m;v Hk;u dk ayGUzu fzkdY&n f&G, fwJh t m;pdku fx kwfr IawGu aygh/

av mav mv wfv wfOyrmjzpfwJh 2013 ckESpf csDv Do r®wa&G;au mu fyGJuwkdu fwGef;t m;ay;aew, f/ r [ mrdwft zGJUawGeJYygwDawGu yn ma&;? t cGeftwkyfeJY zGJUpn f;yHkt ajccHOya' jyefv n fa&;q GJa&;wkdYv kd t ajccHu swJhu dpöawGu dkt rSwf&jci f;t m;jzi fh ppfrSefwJhrl0g' en f;u sv kyfi ef;aq mi fwmawGu dk azmfx kwfjyo cJhw, f/ ' Daq G;aEG;rIawGrSm yk*¾dKv fa&;rcHcsdrcHo mpu m;ryg0i fo v kd ygwDawGtwGi f;u v lawGu dkv n f; &n fn Tef;wmryg0i fygb l;/ ' gayrJh ygwDwpfckcsi f;pD[ mckdi frmwJhrl0g' en f;v r f;wu sA[ dkcsu fawGu dk jyo cJhMu w, f/

' Dpmt kyf[ m ' DaeY ' Drdku a&pDt a&;rSm &i fq kdi fae&wJht Bu D;rm;q Hk;pdefac:rIeJYywfo u fv kdY aq G;aEG;x m;wmjzpfygw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;t kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDt m;v Hk;u dku ln Dax mu fyhHzkdYBu dK;pm;aeMu wJh en f;yn m&Si fawGu dk ' Dpmt kyfu v Trf;rkd;Ekdi fr, fv kdYu Refawmfao csm , HkMu n fygw, f/ ' gayrJh csHKi Hkajym&r, fq kd&i f ' Dpmt kyf[ mt rsdK;o m;? t rsdK;o rD;Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk, fwkdi fu dk v Trf;rdk;Ekdi fygv dr fhr , f/Rafael Roncagliolo OrbegosoEkdi fi Hjcm;a&;0efBu D;a[ mi f;yD½l;jyn fo lYo r®wEkdi fi H(2011- 13)International IDEA t Bu Hay;b kwft zGJU0i fv Drm? ' DZi fb m 2013/

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Ekdi fi Ht awmfrsm;rsm;u Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m ji i f;cHkaq G;aEG;zkdY ay:v pDeJYv kyfi ef;pOfawGu dk t au mi ft x n fazmfzkdYt a&;rSm u dk, ff&n fu dk, fao G;eJYrJq G, fjci f;?v mb fv mb ay;rJq G, fjci f;wkdY&JU t av ;o mrIt ay: rSDckdae&rIu ae ajymi f;v Ja&TUajymi f;Ekdi fzkdYt wGu f ½kef;u efae&w, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JU Programmaticwkd;wu fzGHUNzdK;r I[ m v GefcJhwJhq , fpkESpfESpfckav mu fwkef;u ProgrammaticeJYa0;u Gmaew, fv kdYx i fjr i fcJh&wJh b &mZD;eJY awmi fu dk&D;, m;rSm x def;csKyfx m;Ekdi fNyDv kdYx i fjr i f&w, f/ t J' Dt csdefrSm wjcm;Ekdi fi HawGu Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu awmhwkd;wu frIen f;en f;yJ jyKv kyfEkdi fcJhw, f/

wjcm;Ekdi fi HawGrSm rv kyfwJhb , ft csu fu dk at mi fjr i frI&aewJhEkdi fi HawGuv kyfcJhMu wmv J/ o lwkdY&JUat mi fjr i fr Iu o lwkdYq Du Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJY Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JU o ab mo b m0awGeJYq u fET, faev m;/ Ekdi fi H&JUpD;yGm;a&;zGHHUNzdK;r It q i fh? ' grSr[ kwf Ekdi fi H&JUv kyfEkdi fpGrf;u t u sdK;t jrwfcGJa0rIeJY t rsm;jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr Iv kyfi ef;u dk jzn fhwi f;ax mu fyHhrIu dkv kyfaq mi fEkdi fcJhwmv m;/ pD;yGm;a&;?' grSr[ kwf Ekdi fi Ha&;u yfq kdu fu mv awGu Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk o lwkdY&JUt r ltu si fhawGeJY u pm;yGJ&JUpn f;rsOf;awGu dkajymi f;v Jo Gm;at mi f wGef;t m;ay;cJhwmv m;/' grSr[ kwf Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGq Du ydkrkdau mi f;rGefwJhwm0efx rf;aq mi fr IawGu dk ydkrkdawmi f;q kdv mMu wmv m;/

, aeY' Drkdu a&pDt wGu f azmfjyygar ;cGef;awGeJY q u fpyfywfo u fr I[ mcsJUx Gi fazmfjyzkdYcu fcJygw, f/ b , f' Drdku a&pDpepfu Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGrq kdEkdi fi Ho m;awG&JU pdwfyg0i fpm;rIawGu dkpkpn f;zkdYeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&maq G;aEG;ji i f;cHkrIawGeJY ay:v pDq Hk;jzwfcsu fawGrSm t J' gawGu dk t o HjyKzkdY? x kwfazmfajymq kdzkdY

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arQmfv i fhMu w, f/ jyn fo lawG&JUt jr i frSm v lr Ia&;eJY pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIu dk v kyfaq mi fay;zkdY[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&i fq dki fae&wJh zdt m;t rsm;q Hk;pdefac:r Ijzpfw, f/ t rsm;jyn fo lq kdi f&may:v pD[ m wu úEkdc&u fwpfq Hk;jzwfcsu fawGx u f t rsm;Bu D;ydkw, f/ o lwkdY[ m Ekdi fi HawG&JUt em*wfu dk yHkazmfaeMu wmjzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh Ekdi fi Ho m;awGrSm ajymp&mawG&dSo i fhw, f/ Ekdi fi Ho m;awGeJYo lwkdYt pdk;&&JUay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;Mu m;rSm Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu Mu m;v lt jzpf0i fa&mu faq mi f&Gu fay;jci f;r&dSb l;q kd&i f ' Drkdu a&pD[ m w&m;0i fjzpfr IeJY t "dyÜg, f&dSrIu dk aysmu fq Hk;o Gm;r, fht EÅ&m, f&dSw, f/ a&G;au mu fyGJawGu v lBu dKu frsm;rINydKi fyGJawGjzpfv mNyDq kd&i f Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m o lwkdYEkdi fi H&JUt em*wfu dk b , fv kdarQmfrSef;Mu n fhrv Jq kdwmu dk t av ;t eu fx m;wJh ppfrSefwJha&G;cs, fr Iu dk t u Jr jzwfawmhb J o lwkdY&JUrJawGu dk yHkat may;awmhrSmjzpfw, f/ t J' Dt csu fu ' Drkdu a&pD&JUt , lt q wpfckv Hk;u dk at mu fajcu aev dIu fpm;o Gm;rSmjzpfw, f/

The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assis-tance u (International IDEA) u GJjym;wJh o dyÜHyn m&Si ft zGJUo Hk;zGJUu dk ' Da&maESmq u fpyfaewJhar;cGef;awGu dk av hv mo kawo ejyKzkdYwkdu fwGef;cJhygw, f/ &v ' fuawmh Programmatic ygwDawG&JUzGHUNzdK;r It wGu f t ax mu ft u lt jyKq Hk;ao mywf0ef; u si fawG&JUEdIi f;, SOfcGJjcrf;av hv mo Hk;o yfr I 3 cku dk pkaygi f;n d§EdIi f;x m;wJh' Dx kwfa0r IyJjzpfygw, f/ International IDEA t aeeJY ' Dpmt kyf[ m u rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;t pkt zGJU? Edki fi Ha&;au smi f;o m;awGeJY zGHUNzdK;rIt zGJUt pn f;awG?' Drkdu a&pDu dkyHhydk;o lawGeJY zGHUNzdK;a&;t u lt n DawGeJY ay:v pDa&;q GJcsrSwfo lawGt Mu m; Programmatic u swJhEkdi fi Ha&;t av ht x &JUq u fpyfr Iu dk arG;jrLay;Ekdi fv dr fhr , fv kdY arQmfv i fhygw, f/

11


Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JU Programmatic q kdi f&mt a&;ygrI t ay:ar;jref;x m;wJhar;cGef;awG[ m NyD;cJhwJhq , fpkESpfrSm International IDEA v kyfaq mi fcJhwJhtv kyfawG&JUt csu ft csmjzpfcJhygw, f/ 2004 eJY 2007 ckESpft wGi f; Interna-tional IDEA [ m awmi ft ar&du eJY t ar&du t v , fykdi f;? t aemu feJY t a&SUt mz&du ? t v , feJY t a&SUOa&my? awmi ft m&Sa' o awGu Ekdi fi H 50 eJYygwD 300 av mu f&JU ygwDwGi f;t pDt pOfawG&JU t q u ft pyfeJY yHkrSefjyKv kyfwJhrlab mi fawGu dkppfwr f;au mu f, lwJh u rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&mo kawo ev kyfi ef;wpfcku dkpwi fcJhygw, f/ >ci f;csu fawGt rsm;Bu D;&dSaeayrJhv n f; t J' Do kawo ev kyfi ef;u aea' o t m;v Hk;u Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGt Mu m;rSm edr fhyg;wJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;jyKr IeJYrl0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhv kyfi ef;pOfawG t m;en f;aerIu dkawGU&dScJh&ygw, f/

International IDEA t aeeJY zGHUNzdK;r It ydki f;u Ekdi ffi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUt cef;u @t ay: pepfu sewJho d&dSrIawGq u fv u fv kyfaq mi faeygw, f/ De-mocracies in Development(2006, with the Inter-American DevelopmentBank)? Politics and Poverty in the Andean Region (2007) eJY ThinkingPolitics: Think Tanks and Political Parties in Latin America (2008,withthe Overseas Development Institute) wkdYrSm azmfjycJhwJht wdki f;ygyJ/

' Dx kwfa0rIu dk t J' Dt m;pdku fr IawGt & azmfjyay;cJhNyD;jzpfygw, f/ ' g[ mInternational IDEA &JU aemu fq Hk;t cef;u dk u dk, fpm;rjyKao ;ygb l;/ t J' gx u ft zGJUt pn f;t aeeJY u RefawmfwkdYacwf&JUBu D;rm;wJhzGHUNzdK;r Iq kdi f&mt a&;u dpöawGt ay: Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGt m;jzi fh x dawGUrIawGydkrkdjr i fhwu fv mapa&;jzpfajrmu fapwJht ajct aeawGt ay: ji i f;cHkaq G;aEG;r IawGq u fv u fjzpfay:v mapa&;t

12


wGu f&n f&G, fygw, f/ t a&;t Bu D;q Hk;t aeeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;awGt wGu ft a&;ygwJho lwkdY&JUEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt pDt rHawGu dk wdk;wu fajymi f;v JapzkdY &SmazGaewJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGq Dx n fh0i fr IawGjyKv kyfay;zkdY &n f&G, fygw, f/ t x l;t m;jzi fht v kyft u dki f? v lx k0efaq mi fr I? Ni drf;csrf;a&;? v Gwfv yfr IeJYwkd;wu fv mwJhb 0t &n ft ao G;awG&&dSzkdY Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JUwkd;wu faewJh t cGi fht v rf;awGt wGu fzGHUNzdK;aewJh ckdi frmwJhrSwfwr f;v r f;aMu mi f;awGjzpfay:a&;rSmjzpfygw, f/

International IDEA

13


International IDEA t aeeJY ' DEdIi f;, SOfav hv mrIpmt kyfu dk jzpfay:v mapwJh t au mi f;q Hk;Bu dK;pm;r IawGjyKv kyfay;cJho lawGjzpfwJh jzpf&yfav hv mrIpma&;o lawGjzpfwJh Adi Dasgupta, Daniel Epstein, Kiril Kolev, DanielKselman, Sandra Osterkatz, Oleh Protsyk, Matthew Singer and Yi-tingWang wkdYu dk au s;Zl;wi fv kdygw, f/ o lwkdY[ m 2010 ckESpf? InternationalIDEA rSm u s, fu s, fjyefYjyefY? eu feu f½dIi f;½dIi f;t , lt q jyKx m;wJh t v kyfwm0efwpfcku dk v kyfaq mi fcJhMu ygw, f/ ' Dya&m*su fu dk jzpfajrmu fapcJhwJh t a&;ygwJhv kyfazmfu kdi fzu fa[ mi f; o Hk;OD;jzpfwJh Vidar Helgesan, Anna Lekvall eJYBjarte Tora wkdYu dk t x l;au s;Zl;wi faMu mi f;ajymv kdygw, f/

' Dx kwfa0rIu dkjzpfajrmu fat mi f wpfen f;r [ kwf wpfen f;eJY yg0i fay;cJhMu wJho lawG t rsm;Bu D;&dSygao ;w, f/ Jenefrieda Isberg, Katarina Jorgensen,Emily Perez eJY Kristina Jelmin wkdYu ' Do kawo eya&m*su f&JU t pu aetq Hk; rwln DwJht csdefwkdi f;rSm t zdk;wefv SwJhu ln DrIawGay;cJhMu ygw, f/ u RefawmfwkdY&JU jyefv n fo Hk;o yfo lrsm;jzpfwJh Helena Bjuremalm, Goran Feijic, Dianede Gramont eJY Rafael Roncagliolo Orbegoso wdkYu ' Do kawo eu aeq GJ, lx m;wJh*, u fawGu dk wkd;wu fapzkdY awG;ac:q i fjci fp&mau mi f;wJh? t NyD;o wfacsmarGUrIu dkjzpfapwJh wHkYjyefr IawGay;cJhMu ygw, f/ Kevin Devaux, AlbertoFernandez Gibaja eJY Sam Jones wkdYu r l&i f;o kawo et pD&i fcHpmawG&JU rwln DwJht ESpfcsKyfAm;&Si f;t wGu f t v kyfv kyfcJhMu ygw, f/ Sam Jones t aeeJY' Do kawo eu ae t u sOf;csKyfx kwfEkwfo i fcef;pmawGt wGu f yx rq Hk;ay:v pDu dk t Mu rf;a&;cJhNyD; t J' Dr lMu r f;u dk q GD' i fEkdi fi H? q pf*fwlemNrdKUrSm 2012 ckESpf?ZGefv rSm ygwDt u lt n Day;a&;t zGJUt pn f;awGu dk wi fjycJhygw, f/

2010 ckESpf? Ekd0i fb mv v kd t apmq Hk;t csdefrSm t Dau Ga' gEkdi fi Ha&;

aus;Zl;wif todtrSwfjyKjcif;

14


o rm;awG? ' Drkdu a&pDv u fawGU t au mi ft x n fazmfo lawGeJY ' Dpmt kyf&JUyx rq Hk;t cef;t & ay:x Gu fv mwJht a&;u dpöawGu dk aq G;aEG;ay;cJhMu wJh o kawo DawGt wlwu GjyKv kyfcJhMu wJh ]]Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m t zGJUt pn f;rsm;t wGu fpdefac:r Irsm;}} q kdwJh t v kyf½Hkaq G;aEG;yGJu dk pDpOfcJhMu wJht x JrSm yg0i fcJhwJhv kyfazmfu dki fzu fawGu dkv n f; x yfrHNyD;au s;Zl;wi fv dkygw, f/ ¤i f;wkdYu awmhErnesto Aranibar, Gabriela Chauvin, Silvana Munoz, Cristhian ParrenoeJY t Dau Ga' gEkdi fi H? u GDwkdu Agora Democratica Programme u Terry deVries wkdYjzpfMu ygw, f/ v myu fZf? b kdv D;AD;, m;eJY v DrmwdkYu Interna-tional IDEA's rpf&Si fawGq Du Alicia Del Aguila, Virginia BeramendiHeine, Alfonso Ferrufino eJY Carolina Floru wkdYu Programmatic ygwDawGeJYywfo u fv kdY aemu fydki f;v kyfaq mi fr IawGu dk t m;ay;ax mu fcHcJhMu ygw, f/

t rsdK;rsdK;ao m v u fa&;r lawGu dk wn f;jzwfpdppfay;cJhwJh Kelley FrieleJY pmrsu fESmay:½dku fESdyfwJh x kwfv kyfa&;v kyfi ef;pOfwpfckv Hk;rSm r&dSr jzpft aeeJYyg0i fyl;aygi f;ay;cJhwJh Lisa Hagman wkdYu dkv n f; aemu fq Hk;rS ajym&wmjzpfayrJht en f;q Hk;r [ kwfwJh au s;Zl;wi f&dSaMu mi f;ajymv kdygw, f/

15


Oa, smZOf 5t rSmpm 10au s;Zl;wi fv Tm 14t wkdrSwf 18ed' gef; 19

t cef; 1 28Programmatic ygwDrsm;-pmaye, fy, ft wGi f;rS½Iax mi fhrsm; &Si f;v i f;csu frsm;u dkav hv mjci f;ppfwr f;Juan Pablo Luna, Fernando Rosenblatt and Sergio Toro

t cef; 2 98Programmatic ygwDrsm;ESi fh ygwDpepfrsm;-t cGi fht v r f;rsm;ESi fh t u efYt o wfrsm;Herbert Kitschelt and Yi-ting Wang

t cef; 3 154EdIi f;, SOft jr i frsm;rS ProgrammaticEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;Nic Cheeseman and Dan Paget

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t cef; 4 202aq mi f&Gu fr Irsm;\ *, u frsm;/ /Programmatic ygwDrsm;\ jzpfEkdi fapo lrsm;? t aMu mi f;t &i f;cHt ajct aersm;? Lockers rsm;ESi fh u kd, fpm;v S, frsm;Jorge Valladares Molleda,Kristen Sample and Sam van der Staak

pma&;o lrsm;ESi fh pyfv sOf;í 234International IDEA ESi fhpyfv sOf;í 241


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AAM Aam Aadmi Party (India)AKP Justice and Development Party (Turkey)BJP Bharatiya Janata Party (India)BSP Bahujan Samaj Party (India)DALP Democratic Accountability and Linkage ProjectDPP Democratic Progressive Party (Taiwan)EOI export-oriented industrializationEU European UnionGDP gross domestic productIDEA Institute for Democracy and Electoral AssistanceISI import-substituting industrializationKMT Kuomintang (Taiwan)MP member of parliamentNGO non-governmental organizationPAN Partido Acción Nacional [National Action Party] (Mexico)PF Patriotic Front (Zambia)PPP purchasing power parityPRD Democratic Revolutionary Party (Mexico)PT Partido dos Trabalhadores [Workers’ Party] (Brazil)PSDB Partido da Social Democracia Brasileira [Brazilian Social

Democratic Party]RPG responsible party government

18


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' Dpmt kyfu dk yg0i fa&;o m;o lawG[ m azmfjyx m;wJh ProgrammaticygwDawG&JU t ao ;i , fq Hk;t "dyÜg, fau mu f, lr Iu dkv kdu femzkdY apmi fhx def;x m;w, f/Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDwpfckt aeeJY ygwDeJYo lY&JUrJq E&Si fawG? ygwDawGt Mu m; a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mNydKi fq kdi fr IeJY ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;v kyfi ef;pOfawGt Mu m;u csdwfq u fr IawGtwGu f au mi f;pGmwn faq mu fzGJUpn f;x m;NyD; t ajccHu dkzGJUpn f;ay;wJh wn fNi drfwJht kdi f' Dt kdav mf*sDq kdi f&mu wdu 0wfawGrSm t ajcwn fx m;NyDq kd&i f Program-matic u dkv kyfaq mi faew, fv kdY , lq cH&rSmjzpfygw, f/

' Dpmt kyfrSmyg0i fwJhyg0i fr Iwkdi f;u dk csdwfq u fx m;wJh t ajccHt kdi f' D, mawGu awmh Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGay:aygu fv mjci f;u dk jzpfay:apwJhb u fpHkt ajccHt aMu mi f;t &i f;awGyJjzpfygw, f/ t J' gawGu ½kd;&Si f;wJhazmfjrLv mwpfck? ' grSr[ kwf o D;jcm;t pDt pOf? ' grSr[ kwf &mx l;*kP f&Sdeft v kdu f pDpOfjci f;awGeJYu dku fn DrSmr[ kwfb J t v Geft q u ft pyf&dSw, fv kdYx i fjr i f&wJh en f;v r f;awGeJYyJ v kyfaq mi frSmjzpfygw, f/ ed*Hk;csKyft cef;rSm x yfrHNyD;aq G;aEG; cH&r , fht wkdi f; t J' Dv Trf;rkd;Ekdi fwJht aMu mi f;t &i f;awG[ m azmfjyyge, fy, fawGu dk jzpfay:apwJho u fa&mu fr It & cGJjcm;cH&Ekdi fw, f/ t J' De, fy, fawGu awmh enablers(NrdKUjyjzpfx Gef;jci f;? pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr I? ' grSr [ kwf Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJYrJay;o lawG&i fq kdi fMu &wJh? a&G;cs, fr IawGu dkyHkazmfay;wJh t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mv kyfEkdi fpGrf;wkdYv kd wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&mt aet x m;awG)? triggers (Program-matic q kdi f&m a&SUq u fcsDwu fa&;t wGu f t jcm;ao mt cGi fht v r f;ro mwJh

19


Bu dKwi fwn f&dSx m;wJh0ef;u si fawGu dk au smfjzwfv Gwfajrmu f v mzkdYt cGi fht v r f;awG)? lockers (v HkNcHKrIeJYx kwfv kyfNyD;jzpfwJh Programmatic q kdi f&mt jrwft pGef;awGu dk jzpfx Gef;apEkdi fwJh t i fpwDu sL&Si f;q kdi f&m jyefv n fjyKjyi fr Irsm;)eJY agents(r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fjci f;q kdi f&men f;AsL[ m awGu dkarmi f;ESi fwJh&n f&G, fcsu feJY wi fu l;&n f&G, fv kyfaq mi fr Irsm;&JUv Iyf&Sm;o lrsm;) wdkYjzpfMu w, f/

' Dpmt kyf[ m t en f;i , fyJ em;v n fcJhcsdefu wn f;u t J' Dt aMu mi f;t &i f;awGv kyfaq mi faewJhat mu fu ' kdi f;erpfawGu dk cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mx m;w, f/ ' g[ m o Hk;ESpfwmt csdef, ljyKv kyfx m;wJh o kawo eya&m*su f&JU&v ' fjzpfw, f/ International IDEA u Juan Pablo Luna u dk pmayq kdi f&mo Hk;o yfcsu fu dk pDrHcefYcGJzkdYcefYt yfwm0efay;cJhwJh 2010 ckESpfrSm yx rq Hk;ajcv Srf;u dk pwi fcJhwmjzpfw, f/ t J' Do Hk;o yfcsu f&JU au mu f, lcsu fawG[ m 2010 ckESpf? Ekd0i fb mv ?u GDwkdrSm u si f;yjyKv kyfcJhwJhu Gefz&i fhrSm aq G;aEG;jci f;cHcJh&w, f/ t J' Du Gefz&i fhrSmt rsdK;rsdK;ao mv u fwi ft ar&du ygwDawGu u dk, fpm;v S, fawGwu fa&mu fNyD;NydKi fb u fygwDawG&JU v Trf;rkd;r I? t Bu Hay;yn m&Si fawGeJY zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr It wGu fay:v pDawGt ay:rSm t m½Hkpdku fEkdi fzdkY o lwkdY&JUt m;x kwfrIawGt ay: ai GaMu ;ax mu fyHhr IawGt aMu mi f;u dk aq G;aEG;cJhMu ygw, f/

Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJY ' Dt a&;u dpö&JU' Drkdu a&pDt u lt n Day;a&;yHhydk;o lawGu International IDEA u dk Herbert Kitschelt eJY Nic Cheeseman wkdYOD;aq mi fwJht o i f;u dk Programmatic ygwDeJY ygwDpepfawGzGHUNzdK;wkd; wu fa&;eJYywfo u fv kdY o i fcef;pmawGyg0i fwJh o au FwjzpfwJhjzpf&yfawGu dk av hv mq ef;ppfwJhae&mrSm wm0efay;zkdYwdku fwGef;cJhMu w, f/ ygv Drefq kdi f&m&efyHk ai GawG[ m2011 ckESpfrSm 0g&Si fwef' DpDrSm&dSwJh National Democratic Institute ?2013ckESpf ZGefrSm q pf*fwlemrSm&dSwJh the Swedish International CooperationAgency and the Swedish International Liberal Centre wkdY? 2013 ckESpfat mu fwkdb mrSm Hague rSm&dSwJh Netherlands Institute for MultipartyDemocracy eJY 2013 ckESpf Ekd0i fb mrSm v ef' efrSm&dSwJh the Overseas Development Institute wkdYu pkpn f;x m;wJh t rsdK;rsdK;ao m y&do wft pkt a0;awGq Du dk wi fjyjci f;cHcJh&w, f/

20


Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;u dkem;v n fo ab maygu fjci f;

' Dpmt kyfu a&;o m;x m;wJh EdIi f;, SOfo kawo eeJYrsm;pGmao mjzpf&yfawGrSmEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m Programmatic ? ' grSr[ kwf Programmatic &JU ao o yfwJht ydki f;awGx Ju dk u sro Gm;cJhMu b J o lwkdY[ m u s, fajymwJhrwln Dr It q i fu GJawGwpfav Qmu frSm wn f&dSaecJhMu w, f/ yx 0Dt aet x m;u dkarhazsmu fypfv kdu fr , fq kd&i f ygwDt m;v Hk;? pD;yGm;a&;? ' grSr [ kwf , Ofau s;r IwkdY[ m Program-matic r&dSwJht u Jjzwfr IawGt ay:rDScdkx m;wJht wkdi f; wn faq mu fcHx m;&Ekdi fwJhen f;AsL[ mawGu dk x dx da&mu fa&mu ft o Hk;csEkdi fau mi f; csEkdi fygv dr fhr , f/(csEkdi fcsi frSv n f; csEkdi fygv dr fhr , f) Oyrmt m;jzi fh yk*¾dKv fwpfOD;wpfa, mu f&JUu dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;u dk t o Hk;csrJq G, fjci f;? v lBu dKu frsm;r It & rJq G, fjci f;?ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? o lau mi f;jyKjci f;t m;jzi fhrJq G, fr IeJY v lrsdK;pkt ajcjyKrJq G, fr I? ' grSr [ kwf wjcm;ao mt o dt rSwfjyKr IawGyg0i fw, f/ t J' gawGu rwln DwJhe, fy, fawGrSm u GJjym;wJhen f;AsL[ mawGu dk wNydKi feu fwn f;v kdv kdawmi fx kwfazmfjyo Ekdi fw, f/ ' Dpmt kyft aeeJY ygwDpn f;½Hk;v HIUaq mfjci f;q kdi f&men f;AsL[ mawGt ay:v Tr f;rkd;wJh Programmatic en f;AsL[ mawG&JU ' D*&DawGu dkt av ;x m;t x l;jyKx m;wmjzpfw, f/ Programmatic ygwDawGt aeeJY at mu fygt csu ft v u fawGeJYjyn fhpHkzkdYv kdt yfaMu mi f; , lq w, f/

- ygwDu dk t rsm;jyn fo lo d&Sdr It & au mi f;rGefpGmzGJUpn f;wn faq mu fx m;NyD; wn fNi dr fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m Programmatic u ser Iu dk zGJUpn f;ay;wJhay:v pDt aet x m;pkpn f;r I/

- ay:v pDt aet x m;t u Gmt a0;t ay: ygwDwGi f;t q u ft pyfeJYo ab mwln Dcsu f/

- t mP m&&dSv mwJht cg t en f;q Hk;t aeeJY t "du u swJh Program-matic q kdi f&mu wdwpfcsdKUu dk t au mi ft x n fazmfay;Ekdi fwJh u wdu 0wfeJY v kyfu dki fEdki fpGr f;/

- ygwD0i fawGu dkq GJaq mi faeNyD; x dawGUaewJht wdt u st ao csmq Hk;

21


t pdwft ydki f;jzpfwJh ygwDt pDt pOfwpfck/

o dkYao mfv n f; azmfjyygEkdi fi HwpfckrSm x i f&Sm;wJh Programmatic ygwDwpfck? ' grSr [ kwf wpfckx u fydk&dSaejci f;u Programmatic u sepGmpn f;½Hk;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;pepfq Du dk u l;ajymi f;o Gm;aeNyDv kdY r&dSrjzpft aeeJY n Tefjywmr[ kwfb l;/Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m rMu mcP q kdo v kd Programmatic eJY Programmaticr&dSjci f;ESpfckpv Hk;rSm t ajcjyKMu NyD; ygwD&JUydkrkdu s, fjyefYwJhpepfu t "du t m;jzi fhru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iu dk u si fho Hk;aer, fq kd&i f Oyrmt m;jzi fh ygwDt aeeJY Pro-grammatic u dk t ajcwu s wn faq mu fzkdYeJY u spfv pfckdi frmapzkdY u s½HI;o Gm;NyDjzpfNyD; t J' Dt pm; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;q Du dk aemu faMu mi f;jyefo Gm;wJh zdt m;awG&dSv mEkdi fw, f/ Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;u dk Programmatic [ m ygwD&JUydkrkdu s, fjyefYwJhygwDpepft jzpf v u ©P mazmfaq mi fEkdi fwJhygwDEkdi fi Ha&;pDrHcefYcGJrIt "du en f;v rf;wpfckt jzpf u s, fjyefYpGmrSwf, ljci f;cH&w, f/ x i f&Sm;wJh ProgrammaticygwDpepfq Do dkYt u l;t ajymi f;u dkjzpfay:apzkdY aemu fu v Hkav mu fwJh t [ kefeJYt wl Programmatic ygwDt a&t wGu fv Hkv Hkav mu fav mu f&dSwJh ydGKi fhwpfcku dkt &dyfedrdwfyGdKi fh? ' grSr [ kwf u l;pu fr IyGdKi fh? ' grSr[ kwf ysHUESHYjci f;yGdKi fhv kdY ½Ijr i fcH&Ekdi fw, f/ ' Dpmt kyf&JUwpfckao m t "du &n f&G, fcsu fu t J' Dajymi f;v Jr IeJYu spfv pfckdi frmr Iu dk &Si f;v i f;wi fjyzkdYjzpfw, f/

Programmatic ygwDrsm;&JU t a&;ygrI

Programmatic t &n ft ao G;awGt ay:rSm t ajcjyKx m;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m o lwkdY&JUOD;pm;ay;rIu dk pkpn f;jci f;eJY o lwkdY&JUt au mi f;q Hk; pdwfyg0i fpm;rIu dkv kyfaq mi fjci f;t m;jzi hf v lr It zGJUt pn f;x Ju rwln DwJht kyfpkawGu dk ydkrdkau mi f;rGefpGmu dk, fpm;jyKEkdki fw, fv kdY x i fjr i fcH&w, f/ ' gaMu mi fh o lwkdY[ m o lwkdY&JUe, fy, frSm Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu dk wm0efcHMu w, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDwpfcku o lwkdYo ma&G;au mu fcH&r, fq dk&i f &Si f;v i f;wJhay:v pDae&mt pku dk NyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fapr, f

22


v kdY o lwkdYu dk, fo lwkdY u wdu 0wfjyKv kdu fwJht cg o lwkdY[ m o lwkdY&JUu wdu0wfawGu dk t au mi ft x n fazmfzkdYt wGu f jyn fo lawGu dk o lwkdYu dk, fwkdi fwm0efcHMu w, f/ t J' Dt cg rJay;o lawGt aeeJY t "du t m;jzi fh v QdKU0Su frJay;pepfu ae ygwDu dk q kay;? ' P fay;jyKv kyfEkdi fNyDjzpfw, f/ ydkrkdt m;au mi f;wJh' Drkdu &u fwpfwm0ef, l? wm0efcHrIu dk x i f&Sm;wJh Programmatic eJYt au mi fst x n fazmfwJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGaMu mi fh o lwkdY[ m u sOf;ajrmi f;wJh&n f&G, fcsu fawGt wGu f Edki fi H&JU&i f;jrpfawGu dkt ajccHt m;jzi fhx def;csKyfzkdYBu dK;pm;wJh wjcm;ao mygwDyHkpHawGx u fwpfEkdi fi Hv Hk;t wkdi f;t wmeJY zGHUNzdK;r Iu dkazmfaq mi fay;v m Ekdi fajc&dSw, f (Oyrm- t v kyft u dki frsm;? v lx k0efaq mi fr Irsm;? pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r Irsm;? v HkNcHKrI?q i f;&JrGJawr Iav smhcsa&;) wjcm;ao mt csu fawGx Ju rS ' Drkdu &u fwpfpepfu dkydkrkdw&m;0i fjzpfv mapat mi fu ln DwJh Programmatic ygwDawG&JU wm0ef, lr I?wm0efcHr Ijr i fhwu fv mjci f;eJY t kyfcsKyfr It ay:t m½Hkpdku fjci f;? ay:v pDt ay: aq G;aEG;ji i f;cHkjci f;awG[ m pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rIeJY wn fNi drfat ;csrf;r IwkdYu dk ydkrdkt ax mu ftu ljyKw, f/ wEkdi fi Hv Hk;t wdki f;t wmeJY v lx kau mi f;u sdK;awGt ay: o lwkdY&JUt m½Hkpdku fr Iu dkay;t yfjci f;t m;jzi fh Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m v lrIt zGJUt pn f;&JU u s, fjyefYwJht pdwft ydki f;x Jyg0i fv mEkdi fajc&dSw, f/

rsm;pGmao mjzpf&yfawGrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m Programmatic eJYwpfEkdi fi Hv Hk;t wkdi f;t wmeJYv lx kau mi f;u dsK;v kyfaq mi fjci f;t ay: t "du t m;jzi fho lwdkYu dk, fo lwkdYt ajcrcHMu b l;/ t J' Dt pm;o lwkdY[ m rJay;o lawG&JU ax mu fcHrIaocsmapzkdY? ' grSr[ kwf wjcm;ao men f;v rf;awGeJY t pdk;&t zGJUu dk armi f;ESi fv n fywfapzkdY Bu dK;pm;Mu w, f/ (Oyrmt m;jzi fh wpfOD;csi f;pD&JU ½kyf0w¬Kzv S, fr I? t v kyft u dki f&&dSa&;azmfaq mi fr I? v lrsdK;pkt ajcjyK? ' grSr[ kwf t jcm;ao mt rSwfo ½kyfawGu dkypfrSwfx m;wJh t u sdK;t jrwf? u dk, f&n fu dk, fao G; t &x i f&Sm;wJhacgi f;aq mi f) ' DyHkpHu dk, fpm;jyKrI&JU v kyfu dki faq mi f&Gu frIeJYw&m;0i frI[ m o rkdi f;aMu mi f;?o lwkdYwHkYjyefwJhEkdi fi Ha&;eJY pD;yGm;a&;q kdi f&mt q u ft pyfawGt ay: jr i fhjri fhrm;rm;t m;, lt ajcjyKx m;&w, f/ t v Gefen f;yg;wJh>ci f;csu fawGeJY Programmatic ygwDu i f;rJhwJhEkdi fi HawGu t rsdK;o rD;eJYt rsdK;o m;awG[ m t jyn fht 0u dk, fpm;jyKcH&zkdYen f;yg;v Gef;aeNyD; &v ' ft jzpf o lwdkYESpfOD;ESpf zu fv Hk;wi fru ' Drdku a&pDygx dckdu fcHpm;&

23


Ekdi fw, f/ay:v pDv kyfaq mi frIen f;yg;NyD; wm0ef, lr I? wm0efcHrIu i f;rJhwJhEkdi fi Ha&;

ygwDawG&dSwJhae&mrSm Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m a, b k, st m;jzi fh o lwkdYt ay: t x i fBu D;av ;pm;r I edr fhedr fhyg;yg;yJ&dSMu w, f/ ' g[ m yx 0D0i ft aet x m;? ' grSr [ kwf, Ofau s;r Iq kdi f&mt rSef? v laerIt q i fht wef;? ' grSr[ kwf Ekdi fi H&JU' Drdku a&pDtawGUt Bu HKawGu dkz, fcsefpOf;pm;x m;wmjzpfw, f/ ra&mi fh&Jr IawG rwn f&dSwJhae&mrSmygwDawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;t pDt pOfawGu dk &Si f;v i f;pGmx kwfazmfajymq kdjci f;t m;jzi fh wpfaeYwmjyó emawGu dk u dki fwG, fMu w, f/ o dkYao mfv n f; zGHUNzdK;q Ju rÇm&JUae&mawmfawmfrsm;rsm;rSm ygwDt rsm;pk[ m zGHUNzdK;rIq kdi f&meJY q u fpyfaewJhx kwfv kyfr I? &n f&G, fcsu feJY ay:v pDawGu dk NyD;ajrmu fat mi ft au mi ft x n fazmfjci f;eJYx dawGUrdzkdY rav hv mMu b l;/

' g[ m Ekdi fi Ho m;awGau mi f;rGefpGmaex kdi ft o u f&Si fEkdi fa&;t wGu f o lwkdY&JUwm0ef, lr Iu dk &Si fo efaeapwJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUat mi fjr i fr It wGu f t o u fwrQt a&;ygw, f/ em;v n fo ab maygu fEkdi fpGmyJ t q u ft pyfwkdi f;u Ekdi fi Ha&;orm;awGt aeeJY o lwkdY&JUrJawGu dkt jr i fhq Hk;&&dSat mi fBu dK;pm;aeMu NyD; a&G;au mu fyGJu dkv n f; ydkNyD;v u fawGYq efwJh&n f&G, fcsu fawGt m;jzi fh t Ekdi f&&dSEkdi fw, fq kdwmut rSefyJjzpfw, f/ Programmatic rjzpfwJhen f;v rf;eJYt a&G;cs, fcHv kdu f&wJhygwDawG[ m v lrsm;pkBu D;&JUpdwf0i fpm;r It en f;i , fu dko m zsm;a, mi f;o dr f;o Gi f;Ekdi fzkdYpdwfygw, f/ ' Dpmt kyfx Ju o kawo erSm ay:v pDt ajccHt ay: t "du x m;, SOfNydKi fwJhygwDawG&dSwJhEkdi fi HawG[ m at mu fygt csu fawGu dk jyKv kyfjyNyD; ydkrkdau mi f;rGefv mw, fq kdwmu dkjyo x m;w, f/ t J' gawGu awmh o lwkdYt aeeJY ydkrkdt i ft m;au mi f;wJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&dSNyD; t J' Dv kdygwDawGr&dSwJhEkdi fi HawGx u f v lr It u sdK;pD;yGm;at mi fjr i fr Iydkrkd&dSwmyJjzpfw, f/

Programmatic t ajccHt kwfjrpfwpfck[ m ygwDawGu dk, fwkdi ft wGu fv n f; t u sdK;au s;Zl;awG&dSapw, f/ Programmatic ygwDawG[ m ½kyf0w¬Kzv S, fr Iu aewq i fh &Si fo efwJh patron-client yHkpHt ay: t "du t ajccHx m;wJhygwDawGx u f ydkrkdu kefu sp&dwfo u fo mpGm v n fywfv kyfaq mi fEkdi fw, f/ ay:v pDawGwkd;wu faewJhygwDwpfck[ m Programmatic v Iyf&Sm;rIt jyi f rJay;o lo kaw

24


o eeJY yHk&dyfwn faq mu fjci f;wkdYv kdY t a&;u dpöawGt wGu f o lwkdY&JU&efyHkai Gu dkydkrdkrsm;jym;wJht csdK;eJYcefYcGJv mEkdi fr , f/ t u sdK;q u ft jzpf ProgrammaticygwDyHkpH[ m Oyrmt m;jzi fh ygwD&JUv u f&dSacgi f;aq mi ft v Gef? ygwD&JUwi fjycsu fu dkt u keft u sen f;pGmx def; o drf;Ekdi fzkdY? ygwDwGi f;t q u ft pyfawGu dk jr§i fhwi fzkdYeJYrJq G, fa&;v Iyf&Sm;r It ay: t m½Hkydkrkdpdku fEkdi fzkdY? wpfo m;wn f;jzpfwJhwpfEkdi fi Hv Hk;t wkdi f;t wmygwDwpfck wn faq mu fjci f;? ygwD&JUv lo drsm;wJh t rSwfwHq dyfeJY&n f&G, fcsu fBu D;rm;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk csdwfq u fzdkY? ydkrdkBu D;rm;wJhu wdu 0wfawGu dk t m;ay;zkdYeJY ygwD0i fawG&JU yl;aygi f;yg0i fjci f;wkdYv dku dpöawGrSmEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk u ln Day;NyD; &efyHkai Gwkd;wu fx lax mi fjci f;t ydki f;u dkv n f;azmfaq mi fay;w, f/

pmt kyft ay: NcHKi Hko Hk;o yfcsu f

' Dpmt kyf[ m t "du t m;jzi fh Programmatic ygwDawGeJY r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDpepfawG&JU ay:aygu fv mjci f;eJY u spfv pfckdi frmjci f;u dkazmfaq mi fay;wJht ajct aeawGt ay: International IDEA u wm0efay;aq mi f&Gu fwJho kawo e&v ' fyJjzpfygw, f/ yx rq Hk;t cef;u awmh Juan Pablo Lunaa&;o m;wJh wm0ef, lr I&dSwJhygwDt pkd;&yHkpH&JU ½Iax mi hf 11 ck&JU t q u ft pyft wGi f;rSm Programmatic ygwDawG&JU b mo m&yft jzpfx m;&dSwJh pmayq kdi f&mav hv mo Hk;o yfcsu fpmwrf;jzpfw, f/ t J' Dt cef;[ m jzpfEkdi fzG, fq u fET, fr IawGeJYProgrammatic ygwDawGt wGu f ayghayghyg;yg; t q kdMu r f;awGeJYywfo u fNyD;aq G;aEG;x m;w, f/ ' Dt cef;u t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fh Democratic Account-ability and Linkage Project t csu ft v u ft pku dk q efYu si fNyD; jyKv kyfx m;wmjzpfw, f/ (t J' Dt pk[ m a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m' Drkdu a&pD 88 ckeJY ygwD 506ck t pkt aygi f;u ae pkpn f;&, lx m;wJht csu ft v u fawGjzpfw, f/)

' kwd, t cef;u awmh Herbert Kitschelt OD;aq mi fjyKpkx m;wmjzpfNyD;t J' Dt cef;rSm t x u fazmfjyyg t csu ft v u ft pkeJY at mu fazmfjyygEkdi fi H 7

25


Ekdi fi H&JUygwDawG? ygwDpepfawGx Ju jzpfEkdi fzG, f&dSwJht ajct aeo Hk;cku dk o u faojyx m;wJhEdIi f;, SOfo kawo ejyKcsu fawGu dk t ESpfcsKyfx m;wmjzpfygw, f/ Ekdi fi H7 cku awmh b &mZD;? b lv fa*;&D;, m;? ' dkrDeDu efo r®wEkdi fi H? t dEd, ? awmi fu dk&D;, m;? x kdi f0r feJY wl&u DwkdYjzpfMu ygw, f/ ' D&i f;jrpft pkt aygi f;u Pro-grammatic ygwDawG&JU t m;x kwfrIeJY, SOfNydKi fr IawGu dk yHkazmfjyzkdYeJY &Si f;v i f;jyo zkdYu GJjym;wJht ajct aeawG&JU cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmEdIi f;, SOfcsu fu dk cGi fhjyK ay;w, f/

wwd, t cef;u awmh Nic Cheeseman OD;aq mi fjyKpkx m;wmjzpfNyD;o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&mv kyfi ef;pOfawGeJY Programmatic t wGi f;o Gwfo Gi f;jci f;v r f;aMu mi f;awGt ay: t m½Hkpkdu fx m;wJho kawo ejyKcsu fawGu dk wi fjyx m;wmjzpfw, f/ ' DcsOf;u yfr Iu wn faq mu fzGJUpn f;yHkeJY Ekdi fi Ht q i fhygwDpepf&JU Pro-grammatic q kdi f&mt m;au mi f;r Iu dkyHkazmfay;wJh t m;jyKrIt Mu m;u t m;NydKi fr It ay:ro dro mu GJjym;r I&dSwJh ZmwfaMu mi f;ajym[ efu dk wi fjyx m;w, f/ ' Dt cef;rSmb &mZD;? t dEd, ? , lu &def;eJY Zrfb D, mEkdi fi HawG&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m Ekdi fi HpD;yGm;t v m;t v mt wGi f; EdIu fEdIu fcRwfcRwf&SmazGav hv mwi fjyx m;NyD; v lrsdK;pkt rSwfo ½kyfawGeJY v lr I0ef;u si feJYt cGi fho myHkray:wJh t jcm;ao mt ajct aeawGat mu fuProgrammatic ygwDawG&JU ay:x Gu fv mrIq Du Ekdi fi Ht q i fht zGJUt pn f;&JUo u fa&mu fr Iu dk pl;pdku fav hv mwi f jyx m;w, f/

pwkw¬ajrmu ft cef;rSm wjcm;ao mt cef;o Hk;cef;q Du awGU&dSrIawGu dktwlwu Gx n fho Gi f;x m;NyD; o lwkdY&JUv kyfaq mi fr IawGt wGu f NyD;ajrmu fat mi ftau mi ft x n fazmfjci f;eJYywfo u fv kdY aq G;aEG;x m;w, f/ ' Dt cef;[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG? ygwDt ax mu ft u ljyKt zGJUt pn f;awG? o kawo DawGeJY ' Drkdu a&pDzefwD;jci f;u dk u ln DzkdYpdwf0i fpm;r I&dSwJho lawGeJY v lr Ia&;eJYpD;yGm;a&;q kdi f&mzGHUNzdK;rI&JUzdt m;ay;awmi f;q kdrIawGt wGu f ydkrkdwHkYjyefr I&dSwJhygwDay:v pDawGt wGu fo wi f;pu m;awGu dk t q Dt ESpfx kwfjyKpkx m;wmjzpfw, f/

26


1 Luna et al. ‘Desk Review on Political Parties’ (Stockholm,International IDEA, 2011) available at <http://www.idea.int/development/upload/Luna_Desk-Review_Full.pdf> accessed on 17March 2014.

2 Unabridged versions of the whole research project are available on<http://www.idea.int>.

3 The data set and codebook can be found at <https://web.duke.edu/democracy/data.html>.

rSwfpk

27


1tcef; - 1


Programmatic ygwDrsm; -pmaye,fy,ftwGif;rS ½Iaxmifhrsm;ESifh&Sif;vif;csufrsm;ukd avhvmjcif;

Juan Pablo Luna, Fernando Rosenblatt and Sergio Toro

ed' gef;

Programmatic ygwDawGeJY ygwDpepfawG[ m jyn fhpHkwJh' Drkdu &u fwpfu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;u dk jzpfay:apEkdi fwJh t a&;ygwJht pdwft ydki f;wpfck jzpfw, fv kdYt NrJv kdv kdrSwf, lcHcJh&w, f/ b , fv kdyJjzpfjzpf zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu faewJh u rÇmBu D;rSmygwDawmfawmfrsm;rsm;[ m rJq E&Si fawGeJY t pDt pOfu sewJht csdwf t q u fawGwn faq mu fEkdi fpGr f;u i f;rJhaew, f/ wpfzu frSmv n f; t J' DrpGr f;aq mi fEkdi fr I[ mt &n ft ao G;edrfh' Drkdu a&pDeJY t &n ft ao G;r jyn fhrDwJh ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;pepfawGeJY q u fET, faew, f/

Programmatic ygwDwpfckrSm wn faq mu fyHkau mi f;rGefNyD; wn fNi drfwJht kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mu wdu 0wfawG&dS Mu w, f/ t J' gawGu (1) ygwD&JUrJq E&Si fawGeJY csdwfq u fr I? (2) ygwDrsm;t Mu m; a&G;au mu fyGJNydKi fq kdi fr IeJY(3) ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;v kyfi ef;pOfawGt wGu f t ajccHawGjzpfw, f/ Program-matic ygwDt jzpf o wfrSwfcH&zkdYt wGu f ygwDwpfckt aeeJY at mu fyge, fy, fo Hk;ckrSmv kdu fav smn Dax Gat mi f jyKr laq mi f&Gu fzkdYv kdt yfw, f/ rJq E&Si fawGq D (v mb fay;rJq G, fjci f;eJY Mo ZmBu D;rm;o lwpfOD;u dkr lwn frJq G, fjci f;awG

29


x u f) Programmatic u sewJhcsdwfq u fr IawGu dk t "du t m;jzi fhwn faq mu fjci f;?t pdk;&t zGJUx Ju dka&mu fwJht csdefrSm Programmatic awGu dk NyD;ajrmu ft au mi ft x n fay:apa&;&SmazGjci f;eJY Programmatic q kdi f&mv rf;aMu mi f;u dk wn faq mu fjci f;? ysHUESHUjci f;eJYjyefYyGm;apjci f;awG t au mi ft x n fazmfEkdi fwJhen f; v r f;eJYygwDu dkzGJUpn f;jci f;wkdYyJjzpfw, f/

o Dt kd&Dt & t a&;ygayrJhv n f; Programmatic ygwDawGt ay: o kawo ejyKjci f;[ m ' DaeYt csdeft x d&Sm;yg;aeq Jjzpfw, f/ ' Dt cef;rSm pdwfu l;yHkazmfjci f;? t wdki f;t wmyrmP eJY v u f&dS Programmatic ygwDawG&JUt aMu mi f;u sdK; q u fET, faewJh&Si f;v i f;csu fawGeJYq u fpyfwJh e, fy, f&JUt ajct aeu dkazmfjyo Gm;rSmjzpfw, f/ ' Dt a&;u dpö&JUu GJjym;wJht jr i fawGeJYo u fq kdi fwJh pmayyHkpH 11rsdK;&Sdw, fv dkY o Hk;o yf&&dSw, f/ (1) ygwDpepfu dk t rsdK;o m;a&;q efat mi fjyKv kyfv kdu fwJht cg ay:x Gu fv mwJhpmay? (2) n Dv mcHq kdi f&may:v pDcsrSwfjci f;eJYygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fawG&JU Programmatic q kdi f&maygi f;pn f;n Dn GwfrIq Du pmay?(3) ygwD&JU aMu n mpmwrf;ya&m*su feJY Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JU Programmaticq kdi f&m&yfwn fcsu fo ab mo b m0u dk cGJjcrf;av hv mEdki fzdkYt wGu ft J' D (aMu n mpmwrf;)&JU &i f;jrpfeJYq i f;o u fv myHk? (4) pkpn f;x m;wJh pdwf0i fpm;o lt kyfpkawG?t Bu HOmP fay;Ekdi fwJhyn m&Si ft pkt zGJUawG? t pkd;&r[ kwfwJht zGJUt pn f; (NGO)awG? q u fET, fwJhv len f;pkt kyfpkav ;awGeJY acwfNydKi f' Drdku a&pDt wGi f;uEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGt Mu m;q u fET, fcsu fu dk cGJjcrf;av hv mwJhav hv mcsu fawG? (5)ygwDzGJUpn f;jci f;eJY ygwDwGi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;eJYywfo u fwJh pmay? (6) ygwD-rJq E&Si fcsdwfq u fr Ir lab mi fawGu dk v kdu femjci f;u dkav hv mrI? (7) ygwDpepf t zGJYt pn f;jyKa&;csOf;u yfr IeJY t J' g&JUv u f&dS Programmatic ygwDawG&JUq u fET, fcsu f?(8) wn faq mu fyHk? (9) Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' ? (10) t zGJUt pn f;eJY (11)v u f&dS Programmatic ygwDawGt ay: o rkdi f;0i ft zGJUt pn f;awG&JUt q Hk;t jzwfay;wJht &mawGyJjzpfw, f/

yx r t ydki f;u t ajccHt "dyÜg, fzGi fhq dkcsu fawGeJY o wfrSwfx m;wJhygwDpepfrSm Programmatic Edki fi Ha&;u dk cGJjcr f;av hv mzkdYt wGu f o Dt kd&Dq kdi f&mpHt rSwft jzpf wm0ef&dSo lt pdk;&u dk rdwfq u fay;rSmjzpfw, f/ ' kwd, t ydki f;rSm

30


ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawGeJY wu f<u v Iyf&Sm;o lawG&JUt jri fu ae o rm;½dk;u sr[ kwfwJhpn f;½Hk;o dr f;o Gi f;jci f;en f;AsL[ meJY q u fET, faewJhq u fpyft u sdK;au s;Zl;awGu dkaq G;aEG;rSmjzpfw, f/ pmayq kdi f&mav hv mcsu f[ m Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUv u fawGUcGJjcr f;o Hk;o yfcsu ft wGu f u Gefq u fcsL&, fr lab mi fwpfckeJYt wl t ESpfcsKyfcH&w, f/ t J' Dt ajccHrSm Programmatic ygwDpepfawGu jzefYa0rI&JU v u fawGU&SmazGawGU&dSrI&v ' fawG[ m rSDcdkv kdY&NyD; EdIi f;, SOfv kdY&wJho wi f;t csu ft v u fawG&&dSEkdi fwJh jzpf&yft m;v Hk;t wGu f wi fjycH&w, f/

Programmatic ygwDpepfb , fv kdt v kyfv kyfo v J/ /wm0ef, lrI&dSwJhygwDt pdk;&t kdi f' D, m

wm0ef, lr I&dSwJhygwDt pdk;&(RPG)t kdi f' D, mq kdwm ay;x m;wJhygwDpepft wGi f;rSm wi fjyx m;wJh Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;&JU jr i fu Gi f;u dk cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;t wGu f o Dt kd&Dq dki f&mrSwfau smu fwpfckjzpfw, f/ t J' Dpepfu dkProgrammatic ygwDwpfckq kdwm b mv J? ' grSr [ kwf Programmatic ygwDpepfwpfckq kdwm b mv Jq kdwmu dk t , lt q jyKav h? wkdi f;wmt u Jjzwfav h&dSw, f/' gaMu mi fh RPG q kdwJht ac:t a0:eJY ygwDpepf&JU Programmatic wn faq mu fzGJUpn f;yHkq kdwJht o Hk;t EIef;awGu dk ' Dpmt kyfrSmzv S, fNyD;t o Hk;jyKx m;w, f/

Programmatic q kdi f&mt csdwft q u fawGt ay: t ajccHwJh wm0ef, lr I?wm0efcHrI&dSwJhq u fET, fr IawGu dk Ekdi fi Ho m;awGeJY ygwDawGt wGi f;rSm x n fho Gi f;t jrKawjr�§KyfESHx m;wJhygwDpepfawG[ m armf' ef' Drkdu a&pD&JU Ekdi fi Ha&; u dk, fpm;jyKrIpdwfu l;pdwfo ef;eJYeD;pyfw, fv kdY rSwf, lcH&w, f/ RPG pdwfu l;pdwfo ef;t &?Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m o lwkdY&JUrsm;jym;wJhOD;pm;ay;r IawGt ay:rSm t ajccHNyD;rJay;Mu w, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSm ygwDawG[ m u GJjym;jcm;em;wJh Program-matic q kdi f&myv u fazmi f;awGu dk u r f;v Sr f;Mu w, f/ t pdk;&t zGJUx JrSmv n f;t J' Dyv u fazmi f;awGeJYt n D pDrHt kyfcsKyfw, f/ wu , fv kdYo lwkdYo m t J' Dv kdrt kyfcsKyfb l;q kd&i f v mr, fha&G;au mu fyGJt v Sn fhrSm o lwkdYt aeeJYwm0ef, l&v drfhr, f/

31


' gaMu mi fh ygwDt o D;o D;&JUrJay;o lawGt aeeJY o do mjr i fo mwJh Program-matic eJY o lwkdYeJYt wl x kwfazmfx m;wJh? ' grSr [ kwf o lwkdYrJay;r , fhygwDawGeJYu dku fn Dr , fh t kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&m&yfwn fr I&dSo i fhw, f/

x yfNyD;&Si f;&r, fq kd&i f Programmatic ygwDawG[ m au mi f;rGefwJhzGJUpn f;wn faq mu fyHkeJY at mu fygt csu fawGt wGu ft ajccHawG zGJUpn f;x m;wJh wn fNi drfwJht kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mu wdu 0wfawG&dSNyD;o m;jzpfw, fv kdY rSwf, lEkdi fw, f/t J' gawG u awmh (1) ygwDeJY t J' DygwD&JUrJq E&Si ft kyfpkMu m;u csdwfq u fr I?(2) ygwDawGt Mu m; a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m, SOfNydKi fr I? (3) ay:v pDcsrSwfa&;v kyfi ef;pOfwkdYyJjzpfw, f/ t J' De, fy, fwpfckcsi f;pDx JrSm ygwDwpfck? ' grSr [ kwfygwDawG[ m Programmatic en f;AsL[ mawGt & jyKrlo i fhw, f/ wn faq mu fyHku dk azmfaq mi fwJhen f;v rf;awGt wkdi f;ygwDu dk zGJUpn f;jci f;t m;jzi fh? Programmaticyv u fazmi f;&JU ysHUESHYjci f;eJY x kwfv kyfjci f;t m;jzi fh? rJay;o lawGq Dcsdwfq u fwJhProgrammatic t csdwft q u fawGu dkwn faq mu fjci f;t m;jzi fheJY t pdk;&t zGJUx Ju dka&mu f&dSwJh t cgo lwkdY&JU Programmatic NyD;ajrmu fapjci f;u dk Bu dK;pm;jci f;t m;jzi fhjzpfw, f/ pdwfu l;t &q kd&i f Programmatic t wGu f t x u frSmazmfjyx m;wJhe, fy, fo Hk;ckpv Hk;rSm ygwDt aeeJYt q kdygen f;AsL[ mawGu dk t a&;pdku fzkdYv kdw, f/

' Dt "dyÜg, f, fzGi fhq kdcsu fu Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mu dk, fpm;jyKrI&JUo ab mx m;at mu frSmwn f&dSaewJh t ajccHu swJh' dki fref;&Si f;o Hk;cku dk NcHKi Hkrdw, f/ yx rOD;q Hk;taeeJY ¤i f;u t cGi fht mP mu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;? ' grSr [ kwf rJq E&Si ft kyfpkawG&JUOD;pm;ay;r It ay: ygwD&JUwm0ef, lr It q i fht wGu f t a&;pdku fw, f/ ( Dalton1985; Iversen 1994; Manin, Przeworski and Stokes 1999; Ranney 1962)ygwDwpfck o lY&JUrJq E&Si ft kyfpkawGt ay:wm0ef, lr I&dSv mzkdYt wGu f RPG rSmaemu fx yft en f;q Hk;x yfaygi f;t ajct aeo Hk;ckv kdt yfw, f/ t J' gawGu awmh(1) a&G;au mu fyGJ 0i fa&mu f, SOfNydKi fwJhygwDawGt Mu m; ay:v pDu GJv GJr I? (2)a&G;au mu fyGJ0i fa&mu f , SOfNydKi fwJhygwDawG&JUwpfpdwfwpfydki f;t ay: EdIi f;&ay:v pDwn fNi dr fr IeJY (3) rJq E&Si fawG&JUwpfpdwfwpfydki f;t ay: ay:v pDrJay;jci f;(Adams 2001a)/

' kwd, u awmh ay:v pDcsrSwfa&;v kyfi ef;pOfu dk t av ;t eu fpOf;pm;

32


jci f;t m;jzi fh RPG pdwfu l;pdwfo ef;[ m at mu fygt csdeft cgawGrSmjzpfyGm;wJhwm0ef, lr I? wm0efcHrIq kdi f&mu dk, fpm;jyKr I&JU o ab mx m;eJYaygi f;pyfo Gm;w, f/t J' Dt csdeft cgawGu awmh (1) rJay;o lawGu aemu faMu mi f;jyeft mP mo u fa&mu fr I&dS&dSjyKr lwJht cg? (2) jyefv n fa&G;au mu fcH&zkdYt wGu f t mP m&ygwDu ay:v pDawGu dka&G;cs, fwJht cgwkdYjzpfw, f/ (Alesina 1988; Manin,Przeworski and Stokes 1999)

aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY t "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdcsu fu t mP mv kyfydki fcGi fheJYwm0ef, lr Iwm0efcHr Iu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;u dk t au mi ft x n fazmfwJh t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mt cef;u @awGu dk yGi fhyGi fhv i f;v i f;t o dt rSwfjyKw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh ygwDawGuwu f<u v Iyf&Sm;o lawGu dkpn f;½Hk;v HIYaq mfNyD; ygwDwGi f;t q Hk;t jzwfcsrSwfa&;, EÅ&m;u dkzefwD;wJh' D*&D[ m ' D' dki fref;&Si f;&JUA[ kdt pdwft ydki f;wpfckjzpfw, fq kdwmu dk t o dt rSwfjyKwmjzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh at mu fazmfjyygv u ©P mawGu dkRPG pdwfu l;yHkpHwpfckx JrSm av hv mo i fhw, f/

- ygwDt o D;o D;&JU rJay;o lawGrSm u GJjym;wJht kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sD Program-matic q kdi f&mOD;pm;ay;r I&dSNyD; o i fhav smfu dku fn DpGmrJay;w, f/

- ygwDawGu t J' Drwln DwJhOD;pm;ay;r IawGu dk pn f;½Hk;v HIUaq mfjci f;t m;jzi fh , SOfNydKi fw, f/

- t pdk;&t zGJUx Ja&mu f&dSwJht cg ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fawGu t J' DOD;pm;ay;r IawGeJYu dku fn DwJhay:v pDawGu dk NyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fapzkdYBu dKpm;w, f/

- rJay;o lawGt Mu m;u t jyeft v Sefo u fa&mu fr It pkt aygi f;? t pdk;&t zGJUx Ja&mu f&dSzkdYBu dK;pm;aewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJY ygwDawGrSm t csdefv GefrIawGjzpfay:v mw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh t pkd;&t zGJUx Ju dka&mu fwJht csddefrSm ygwDawG&JUNydKi fq kdi fEkdi fpGrf;eJY pn f;½Hk;o drf;o Gi f;Ekdi fpGrf;ESpfckpv Hk;u ajymi f;v Jwkd;wu fwJhay:v pDt pkt pn f;awG(t pGef;x Gu faewJht a&;u dpöawGt ay: jyefv n fjzefYa0wJh &yfwn frIawGeJYt wl o ab mwln Djci f;x JrSm) Programmatic t pkt pn f;awG t wGu ftajct aeawGu dk t i ft m;jzn fhwi f; (' grSr [ kwf wpfpwpfp, kwfav smhap)w, f/ t pdk;&t zGJUx Ju dka&mu f&dSwJht csdefrSm ygwD&JUt jyKt r leJYpm&i f;u dku fn Dr Iu dkrJay;o lawGu q u fv u fv kyfaq mi faeq JjzpfNyD; ygwDawG&JUNyD;cJhwJh Program-

33


matic q kdi f&mu wdu 0wfawGu dk o ab mwlv kdu fav smjci f;u dk aemu faMu mi f;jyefo u fa&mu frI&dSpGm t u JjzwfMu o v kd ay:v pDajymi f;v Jo Gm;o lrsm;u dk t jypfay;jci f;eJY ay:v pDu dkt au mi ft x n fazmfo lrsm;u dk t m;ay;ax mu fcHjci f;t m;jzi fho i fhav smfpGmjyKr lMu w, f/

t x u fazmfjyygt csu fawGu dkv kyfaq mi fx m;NyD; RPG u v n f; t csdefau smfv Gefu m u spfv pfo Gm;NyDq kd&i f pepfx JrSm&dSwJht "du ygwDBu D;awGt m;v Hk;o lwkdY&JUrJq E&Si fawGeJY Programmatic q kdi f&mcsdwfq u fjci f;u dk t o i fht wi fhwn faq mu fzGJUpn f;Mu o i fhw, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh (1) RPG rSm pepft wGi f;rSm, SOfNydKi faewJhygwDawGt Mu m; Programmatic q kdi f&mu GJv GJr IawGv kdt yfwmaMu mi fheJY (2) ygwDawGt Mu m; Programmatic u l;pu fr I[ m Programmatict av ht x u l;pu fEkdi facs&dSwJhpepft wGi f;rSm jzpfay:v mo i fhwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/

' Dx i fv i f;r It wGi f;rSm Programmatic pn f;½Hk;v HIUaq mfjci f;&JU' D*&D[ mpepfu sewJhv u ©P m&yfwpfckt jzpf ydkrkdv Hkv Hkav mu fav mu f pdwfu l;x kwfcH&w, f/ t J' Dt jyi f Programmatic t m;jzi fh wpfygwDx u fydkNyD; , SOfNydKi fwJht csdefrSm RPG wpfckwn f;o mt v m;t v m&dSw, f/

o kdYao mfv n f; zGHUNzdK;q Ju rÇmx JrSm&SmazGawG&dSEkdi fwJht J' Dv kdt v si ft jrefajymi f;v Jjzpfay:aewJhygwDpepft wGi f;rSm ' Dv kdpepfu sewJhrQajcawG[ mawGU&cJw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh x i fx i f&Sm;&Sm;u GJv GJwJhen f;AsL[ mawGu dk q GJaq mi fpn f;½Hk;aewJh wpfo D;yk*¾v ygwDawGu dk t en f;q Hk;wpfacgu fav mu fjzpfjzpfav hv mMu n fhzkdYjzpfEkdi fo i fhw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fhb &mZD;Ekdi fi Hu Partido dosTrabalhadores (Workers' Party,PT) eJY O½ka*G;Ekdi fi Hu Frente Amplio wkdY[ mwpfjcm;wpfzu frSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJh(b &mZD;u u dpö&yfrSm ryDjyi fao ;)ygwDpepfx JrSm , SOfNydKi faewJh Programmatic ygwDawGt jzpfazmfjycHMu &w, f/RPG t q i fhedrfhaewJht csdefrSm v Trf;rkd;Bu D;pdk;wJhb u fawmfo m;t zGJUt pn f;rsm;&JUpdwfu l;yHkpHawG[ m u GJjym;jcm;em;w, f/ (Oyrmt m;jzi fh Programmatic r&dSwJht em*wfjzpfEkdi fajct wGi f;rSm) Oyrm

34


- t m;au mi f;wJhru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;, EÅ&m;u dkx def;csKyfx m;wJh ygwDawG

- Mo Zmwdu úreJYjyn fhpHkwJhacgi f;aq mi fawGt wGu f wpfOD;wpfa, mu f&JUu dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;u dkt ajcjyKrJq G, fjci f;, mOfawG t jzpfv kyfaq mi fwJhygwDawG

- t en f;q Hk; t v , ft v wft q i fheJY t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSwJh v Twfawmfq kdi f&mpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awG&JUt q i hfawGu i f;rJhwJhygwDawG

- Programmatic u sepGm, SOfNydKi fcJhayrJh t pdk;&t zGJUx Ju dka&mu f&dSwJhtcsdefrSm o lwkdY&JUwi fjycsu fawGu dk o pömazmu fo Gm;NyD; ay:v pDajymi f;v Jo Gm;wJhygwDawG

- o do do mo mBu D;u dku sOf;ajrmi f;v mwJh Programmatic zGJUpn f;yHkau mi f;&dSwJh t a&;u dpöwpfckwn f;t ay:OD;wn fwJhv Iyf&Sm;r IawGu dk u dk, fpm;jyKwJhygwDawG

t a&;ygwJhwi fu l;o wday;csu fwpfcku awmh pepfwu sr jzpfao ;b l;/v u fawGUu rÇmygwDawGeJY ygwDpepfawG[ m wjcm;ao men f;AsL[ mawGeJYt wlProgrammatic v HIUaq mfr I' D*&DawGu dk aygi f;pyfv kdu fw, f/ t J' Dv kden f;AsL[ mwpfcku dk o lwkdYt m½Hkpdku fwJhyrmP [ m u Gmjcm;csu fyJjzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh t zGJUt pn f;wu f<u v Iyf&Sm;o lawG? v lx kay:v pDawGu dk at mi fjr i fNyD;ajrmu fapjci f;eJYo lwkdY&JUrJay;o lawGeJY q u fpyfjci f;q Du dk ydkrsm;rsm;jzpfap ydken f;en f;jzpfapOD;pm;ay;r IawGay;wJhygwDawGeJY ygwDpepfawGt wGi f; cGJjcrf; pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;en f;t jyi f v u fawGUu swJhen f;eJYyg cGJjcm;o wfrSwfzkdYt a&;Bu D;w, f/

35


b maMu mi fh Programmatic ygwDawGuEkdi fi Ha&;pGrf;aq mi f&Si fawGt wGu f t o Hk;0i fo v JeJYb maMu mi fh Programmatic ygwDawGt aeeJY' Drkdu a&pDt &n ft ao G;q Du dk ax mu fyhHay;o i fho v J

t en f;q Hk;Ekdi fi Ha&;u dk, fpm;jyKr I&JUpHpdwfu l;pdwfo ef;x JrSm Program-matic ygwDawG&dSaejci f;[ m ' Drkdu a&pDt &n ft ao G;t wGu fau mi f; rGef½HkrQrut pdk;&t zGJUx Jyg0i fzdkYBu dK;pm;aewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt wGu f jyn fhpHkv Hkav mu fwJhygwDwn faq mu fjci f;v n f;jzpfw, f/ q Dav smfpGmyJ a&&Sn fu mv t wGu fMu m;cHx JrSmeJYwn fNi dr fwJhygwDpepft q u ft pyfx JrSm &n frSef;csu fBu D;rm;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m Programmatic t zGJUt pn f;u dkyHkazmfwJhae&mrSm o lwkdY&JUyHk&dyfeJY½kyf0w¬Kypön f;awGu dk &i f;ESD;jr§KyfESHv kdu fwm[ m t au mi f;q Hk;yJjzpfw, f/Programmatic ygwDawG[ m en f;v rf;yHkao en f;yrmP wpfcku dk t o Hk;jyKjci f;pdwfu l;pdwfo ef;u dk em;v n fo ab maygu fo Gm;at mi f ax mu fyHhay;Ekdi fw, f/

Programmatic wkd;wu frIuygwDt wGi f;ydki f;aygi f;pn f;n Dn GwfrIu dk azmfaq mi fay;w, f

Programmatic ygwDt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu at mi fjr i fwJhv kyfi ef;b 0u dkb , fv kdpn f;½Hk;o v Jq kdwmu dkwn faq mu fwJh t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&m, EÅ&m;u wpfq i fh wGef;t m;ay;cH&wJhwln DwJh Programmatic v kyfi ef;pOfeJYtwl t pdk;&t zGJUx Jyg0i fzdkYBu dK;pm;aewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dka&G;cs, f? v lx kt wGi f;csjyNyD; t wlwu Gac:aq mi fw, f/ ' DcsOf;u yfr Iu ygwDt zGJU0i fawGt aeeJYOyrmt m;jzi fh t pdk;&t zGJUx Ja&mu f&dSo Gm;wJht csdefygwD pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;u dkazmfaq mi fwJh t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mb Hkwkd;wu frIwpfcku dkrQo v m;q kdwmeJYywfo u fv kdYrjzpfraeao csmzkdYv kdt yfw, f/ t jyeft v Seft aeeJY Programmatic aygi f;pn f;n Dn Twfr Iu ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;u dk azmfaq mi fay;w, f/ ' Dt zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mtcsu ft v u fawGu v Twfawmfq kdi f&mpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;u dkax mu fyHhEkdi f½Hko mru

36


Ekdi fi H&JUe, fajrydki feu fwav Qmu fwpfpkwpfpn f;wn f;jzpfwJh b u fawmfo m;t zGJUtpn f;awGu dk ydkrdkzefwD;Ekdi fa&;t wGu fv n f; t u lt n Day;Ekdi fw, f/ t jyeftv Seft m;jzi fh t J' Dt csu fu ygwDpepfu dk t rsdK;o m;t q i fhjyKjci f;t ay: t aygi f;o ab maq mi fwJho u fa&mu fr I&dSapv drfhr , f/

Programmatic pkpn f;n Dn TwfrIuygwDt rSwfwHq dyf&JUt kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDyrmP u dkax mu fu lay;w, f

ygwDt rSwfwHq dyf[ m rJay;o lawGeJY pepfu sewJhcsdwfq u fr IawGwn faq mu fzdkYt wGu f wefzkd;&dSw, f/ ygwDt rSwfwHq dyfawGu a&G;au mu fo lawG&JUq Hk;jzwfcsu fawGu dkazmfaq mi fzkdYt wGu f ½Iyfax G;wJht a&;u dpöawGu dk &Si f;v i f;zkdYu ln Day;w, f/ (Aldrich 1995; Hinnich and Munger 1994) wpfo D;yk*¾v Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUt jyKt r lawGu dk ab mi fcwfwJht csdefrSm Programmatic wkd;wu fjci f;&dSwJhygwDawG[ m pkaygi f;t zGJUt pn f;q Du dko lwkdY&JUu wdu 0wfawGt wGu f t pdk;&t zGJUt wGi f;yg0i fzkdYBu dK;pm;aeo lawGu dkv n f; t pm;x kd;ay;w, f/' DyHkpHat mu frSm Ekdi ffi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m a&G;au mu fyGJat mi fEkdi fa&;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGt wGi f; rajymi f;r v Jt u sdK;&dSpGmt o Hk;cscH&zkdYyHk&dyfawGeJY pD;yGm;a&;q kdi f&m&i f;jrpfawGu dk pkyHkt o Hk;csjci f;t m;jzi fh &n frSef;csu fBu D;rm;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt wGu f v Hkav mu fwJh, mOfwpfckpDpOfay;w, f/ ' gaMu mi fh Programmatic*kP fo wi f;u dk x def;o dr f;jci f;eJY wpfo D;yk*¾v u dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk x i f&Sm;pGmo dEkdi fwJhjzwfv r f;t jzpf rJay;o lawGu t o Hk;csEkdi fwJhygwDt rSwfwHq dyfu dkpDpOfay;jci f;wkdYjzpfw, f/ (Hinnich and Munger 1994)

t wkdcsHK;t m;jzi fh RPG pepfat mu frSm u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;wpfOD;&JUu dk, fydki ft aet x m;eJY yk*¾dKv fa&;q kdi f&mp½dku fv u ©P mawGrSm ygwD&JUt q kdygt csu fawGt wkdi f;yJ en f;yg;wJhwefzdk;o m&dSw, f/ t J' Dt csu fawGu u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;&JUp½dku fv u ©P mawGeJY ay:v pDu wdu 0wfawG&JUt mrcHcsu ft jzpfv kyfaq mi fw, f/

37


Programmatic ygwDawGuru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fao m, EÅ&m;x u f ydkrkdwwfEkdi fzG, f&dSw, f

Programmatic ygwDawGt aeeJY n d§EdIi f;aq mi f&Gu fjci f; t u syft wn f;pD;&D;wpfcku dk ajz&Si f;zkdYydkrkdau mi f;rGefpGm wyfq i fcH&o i fhayrJh (Oyrmt m;jzi fhv Twfawmft wGi f;ygwDpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;at mi fjr i fjci f;? acgi f;aq mi fo pfa&G;cs, fcefYt yfjci f;eJY ygwDt wGi f;ydki f;t zGJUt pn f;u dk azmfaq mi fay;jci f;eJY a' gi fv kdu faygi f;pyfr IEdki fi Ht q i fhjzpfapjci f;u dk jr§i fhwi fjci f;) ygwDawGrSm &Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f;u dk wjcm;v kyfp&mawG&dSaew, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwD, EÅ&m;wpfcku v TwfawmfwGi f;ygwDpn f;rsOf;eJY Ekdi fi Hydki feu ft ESHYa' gi fv kdu faygi f;pyfr Iu dk ao csmapwJhen f;v rf;t & ½kyf0w¬Kypön f;q kv mb fawGu dkax mu fyHhay;w, f/ ' DyHkpHt zGJUt pn f;[ m rJay;o lawGeJYcsdwfq u fzdkYt wGu fv Hkav mu fwJhen f;v rf;wpfckjzpfNyD; o lwkdY&JUa&G;au mu fyGJt ay:o pöm&dSrIu dkv n f;ao csmapw, f/ ' DyHkpHygwDEkdi fi Ha&;t zGJUt pn f;jyKjci f;&JUwkd;wu fajymi f;v JwJhen f;v r f;&JU t pGef;a&mu fAm;&Si f;wpfcku dk q GJaq mi fjci f;eJY Ekdi fi Hacs;i Sm;rIawGu dkax mu fyHhay;jci f;t m;jzi fh t mP mu dku spfv pfcdki frmat mi fpkpn f;x m;wJh Bu D;pdk;v Tr f;rkd;ygwDawG&dSwJh v Gwfv yfa&;acwfv Geft mz&du ygwDpepfwpfcsdKUrSmjr i fawGU&Ekdi fygw, f/

RPG pepfrSm wjcm;ao men f;v rf;awGeJY , SOfNydKi fr Iwn faq mu fjci f;awGx u f ydkrdkNyD;t a&;ygwJht u sdK;au s;Zl;&dSw, f/ ' DpepfrSm pepfu sewJht zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&m&i f;ESD;jr§KyfESHrIawGeJY cHEkdi f&n fu dkv dkt yfayrJh ' Dpepf[ m t awmi ft v u fpHkv i faeNyDjzpfwJhru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, frI? ' grSr[ kwf rsdK;cspfpdwft aMu mi f;jyKen f;AsL[ mu dkNyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fapzkdYv kdt yfwJh ½kyf0w¬K&i f;jrpfawGx u f ydkrkdt u keft u so u fo mwJhyHk&dyft &i f;t jrpfawGq D 0i fa&mu fr It ay:r lwn faew, f/ ' Dt csu fuEkdi fi H&JUacs;i Sm;r Iu dk &, lcGi fhr&dSwJh NydKi fb u fygwDawGv kdrsdK;½kyf0w¬K&i f;jrpfawGu i f;rJhaewJhygwDawGt wGu f RPG u dk pGJaq mi frI&dSwJhen f;AsL[ mjzpfapo i fhw, f/t u sdK;t aMu mi f;o i fhpGm, SOfNydKi fae&wJh' Drkdu a&pDrSm ygwDt m;v Hk;rSm t wkdu ft cHjzpfEkdi ffpGr f;&dSaeNyD; t J' gaMu mi fh ' Dpepft wGi f;u ygwD t m;v Hk;t aeeJY (yHk&dyf)

38


Programmatic &yfwn frIawG&JUt ajccHt ay:rSm, SOfNydKi fzkdY t u sdK; cHpm;cGi fhawG&&dSo i fhw, f/ t J' Dt jyi f Bates a&;q GJcJhwJhpmt kyfrSm (2010) t mz&du ygwDpepfawGt ay: ZmwfaMu mi f;ajymyHkpH[ efyefjyKx m;wJht wkdi f; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;[ m pD;yGm;a&;t ajct aeq kd;&Gm;jci f;u aewq i fh u mv &Sn fv n fywfr, fhMu m;cHt wGi f;rSm Ekdi fi H&JUacs;i Sm;rIu dkat mu fajcu aejyi f;jyi f;x efx efv dIu fpm;apEkdi fNyD;wpfOD;wn f;t Ekdi f, ljci f;en f;AsL[ mq Du dk OD;v n fo Gm;Ekdi fw, f/

ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? ' grSr [ kwf u dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;t ajcjyKrJq G, fjci f; u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;t ajcjyKNydKi fq kdi fr Ijzpf&yfawGu dk pOf;pm;o Hk;o yfMu n fhyg/yHk&dyfq efayrJh t u keft u so u fo mNyD; pepft wGi f;rSm&dSwJhygwDt m;v Hk;t wGu fru fv Hk;ay;en f;AsL[ mx u fpm&i f ajcEkdi fv u fEkdi fydk&dSwmaMu mi fh ' Dwkd;wu fajymi f;v JaewJhyHkpH[ m RPG eJYEdIi f;, SOfzkdYt wGu f t edrfhu sq Hk;jzpfyHkMu w, f/ wjcm;wpfzu frSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;t ajcjyK, SOfNydKi fr I[ m o u fq kdi f&macgi f;aq mi fawGt ay: t m;u dk;rSDckdv Gef;ae&NyD; ygwDay:v pDu dkv Trf;rkd;ypfEkdi fwJhjri fEkdi fwJhu dk, f&n fu kd, fao G;t en f;i , ft ay: rSDckdae&v Gef;wJhb u fawmfo m;t zGJUt pn f;awGu dk jyKv kyfaew, f/ wpfjcm;wpfzu frSm ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;[ mv n f; ydkrdkrwn frNi drfjzpfv mNyD; ygwDt rSwfwHq dyfeJY rJay;o lawGq Dcsdwfq u fx m;wJhwn fNi drfwJht csdwft q u fawGu dkwn faq mu fzkdY ygwD&JUv kyfEkdi fpGrf;u dk t ajcv dIu fpm;zsu fpD;rSmjzpfw, f/ x i f&Sm;wJhu dk, f&n fu kd, fao G;aysmu fq Hk;o Gm;NyD;wJhaemu f t zGJUt pn f;wpfckt aeeJY ygwDu dkwefzkd;rx m;r I jyi f;jyi f;x efx efcH&wJht wGu f ygwDt wGi f;u t pdk;&t zGJUt wGi f;yg0i fcGi fh&zkdYBu dK;pm;aewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUt jr i fu aeq kd&i f ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I? ' grSr [ kwf u dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;jzi fhrJq G, fr Ien f;AsL[ mawG[ m a&&Sn frSmt edr fhu sq Hk;jzpfw, f/

NcHKajym&r, fq kd&i f RPG pdwfu l;pdwfo ef;t wGi f;rSm en f;AsL[ mEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu t jcm;ao m Programmatic r [ kwfwJh wkd;wu fajymi f;v Jr IawGx u f rJay;o lawGeJY Programmatic t csdwft q u fwn faq mu fyHkawGu dk o do do mo mESpfo u fMu NyD; , SOfNydKi frIeJYBu HKawGU&wJht cg o lwkdY&i fq kdi f&wJh pkaygi f;v kyfaq mi fr Ijyó emawGu dkajz&Si f;&mrSm o lwkdY&JUt u sdK;&dSpGmt v kyfv kyfr IawGu dkydkrdkay;t yfMu w, f/ (Aldrich 1995) ygwDrJay;o lt csdwft q u fawGu dkwkd;wu f

39


apwJht jcm;ao men f;v rf;awGu dk (Oyrm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;q kdi f&mq u fET, fr IawG&JU rwln DwJhyHkpHawGu ae pDpOfx m;wJh Programmatic r [ kwfwJht csdwftq u fawG? Mo Zmwdu úreJYjyn fhpHkwJho lt m;jzi fh pn f;½Hk;v HIYaq mfjci f;&JUjzpfpOfawG?ygwDawGt wGi f; u sdK;aMu mi f;q u fpyfr Ir&dSwJh csdwfq u fr IawG? t m;au mi f;wJhb u fawmfo m;t rSwfo ½kyfawGt ay:t ajccHwJhrJay;jci f;? ' grSr [ kwf aemu faMu mi f;jyefjyKjyi fr I&dSwJhrJay;jci f;) t edrfhq Hk;t ajct aejzpfaMu mi f;rSwf, lMu w, f/t v , ft v wfu ae u mv &Sn ft awGUt Bu HK&dSwJh t pdk;&t zGJUt wGi f;yg0i fzkdYBu dK;pm;aewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JU ½Iax mi fhu aeawmi frS t J' Dv kdedr fhu sw, fv kdY rSwf, lx m;wmjzpfw, f/ v lx kau mi f;u sdK;u dk edrfhyg;pGmax mu fyhHay;jci f;eJY t *wdru i f;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;eJYckdi fckdi frmrmq u fET, faewJh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I? ' grSr [ kwfrJ0, fjci f;wkdY&dSae&i f RPG &JUt em*wfjzpfEkdi fajcu v n f; pHt jzpfrSwf, lx m;wJhau seyfr I&dSEkdi fw, f/ (Kitschelt and Wilkinson 2007)

RPG u ydkrkdjri fhrm;NyD;t &n ft ao G;&dSwJh' Drkdu a&pDu dk jr§i fhwi fay;w, f

Programmatic t csdwft q u fawGu rJay;o leJY ygwDawGt Mu m;wm0ef, lr I? wm0efcHr Ipu f0ef;u dk azmfaq mi fay;½Hko mru o lwkdY[ m' Drkdu a&pD&JUw&m;0i fjzpfr Iu dk jr§i fhwi fay;w, f/ v Twfawmfq kdi f&mpn f;rsOf;awGu dkao csmapjci f;eJY ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;v kyfi ef;pOfx JrSmykdrkdau mi f;rGefwJh t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSr Iu dkax mu fyHhay;jci f;t jyi f t csdwft q u fawGu ygwDeJYygwDpepfu dk&Si fo efapwJh jr i fhrm;wJhrwn frNi drfr Ipepfx Ju dk r jzpfraev kdt yfaewJhwn fNi drfr Ijzi fhax mu fyHhay;w, f/ ' gaMu mi fh t J' gu at mi fjr i fwJhjyi fyu kd, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awGay:x Gu fv mjci f;u dk wm;jrpfEkdi fw, f/ o lwkdYt x Ju wcsdKU[ m rsm;pGmao mzGHUNzdK;q JEkdi fi HawGrSm ' Drkdu &u fwpf, dk, Gi f;ysu fpD;jci f;eJYq u fET, faeEkdi fw, f/' Do Hk;o yfcsu fu ' Dt q kdMu rf;awGt wGu f v u fawGUu su sax mu fcHrIu dk &SmazGawGU&dScJhw, f/ ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJh RPG t q i fhawG[ m ydkrkdau mi f;rGefwJht &n ft ao G;&dSwJh' Drkdu a&pD? ydkrkdt u sdK;o u fa&mu frI&dSwJhay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;eJY ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJhv lr I

40


w&m;0i fjzpfr It q i fhawGeJYq u fET, faew, f/

Programmatic ygwDrsm;&JU ' kdi fref;&Si f;rsm;

' Dt ydki f;rSm RPG yHkpH&JU ' dki fref;&Si f;o Hk;ck&JUwpfck? ' grSr [ kwf rsm;pGmeJYx dawGUx m;wJh pmayu dko Hk;o yfx m;NyD; ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJh? ' grSr[ kwf ydkrdkedrfhyg;wJhRPG t q i fhq D r lao r [ kwfwmawGu dk b mu ax mu fyHhay;aeo v Jq kdwmu dk&Si f;jyzkdYBu dK;pm;x m;wJh rwln DwJhayghayghyg;yg;jzpfpOfawGu dk pm&i f;jyKpkx m;w, f/' DcsOf;u yfr IrSm pmay&JUaygi f;½Hk;yg0i faewJht csu ft v u fwpfckcsi f;pD&JU [ efjyKx m;wJho ½kyfazmfrIwpfcku dk wi fjyx m;w, f/ t J' Dt wGu f q Dav smfwJhu dk;u m;csu fawGu dk t cef;t q Hk;rSm&dSwJh pm&i f;a&;o Gi f;x m;wJhpmpkpm&i f;rSm pm&i f;jyKpkx m;w, f/ t ESpfcsKyfZ, m;awGu aygi f;½Hk;rIwpfckcsi f;pDu x dawGUaewJh q Dav smfwJh' dki fref;&Si f;awGeJY ¤i f;wkdY&JUt "du t ax mu ft yHhrsm;eJY Programmatic ygwDeJY ygwDpepfawG&JU cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mrIt wGu f t m;en f;csu fawGu dk azmfx kwfx m;w, f/

ygwDrl0g' v rf;pOfo kawo eya&m*su f

ygwDr l0g' v r f;pOfo kawo eya&m*su f[ m acwfNydKi fEkdi fi Ha&;o dyÜHrSm&n frSef;csu ft Bu D;rm;q Hk;eJY pepft u seq Hk;t csu f t v u fpkaq mi f;jci f;t m;x kwfrIwpfckjzpfw, f/ ¤i f;&JUa' o q kdi f&m½Iax mi fhu wpfcsdKUao mzGHUNzdK;q JEkdi fi HawGu dkzHk;t kyfzkdYu s, fjyefYNyD;o m;jzpfw, f/ Ekdi fi HwpfEkdi fi H&JUa&G;au mu fyGJu dk 0i fa&mu f, SOfNydKi fwJho u fq kdi f&mygwDawGt m;v Hk;q Du ygwDaMu n mcsu fawGu dk pkaq mi f;NyD;cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mx m;w, f/ rMu mcP q kdo v kd cu fcJ½Iyfax G;wJha0g[ m&t u Jjzwfr Iq kdi f&men f;pepfawGu dk t o Hk;jyKx m;w, f/ &v ' fawGu a&G;au mu fyGJwpfckcsi f;pDt wGu f o u fq kdi f&macgi f;pOfawGt ay: ygwDawG&JUt a&;u dpöt aetx m;awGu dkajc&mcHzdkY u Rr f;u si fo lawGu dkcGi fhjyKay;NyD; t csdefau smfv GefaewJhazmfjyygygwDwpfck&JU t kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mProgrammatic q kdi f&mawGu dk

41


pr f;ppfzkdYv n f;cGi fhjyKay;w, f/ t ckt csdefx d pmay&JUt J' Dt aygi f; t ½Hk;x Ju dkav hv mr IawGrSm v u f&dScGJjcr f;o Hk;o yfr I&JUOD;wn fcsu fawGt wGu ft a&;ygwJhu efYo wfcsu fawG&dSw, f/ yx rq Hk;t aeeJY o lwkdY[ m Programmatic eJYwjcm;ao myHkpHt Mu m;rcGJjcm;b l;/ t J' gaMu mi fh ygwDt m;v Hk; (' grSr [ kwfu GJjym;wJhEkdi fi HawGu ygwDpepfawG) t aeeJY rJay;o lawGeJY q u fET, fjci f;t wGu feJY zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fjci f;? jr§i fhwi fjci f;eJY ygwD&JUv Twfawmfq kdi f&meJY ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;t r lt u si fhawGq Du dk t ajymi f;t v Ju i f;rJhr Iydkrkdax mu fyHh jci f;t wGu fo lwkdY&JU Programmatic &yfwn fcsu fawGu dk t o Hk;jyKjci f;awGrSm n DrQwJht av ;q awGu dk ae&mcswJhyHk&w, f/ (Kitschelt and Freeze 2010)

t J' Dt jyi f Programmatic aMu n mcsu fawG[ m t NrJv kdv kd &Sn fv sm;pGmeJY a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mrJq G, fpn f;½Hk;r IawGt wGi f;rSm ab ;z, fx kwfcHx m;&wJht wGu f dead letters awGu dk cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;rSm pGefYpm;&r, fht aet x m;awG&dSaew, f/ ' gayrJh aMu n mcsu fawGu dkt o Hk;jyKwJh , m, Dwkd;wu fajymi f;v JwJhb u fawmfo m;&yfwn frIawGu dk t u Jjzwfjci f;u ygwDay:v pDwi fjycsu fawG&JUwkd;wu faewJhv rf;aMu mi f;t ay:rSm t &dyfx dk;v mEkdi fw, f/ ji i f;cHkzG, f&mt aeeJY Programmatic ygwDawG[ m t en f;eJYt rsm; wn fNi dr faewJhay:v pD&yfwn fcsu ft pk (wjzn f;jzn f;jzpfay:aeayrJh) w0dku frSm pkpn f;o i fhw, f/Programmatic en f;yg;pGmpn f;½kH;jci f;t m;jzi hfab mi fcwfx m;wJhyv u fazmi f;awG[ m EdIi f;&t m;jzi fh t csdefwkdu mv wpfckt wGi f;rSm x i fx i f&Sm;&Sm;ajymi f;v Jo Gm;jci f;t m;jzi fh p½dku fo b m0jyKcH&Ekdi fw, f/ aMu n mcsu fya&m*su f[ mt J' DrSwfau smu fawGt wkdi f; u GJjym;wJhygwDpepfawG&JUt q i fhq i fhwdk;wu fajymi f;v Jr IawGu dk cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;t wGu f pm&Gu fpmwrf;awG ax mu fyHhay;Ekdi fw, f/

42


pkpn f;x m;wJh pdwf0i fpm;rIt kyfpkrsm;? t Bu Hay;yn m&Si frsm;? NGO rsm;? o u fq kdi f&mv len f;pkt kyfpkrsm;ESi fhProgrammatic Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;

' DpmawGu dk ao mi f;ajymi f;ax Gv ma&maESmaewJh t a&;t o m;(t v kyf)awGeJYzGJUpn f;x m;wmjzpfw, f/ t J' DpmawGx Ju ' Do Hk;o yfcsu f[ m v lrIt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;u Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUo ab mo b m0t wGu f &Si f;v i f;pGmwi fjyx m;wJh*, u f½dku fcwfr IawG&dSwJh t "du t a&;t o m;(t v kyf)awGt wGu fo m v Tr f;rdk;Ekdi fw, f/ t zGJUt pn f;jyKx m;wJhpdwf0i fpm;r It kyfpkawGeJYv len f;pkt kyfpkawG&JU o djri fem;v n fjci f;awGu dk aphaphpyfpyfav hv mwJh' DpmawGx JrSmt ajccHu swJhwi f;t m;wpfck&dSw, f/ wu , fv kdY t ax Gax Gt rsm;jyn fo lau mi f;u sdK;t pkv kdu f&JUax mu fyHhay;Ekdi fr Iw0dku fu zGJUpn f;wn faq mu fx m;wJhu dk, fpm;jyKrIu o m Programmatic ygwDpepfawG&JU a, b k, st csu ft v u f wpfckt jzpfav hv mcH&r, fq kd&i f Bu D;rm;NyD;t u sHK;0i fr I&dSwJhpdwf0i fpm;r It kyfpkawG (Oyrmt v kyfo rm;? ' grSr [ kwf pD;yGm;a&;v kyfi ef;? , Ofau s;r I? ' grSr [ kwf v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawG? v kyfi ef;wm0efq kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;awG Bu D;rm;wJhv lr Izlv Hka&;ay:v pDawG&JU t u sdK;cHpm;cGi fh&dSo lawG t p&dSo n fjzi fh) t aeeJY t J' Du dk, fpm;jyKrIq kdi f&mpdwfu l;pdwfo ef;u dk at mi fjr i fat mi fu ln Dr , fv kdY x i fjr i f&Ekdi fw, f/

o dkYao mfv n f; ygwDawG&JUao ;i , fwJh? ' grSr[ kwf au mi f;rGefpGmo wfrSwfx m;wJhpdwf0i fpm;o lt kyfpkawG (Oyrm t &yfa' o awG? au mi f;rGefpGmo wfrSwfx m;wJht a&;u dpöt kyfpkawG? pD;yGm;a&;v kyfi ef;t o i f;t zGJUawG) eD;u yfwJhq u fq Ha&;awGu t NrJv kdv kd Programmatic r&dSwJhu dk, fpm;jyKrIu ae&mwu mo u fa&mu frI&dSwJhpepfawGt wGi f;rSm x kwfazmfcH&av h&dSw, f/ ' Dt q kd&JUt ajccHrSmv lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;u v lrsdK;pkt ydki f;awG[ m t NrJv dkv dk Programmaticwn faq mu fyHku dkzsu fv kdYzsu fq D;v kyfwJht wkdi f; o ½kyfaq mi f&av h&dSw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk ay;x m;wJhv lrsdK;pkrJq Ee, fwpfckq D au mi f;u sdK;awGay;wJhu v yfax mu fyHho lawGt jzpfjr i fMu o v kdaygh/ ' Dq efYu si faewJh&yfwn frIESpfcktMu m; Mu m;0i faphpyfay;Ekdi fzkdY jzpfEdki fwJhen f;v r f;wpfcku awmh Verdier &JU

43


1995 wkef;u t Bu HjyKr Iu dkv kdu femNyD; aygi f;pkr I(pdwf0i fpm;r I)&JUt q i fhu dkpm&i f;o Gi f;zkdYyJjzpfw, f/ t wkdcsKyft m;jzi fhq kd&i f ygwD&JUpdwf0i fpm;rIt kyfpkawGeJYq u fq Ha&;awG[ m t J' Dpdwf0i fpm;r It kyfpkawGt aeeJY EdIi f;&t aet x m;t &Bu D;rm;NyD; t u sHK;0i fr I&dSr , fq kd&i fo m o lwkdY, SOfNydKi fEkdi fr , fh ygwDpepf&JU Pro-grammatic wn faq mu fyHku dkwkd;wu fapzkdY t u lt n Day;Ekdi fw, f/

Andean a' o u ' Drkdu a&pDeJY u dk, fpm;jyKr Iu dk v wfwav mcGJjcr f;av hv mcsu fawGu Ekdi fi Ht q i fhygwDpepft ay: t zGJUt pn f;jyKx m;wJht &yfb u fv lrIt zGJUt pn f;&JUo u fa&mu frIeJYywfo u fv kdY ydkrkdt a&;ygwJht jri fwpfcku dk ax mu fyHhay;w, f/ t x l;o jzi fh a' o cHt o Gi fjyKNyD; ydki f;q pdyfrTmaewJhpdwf0i fpm;rIt kyfpkeJYA[ dkt mP mcsKyfu dki frIav smhcsjci f;eJYwGJrdo Gm;wJht cg (' gaMu mi fh aygi f;pn f;r It q i fhu dk av smhu sapw, f) u kd, fpm;jyKr Iu dk u s½HI;apwJhwHkYjyefr It jzpf ygwDpepfeJYt NydKi fjzpfaewJh t &yfb u fv lr It zGJUt pn f;&JUv lx kv HIYaq mfr IawG[ m t csdKUao mygwDpepft u syft wn f;wpfck&JU t ajccHu swJht a&mt aESmt jzpf (Mainwaring,Bejarano and Pizarro 2006; Morgen 2007)o ½kyfaq mi fawmhw, f/ t jyeftv Seft m;jzi fh t J' gu Programmatic u dk, fpm;jyKr Iwn faq mu fyHk&JUt cGi fhtv r f;u dk t en f;q Hk;a&wkdeJY u mv v wfawGrSm x dckdu fapw, f/

t a&;t o m;(t v kyf)&JU rwln DwJhaygi f;½Hk;rIwpfcku ygwDawG? t o dyn m&Si ft pkt zGJUawGeJY NGO awGt Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;u dk cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mw, f/ t x l;o jzi fh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJYt wlt o i f;t zGJUjyKx m;wJh t o dyn m&Si ft pkt zGJUawG[ m t NrJv kdv kd Programmatic yv u fazmi f;awGu dk azmfjrLv mx kwfay;wJhae&mrSm t "du u swJhygwemawGt aeeJYyHkazmfcH&av h&dSw, f/t J' Dt jyi f t x l;o jzi fh Oya' jyKrIt o pfeJY v lx kay:v pDwi fjycsu fawG&JUrlMu rf;u dk v r f;n TefwJhae&mrSmv n f; t J' Dv kdyHkazmfcH&w, f/ ygwDawGeJY v u fwi ft ar&du a' o u t o dyn m&Si ft pkt zGJUawGt Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;t ay: v u f&dSt csdeft x d o kawo ejyKv kyfcsu fawGu ' Dt csdwft q u fawG[ m t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;rIjyKx m;wJhygwDpepfwpfckt wGu f r jzpfraev n f;rv kdt yfo v kd v Hkav mu frIv n f;r&dSb l;q kdwJht csu fu dk wi fjyw, f/ (Garce 2009) ' Dpmayt aygi f;t pku RPG&JUu GJjym;wJht q i fhawGeJYo D;jcm;ygwDawG&JU Programmatic en f;AsL[ mawGu dk

44


&Si f;v i f;jyzkdY t o Hk;0i fwJh x dk;x Gi f;o djr i fr Io Hk;cku dk ax mu fyhHw, f/

- v lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;u pdwf0i fpm;r It pkt pn f;&JU t cef;u @- o lwkdY&JU Programmatic wi fjyr IawG&JU t ajccHt ay:u pdwf0i fpm;rI

t kyfpkawGeJYt wl pepfu sewJhq u fET, fr IawGu dk t ajccszkdYt wGu f ygwDawG&JUv kyfEkdi fpGr f; (' grSr [ kwf rv kyfEkdi fpGr f;) eJY

- Programmatic q kdi f&myg0i fr IyrmP &JU jzpfEkdi fpGr f;&dSwJh ax mu fyHho lawGt jzpf t o dyn m&Si ft pkt zGJU&JUt cef;u @/ t x l;o jzi fh ygwDawG&JU r lvt ajccH&dSjci f;t pGr f;t pawG t m;en f;aewJht csdefrSmjzpfw, f/

ygwDt zGJUt pn f;eJY ygwDwGi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;t aMu mi f;pmay

au mi f;rGefpGmt ajccswn faq mu fx m;wJh av hv mr Ie, fy, fwpfckjzpfayrJhygwDpepfawGt ay: a&;o m;av hv mx m;wJht a&;t o m;(t v kyf) v u fwpfq kyfpmu o m ygwDt zGJUt pn f;eJY u dk, fpm;v S, fa&G;cs, fjci f;eJY Programmaticwn faq mu fyHk&JUjr i fu Gi f;eJY ygwD? ' grSr[ kwf ygwDpepft m;jzi fhpn f;½Hk;x m;wJhv HIUaq mfv Iyf&Sm;rIawGt ygt 0i fjzpfwJh ygwDwGi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;t Mu m;u jzpfEkdi fzG, f&dSwJht csdwft q u fawGu dk &SmazGav hv mw, f/ ' Dt jr i ft & pmayrSm t o Hk;0i fwJhProgrammatic Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUt , lt q jyKjci f;eJY &Si f;v i f;csu fawGu i f;rJhaew, f/b myJjzpfjzpf v u f&mt a&t wGu fwpfck (Oyrm Kitschelt 1994: Levitsky2003: Samuels 2004) u ygwDt zGJUt pn f;eJY Programmatic q kdi f&majymi f;v G, fjyi fv G, f&dSr I t Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;u dku kdi fwG, fw, f/ o lwdkY&JUt jr i frSmwi f;Mu yfwJht zGJUt pn f;awGu i f;rJhwJh ygwDawG[ m Programmatic q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;&yfwn fcsu fajymi f;v JrIwpfcku dk o drf;o Gi f;Ekdi fzdkY ydkrdkau mi f;rGefat mi fpGrf;aq mi fEkdi fyHkay:w, f/ t x l;o jzi fh v lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f; a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mv rf;aMu mi f;awGa&TUajymi f;wJh t csdefu mv rSmjzpfw, f/ ydkrkdeD;pyfwJh Kitscheltand Kselman (2010) eJY Hu and Heller(2010) wkdYu wpfen f;wpfzHkq efYu si fwJht q kdu dkjyKv kyfcJhMu w, f/ ydkrkd½Iyfax G;NyD; A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iav smhcsx m;wJht zGJUt

45


pn f;q kdi f&mwn faq mu fyHkawGeJY ygwDawGu t aet x m;ajymi f;v JzkdYo lwdkY&JUProgrammatic u dk jyKjyi fzkdY ydkrkdeD;pyfw, fv kdY t ckdi ft rmq kdjci f;t m;jzi fhayhg/' gaMu mi fh RPG t ay:rSmt zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&myHkpHawG&JU o u fa&mu fr IjzpfEkdi fajcawGt ay: ckdi frmwJhcefY rSef;csu fawGr&dSb l;/

Katz (2001) eJY Siavelis and Morgenstern(2008) wkdYESpfzGJUv Hk;uygwDa&G;cs, fjci f;v kyfi ef;pOft q i fhq i fhu ygwDyk*¾dKv fa&;q kdi f&m&JU v lrIa&;q kdi f&meJYt kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mt u si fhp½dku fawGu dk yHkazmfw, fv kdYq dkw, f/ ' Dt jr i frSm u GJjym;wJha&G;cs, frI, EÅ&m;awGt aeeJY rwln DwJhw&m;0i fjzpfrIq kdi f&mt rlt u si hfu dkarmi f;ESi fw, fv kdY arQmfv i fhcH&w, f/ pdwf0i fpm;r It kyfpkawGt ay:o lwkdY&JUo pöm&dSr I&JUt "du u dki f;n Twfr I? ay;x m;wJhrJq Ee, feJY ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG&JUu @awGt ay:r lwn fNyD;awmhaygh/ t "du t kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mv u ©P m? ' grSr[ kwf b u fawmfo m;o pöm&dSrIawGjzpfwJh a&G;cs, fr Iq kdi f&mv kyfi ef;pOft q i fhq i fhu u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG&JUydkrdkNyD; t kdi f' Dt kdv dk*sDq efq efwx yfwn f;pkyHkrIwpfcku dk armi f;ESi fzkdYt u lt n Dv n f;ay;w, f/ t J' Du dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG[ mv lx kau mi f;u sdK;&JUax mu fyHhrIt ay:, SOfNydKi fjci f;t ay: ydkrkdt m½Hkpdku fEkdi fzdkYarQmfv i fhcHMu &w, f/ b , fv kdjzpf&yfrSmrq kd ' DpmayeJY ygwD&JU Programmatic q kdi f&mp½dku fv u ©P mESpfckt Mu m;u t csdwft q u fawG[ m t m;en f;aewkef;yJ/

ygwDpepfu dk t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;rIjyKjci f;

Mainwaring and Scully's (1995) wkdY&JU ygwDpepft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;r IjyKjci f;&JU t , lt q jyKjci f;eJY (t J' g&JUaemu fydki f; t ao ;pdwfjyi fq i fcsu fawGjzpfwJhMainwaring 1999; Payne et al. 2003; Jones 2005 eJY Mainwaring andTorcal 2006 wkdY) [ m v u fwi ft ar&du &JUygwDpepfawGu dkcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;t ay: a, b k, st u sq Hk;v u fcHx m;wJhEdIi f;, SOfr Iq kdi f&mr lMu r f;awGu dku dku fn Dat mi fjyKjyi fzkdYjzpfw, f/ Mainwaring and Scully wkdY&JU ygwDpepfo Dt kd&Dx n fh0i fr I&JU q ef;o pfwDx Gi fr It av ht x [ m u rÇmwpfckv Hk;u ygwDpepfawGu dkav hv mrIrSm pdwfu l;u dkjyKjyi faew, fq kdwJht csu fu dkv n f; a&mi fjyef[ yfap

46


w, f/ t J' Dt csu f&JUv Trf;rkd;r IawG[ m t mz&du ? t a&SUt m&SeJY t a&SUOa&myt x dcsJUx Gi faew, f/ (Oyrmt m;jzi fh Beatty 2007; Kuhonta 2007; Thames andRobbins 2007)

o lwkdY&JUrl&i f;pdwfu l;jyKrIjzpfwJh Mainwaring and Scully (1995) x JrSmrJay;o lawGeJY v lr Ia&;t jrpfu kyfwG, fr I&JUt aMu mi f;t &i f;wpfckeJY (n Tefu def;wpfck) t jzpf o lwkdY&JUb u fawmfo m;u dk, fpm;jyKrIawGt Mu m;t csdwft q u fawG&JUProgrammatic pn f;½kH;jci f;&JU&dSaerIu dk wkdu f½dku f&n fn Tef;u dk;u m;x m; jci f;r&dSayrJhaemu fydki f;v u f&mawGjzpfwJh (t x l;o jzi fh Mainwaring 1999 eJY Mainwaringand Torcal 2006) x JrSm t J' D' kdi fref;&Si f;&JU pdwfu l;t jzpfeJY v u fawGUu srIt jzpfA[ dkcsu frSmwn f&dSv mcJhwJht wGu f Programmatic q kdi f&mt csdwft q u fawG[ mx i f&Sm;r I&&dSv mw, f/

a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mrwn frNi drfjzpfjci f;u aewpfq i fh av hv mt u Jjzwfx m;wJhrJay;r IyHkpHawG&JU wn fNi drfr It jzpf&dSaeapzkdY yx r ' dki fref;&Si f;u q u fv u fwi fjyaewJht csdefrSm v lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;rSmt jrpfwG, fx m;wJh ' kwd, ' dki fref;&Si f;u u dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;t ay:t ajcjyKNyD;rJq G, fwJh (r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDawG&JU NydKi fb u ft jzpf) ygwDrJay;o lt csdwft q u f&dSaerIu aewpfq i fht u Jjzwfav hv mw, f/ t J' Dt wkdi f; Mainwaring and Torcal (2006) u at mu fygt wkdi f;rSwfcsu fjyKw, f/ rJay;o lawGeJY u dk, fpm;v S, fawGt Mu m;u u dk, f&n fu kd, fao G;t ay:r lwn fNyD;rJq G, fpn f;½Hk;rIt csdwft q u fu v lrIt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;ygwD&JUt jrpfv u fwHawG ydkrkdt m;en f;v mwJht csdefrSm ydkrkdt m;au mi f;v mapzkdYt wGu f&n f&G, fw, f/

t J' Dt ajccHt & ygwDawGeJY o lwkdY&JUrJay;o lawGt Mu m;u Program-matic t csdwft q u fawG&JU&dSaer IeJYt wl t i fpwDu sL&Si f;r IjyKjci f;u dk wef;wlx m;zkdYt wGu f pn f;½Hk;o dr f;o Gi f;Ekdi fw, f/ b myJjzpfjzpf t au mi f;q Hk;t aeeJYay;x m;wJh ygwDpepfwpfckt wGi f;u Programmatic ygwD-rJay;o l t csdwftq u ft wGu f r&dSr jzpfjzpfayrJh rv Hkav mu fwJht aet x m;t jzpfeJY edr fhyg;wJhrwn frNi drfjzpfr Iu dk jyefv n fab mi fcwfEkdi fw, f/ t csKyfq kd&&i f pmayo Hk;o yfcsu f[ m at mu fygv kdt yfcsu fawGu dk t Bu HjyKw, f/

47


- Programmatic csdwfq u fr It wGu fr&dSrjzpft ajct ae wpfckt aeeJYwn fNi dr fr Iu dkq u fq Hw, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh a, b k, st m;jzi fh Pro-grammatic q kdi f&m ygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fawGu dk u spfv pfckdi frmapzkdYtwGu f b u fawmfo m;, SOfNydKi fr IawG&JU EdIi f;&wn fNi dr fr I&JUt csdefu mv [ m&Sn fv sm;Mu mjr i fhv kdYjzpfw, f/ (Kitschelt et al. 2010 wGi f ½I)

- Programmatic t csdwft q u fawGu dk u spfv pfckdi frmapzkdY t wGu frv Hkav mu fwJht ajct aet jzpf wn fNi dr fr Iu dkq u fq Hw, f/ ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDpepfawGu v n f; b u fawmfo m;, SOfNydKi frI&JU wn fNi drfwJhyHkpHawGu dkwi fjyEkdi fzkdY &n f&G, fMu w, f/ (Kitschelt 2000)

- Programmatic ygwDawGu i f;r Jhr It csdefr Sm Programmatica&G;au mu fyGJrJq G, fa&;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGu dk zGHUNzdK;apzdkY en f;yn mt o pfawG (OyrmrD' D, mu aewpfq i fh) t ay:rSDcdkaewJh u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awGt wGu fjzpfEkdi fzG, fu dk pOf;pm;o Hk;o yfw, f/

v Twfawmfq kdi f&may:v pDcsrSwfjci f;eJY v Twfawmft wGi f;Programmatic q kdi f&mpn f;v Hk;n Dn TwfrI

' Dpmayu ygwDpn f;rsOf;&JUt u sdK;o u fa&mu frIeJY Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;&JU t a&;Bu D;wJh' dki fref;&Si f;wpfckjzpfwJh v Twfawmfq kdi f&mwm0efcGJa0rIawG&JUay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;t r lt u si fhawGt ay: t kdi f' Dt dkv kd*sDq kdi f&mpdwfu l;pdwfo ef;yGdKi fhawGu dk cGJjcr f;pdyfjzmav hv mw, f/ Oya' jyKo lawG&JU o lwkdY&JUa&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mt &yfa' o awGu dk u dk, fpm;jyKzkdY (ESpfOD;wGJ (0g) ESpfck wGJu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;) eJY o lwkdYygwDawG&JU Programmatic &yfwn fcsu ft wkdi f;jyKr lzkdY (a, b k, su dk, fpm;jyKjci f;) q kdwJh Oya' jyKo lawG&JU t m;x kwfrIawG t Mu m;u wi f;t m;awG&JUt a&;u dpöv n f;ay:aygu fv mw, f/ ' Dt jr i ft & pmay[ m ydki feu fe, fajrq kdi f&meJY v kyfi ef;aq mi f&Gu fcsu fq kdi f&mEkdi fi Ht q i fhq kdi f&m pdwf0i fpm;rIu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;t Mu m;u t a&;ygwJhjcm;em;csu fwpfcku dk jyKv kyfay;w, f/

ygwDpepfu dk Ekdi fi Ht q i fhjyKjci f;t ay:pmayawGay:x Gu fv mjci f;u pdwf

48


0i fpm;p&mau mi f;wJht o dt jr i fawGu dkazmfx kwfay;w, f/ t x l;o jzi fh Pro-grammatic wn faq mu fyHk&JU t jyeft v Sefq u fET, fr IeJY (aemu fq Hk;t aMu mi f;t &i f;awG) u dk q u fET, fcJhw, f/ x yfrHNyD; yGi fhv i f;pGmazmfx kwfx m;jci f;r[ kwfayrJh¤i f;u Ekdi fi H&JUrwln DwJha&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&me, fajra' o awGt ESHY t csdwft q u fyHkpHawG&JUydki f;q jci f;rsm;u dk&SmazGzkdY t cGi fht v rf;wpfcku dkax mu fyHhay;w, f/ en f;AsL[ mt &ygwDpepfu dk n d§EdIi f;aq mi f&Gu fjci f; (t J' gu edrfhyg;wJhygwDpepfydki f;q pdyfrTmjci f;u dk cGi fhjyKay;w, f) t ay:a&;o m;x m;wJhpmayt rsm;pku a' o cHe, fajr t q i fhu dkyJt m½Hkpdku fw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh e, fajra' o t q i fhn d§EdIi f;aq mi f&Gu fjci f;&JUo ab mo b m0u dkyHkx kwfwJht ay: a&G;au mu fyGJpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awG&JU o u fa&mu fr IawGu dk av hv mwJh u mv &Sn fji i f;q eft q kdawG&dSaew, f/ (Cox 1997wGi f½I)

ygwDpepfEkdi fi Ht q i fhjyKjci f;

a' o e, fajr t ESHYn d§EdIi f;aq mi f&Gu fjci f; (t J' gu ygwD&JUpepfu dk t rsdK;o m;t q i fhjyKjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf t rsdK;o m;t q i fhrSz, fcGmjci f;q D OD;aq mi fw, f)rSm ygwDpepfq kdi f&mpmayawGx JrSm v u fwav mt m½Hkpkdu fcH&wJhwpfckwn f;ao mt aMu mi f;t &mjzpfw, f/ t r sdK;o m;a&;t o Gi fraq mi fwJhygwDpepfawG[ mProgrammatic u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;&JU ay:x Gu fv mjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf x def;o drf;jci f;u dkt u sdK;ysu fjym;apw, f/ t en f;q Hk;t aeeJY Ekdi fi Ht q i fhrSmaygh/ t J' De, fy, fx JuOD;aq mi ft v kyfawG (Chhibber and Kollman 2004; Hicken 2007) u t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&JUt rsdK;o m;t q i fhrSz, fcGmjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf zu f' &, fpepfeJYq u fET, faewJh ay:v pDwpfckx Ju yg0g&JUA[ dkcsKyfu dki fjci f;&JU v kyfaq mi fcsu fwpfckt aeeJYt rsdK;o m;r IjyKjci f;u dk&Si f;v i f;w, f/ t jyeft v Seft aeeJY Caramani (2004)u t rsdK;o m;a&;eJY pu frIq kdi f&mawmfv Sefa&;awGu ae o u fwrf;wGu fcsu fx m;wJh0J-, m Programmatic t cGJwpfck&JU ay:x Gu fv mjci f;eJY ydkrdkBu D;rm;wJht rsdK;o m;a&;rIjyKjci f;u dk wkdu f½dku fq u fET, faew, f/ t J' Dv kdEkdi fi Ht ESHYu s, fjyefYwJht cGJwpfck[ mOa&myrSm ygwDpepf&JUt rsdK;o m;a&;r IjyKjci f;&JU ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJht q i fhwpfcku dk

49


cGi fhjyKjci f;t wGu f t a&;ygcJhw, f/ t csKyft m;jzi fh

- ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJh t rsdK;o m;a&;r IjyKjci f;t q i fhawGeJY Programmaticwn faq mu fyHkt Mu m; ESD;ET, fr Iwpfck&dSEkdi fw, f/

- t rsdK;o m;a&;rIjyKx m;wJhygwDpepft m;v Hk;u Programmatic r [ kwfayrJh o u fq kdi f&mt a&;u dpöawGrSm t rsdK;o m;a&;q efpGm Programmatic pn f;½Hk;v HIYaq mfjci f;u t rsdK;o m;a&;r IjyKjci f;u dk t m;jzn fhay;o i fhw, f/

ygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fq kdi f&mpmay

' Dpmayu ygwDeJYrJay;o lawGt Mu m;u Programmatic t csdwft q u fawGeJY Programmatic ru swJht csdwft q u fawG&JUo ab mo b m0u dkpdwfu l;x kwfzkdY wr i f&n f&G, fNyD;pDpOfx m;w, f/ ' Dt jr i frSm Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUa&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m' dki fref;&Si f;t jzpf t o dt jr i fawGax mu fyHhay;jci f;t wGu feJYo l&JUt Ekwfv u ©P maq mi fwJhb u fjzpfwJh Programmatic t csdwft q u fawG(Oyrm Mo Zmwdu úreJYrJq G, f pn f;½Hk;v HIUaq mfjci f;? ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fpn f;½Hk;jci f;?ae&may;ajr§mu fpm;rJq G, fpn f; ½Hk;jci f;eJYrJ0, fjci f;) u dk azmfjyzkdYt wGu f t x l;ojzi fht o Hk;0i fw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh ' Dt cef;[ m ' Dpmayu dk cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmjci f;t ay:pOf;pm;q i fjci fp&mae&mv Gwf jr§KyfESHx m;w, f/

ajcajcjrpfjrpf&dSwJhay:v pDu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;u pdwf0i fpm;r Iu Millerand Stokes (1963) q Du dk jyefv n fv rf;aMu mi f;ay;o Gm;Ekdi fw, f/ a' o e, fajrwpfckjci f;q D&JU v Twfawmfq kdi f&mu dk, fpm;v S, fwpfOD;csi f;pD&JU ay:v pDt aet x m;awGeJYt wl u GJjym;wJh U.S e, fajra' o awGt ESHYu a&yef;pm;wJht a&;u dpöawGt ay:u t aet x m;awGu dk EdIi f;, SOfjci f;t m;jzi fh Miller and Stokesu v Twfawmft ay:rJq Ee, fx def;csKyfr I' D*&Du dk t u JjzwfcJhw, f/ aemu fydki f;rSmv Trf;rkd;r I&dSwJh o lwkdY&JUt apmydki f;t v kyfx JrSm t o dt rSwfjyKcHx m;&wJh ' Dpmayx Juwpfckao mt ajccHu swJhjyó emu awmh Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JUEdIi f;&t aet x m;t m;jzi hfrwn faq mu fx m;wJh (rMu mcP q kdo v kd t ajymi f;t v J&dSwJh) ay:v pDOD;pm;

50


ay;r IeJY o lwkdY&JUu dk, fpm;v S, fawGt Mu m;u t [ yJjzpfw, f/ t J' gu dk jr i fhrm;wJhowi f;t csu ft v u f? wn faq mu fyHkeJY t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSrIt q i fhawGu yHkazmfay;jci f;cH&w, f/ Miller and Stokes &JU cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mrIu jyó emwpfck&JUwdu swJhp½dku fv u ©P mawG (Oyrm t a&;ygrIeJY t ½Iyft ax G;) ay;v dku fr, fq kd&i fEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JU OD;pm;ay;r Iaemu fu dkv kdu fo Gm;&i fv kdu fo Gm;r[ kwf&i f t a&;u dpöOD;aq mi fr IeJYx dawGUzkdY jzpfv mEkdi fw, f/ Miller and Stokesu rwln DwJhay:v pD' dkrdef;o Hk;cku dkjzwfNyD; t x u fwef;v TmeJY t rsm;eJYo u fq kdi fwJht a&; u dpöt aet x m;awGu dk EdIi f;, SOfw, f/ t J' Dt x JrSm o lwkdYu rJq Ee, feJY o l&JUv Twfawmfq kdi f&mu dk, fpm;jyKr It Mu m;u t jyeft v Sefq u fET, fr It & u GJjym;wJh&v ' fawGu dk t pD&i fcHcJhw, f/

t J' Dpmayx Ju acwfNydKi fv u f&mawGt & ay;x m;wJh (t a&;ygwJh)t a&;u dpöwpfckq Du &Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f;ao csmNyD; u GJjym;wJht a&;u dpö t aet x m;awGu dk rwln DwJhygwDawGu dkrJay;o lawGu u dki fpGJx m;wJht cg u RefawmfwkdYt aeeJYt cGi fht mP m u dk, fpm;jyKr I? ' grSr [ kwf pepfx JrSm t en f;i , fao m RPG&dSaeo v kdyHkaq mi fEkdi fw, f/ t cGi fht mP mu dk, fpm;jyKrIu ¤i f;rJq Ee, f&JU OD;pm;ay;r IeJYt wl ygwDv kdu fav smn Dax GrI' D*&Du dk t rdt &o dr f;q n f;x m;w, f/(Converse and Pierce 1986; Dalton 1985; Iversen 1994, 1994a; Powell1982; Manin, Przeworski and Stokes 1999; Ranney 1962; Schmitt andThomassen 1999; Thomassen 1994)

ydkrdkNyD; eD;pyfwJht a&;t o m;awGu ygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fr lab mi fft aMu mi f; yGi fhyGi fhv i f;v i f;a&;o m;x m;ayrJh u Gefq u fydki f; (q GJjci f;) eJY o Dt kd&Dq kdi f&m (Oyrmt m;jzi fh t ajymi f;t v Jt wGu ft a&;ay:t ajct ae) ESpfckpv Hk;rSmt a&;ygwJh t m;en f;csu fawG&dSaew, f/ Programmatic eJY r l0g' Program-matic t rSwfwHq dyfawG[ m t v Gefu GJjym;wJhrSwfau smu fawGu dkt o Hk;jyKNyD; &Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f;cGJjcm;x m;wJhab mi fawGryg&dSb J t o Hk;cscH&w, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fhwpfcsdKUu ¤i f;&JU Programmatic yv u fazmi f;u dkjyn fhpHkjci f;t & t Bu dKo r*¾w&m;0i fjzpfapjci f;u dk jzpfajrmu fat mi fjr i fapwJh x i f&Sm;wJht v kyfo rm;x keJYt wlv u f0J, dr f;ygwDwpfcku dk t "dyÜg, fau mu fv dr fhr , f/ wpfjcm;o lawGu awmh

51


au mi f;u sdK;t pkwpfcku dk azmfaq mi fay;jci f;u aewpfq i fh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;q kdi f&mu wdu 0wfwpfcku dk o ab maygu fem;v n fjci f;t jzpf t rsdK;t pm;cGJjcm;v drfhr, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSm w, fv DaA;&Si f;pu fawGu dk t drfwkdi f, ma&mu fv kdu fay;ypfaeayrJh q ef;ppfjci f;eJYt jypfay;jci f;t wGu f &n f&G, fcsu fu i f;rJhaewJhu dk, fpm;v S, fwpfa, mu f (o lr t wGu f rJay;o lawGu r ji i f;q efv kdu fb l;q kd&i f)u dk ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;t csdwft q u fawGu dk pGJaq mi fjci f;v kd wcsdKUt csu fawGt m;jzi fh t q i fht wef;o wfrSwfcH&v drfhr, f/ t J' Dt csdefrSm wcsdKUu t u syfu dki fr IeJYppfaq ;rIr&dSwJht wGu f ' g[ m yHkrSefaMu mfji mjci f;o mjzpfNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;r [ kwfb l;v kdY , lq aeEkdi fw, f/ (Stokes 2005)

x yfrHNyD; ygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fawGu dk en f;AsL[ m&JU&v ' ft jzpfeJYu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awGeJY rJay;o lawGt Mu m;u q u fv u fv kyfaq mi faerIt jzpfcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;rSm t a&;ygwJht u sdK;au s;Zl;awGeJY o wfrSwfcsu fawG&dSw, f/ wpfzu frSmv n f; &m&Si fe, fyk*¾dKv fESpfOD;t Mu m; (' grSr[ kwf u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;eJY ao ;i , fwJht kyfpkt Mu m;) en f;AsL[ mq efq eft jyeft v Sefq u fpyfr IawGt ay: A[ dkjyKcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;u jzpf&yft ajrmu ft rsm;rSm ydkrdkv G, fv G, fu lu lt ppfaq ;cHEkdi fwJh o i fhav QmfwJho Dt kd&DawGt wGu f t cGi fht v r f;awGax mu fyHhay;w, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh q i f;&JrGJawrIjr i fhwu fjci f;awG? x kwfjyefcsu fawG&JU en f;yg;wJhwefzkd;awG? q i f;&JwJhrJay;o lawGeJY ygwDt Mu m;u t ajymi f;tv JawGu csr f;o mwJhrJay;o lawGu dkav hv m&wmx u fydkNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iydkrsm;rsm;pm;pm;arQmfv i fhcH&Ekdi ffw, f/

wjcm;wpfzu frSm t J' Do Dt kd&DawG[ m awmfawmfav ;u dk½dk;&Si f;v Gef;w, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh rJay;o lawG&JUat *si fpDu ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;en f;AsL[ mawGt ay:rSm o D;o D;o efYo efYeD;yg;t m½Hkpkdu fwJh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iq kdi f&mt jyeft v Sefq u fET, fr I&JU yi fra&pD;cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mrIawGu dk rMu mcP q kdo v kd v spfv sL½Iw, f/ (>ci f;csu fwpfckt aeeJY Lyne 2008 wGi f½I)t J' Dt jyi f en f;AsL[ mq kdi f&mawGt ay:rSm t ajccHx m;wJhygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fo Dt kd&DawG[ m t ppft rSefr [ kwfwJh, lq csu fawGeJY ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JU v lrsdK;pkt ajcjyKt csu ft v u fjzpfpOfawGrSm rMu mcP q kdo v kd yHkazmfcH

52


&wJh o lr t m;ay;o l&JU azmu fo n fwpfa, mu f&JU u sdK;aMu mi f;q u fpyfr Ir&dSwJhq u fpyfr Iv kdrsdK; t arhav smhcHu dpöawGay:r lwn fNyD; ajymi f;v Jw, f/ (Auyero2000 wGi f½I) ppfaq ;r IeJYt u syfu dki fr Ir&dSjci f;rSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fo lb u fuay;acsr IawGu dkx kwfay;zkdY u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG&JU q E&dSr It wGu f b , fo Dt dk&Du rS wGu fcsu fEkdi frSmr[ kwfb l;/

t o Gi f, lx m;wJht a&;ay:jzpfr Iu a&wkdu mv rSmrJt wGu f t av ;ay;rIeJYProgrammatic &yfwn frIawG&JU t ajymi f;t v Ju dkjri f&wmaMu mi fh ygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fawGt ay:u o Dt kd&Dq kdi f&mpmay (ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;t , lt q eJY r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhrJay;r IESpfckpv Hk;t wGu f) t rsm;pkrSmjr§KyfESHx m;wJht ppft rSefr [ kwfwJhaemu fx yf, lq csu fjzpfw, f/ ' g [ mygwDwpfcku dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;wpfa, mu ft aeeJY o lY&JUa&G;au mu fyGJ t ajccHu dkao csmapzkdYt wGu f azmu fo n fawG&JUr Ju dk t q u fr jywfq u f0, fae(a&G;au mu fyGJwkdi f;rSm) o i fhw, f? ' grSr[ kwf o lY&JUrJq Ee, f&JUpdwf0i fpm;rIeJYt jr i fawGu dk u dk, fpm;jyKwJh Programmatic q kdi f&myv u fazmi f;wpfcku dk u wdu 0wfjyKo i fhw, fq kdwmygyJ/

t csKyft m;jzi fh RPG &JUav hv mNyD;o m;t q i fhawGu dk&Si f;v i f;jyo jci f;twGu f ygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fr lab mi fu t v m;t v m&dSpGmt v Geft a&;Bu D;w, fq kdao mfji m; t em*wfo kawo erSmaygi f;pyfo i fhwJh jyi fq i fjzn fhpGu fcsu fpD;&D;wpfcku dkv kdt yf w, f/

- x yfrHNyD; pdwfu l;yHkx kwfr Iu dk a&Smi fv TJzdkYeJY v u f&dSpdwfu l;x kwfr IeJYt u Jjzwfr It m;x kwfcsu fawGu dk wkd;wu fapNyD;

- t csdwft q u ft ajymi f;t v J&JU t a&;ay:t ajct ae-ajymi f;v Jr Iem;v n fjci f;u dk av smhcs&r , f/

aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY ' DcsOf;u yfr I[ m t csdwft q u ft ydki f;t p&JUt em*wfjzpfEkdi fajcu dk ab ;csdwfzkdY t m½Hkpdku fw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh ygwDwpfckt m;jzi fh?' grSr[ kwf pepfwpfckt wGi f; t rsdK;pHkao men f;AsL[ mawGu dk wpfNydKi feu ft o Hk;jyKjci f;/ , i f;u Jho dkY wpfNydKi feu ft o Hk;jyKx m;wJh t rsdK;pHkao mt csdwft q u ft em*wf

53


jzpfEkdi fajcawG[ m zGHUNzdK;q Ju rÇmrSm t v m;t v m&dSpGm t a&;ygNyD; a&SUq u fo kawo ejyKzdkYx kdu fwefw, f/ b myJjzpfjzpf yx rOD;q Hk;t aeeJY av hv mx m;wJhProgrammatic eJY (Programmatic r&dSwJh) v HIUaq mfrIt q i fhawGu dk &Si f;jyzkdYOD;wn fx m;wJh ayghayghyg;yg;t q kdMu r f;awGu dk ' Dt cef;rSmwi fjyx m;w, f/

t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m t u sdK;cHpm;cGi fh

eD, dkt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;e, fv pfr lab mi fwpfckt wGi f;pma&;o lawG&JU t a&;t o m;awGu ygwDen f;AsL[ mawGt ay: a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&JU t u sdK;o u fa&mu frIu dk t m½Hkpkdu fw, f/ t J' De, fy, fawGrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUyk*¾dKv fa&;t o Gi fjyKjci f;eJY a' o wGi f;t o Gi fajymi f;jci f;u dk t cGi fho mapwJh a&G;au mu fyGJ q kdi f&mt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG (Oyrm zGi fhx m;wJhpm&i f;? ao ;i , fwJha' o e, fajr t wkdi f;t wmeJY A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iav smhcsx m;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;? v lrsm;pktEkdi f&wJha&G;au mu fyGJpepfawG) [ m ygwDpepfawG&JU Programmatic wn faq mu fyHku dk[ efYwm;zkdYv kdY t ckdi ft rmo wfrSwfcH&w, f/

t J' Dt jyi f Programmatic r [ kwfwJh t csdwft q u f? t x l;o jzi fhru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;eJY rJ0, fjci f;awG[ m t &dyfawGx JrSmjzpfyGm;NyD; Bu D;rm;wJhyrmP t wkdi f;t wmwpfckt ay:&SmazGwJht cg t J' gawG[ m u kefu sp&dwfrsm;w, f/ ' gaMu mi fh rJq G, fa&;v Iyf&Sm;rI&JUb @ma&;t ay: wi f;u syfNyD; t ajymi f;t v Ju i f;rJhpGm t o Hk;cswJhpn f;rsOf;pn f;u r f;awG[ m Programmatic wn faq mu fyHku dk wm;jrpfo i fhwJh Programmatic r [ kwfwJh t csdwft q u fawGaemu fu dkv kdu fjci f;u dk u efYo wfzkdYt wGu f t a&;ygwJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mt u sdK;cHpm;cGi fhawGt jzpf½Ijr i fcH&w, f/ t en f;q Hk; t a&mi f;t 0, fo ab m, lq csu fawGat mu frSmaygh/

54


wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&mt q Hk;t jzwfrsm;

Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mv lrIaA' r lab mi fwpfckt wGi f;rSm t v kyfv kyfaewJhpma&;o lawG[ m v lr Iwn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&mt ajct aeawGu dk Programmaticpn f;½Hk;v IHUaq mfrI&JUt q i fhawGav smhu sapjci f;t wGu f t "du t m;jzi fhwm0ef&dSaew, fv kdY t x l;jyKx kwfazmfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh q i f;&JrGJawr I? v lrsdK;pkt ydki f;t jcm;awGeJY ydki f;q pdyfrTmjci f;eJY? ' grSr[ kwf t awmft wefBu D;rm;wJh pdwf0i fpm;o lt kyfpkawG&JUt jypft emt q mawGu ygwDpepfawG&JU Programmaticpdwfu dki f;n TwfrI t m;en f;jci f;q Du dkx n fh0i fw, f/ t J' gawGu ax mu fcH o lb u f&Si f;v i f;wi fjyjci f;awGt jyi f awmi f;q kdo lb u fjzpfpOfwpfcsdKUq Du dkv n f;t o Hk;csw, f/ (Lyne 2007 wGi f½I) ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;pepfeJY q i f;&JrGJawrItMu m;u t m;au mi f;wJhq u fET, fr I[ mv n f; pepfwu st pD&i fcH? &Si f;v i f;wi fjycH&w, f/

pmayt wGi f;rSm av hv mcH&wJh "av hx Hk;pHESpfck&dSw, f/ yx rwpfckuru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iu dk t J' D, Ofau s;r It av ht x &JU t NrJwr f;OmOfwpfckt jzpf&Si f;v i f;w, f/ wjcm;wpfcku awmh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;u dk "av hx Hk;wr f;q kdi f&m (acwfrDjci f;u dk q efYu si fzkdYt wGu f) v lr It zGJUt pn f;awGeJY wln DwJhEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mpDpOfrIwpfckt jzpf½Ijri fw, f/ &Si f;v i f;csu fESpfckpv Hk;u au seyfp&mrau mi f;b l;q kdwmu dk o u fao jycJhNyD;NyD;/ (Piattoni 2001; Shefter 1995)t J' D"av hx Hk;pHq kdi f&mt jr i fawGu ae cGJx Gu fNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, frIt ay:av hv mwJhv dIi f;o pfwpfcku rJay;o leJYEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt Mu m;u q u fET, fr IawGt ajymi f;t v Jjzpfjci f;&JU&v ' ft jzpf pdwfu l;x kwfcJhMu NyD;NyD/ ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhb u fu ay;acsrIawG&JUu sOf;ajrmi f;wJha&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mwHkYjyefr Iu t x l;o jzi fhjr i fhrm;w, f (q i f;&JwJhv lr It zGJUt pn f;awGeJY e, fajra' o awG) q dkwJhtq u ft pyfx JrSmaygh/ ' D&v ' fu dk t wn fjyKNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, frIq kdi f&mv HIYaq mfzkdYt m;x kwfr IawG&JU t u Jjzwfcsu f[ m t rsdK;o m;x kwfv kyfr Ipkpkaygi f; (GDP)t q i fheJYt wl t m;au mi f;wJht EIwfv u ©P maq mi fq u fET, fr Iwpfck&dSwJhKitschelt &JU u Rrf;u si ft q i fhav hv mrIx JrSmyg0i fw, f/ ' gayrJhv n f; t o i f;

55


t zGJU&JU wln DwJhyHkpH (q efYu si fb u fv m;&mrSm&dSaeygap) [ m Programmatict csdwft q u fawGt wGu fyg&dSaeraeu dk pr f;o yfppfaq ;zkdY u sef&dSaew, f/

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Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA'

wwd, ajrmu fjzpfEkdi fzG, ft aMu mi f;t &i f;t pkwpfcku ygwDpepfawG&JUEkdi fi Ha&;ab m*eJYq u fET, faew, f/ Programmatic r [ kwfwJht csdwft q u fawGu dkyHkazmfzkdYt wGu f &i f;jrpfawG&&dSEkdi fr I (v lo d&Si fMu m;jzpfap wpfOD;wpfa, mu fcsi f;jzpfap) [ m t J' Dt csdwft q u fawGt wGu f t au mi ft x n fazmfaq mi f&Gu fjci f;t ajct aewpfckt jzpft NrJv kdv kdjzpfaeyHkay:w, f/ o Gi f;u keftpm;x dk;pu fr It o Gi fajymi f;jci f;? ' grSr[ kwf aps;u Gu fjyKjyi fajymi f;v Ja&;awGNyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fo Gm;wJh t csdefu mv awG[ m t J' gaMu mi fh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGv kdu fzkdY&SmazGaewJh v HIYaq mfjci f;yHkpHawGu dko u fa&mu fo i fhw, f/

' Dpmaypkpn f;r It wGi f;u t jcm;ao mt a&;Bu D;wJht q kdawGu Pro-grammatic wn faq mu fyHku dk edrdwfjywJhwcsdKUao ma' o awG (t x l; o jzi fht mz&du eJY t a&SUawmi ft m&S) u wpfygwDv Tr f;rkd;Bu D;pdk;x m;wJhygwDut kyfcsKyfwJh v Gwfv yfa&;acwfv Gefu mv t csdefu mv rSm t v si ft jrefu spfv pfckdi frmapzkdYq u fET, faew, f/ t rSefwu , fyJ a' o ESpfckpv Hk;&JU ygwDpepfawG[ mo do do mo mu dk u rÇmrSm Programmatic t en f;q Hk;t jzpf yHkx Gu fw, f/ t J' Dv lr It zGJUt pn f;awG&JU Ekdi fi H&;ab m*aA' u acs;i Sm;r I&SmazGaewJh t kyfcsKyfr Iwn faq mu fyHkt ay:t ajccHwJh t arGq kdi f&mpn f;rsOf;awGay:x Gu fv mjci f;u dk azmfaq mi f

56


ay;wJh &i f;jrpfawGeJYt wl wm0efx r f;aq mi fq Jyk*¾dKv fawGu dk ax mu fyHhay;wJht J' Dv kd&v ' fawGt wGu f jzpfEkdi fwJht ajct aeawGu dk ax mu fyHhay;w, f/

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57


Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUay:x Gu fv mrIu dk jzpfay:apv dr fhr , f/ b &mZD;u Partido da So-cial Democracia Brasileira (PSDB) eJY Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT)eJY O½ka*G;u Frente Amplio &JUjzpf&yf[ m t J' DyHkpHwpfck&JUt aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fjzpf&yfawGt jzpf t NrJv kdv kdt x l;jyKwi fjycH&w, f/

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58


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59


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v Gefv Gefu Ju Jjy| mef;cH&wm? tcGi fhro mwJhwn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&m t aet x m;awGrSm RPG

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v u f&Sdb u fawmfo m;wn faq mu fr IyHkpHawGu kd yHkazmfjci f;u a&&Sn fu @awG&JU t a&;ygr Iu kdx i f&Sm;ap/

ay:v pDax mu fcHcsu fawGq i f;o u f&&Sdv mzkdY ykdv kdYawmi fcu fcJ/ jzpf&yft x l;jyKv Gef;wmeJY t v Geft Mu L;jy| mef;cH&jci f;awGjzpfv mEkdi f/

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u rÇmhwv Tm;rS RPG t wGu f v u fawGUu spGm&SmazGawGU&dSjci f;ESi fh&Si f;v i f;wi fjyao mjzpfpOf

t x u frSm o Hk;o yfcJhwJhpmay&JU rwln DwJhpk½Hk;r IawGt & Program-matic ygwDawG&JU jzpfEkdi fzG, ft aMu mi f;&i f;cHt ajct aeawGt wGu f ayghayghyg;yg;t q kdawGu dk t en f;q Hk;u GJjym;r It pkt a0; 4 ckt jzpf pm&i f;o Gi f;Ekdi fw, f/t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m? wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&m? o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&meJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' q kdNyD;jzpfw, f/

' Dt ydki f;rSm RPG &JUt q i fht ay:u ' Du GJjym;r It pkt a0; 4 ck&JUo u fa&mu fr IawGu dk RPG t u Jjzwfcsu f 2 ckt & eD;eD;pyfpyfcefYrSef;csu ft jzpf&SmazGav hv mx m;w, f/ t J' D 2 cku awmh C eJY E q kdwJh RPG n Tef;u def;awGyJjzpfw, f/ C u Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu dk &n fn Tef;w, f/ wpfEdki fi Hcsi f;pDt wGu fEkdi fi Ho m;ppfwrf;o u fao jycsu fawGt ay:rSm wn faq mu fx m;wJht wGu fjzpfw, f/ E n Tef;u def;u dk Herbert Kitschelt u zGHUNzdK;at mi fjyKv kyfwJh u Rrf;u si fo lppfwr f;wpfckt ay:rSm wn faq mu fx m;w, f/

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61


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62


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- b myJjzpfjzpf t ajct aeawGu dk x i fx i f&Sm;&Sm;&&dSwJh? ' grSr [ kwfq Hk;½HI;wJh jzpf&yfawG&dSw, f/ x i f&Sm;wJh&&dSr IawGu dkawGUBu HKx m;wJhEkdi fi HawGu dkt ao ;pdwfav hv mrIawGu jzpf&yfawGu dk &Si f;jyzkdYu ln DEkdi fw, f/ Mo paMw;v s?t Dwv D? q GD' i f? t ar&du efeJY rsm;pGmao m t a&SUOa&myEkdi fi HawGv kdrsdK; ' Drkdua&pDt ajccsNyD;wJht v GefrSm t a&;ygwJhwkd;wu fr IawGat mi fjr i fo Gm;cJh yHk&w, f/(csu fjyn fo lYo r®wEkdi fi H? a*smf*sD, m? armfv f' dkAm? ykdv efeJY ½k&Sm;zu f' a&;&Si f;Edki fi H)zGHUNzdK;q JEkdi fi HawGu 1990 ckESpfawGeJY 2000 ckESpfawGt Mu m; C n Tef;u def;jyKwfu so Gm;wJhEkdi fi HawGt Mu m;rSm x i fx i f&Sm;&Sm;ay:x Gu fv mw, f/ Ai feDZGJv m;eJYyD½l; (t m;v Hk;NcHKi HkNyD; q Hk;½HI;r It r It & ' kwd, eJY q Xrt o D;o D;)? awmi ft mz&du(wwd, ) eJY t a&SUOa&myu t u fpfwkd;eD;, m;? q m;b D;, m;eJY c½dkat ;&Sm;(o wår? t XreJY ' ó r t o D;o D;)

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63


t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m cHpm;cGi fhrsm;

t J' D&v ' fawGt & t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&myHkpHawG[ m >ci f;csu f 3ckeJYt wl av hv mx m;wJh RPG t q i fhawGt ay: pepfu sewJho u fa&mu frIwpfcku dk t o Hk;r jyKb l;/ t J' D>ci f;csu f 3 cku awmh

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64


v lrIwn faq mu fyHkjzpf&yfrsm;ESi fh q u fET, frIrsm;

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- RPG u v lr Irn DrQrIawGwkd;wu frsm;jym;v mjci f;u dk av Qmhcsay;zdkY&n f&G, fw, f/ (Gini &JU ajr§mu fazmfu def;awGeJY v lOD;a&&JU 20 &mckdi fEIef;ao mt q i f;&Jq Hk;Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JU EdIi f;&0i fai GawGu aewpfq i fh wdki f;wmwJht wkdi f;)v lr Irn DrQrIawGu NcHKi HkrdwJhv lx kau mi f;u sdK;awGeJY EdIi f;pmjci f;&JUax mu fyHhjci f;u dkpdwf0i fpm;wJhBu D;rm;wJhrJq Ee, ft kyfpkBu D;&JU Programmatic v HIUaq mfjci f;twGu f t cef;ae&mawGu dk av smhcsEkdi fw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh a&G;au mu fyGJeJY t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&m' dki fref;&Si f;awGt ay:u o u fa&mu frIu aejzwfNyD; RPG u dk av smhcsw, f/

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- t o u f 65 ESpfeJY t x u fv lOD;a&&mckdi fEIef;[ m n Tefu def;ESpfckpv Hk;rSmt u Jjzwfx m;wJht wkdi f; ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJh RPG eJY t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fpGmq u fET, faew, f/ t J' Dq u fET, fr Iaemu fu jzpfEkdi fzG, frx i frSwfx m;wJh, EÅ&m;awGu t ajrmu ft rsm;jzpfNyD; rao csmb l;/ t J' Dx Ju wpfcsdKUu o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&mt rSwfrx i fjzpfr It ay:t ajccHEkdi fw, f/ u sefwcsdKUawGu awmh q u fv u fjzpfysu faewJht aMu mi f;t &i f;awGay:rSm t ajccHw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh , aeYacwfto u fBu D;ydki f;Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m Ekdi ffi Ha&;q efpGm t kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&meJY r l0g' t pDtpOfwu srJq G, fwJhv HIUaq mfrIawGu ydkrdkNyD;t a&;Bu D;v mcJhwJht cg o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&macwfawGrSmv lr Ia&;wn faq mu fx m;w, fq kdwmu dk ji i f;cHk&Edki fw, f/' gayrJhv n f; q u fv u fjzpfysu faewJht aMu mi f;t &i f;t jr i fu ae t o u fydkrdkBu D;

65


wJhEkdi fi Ho m;awG[ m Bu D;rm;wJhv lx kau mi f;u sdK;awGt wGu f o lwkdY&JUt u sdK;t jrwfjzpfx Gef;r Ijy, k*fawGaMu mi fh Programmatic u dk ydkrdkv G, f v G, fu lu lv HIUaq mfEkdi fw, fv kdY ji i f;cHkEkdi fw, f/ (Oyrm t Ni drf;pm;v pmawGeJY u sef;rma&;pepfawG) t J' Dt ajccHay:rSm o lwkdY[ m ygwDawGeJY Programmatic q u fq Ha&;awGu dkv n f; x n fho Gi f;jr§KyfESHEkdi fw, f/

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- wpfcsdefwn f;rSm NrdKUjyjzpfx Gef;jci f; (' grSr [ kwf au s;v u fv lOD;a&&mckdi fEIef;) u RPG eJY pepfu sepGmrq u fET, fb l;/

o rkdi f;0i ft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m?Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' t aMu mi f;t &i f;rsm;eJYt jyeft v Sefq u fET, frIrsm;

o rkdi f;0i f t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&meJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' t aMu mi f;t &i f;rsm;t wGu f rSefu efwJhppfaq ;r IawGu dko Hk;jci f;[ m ydkrkdcu fcJNyD; Bu D;rm;wJhcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mrIt q u ft pyft wGi f;eJY RPG t csdefydk&JU rSDckdv kdY&wJh t Mu rf;zsOf;wGu fcsu fr I u i f;rJhjci f;awGay;x m;w, f/ ' gayrJhv n f; at mu fazmfjyygt ESpfcsKyfu t J' Dr lMu r f;t pHk&JU a, b k, s, kwådwefwJho u fao t jzpf t o Hk;jyKcH&Ekdi fw, f/

- ' Drkdu &u fwpft csdeft wkdi f;t wm? GDP &JU &mckdi fEIef;t jzpf t cGef0i fai GeJY GDP &mckdi fEIef;wpfckt jzpf yn ma&;u kefu sp&dwf GDP t q i fhawGt wGu fx def;csKyfwJht csdefrSm RPG t ay: o do mjr i fo mwJho u fa&mu fr IawGr&dSb l;/o dkYao mfv n f; ' Dpmayo Hk;o yfcsu fx Ju t jcm;ao mu GJjym;aewJhprf;o yfcsu fawGu

66


RPG t ay: x i f&Sm;wJht u sdK;o u fa&mu fr IawG&dSwJhyHkay:w, f/- RPG &JU &mckdi fEIef;wpfckt jzpf A[ kdt pdk;&u kefu sp&dwfeJYt wl

u sef;rma&;u kefu sp&dwfawGrSm C eJY E n Tefu def;ESpfckpv Hk;t ay:u t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fNyD; x i f&Sm;wJho u fa&mu frIawG&dSw, f/ jzpfEkdi fzG, f&dSwJh t rSwfrx i f, EÅ&m;u ' Dq u fET, fr I[ m t pkd;&u v lx kau mi f;u sdK;t wGu f (ydkrkdBu D;rm;wJhEkdi fi HhpGrf;aq mi f&n f) ydkrkdo Hk;pGJjci f;? t J' De, fy, fawGrSm ygwDawGu rJay;o lawGeJYq u fET, faewJh Programmatic yv u fazmi f;u dk ydkrkdau mi f;rGefpGm zefwD;jyKv kyfEkdi fwJh v lrIt zGJUt pn f;awG t wGi f;rSm&dSaew, fv kdY &Si f;jyw, f/ ' gaMu mi fhGDP &JU a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m' dki fref;&Si f;u ' D&v ' fawGu dkjzpfay:apjci f;rSmt c&mu sw, f/

- 1975 GDP t & wkdi f;wm&&dSwJh v lr It zGJUt pn f;&JUo rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&mzGHUNzdK;rI[ mv n f; RPG t ay:t aygi f; v u ©P maq mi fpGmo u fa&mu faeyHk&w, f/ t J' Dt aMu mi f;t &i f;t wGu f ' Drkdu &u fwpft csdeft u efYt o wft wGu fr&Si f;v i f;ayrJhv n f; o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&mt rSwfrx i fjzpfr I[ m v u f&dS RPGt q i fhawGu dk&Si f;jyjci f;rSm t c&mu saewkef;yJjzpfEkdi fw, f/

- GDP t q i fhawGu dk x def;csKyfv kdu ffwJht csdef 1985-96 u mv q Dujr i fhrm;wJhazmi f;yGrI[ m RPG u dkav QmhcszdkY&n f&G, fw, f/ (C n Tef;u def;t wGu fo m) ' DawGU&dSrI[ m t m;en f;wJhpD;yGm;a&;v kyfaq mi fr I&JU o u fa&mu fr Iq Du dkwcsdKUao mu eOD;ax mu fyHhrIu acs;i Sm;NyD; aemu fq Hk;rSmawmh v lx kau mi f;u sdK;u dkax mu fyHhzkdY Ekdi fi H&JUa, b k, st m;jzi fh t m;en f;wJhpGrf;aq mi fEkdi f&n feJY wGJrdo Gm;w, f/ RPG zGHUNzdK;rIt wGu f t ajccHawGwpfpwpfpav smhyg;v mjci f;x JrSmaygh/aemu fx yfwpfBu drft jzpf t J' D&v ' f[ m RPG &JU a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m' dki fref;&Si f;eJYydkrkdq u fET, faeyHk&w, f/

67


pHerlemjzpf&yfrsm;

t jcm;ao m Programmatic r&dSwJhygwDpepfawGx JrSm RPG ay:x Gu fv mwJh pHer lemjzpf&yfawGu dk cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;u ygwDpepfwpfck&JUEkdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' b , fv kd&dSw, fq kdwmu dkv n f; x kwfazmfjyo wJht jyi f ¤i f;&JUv r f;aMu mi f; t ay:rSDcdkaewJhyHko @mefawGeJY t jyeft v Sefq u fET, fr Iu ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJh Programmatic wn faq mu fyHk&JUt q i hfawGu dk armi f;ESi fwJhyHk&w, f/pepfwu s&SmazGjci f;r [ kwfayrJh wcsdKUao mo au FwjzpfwJh jzpf&yfawGrSm awGUjr i f&wJh v u fawGUu swJhyHkpHawG&JU &SmazGppfaq ;jci f;wpfck (Oyrm ' Drkdu a&pDeJYu mv wdko mx dawGU&ao ;NyD; ydkrkdBu D;rm;wJh Programmatic q kdi f&mwn faq mu fyHkt wGu f ae&mawGax mu fyHhay;NyD; Programmatic r [ kwfwJht csdwft q u fawGu dkaemu fjyefav smu sapwJha&&Sn fyHkpHx JrSm wjcm;ao mzGHUNzdK;q JEkdi fi HawGpDEdIi f;, SOfEkdi fwJh t q u ft pyft wGi f;rSmay:x Gu fv mwJh t a&SUOa&myjzpf&yfawG/ b &mZD;?t , fv f q maA' dk;? O½ka*G;eJY wcsdKUao mru úq Du dk' D*&DawGq Du dk) yHkpHt en f;i , fu dkt Bu HjyKw, f/

- t J' Du dpöawG&JUt rsm;pkrSm ygwDpepf&JU ProgrammaticJh wn faq mu fyHku Bu D;rm;wJhv lx kau mi f;u sdK;ax mu fyHhrIt jzpfrSwf, lx m;wJh Ekdi fi Ha&;jyKjci f;OD;pm;ay;rIt & rJq E&Si fu dk rl0g' t pDt pOfwu sv HIUaq mfzkdY pwi fwJh a&&Sn fNydKi fb u fygwDawG (Oyrm Partido dos Trabalhadores(PT), National Action Party(PAN), Revolutionary Democratic Party (PRD), Frente Amplio,Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front) awG&JUv kyfaq mi fcsu fawGt m;jzi fh pwi fv kyfaq mi fjci f;cH&w, f/ u mv &Sn fNydKi fb u fygwDjzpfaejci f;eJYt J' gaMu mi fh x i f&Sm;wJh½kyf0w¬K&i f;jrpfawGq D csdwfq u fr Iu i f;rJhjci f;awGut J' Den f;pepfu dk a&G;cs, fjci f;u dk t en f;q Hk;wpfpdwfwpfydki f;&Si f;jyEkdi fw, f/

- aps;u Gu f-Ekdi fi Ht ykdi f;w0dku frSm ESpfjcr f;u GJjci f;eJY (u GefjrLepfv lr Izlv Hka&;pepf? ' grSr[ kwf Oa&myZkeft wGi f;aygi f;x n hfjci f;&JU jyKjyi fajymi f;v Ja&;twGu f ¤i f;&JUNyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fjci f;) u Programmatic ygwDawGeJY ygwDpepf

68


awGu dk wn faq mu fzkdYt wGu f t a&SUOa&myygwDawGu dk u ln Day;cJhw, f/- t rsdK;o m;t q i fhrSm e, fy, fr&&dSci f ' Dae&mrSmazmfx kwfx m;wJh

o au Fwjzpfao mygwDwcsdKUu (t x l;o jzi fh PT, PAN and Frente Amplio)jrLeDpDy, ft q i fhrSm t pkd;&&JUyHkpHt o pfawG&JU u keft rSwfwHq dyft o Gi faq mi fjci f;eJYv n f;x dawGUo v kd t pkd;&&JUyg0i frIyHkpHawGeJY q ef;o pfwDx Gi fx m;NyD; t o pfjzpfwJhv lx kau mi f;u sdK;awG&JUax mu fyHhjci f;t ay: A[ kdjyKx m;w, f/ t J' gu t J' DygwDawGu dk t m;au mi f;wJh Programmatic *kP fo wi f;eJY t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJh*kP fo wi f;u dkv n f;ay;cJhw, f/

- jzpf&yfwdu sjci f;t aMu mi f;&i f;awGt v GefrSm a, b k, st m;jzi fh t J' Dv kyfi ef;pOfawGu wdu swJhu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG? ' grSr[ kwf acgi f;aq mi fawGt ay: x i f&Sm;r I&&dSv mwJhygwD (t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;eJY pkaygi f;wn faq mu fr Iwpfckt jzpf) a&&Sn fu dkpdwft m½kHwdrf;n TwfwJh ygwDwn faq mu fr Ien f;AsL[ mwpfcku dk jzpfay:apw, f/

- at mi fjr i fcJhr, fq kd&i f t J' Dv kden f;AsL[ mawG pepfwu su l;pu fjci f;wpfcku dk wjzn f;jzn f;jzpfay:apEkdi fNyD; wjcm;ao m Programmatic ygwDawGu dke, fy, ft o pfawGrSm, SOfNydKi fr Ipwi fzdkY wGef;t m;ay;w, f/

ed*Hk;csKyf

yx rq Hk;eJY t x i f&Sm;q Hk;ed*Hk;csKyfau mu fcsu fu awmh ' Dacgi f;pOft ay:rSmx i fx i f&Sm;&Sm; ydkrdkEdIi f;, SOfwJho kawo e[ m v kdt yfw, fq kdwJhau mu fcsu fjzpfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh Programmatic ygwDawGeJY ygwD pepfawG&JUt , lt qu dk b , fv kdx Hk;pHt wkdi f;ydkrkdp½kdu fjyKNyD; v u fawGUu su sv u f awGUt au mi ft x n fazmfv kyfaq mi fo v Jq kdwm&JUt ay: t , lt q q kdi f&meJY o Dt kd&Dq kdi f&mt ykdi f;t pawG? t x l;o jzi fh o pfv Gi fwJhEIdi f;, SOft csu ft v u fpkaq mi f;r I ya&m*su fawG&JU&SmazGrI (t x l;o jzi fh t csdefydkt u sdK;jyKwJh) t J' Dt csu ft v u fu Program-matic ygwDpepfawGeJY ' Drkdu &u fwpft kyfcsKyfr It ay: o lwkdY&JUjzpfEkdi fzG, fo u fa&mu frIawGu dk zefwD;jci f;&JUrx i frSwfwJh' dki f;erpfeJY o b m0&JUcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmrIt ay:

69


t v m;t v m&dSwJhx kd;azmu fau smfv Tm;r IwpfckeJY t q i fhq i fhajymi f;v Jr It jzpfv kyfaq mi fEkdi fw, f/ o dkYao mfv n f; ' DyHkpHo kawo e Bu dK;yr f;t m;x kwfr Iu dkNyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fapjci f;u dk t v Geft r i f;½Iyfax G;NyD; t v kyfo rm;t u JjyKpepfjzpfEkdi fw, f/ Ekdi fi Hwu mat *si fpDawGq Du t m;au mi f; wJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&max mu fyHhr IawGr&dSwJht cg t u , f' rpft o dki f;t 0kdi f;wpfckwn f;u' DyHkpHo kawo eya&m*su fu dk NyD;ajrmu fapzkdYt wGu f rv kyfEkdi fav mu fb l;/

ajcajcjrpfjrpf&dSpGmyJ o kawo e[ m rsm;pGmao m RPG ' dki fref;&Si f;awGu dkwpfNydKi feu fwn f;x dawGUrIu dk v kdt yfw, f/ t rSefwu , fyJ v u f&dScsOf;u yfrIawG&JUt x i f&Sm;q Hk;u efYo wfcsu f[ m RPG u dk ajrmu frsm;pGmao m' kdi fref;&Si f;q kdi f&mem;v n fjci f;wpfcku i f;rJhjci f;yJjzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&m? a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&meJYay:v pDe, fy, fawGx Ju Programmatic pn f;½Hk; wJhen f;AsL[ mawGu dk wpfNydKi feu fwn f;&SmazGjci f;x Ju pkaygi f;n §dEIdi f;aq mi f&Gu fr I&JUt u sdK;&v ' feJYwi f;t m;[ m arS;rdSefaeq JyJjzpfw, f/ wcsdKUao mav hv mrIawGrSme, fajrwpfckeJY u sefwJhe, fajrawGt Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;t ay:&Si f;v i f;wJhr lMu rf;awGyg0i faew, f/ o lwkdY[ m t ppft aq ;rcHao ;b J u sef&dSaeNyD; o Dt kd&Dq kdi f&m, lq csu fawGt jzpf r&dSr jzpft v kyfv kyfw, f/ t J' De, fy, f 3 ckx JrSmwpfNydKi feu fwn f;azmfx kwfcH&wJh v kyfi ef;pOfawG&JUt Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;u dkpepfwu saphaphpyfpyfav hv mwJh o kawo eu ae t rsm;Bu D;&&dSzkdY&dSaew, f/aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY RPG &JU ao csmwJht aMu mi f;t &i f;awG? ' grSr[ kwf o u fa&mu fr IawGu o D;jcm;' dki fref;&Si f;wpfckq Du dkq u fET, faewJh v kyfi ef;pOfawGq Dx n fh0i fcJhw, fq kd&i f t J' Dt q kdawGu dk prf;o yfzdkYt wGu f wdu swJht csu ft v u fawGckx dr&dSao ;b l;/ t wkdcsKyft m;jzi fh ' Drkdu &u fwpf&v ' fawGu dk t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&dSwJh RPG &JU x l;jcm;wJht csu ft v u fawGu aewpfq i fh wdu swJh, EÅ&m;awGu dk cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmo Hk;o yfzkdYeJY ppfaq ;zdkYydkau mi f;wJhen ;fv rf;wpfckjzpfzkdYv kdt yfw, f/ t J' Dv kdyJ ygwDawG&JUay:v pD? t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&meJY a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&me, fy, fawGt ESHYrwln DwJh? wpfcgwpf&HrSmq efYu si faewJh RPG t pjyKjci f;&JU t aMu mi f;t &i f;awGb , fv kdjzpfv mo v Jq kdwmv n f;yg0i fw, f/

at mu fygjzpfEkdi fzG, f o kawo eacgi f;pOfawGu t csdefu dkau smfjzwfNyD;

70


RPG &JU ajrmu frsm;pGmao m' dki fref;&Si f;q kdi f&mem;v n fr Iwpfcku dk aygi f;pyfjci f;t ay: cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mEkdi fo v kd av hv n f;av hv mo i fhw, f/

- o au FwjyKjzpf&yfawG&JU azmfx kwft o drSwfjyKjci f;eJY eu feu f½dIi f;½dIi f;cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;/ t em*wfo kawo eawG[ m ydkrdkBu D;rm;wJho au FwjyKjzpf&yft pkwpfck (Programmatic r&dSwJht q u ft pyfx Ju ay: x Gu fv mNyD;pepfu swJht o Gi fu l;ajymi f;jci f;u dk v kyfaq mi fay;wJh Programmatic ygwDawG)u dk x kwfazmft o drSwfjyKzkdY yx rOD;q Hk;&SmazGNyD; t J' Daemu frSm t J' Djzpf&yft pk(Oyrm rsdK;pHkao ma' o awGu 7-10cefY) u dk t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJhygwDpepft ajymi f;t v J&JU t J' DjzpfpOf&JUrx i frSwfwJh ' dki f;erpfawGu dk eu feu f½dIi f;½dIi f;cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mrIwpfck jyKv kyfzkdYt o Hk;jyKw, f/ EdIIi f;, SOfrIawGu rwln DwJhtaygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJhu l;pu fysHUESHYjci f;' D*&DawGu t m;au mi f;wm? ' grSr[ kwfydkrkdu efYo wfcHx m;&wJhjzpf&yfawGt Mu m;rSm a&;q GJcH&Ekdi fw, f/ ' DcGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mrIrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' eJY o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&m-t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mv kyfi ef;pOfu dkt x l;t m½Hkpkdu fo i fhw, f/ o kdYao mfv n f; RPG t wGu f Ekdi fi Ha&;acgi f;aq mi fr Iu dpöu wpfcgx yfNyD; zdpD;v mEkdi fw, f/ ' Dv kdo au FwjyKjzpf&yfawG[ m ' gaMu mi fh wjcm;ao m wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&meJY o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&mt ajct aeray;wJht aet x m;awGt v , fu at mi fjr i fwJh&v ' fawGu dk OD;aq mi fwJhx l;jcm;wJhacgi f;aq mi frIen f;pepfawGu dk azmfx kwft o dt rSwfjyKzkdYeJY t rSwft o m;jyKzkdYv kyfEkdi fo i fhw, f/ ' Dv kd o kawo eu ' Drkdu &u fwpft ax mu ft u ljyKu eOD;jyKr It rsdK;rsdK;u ae x kwfEkwfx m;wJh o i fcef;pmawGu t v Geft o Hk;0i fv drfhr, f/

- t m;en f;wJh Programmatic ygwDawG&JU azmfx kwft o dtrSwfjyKjci f;eJY eu feu f½dIi f;½dIi f;cGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;/ rD' D, m&JUwkd;wu fv mwJho u fa&mu fr IawGu ydkrdk, kwÅd&dSwJh Programmatic ygwD&JU q kwf, kwfv mwJhyHkpHcGJ&JUay: x Gu fv mr Iu dkjyKv kyfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh ProgrammaticygwDwpfckt jzpf wi f;wi f;u syfu syfr&dSb J Programmatic en f;AsL[ mawGu dkat mi fjr i fNyD;ajrmu fapwJh ' DyHkpHygwDu kd t ao ;pdwfcGJ jcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mjci f;[ mv kdt yfw, f/ ' DcGJjcr f;pdwfjzmav hv mrIawGu zGHUNzdK;q Ju rÇmx Ju Program-

71


matic en f;AsL[ mawG&JU&SmazGrIu dk jr§i fhwi fjci f;&JU t u sdK;au s;Zl;eJYjyó emawGt ay: t &dyfx dk;apw, f/ o lwkdYu t awmi ft v u fpHkv i fv mwJh RPGpepfwpfckv kdrsdK; ' Drkdu a&pDt ay:u wln DwJht aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJh jyi fya&mu fr IawGu dk ' DyHkpH&SmazGrIu x kwfv kyfay;yHk&? r&u dkv n f; &SmazGppfaq ;Ekdi fw, f/

- o r®wq kdi f&mpepfawGx u f ydkrkdBu D;rm;wJh RPG u dkjzpfajrmu fapwJhygv Drefq kdi f&mpepfawG&JU wdu swJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mpDpOfrIawG&JU azmfx kwft o drSwfjyKr IeJY o lwkdYu dk o r ®wq kdi f&mpepfawG&JUt q u ft pyfx Ju rSyHkwlyGm; jzn fhpGu fcH&Ekdi fo v m;/ v u f&dSav hv mrIu ygv DrefpepfawGrSm o mreft m;jzi fh ydkrkdjr i fhrm;wJh RPG &dSw, fv kdY t ckdi ft rmq kdayrJhv n f; ' D&v ' fu dkjzpfay:apwJh wdu swJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m, EÅ&m;awGu dkawmh ro d&dS&b l;/rsm;pGmao mrlMu rf;awG[ m t J' Dt kyfcsKyfr IyHkpHESpfckpv Hk;t Mu m;u rwln DrIawGt ay:rSm u mv &Sn f&yfwn fcJhwJhpmayu ae &&dSEkdi fw, f/ ' Dr lMu r f;[ m o Hk;ckao m' dki fref;&Si f; e, fy, fwpfckcsi f;pD&JUo u fq kdi f&mt pdwft ydki f;awGt jzpf csJUx Gi fcH&Edki fNyD; t J' Daemu frSm v u fawGUu su sprf;o yfcH&Ekdi fw, f/ at mi fjr i fcJhr , fq kd&i fawmh ' g[ m o r®wt , lt q q kdi f&m&JUt EIwfv u ©P maq mi fjyi fyjzpfr IawGu dkrSefu efat mi fu ln DwJh t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mjyKjyi fajymi f;v Jr I? ' grSr [ kwft zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mt pDt pOfawGt wGu f wi fjycsu fawGt wGu f o u fq kdi f&mt o dt jr i fawGu dk t Bu HjyKEkdi fw, f/

- A[ kdcsKyfu dki fr Iav Qmhcsjci f;? ygwDpepft rsdK;o m;t o Gi fjyKjci f;eJY RPGt Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;u dk x yfrHcGJjcrf;av hv mjci f;/ t rsdK;o m;t o Gi fjyKjci f; (ygwDpepf&JUa' gi fv kdu faygi f;pyfjci f;) eJY RPG t Mu m;u yHk&dyfq kdi f&mq u fq Ha&;wpfcku dk awGU&dS&wJht csdefrSm aemu fx yfo kawo eawGu ' Dq u fET, frIt aemu fut rSwfrx i f' kdi f;erpfu dkq GJx kwfzkdYeJY o lwkdY&JUq u fq Ha&;u dk A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iav smhcsa&;eJY e, fajrq kdi f&mt mPmcGJa0ay;jci f;awGu dk v kdt yfw, f/ pHkprf;ar;jref;jci f;&JUjzpfEkdi fzG, f&dSwJhv kdi f;wpfcku t rsdK;o m;t o Gi fjyKjci f;eJY rwln DwJhen f;v rf;awGeJYaygi f;pyfx m;wJhrwln DwJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iav smhcsa&;t pDt pOf&JU RPG ? Ekdi fi Htq i fh A[ kdcsKyfu dki fr Iav smhcsjci f;eJY a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mt kyfcsKyfyHk A[ kdcsKyfu dki fr Iav smh

72


csjci f;t ay:o u fa&mu frIawGu dk EdIi f;, SOfw, f/ wpfOD;csi f;eJY zu f' &, fpepfawG&JUt q u ft pyfx Ju at mi fjr i fwJhjzpf&yfawG&JU EdIi f;, SOfrIu v n f; t v m;t v m&dSw, f/

- t ay;t , lv kyfjci f;eJY t pdwft ydki f;jyKx m;wJh ygwD-rJay;o l t csdwft q u fawG? a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi ff&mt csdwft q u fawGt ay:rSm ay:v pDeJY t zGJUtpn f;q kdi f&me, fy, fawG (rsdK;pHkao m ygwD-rJay;o l en f;AsL[ mawGu dk wpfNydKi feu fwn f;t o Hk;jyKEkdi fwJh) t wGu f pdwfykdi f;x m;wJhygwD-rJay;o lt csdwft q u fen f;AsL[ mawG&JU at mi fjr i fNyD;ajrmu frIawGu dk t x l;o jzi fh aemu fx yfav h v mrIawGjyKv kyfo i hfw, f/ ' Drkdu a&pDeJY t kyfcsKyfr I&JUt &n ft ao G;t wGu f at mi fjr i fNyD;ajrmu fjci f;awGu dk t J' Dv kdav hv mcsu fwpfckx JrSm aygi f;x n fhcH&Ekdi fw, f/ aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY Programmatic eJY ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;t csdwft q u fawGu dkEdIi f;, SOfcH&Ekdi ffNyD;wjcm;ao mpdwfu l;yHkpHawG (Oyrm Mo Zmwdu úreJY rJq G, fv HIUaq mfjci f;? ' grSr[ kwfb u fawmfo m;x kwfazmft o dt rSwfjyKjci f;) awGu dkv n f;aygi f;pyfEkdi fw, f/

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1- o dkYao mfv n f; t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mpdwfu l;pdwfo ef;awGu dk x kwfazmfr Iwkdi f;u Programmatic u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;q Du dk OD;wn fo Gm;rSmr [ kwfb l;q kdwmu dkawmh rSwfo m;x m;o i fhw, f/ ajymi f;jyeft aeeJY v mb fv mb eJYjrLq G, fpn f;½Hk;wJh, EÅ&m;awGu r, HkMu n fEkdi fav mu fat mi f au mi f;au mi f;rGefrGefzGHUNzdK;Ekdi fayrJh wpfcsdefwn f;rSmyJ ygwDawG&JUu rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;u dk, fpm;jyKrIt&n ft ao G;u dkawmh x dckdu ffysu fjym;aprSmjzpfw, f/ ' Dt aMu mi f;t &mt ay:rSmyD, u fwkdeD(2001)u u RefawmfwkdY&JUv mb fv mb eJYrJq G, fjci f;u dkq efYu si fwJhpHb u fv kdu fr IawGu dkau smfv Gefv mcJhzkdY v kdt yfcsu feJYywfo u fv kdY pdwf0i fpm;p&maq G;aEG;csu fwpfcku dkwi fjycJhw, f/ t J' Daq GaEG;csu frSm o lru wi f;u syfr IeJYq kdcJhNyD;wJh t zGJYt pn f;q kdi f&mv rf;aMu mi f;awGu dk x def;n d§rIwpfckt jzpf v kyfaq mi fwJh pdwf0i fpm;r Iu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;yHkpHwpfckt jzpfjr i fw, f/ Piattoni &JUt v kdt &&mpkESpf&JUt apmydki f; (*v kdb , fv kdu faZ;&Si f;? Oa&myaygi f;pn f;r IeJY wo D;wo efYEkdi fi Ha&;&JUjr i fhwu fv mrI) u Oa&my&JUt ajct aeawG[ m v mb fv mb eJYrJq G, fjci f;0g' &JU ' laywmaycHEkdi frIeJY jyefv n f&Si fo efv mEkdi frIu dk t av ;o mapcJhEkdi fw, f/t J' Dv mb fv mb eJYrJq G, fjci f;0g' [ m Oa&my&JUacwfNydKi f' Drkdu a&pDu dk wn fNi drfat mi fv kdY t u lt n Day;Ekdi fw, f/ b myJjzpfjzpf v mb fv mb eJY rJq G, fjci f;0g' urQwwJhMu m;aewefzkd;jzwf EIef;pHawGt & t u JjzwfcH&r , fq kd&i fawmi fu s, fjyefYv mwJht csdefrSmawmh t J' g[ m ' Drkdu a&pDu dko do do mo mwefzkd;av smhcsapwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt zGJU0i fo pfa&G;cs, fjci f;u dkjzpfapw, fq kdwmx i f&Sm;w, f/

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v kdu fai Gv TJajymi f;wJhy½dk*&r fawGv kdrsdK; x kwfu kefyHkpHawG[ m t v Gefedr fhyg;wJhaygi f;pn f;jci f;t q i fhawG (wpfOD;csi ff;? ' grSr [ kwf t dr fax mi fpkt v kdu f) rSmpDpOfay;jci f;cH&w, f/ rn fo kdYyi fjzpfap rQrQwwv kyfaq mi fay;r, fq kd&i f (v u fcH&&dSo lawGu t pDt pOfu dkv u fcH&&dSv kdu fwJht wGu f t ajct aeawGu dk jzn fhq n f;wm? t J' Dt ajct aeawGu dkr jzn fhq n f;yJ t u sdK;&v ' fawG&&dSv kdu fwJhv u fcH&&dSo lr&dSwm) t ajct aet v kdu fai Gv TJajymi f;r IawG[ m t J' gu dk0ef;&HNyD;ygwDawGu Programmatic v rf;aMu mi f;awGu dk wn faq mu fEkdi fwJh v lx kx kwfu kefawGt jzpf rSwf, lcH&Ekdi fw, f/ t J' gawGu wpfOD;csi f;t v kdu f jzefYjzL;ay;w, fq kd&i fawmi frSaygh/

4- t J' Dt awG;pt ay:a&;q GJjci f;u wjcm;wpfae&mu ygwDpepfawGt aeeJYt zGJUt pn f;q efq efygwDpepfawGu ae t &n fyHkpH (ryDjyi f? ½kyfv Hk;ray:ao ;wJh)t x dpDpOfx m;wJh t pOft ay:rSmae&mcsx m;&Ekdi fw, f/ ygwDpepfawG&JU t J' Dt pOft ay:u EdIi f;&ae&mawG[ m ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;eJY' Drkdu a&pDt &n ft ao G;u dk o u fa&mu frI&dSapwJht q Hk;t jzwfay;wJhpepfu sewJhv kyfaq mi fcsu ft jzpf v wfwav mrSm av hv mawGU&dScJhw, f/ (Oyrmt jzpf Payne et al 2003 eJYMainwaring and Scully 1995 u dkMu n fhyg) t , lt q t ajccHt & Mainwaringand Scully 1995 u ygwDpepft zGJUt pn f;t o Gi fjyKjci f;&JU½Iax mi fhav ;cku dkazmfx kwfay;w, f/ (1) ygwD, SOfNydKi fr IyHkpHawG&JUwn fNi dr fr IeJYyHkrSef&dSrI? (2) v lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;rSm wn fNi drfwJht zGJUt pn f;t o Gi fjyKpepfu dku ln Day;wJh ygwD&JUajcu kyft jrpfawG&dSaejci f;? (3) v lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f; jr i fhrm;wJht q i fhrSm&dSwJhygwD&JUw&m;0i fjzpfjci f;eJY (4) yk*¾dKv fa&;t ajcjyKacgi f;aq mi fawGt wGu f ygwDu dka&G;au mu fyGJo Hk;, mOfwpfckv dkv kyfaq mi fay;wJh ygwDawGu dk q efYu si fwJht aeeJYau mi f;au mi f;rGefrGefzGHUNzdK;wJhygwDt zGJUt pn f;awG&dSjci f;wkdYjzpfw, f/ Mainwaring1999 u ' D½Iax mi fhav ;ckMu m;x Ju q u fET, fr IawGu dk t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi ft pOft jzpf wdwdu su st , lt q jyKx m;w, f/ o lu ½Iax mi fhwpfckt wGi f;ujri fhrm;wJh t zGJUt pn f;jyKjci f;t q i fhawG[ m wjcm;½Iax mi fho Hk;ckx Ju jr i fhrm;wJhtq i fhawGeJY t NrJv kdv kdq u fET, faew, fv kdYv n f;, lq w, f/

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5- Miller eJY Stokes wkdY&JUaq mi f;yg;u rsm;pGmao men f;pepfu seNyD;x da&mu fwJha0zefr IawGu dk v HIUaq mfay;cJhw, f/ Achen (1977) u q u fET, fr Iv u ©P mawGu dk t o Hk;jyKyHku dka0zefcJhNyD; v lrsm;pkeJY t x u fwef;v Tm (x dpyfr IeJYA[ dkjyKrI) wkdY&JU t aet x m;awGMu m;u t <u i f;rJht u Gmt a0;eJY ygwDwpfckcsi f;pD&JU rJq E&Si fawG&JU t o dyn mq kdi f&mt aet x m;awGu ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fawG&JUcefYrSef;r IawGu dk cGi fhjyKay;wJhyrmP ESpfckpv Hk;u dkt u JjzwfzkdYt wGu f t rsdK;rsdK;ao mt u Jjzwfwkdi f;wm rIawGt o Hk;jyKjci f;u dk ax mu fcHcJhw, f/ Weissberg (1978)u Miller eJY Stokes wkdY&JU o u fq kdi f&ma' o rJq E&Si fawGeJY o lwkdY&JUa&G;au mu fcHu dk, fpm;v S, ft Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;t ay: t "du x m;av hv mwJh ESpfOD;ESpfzu fq u fq Ha&;u dk, fpm;jyKrI q kdi f&mt u Jjzwfav hv mcsu fawG[ m Ekdi fi Ho m;x kwpfckv Hk;eJY wpfEkdi fi Hv Hk;q kdi f&m Oya' jyKv TwfawmfwdkYt Mu m;u pkaygi f;u dk, fpm;jyKrIt aet x m;awGu dk o do do mo mab ;csdwfypfEkdi fw, fv kdYjyo cJhw, f/ aemu fykdi f;rSmawmh ajcajcjrpfjrpf&dSwJhu dk, fpm;jyKrIt ay: EdIi f;, SOfav hv mwJht av ht x [ mu dk, fpm;jyKrIrSm t o i fhawmfq Hk; at ;*si fht jzpfx i fjr i fcHv m&wJh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUEdki fi Ha&;u dk, fpm;jyKrI (q kdi f&ma' o wpfckcsi f;u dk, fpm;jyKrIt pm;) t ay:csn f;t x l;o D;o efYv kdv kd t m½Hkpdku fv mcJhw, f/

6- t J' gu t aemu fOa&myrSm&dSwJh v lrIt pdwft ydki f;awG&JU wpfckwn f;ao mwn f&dSrIq Du Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mrJq E&Si f&yfwn frIu Gm[ csu fawG&JU yHkyef;o P ²meftjzpfau mu fcsu fcsrdat mi f awG;jr i fyHkydki f;t &t x i frSm;o Gm;Ekdi fayrJh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mv kyfi ef;&Si fawGu wn fNi drfwJhu dk, fpm;jyKrIpepfu dkwn faq mu fEkdi fzkdYt wGu f wdwfq dwfwJhv lr It pdwft ydki f; (t "du au sm½dk;awG) t ay:wdr f;n GwfcJhMu ygw, f/(Lipset eJY Rokkan 1967) ' Du dk, fpm;jyKr IpepfawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;rJq E&Si f&yfwn fr Iu Gm[ csu fv kdY o dv mMu wJht pdwft ydki f;awGu dk A[ dkjyKv kdYwn fNi dr faeNyD;a&&Sn frSm v lr IEkdi fi Ha&;aygi f;pn f;r IawGckdi fNrJrI&dSaMu mi f; t csu fjyaew, f/ o dkYao mfv n f; acwfo pft &i f;&Si f' Drkdu a&pDpepfx Ju Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mrJq E&Si f&yfwn fr Iu Gm[ csu fawG&JU acwfNydKi ft yGef;t &SeJY wkd;wu fzGHUNzdK;aewJhu rÇm&JU rJq E&Si f&yfwn fr Iu Gm[ csu fpepf&JUt m;en f;csu fESpfckpv Hk;u Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mrJq E&Si f &yf

76


wn frIu Gm[ csu ft , lt q u dk acwfNydKi fv lr It zGJUt pn f;x Ju Programmaticcsdwfq u fr IawGu dk cGJjcr f;av hv mzkdYt wGu f rq Dav smfo v kdjzpfat mi fjyKv kyfaeo v kd&dSw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh ydkNyD;o i fhawmfrI&dSwJht , lt q wpfcku dk v kdt yfv mcJhw, f/ t x l;o jzi fh zGHUNzdK;q JEkdi fi HawGt wGu faygh/ v lr It zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;ux i f&Sm;wJht pdwft ydki f;awGu dkv n f; t csu fjyaewJht csdefrSmyJ t a&;u dpöu GJjym;jci f;?u GJx Gu fjci f;awG[ m wn fNi drfrIav smhen f;v mNyD; aemu fq Hk;rSm t &n fyHkpH (ryDjyi f?½kyfv Hk;ray:) wJht aet x m;? ' grSr[ kwf t ajymi f;t v Jt aet x m;u dk a&mu f&dSo Gm;Ekdi fu m ydkrkdu s, fjyefYpGmt o Hk;jyKEkdi fwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mrJq E&Si f&yfwn fcsu fu GJjym;r IawGt jzpf jyn fhpHkNyD;o rm;½kd;u sr [ kwfwJhq ef;o pfr Iu dkay;pGr f;w, f/(Kitschelt et al. 2010)

7- ' Dt awG;yHkMu r f;[ m v mb fv mb eJYrJq G, fjci f;? t pdk;&b @mu dk rJq E&Si fawGt wGu ft o Hk;csNyD; rJq G, fjci f;? rJ0, fjci f;? v l, HkarG;jci f;eJY Program-matic csdwfq u fr IawGeJYywfo u fv kdY u GJjym;wJhpHt jri fawGt m;jzi fh u dku fn DrI&dSw, f/U.S Ekdi fi Ha&; pmayt wGi f;rSm t o u f0i faeq JjzpfwJh t pkd;&b @mu dkrJq E&Si fawGau seyfapa&;t o Hk;csNyD; rJq G, fjci f;eJY rJq E&Si fawGu dk0efaq mi frIawGay;jci f;wkdYv kd t rwfav mi f;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGu dk wn fNi drfr Iu dkay;pGrf;NyD; a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&me, fy, ft wGi f;u Programmatic ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;u dkjzpfajrmu fapw, fv kdY½Ijr i fMu w, f/ zGHUNzdK;q Ju rÇmrSm av hv mawGU&dS&wJh t J' DyHkpHt wkdi f; wln DwJhv Iyf&Sm;r IawG[ m v mb fay;v mb f, lEkdi fi Ha&;eJY ryDjyi fao ;wJhygwDpepfawGt jzpfrSwf, lMu wmu dkawGU&w, f/ (Oyrm Evans 2004 wGi f½I)

8- Ekdi fi Ho m;t ajcjyKt n Tef;u def;u dk wpfpdwfwpfydki f;t n Tef;u def;ESpfck&JUrQajct jzpfwGu fcsu fw, f/ (o au FwjyKjci f;eJY ajcajcjrpfjrpfcdki fckdi frmrmjyKjci f;)o au FwjyKt n Tef;u def;[ m Mainwaring eJY Torcal (2006) wkdY&JU av hv mt u JjzwfrIen f;AsL[ mu dk yHkwlu l;u m rJay;r , fho lawG&JU 0J-, m u kd, fhu dk, fu kd, fcGJjcm;u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;t ajccHt ay:rSm rJa&G;cs, fr IawGu dkBu dKwi fcefYrSef;w, f/ ajcajcjrpfjrpfckdi fckdi frmrm&dSwJht n Tef;u def;yHkpHu awmh t v m;t v m&dSNyD;wdwfq dwfwJh

77


, SOfNydKi fr It pdwft ydki f;awGt wlwu Gu dk, fpm;jyKaewJh t a&;u dpöo Hk;ckt ay:rSma&;q GJjci f;t m;jzi fh Programmatic q kdi f&mwn faq mu fr I&JU ajcajc jrpfjrpf&dSwJht u Jjzwfav hv mcsu fwpfcku dk t eD;pyfq Hk;&&dSat mi fBu dK;pm;w, f/ t J' D, SOfNydKi fr It pdwft ydki f;awGu awmh Ekdi fi Hawmfaps;u Gu f? ' Drkdu &u fwpf t mP mydki ft zGJUt pn f;eJY u Gefq maA;wpfu dk, fu si hfq kdi f&mu dpöawGt ay:u v pfb &, ft aet x m;awGyJjzpfw, f/ u dpö&yft m;v Hk;rSm n Dwln DrQt a&;ygwm r [ kwfayrJhu RefawmfwkdY[ mt kyfpkwpfckt aeeJY t J' Do Hk;ckao m, SOfNydKi fr I0i f½dk;awGrSm Pro-grammatic csdwfq u fr IawG t m;au mi f;wJht &yfrSm ygwDOD;pm;ay;r It ay:t en f;i , fao mv Tr f;rdk;r I&dSo i fhw, fv kdY , HkMu n fygw, f/ ' Dt a&;u dpöo Hk;cku dku dk, fpm;jyKaewJhar ;cGef;awGu awmh (u ) 1-10 t wkdi f; t wm? 1=0i fai GawGydkrkdn DrQat mi fjyKv kyfo i fhw, fq dkwJht ay: jyn fhpHkwJho ab mwln Dcsu f? 10=u RefawmfwkdYt aeeJY wpfOD;csi f;t m;x kwfr IawGt wGu f cHpm;cGi fh t jzpfeJY0i fai Gu Gmjcm;csu fawG Bu D;Bu D;rm;rm;&dSzkdYv kdt yfw, fq kdwJht ay: jyn fhpHkwJho ab mwln Dcsu f?(c) ' Drkdu a&pDrSm jyó emawG&dSau mi f;&dSEkdi fayrJh ' g[ m wjcm;ao mt kyfcsKyfr It pdk;&yHkpHawGx u fydkau mi f;w, fq kdwJho ab mwln Dcsu f&JU wHkYjyefr IjzpfwJh 1-4 t wkdi f;t wm? (*) 1-10 t wkdi f;t wm? 1=u dk, f0efzsu fcsjci f;[ m t NrJw&m;rQwaMu mi f;u sdK;n Dn Twfw, f? 10=b , fv kdrSw&m;rQw aMu mi f;u sdK;n Dn Twfr Ir&dSb l;/ o au FwjyKt n Tef;u def;awGeJY ckdi frmwJht n Tef;u def;awGMu m;u q u fET, fr I[ m 1990 ckESpfrsm;eJY 2000 ckESpfrsm;u mv awGrSm t v Geft r i f;jr i fhrm;w, f/ (0.962 eJY 0.976 t o D;o D;&dSw, f)

u Rrf;u si fo lawGt ay:t ajccHx m;wJht n Tef;u def;awGu u rÇmt ESHYEkdi fi H80 au smfrSm Herberd Kitschelt jyKv kyfcJhwJh u Ref;u si fo lav hv mrIppfwr f;t ay:rSm t ajccHx m;w, f/ Kitschelt et al (2010) rSmazmfjy? t pD&i fcHx m;wJhu GJjym;wJh (' gayrJh t wlwlo mjzpfwJh) av hv mcsu fawGt eu f v u f&dSav hv mrIu awmh ]]coposal-4}} av hv mcsu f&JU&v ' fawGt ay:rSm t rSDjyKt ajccHx m;w, f/ Kitschelt eJY Freeze (2010) wkdY&JUt v kdt & ' Dav hv mcsu f[ m aygi f;pn f;r I? o do mx i f&Sm;rIeJY t a&;u dpöav ;ckt pHku dkt ajcjyKNyD; Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUESpfjcrf;cGJx Gu fjci f;awGu dk azmfx kwfay;w, f/ (]]coposal-4}}&JU t jri fhq Hk;&rSwfawG

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eJY t a&;u dpöo Hk;ck[ m Ekdi fi Hwkdi f;rSmar ;jref;aeMu wJho mreft a&;u dpöt pkt a0;1-5 u dk zHk;u G, fx m;w, f/ t J' Dt a&;u dpöawGt eu f ESpfckav mu fo m pD;yGm;a&;t a&;u dpöawGjzpfNyD; x yfaygi f;t aeeJY Ekdi fi Ht x l;jyKt a&;u dpö&rSwfu dk 1-5rSm av hv mawGU&dScJhw, f) ' g[ mNyD;jyn fhpHkwJhav hv mcsu fjzpfw, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh t J' g[ m Ekdi fi Hjzwfau smfNyD;&&dSEkdi fwJht a&;u dpöo Hk;ck&JU t csu ft csmrSmt ajccHx m;v kdYyJ/ wpfNydKi feu fwn f;rSm Ekdi fi Ht q i fhq u fpyft ajymi f;t v Jt wGu fwcsdKUao mt jr i fawGu dk cGi fhjyKay;x m;w, f/ ' g[ m Programmatic wn faq mu fyHkawGjr i fhrm;aewJhae&mrSm u dpö&yft awGt ay: rav smfru efjyKv kyfjci f;u dk u mu G, fwm;q D;ay;v drhfr , f/ ' gayrJh ' g[ m a, b k, sppfwr f;ar ;cGef;v TmurNcHKi HkrdwJhu dpö&yfawGeJYq u fpyfaew, f/

9- ' D&v ' f[ m C- t n Tef;u def;t wGu f o do mx i f&Sm;NyD; t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSo ab mwln Dw, f/ E- t n Gef;u def;t wGu f u def;*P ef;t csu ft v u ft &o do mx i f&Sm;rIr&dSayrJhv n f;aygh/

10- ' D&v ' f[ m C- t n Tef;u def;t wGu fo m o do mx i f&Sm;w, f/

11- ' Dt wGu fwpfckwn f;ao m>ci f;csu fu awmh E-t n Tef;u def;t wGu f u sef;rma&;yJjzpfw, f/

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Bibliography and Further Reading

Party-voter linkages and RPG

Achen, Christopher, ‘Measuring Representation: Perils of theCorrelation Coefficient’, American Journal of Political Science,21 (1977), pp. 805–15

Adams, James, Party Competition and Responsible Party Government(Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2001a)

Alcántara, Manuel and Rivas, Cristina, ‘Las Dimensiones de laPolarización Partidista en América Latina’ [Dimensions of PartyPolarization in Latin America], Política y Gobierno, 14/2(2007), pp. 349–90

Alcántara Saez, Manuel (ed.), Elites Parlamentarias en Iberoamérica[Parliamentarian Elites in Iberoamerica] (Salamanca: Universityof Salamanca)

Aldrich, John, Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation ofPolitical Parties in America (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1995)

Alesina, Alberto, ‘Credibility and Convergence in a Two-party System

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with Rational Voters’, American Economic Review, 78 (1988),pp. 796–805

Auyero, Javier, Poor People’s Politics (Durham, N.C.: DukeUniversity Press, 2000)

Ansolabehre, Stephen, Rodden, Jonathan and Snyder, James, ‘TheStrength of Issues: Using Multiple Measures to GaugePreference Stability, Ideological Constraint, and Issue Voting’,American Political Science Review, 102/2 (2008), pp. 215–32

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Converse, Philip and Pierce, Roy, Political Representation in France(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986)

Cox, Gary, Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’sElectoral Systems (New York: Cambridge University Press,1997)

Crisp, Brian and E. Ingall, Rachael, ‘Institutional Engineering and theNature of Representation: Mapping the Effects of ElectoralReform in Colombia’, American Journal of Political Science,46/4 (2002), pp. 733–48

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Garcé, Adolfo, “Panorama de la relación entre think tanks y partidospolíticos en América Latina”, in Mendizabal et al. (ed.), Dime aquién escuchas: Think Tanks y partidos politicos en AméricaLatina [Thinking Politics: Think Tanks and Political Parties inLatin America] (Lima: IDEA-ODI, 2009), pp. 23–58

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Holmberg, Sören, ‘Collective Policy Congruence Compared’, inWarren E. Miller, Roy Pierce, Jacques Thomassen, RichardHerrera, Sören Holmberg, Peter Esaisson and Bernhard Webels(eds.), Policy Representation in Western Democracies (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1999)

Irwin, Galen and Thomassen, Jacques, ‘Issue-consensus in a Multi-party System: Voters and Leaders in the Netherlands’, ActaPolíticai, 10 (1975), pp. 389–420

Iversen, Torben, ‘Political Leadership and Representation in WesternEuropean Democracies: A Test of Three Models of Voting’,American Journal of Political Science, 38 (1994), pp. 45–74

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Kitschelt, Herbert and Freeze, Kent, ‘Programmatic Party SystemStructuration: Developing and Comparing Cross-national andCross-party Measures with a New Global Data Set’, Paperpresented at the American Political Science Association,Washington, D.C., 3 September 2010

Kitschelt, Herbert, Hawkins, Kirk, Rosas, Guillermo and Zechmeister,Elizabeth-Jean, Latin American Party Systems (New York:Cambridge University Press, 2010)

Kitschelt, Herbert and Kselman, Daniel, ‘The OrganizationalFoundations of Democratic Accountability: OrganizationalForm and the Choice of Electoral Linkage Strategy’, Paperpresented at the American Political Science Association,Washington, D.C., 3 September 2010

Kitschelt, Herbert, Mansfeldova, Zdenka, Markowski, Radoslaw andTóka, Gábor, Post-communist Party Systems: Competition,Representation, and Inter-party Cooperation (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1999)

Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven, Patrons, Clients andPolicies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and PoliticalCompetition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007)

Kolhi, Atul, The State and Poverty in India (New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1987)

Magaloni, Beatriz, Diaz-Cayeros, Alberto and Estevez, Federico,‘Clientelism and Portfolio Diversification: A Model of ElectoralInvestment with Applications to Mexico’, in Herbert Kitscheltand Steven Wilkinson (eds.), Patrons, Clients, and Policies:Patterns of Democratic Accountability (New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2007)

Mainwaring, Scott and Torcal, Mariano, ‘Party SystemInstitutionalization and Party System Theory after the ThirdWave of Democratization’, in Richard S. Katz and William

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Manin, Bernard, Przeworski, Adam, and Stokes, Susan C., ‘Electionsand Representation’, in Bernard Manin, Adam Przeworski andSusan C. Stokes (eds.) Democracy, Accountability, andRepresentation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1999), pp. 29–54

Miller, Warren E. and Stokes, Donald, ‘Constituency Influence inCongress’, American Political Science Review, 57 (1963), pp.165–77

Morgan, Jana, ‘Partisanship during the Collapse of the VenezuelanParty System’, Latin American Research Review, 42/1 (2007),pp. 78–98

Nichter, Simeon, ‘Vote Buying or Turnout Buying? Machine Politicsand the Secret Ballot’, American Political Science Review, 102/1 (2008), pp. 19–31

Otero, Patricia and Rodriguez-Zepeda, Juan Carlos, ‘MeasuringRepresentation in Latin America: A Study of IdeologicalCongruence between Parties and Voters’, Paper presented at theAmerican Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 3September 2010

Piattoni, Simona (ed.), Clientelism, Interests, and DemocraticRepresentation: The European Experience in Historical andComparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2001)

Powell (Jr.), Bingham, ‘The Ideological Congruence Controversy: TheImpact of Alternative Measures, Data, and Time Periods on theEffects of Election Rules’, Comparative Political Studies, 42/12(2009), pp. 1475–92

Powell (Jr.), Bingham, ‘Political Representation in ComparativePolitics’, Annual Review of Political Science, 7 (2004), pp. 273–96

Ranney, Austin, The Doctrine of Responsible Party Government(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1962)

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Stokes, Susan C., ‘Pork, by Any Other Name: Building a ConceptualScheme of Distributive Politics’, Paper presented at theAmerican Political Science Association 2009 Annual Meeting,Toronto, 3–6 September 2009

Stokes, Susan C., ‘Perverse Accountability: A Formal Model ofMachine Politics with Evidence from Argentina’, AmericanPolitical Science Review, 99/3 (2005), pp. 315–25

Stokes, Susan C., Mandates and Democracy: Neoliberalism bySurprise in Latin America (New York: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2001)

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Party system nationalization

Caramani, Daniele, The Nationalization of Politics: The Formation ofNational Electorates and Party Systems in Western Europe(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004)

Chhibber, Pradeep and Kollman, Ken, The Formation of National

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Hicken, Allen, ‘How Do Rules and Institutions Encourage VoteBuying?’, in Frederic Schaffer (ed.), Elections for Sale: TheCauses and Consequences of Vote Buying (Boulder, Colo.:Lynne Rienner, 2007), pp. 47–60

Mainwaring, Scott and Jones, Mark, ‘The Nationalization of Partiesand Party Systems’, Party Politics, 9/2 (2003), pp. 139–66

Morgenstern, Scott and Swindle, Stephen M., ‘Are Politics Local? AnAnalysis of Voting Patterns in 23 Democracies’, ComparativePolitical Studies, 38/2 (2005), pp. 143–70

Party system institutionalization

Bielasiak, Jack, ‘The Institutionalization of Electoral and PartySystems in Post-communist States’, Comparative Politics, 34/2(2000), pp. 189–210

Centellas, Miguel, ‘Bolivia’s Party System after October 2003: WhereDid all the Politicians Go?’, Paper prepared for the AnnualMeeting of the American Political Science Association, Boston,28–31 August 2008

Dalton, Russell J. and Weldon, Steven, ‘Partisanship and PartySystem: Institutionalization’, Party Politics, 13/2 (2007), pp.179–96

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Mainwaring, Scott and Zoco, E., ‘Political Sequences and theStabilization of Interparty Competition: Electoral Volatility inOld and New Democracies’, Party Politics, 2/13 (2007), pp.155–78

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Sanchez, Omar, ‘Party Non-systems: A Conceptual Innovation’, PartyPolitics, 15/4 (2009), pp. 487–520

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Thames, Frank C. and Robbins, Joseph W., ‘Party SystemInstitutionalization and the Level of Democracy’, Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the American PoliticalScience Association, Chicago 29 August–1 September 2007

Internal politics of parties and candidate selection

Beatty, Rachel, ‘Authoritarian Legacies and Democratic Transitions:Enduring Effects for Africa’s Political Party Systems’, Paper

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Carey, John, and Polga-Hecimovich, John, ‘Primary Elections andCandidate Strength in Latin America’, Journal of Politics, 68/3(2006), pp. 530–43

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Hu, Weiwei and Heller, William, ‘Investing in Agreement: PartyOrganization, Leadership Change, and Policy Positions’, Paperprepared for the Annual Meeting of the American PoliticalScience Association, Washington, D.C., 2–5 September 2010

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Kitschelt, Herbert, The Transformation of European SocialDemocracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)

Kuhonta, Erik M., ‘Party Institutionalization: A ConceptualReexamination through Southeast Asian Lenses’, Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the American PoliticalScience Association, Chicago, 30 August 2007

Levitsky, Steven, Transforming Labor-Based Parties in LatinAmerica: Argentine Peronism in Comparative Perspective(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)

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Pennings, Paul and Hazan, Reuven, ‘Democratizing CandidateSelection: Causes and Consequences’, Party Politics, 7/3(2001), pp. 267–75

Salucci, Lapo, ‘Left No More: Exit, Voice and Loyalty in theDissolution of a Party’, Paper prepared for the Annual Meetingof the American Political Science Association, Boston, 28–31August 2008

Samuels, David, ‘From Socialism to Social Democracy: PartyOrganization and the Transformation of the Workers’ Party inBrazil’, Comparative Political Studies, 37 (2004), pp. 999–1024

Samuels, David, ‘Sources of Mass Partisanship in Brazil’, LatinAmerican Politics and Society, 48/2 (2006), pp. 1–27

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Congressional policymaking and programmatic parties

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Desposato, S. and Scheiner, E., ‘Governmental Centralization andParty Affiliation: Legislator Strategies in Brazil and Japan’,American Political Science Review, 102/4 (2008), pp. 509–24

Dinas, E. and Gemenis, K., ‘Measuring Parties’ Ideological Positionswith Manifesto Data: A Critical Evaluation of the CompetingMethods’, Party Politics, 16/4 (2009), pp. 427–50

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Jones, M. and Hwang, W., ‘Party Government in PresidentialDemocracies: Extending Cartel Theory Beyond the USCongress’, American Journal of Political Science, 49/2 (2005),pp. 267–82

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Morgenstern, S. and Nacif, B., Legislative Politics in Latin America(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002)

Morgenstern, S., Patterns of Legislative Politics: Roll-call Voting inLatin America and the United States (New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2004)

Project on party manifestos

Adams, James, ‘A Theory of Spatial Competition with Biased Voters:Party Policies Viewed Temporally and Comparatively’, BritishJournal of Political Science, 31/1 (2001), pp. 121–58

Bartolini, S. and Mair, P., Identity, Competition and ElectoralAvailability: The Stabilisation of European Electorates, 1885–1985 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990)

Benoit, Kenneth and Laver, Michael, ‘Estimating Party PolicyPositions: Comparing Expert Surveys and Hand-coded ContentAnalysis’, Party Politics, 26 (2003), pp. 90–107

Benoit, Kenneth and Laver, Michael, ‘Benchmarks for Text Analysis:A Response to Budge and Pennings’, Party Politics, 26 (2007),pp. 130–5

Benoit, Kenneth, Laver, Michael and Mikhaylov, Slava, ‘TreatingWords as Data with Error: Estimating Uncertainty in theComparative Manifesto Project’, Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of the American Political Science Association,Chicago, 29 August–1 September 2007

Dinas, E. and Gemenis, K., ‘Positions with Manifesto Data: A CriticalEvaluation of the Competing Methods’, Party Politics, 16/4

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Evans, G. and Norris, P. Critical Elections: British Parties and Voters(London: Sage Publications, 1999)

Franzmann, S. and Kaiser, A., ‘Locating Political Parties in PolicySpace: A Reanalysis of Party Manifesto Data’, Party Politics,12/2 (2006), pp. 163–88

Gabel, M. and Huber, J., ‘Putting Parties in Their Place: InferringParty Left-Right Ideological Positions from Party ManifestosData’, American Journal of Political Science, 44/1, (2000), pp.94–103

Janda, K., Harmel, R. Edens, C. and Goff, P., ‘Changes in PartyIdentity: Evidence from Party Manifestos’, Party Politics, 1/2(1995), pp. 171–96

Keman, H., ‘Experts and Manifestos: Different Sources—SameResults for Comparative Research?’, Electoral Studies, 26/1(2007), pp. 76–89

Mair, P., The Changing Irish Party System: Organisation, Ideologyand Electoral Competition (London: Frances Pinter, 1987)

Meguid, B., ‘Competition Between Unequals: The Role ofMainstream Party Strategy in Niche Party Success’, AmericanPolitical Science Review, 99/3 (2005), pp. 347–59

Pelizzo, Ricardo, ‘Party Positions or Party Direction? An Analysis ofParty Manifesto Data’, West European Politics, 26 (2003), pp.67–89

Petry, F., ‘The Policy Impact of Canadian Party Programs: PublicExpenditure Growth and Contagion from the Left’, CanadianPublic Policy/Analyse de Politiques, 14/4 (1988), pp. 376–89

Petry, F., ‘Fragile Mandate: Party Programmes and PublicExpenditures in the French Fifth Republic’, European Journalof Political Research, 20/2 (1991), pp. 149–71

Schofield, Norman, ‘Political Competition and Multiparty CoalitionGovernments’, European Journal of Political Research, 23/1(1993), pp. 1–33

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Strom, K. and Lejpart, J. Y., ‘Ideology, Strategy, and PartyCompetition in Postwar Norway’, European Journal of PoliticalResearch, 17/3 (1989), pp. 263–88

Walgrave, S. and Nuytemans, M., ‘Friction and Party ManifestoChange in 25 Countries, 1945–98’, American Journal ofPolitical Science, 53/1 (2009), pp. 190–206

Webb, P. D., The Modern British Party System (London: SagePublications, 2000)

Interest groups, NGOs, think tanks and programmatic politics

Baier, Gerald and Bakvis, Herman, ‘Think Tanks and Political Parties:Competitors or Collaborators?’, Canadian Journal of Policy Research,2/1 (2001), pp. 107–13

Burstein, Paul and Linton, April, ‘The Impact of Political Parties,Interest Groups, and Social Movement Organizations on PublicPolicy: Some Recent Evidence and Theoretical Concerns’,Social Forces, 81/2 (2002), pp. 381–408

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘Political Opportunity Structures and PoliticalProtest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies’, BritishJournal of Political Science, 16/1 (1986), pp. 57–85

Mendizabal, Enrique and Sample, Kristen, Dime a quién escuchas:Think Tanks y partidos políticos en América Latina [ThinkingPolitics: Think Tanks and Political Parties in Latin America](Lima: International IDEA-ODI, 2009)

Rohrschneider, Robert, ‘Impact of Social Movements on EuropeanParty Systems’, The ANNALS of the American Academy ofPolitical and Social Science, 528 (1993), pp. 157–70

Rosemblum, Nancy, ‘Political Parties as Membership Groups’,Columbia Law Review, 100/3 (2000), pp. 813–44

Schwartz, Mildred A., ‘Interactions Between Social Movements andUS Political Parties’, Party Politics, 16/5 (2010), pp. 587–607

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Verdier, Daniel, ‘The Politics of Public Aid to Private Industry: TheRole of Policy Networks’, Comparative Political Studies, 28/1(1995), pp. 3–42

Weaver, Kent, ‘The Changing World of Think Tanks’, PoliticalScience and Politics, 22/3 (1989), pp. 563–78

Causes and consequences of programmatic party systems

Baland, Jean Marie and Robinson, James, ‘How Does Vote BuyingShape the Economy?’, in Frederic Schaffer (ed.), Elections forSale: The Causes and Consequences of Vote Buying (Boulder,Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007), pp. 123–44

Bates, Robert, When Things Fall Apart (New York: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2010)

Desposato, Scott, ‘How Does Vote Buying Shape the LegislativeArena?’, in Frederic Schaffer (ed.), Elections for Sale: TheCauses and Consequences of Vote Buying (Boulder, Colo.:Lynne Rienner, 2007), pp. 101–22

Hagopian, Frances and Magaldi de Sousa, Mariana, ‘FramingProgrammatic Competition in Latin America: Strategic PartyBehavior and Neoliberal Reforms’, Paper prepared for theWorkshop on Political Parties in the Developing World,Princeton University, 30 April–1 May 2010

Hicken, Allen, ‘How Effective Are Institutional Reforms?’, in FredericSchaffer (ed.), Elections for Sale: The Causes andConsequences of Vote Buying (Boulder: Colo.: Lynne Rienner,2007), pp. 145–60

Janda, Kenneth and King, Desmond S., ‘Formalizing and TestingDuverger’s Theories on Political Parties’, Comparative PoliticalStudies, 18/2 (1985), pp. 139–69

Jones, Mark P., ‘The Role of Parties and Party Systems in the Policy

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Keefer, Philip, ‘Programmatic Parties: Where do They Come from anddo They Matter?’, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theAmerican Political Science Association, Philadelphia, 31August 2006

Lyne, Mona, ‘Rethinking Economics and Institutions: The Voter’sDilemma and Democratic Accountability’, in Herbert Kitscheltand Steven Wilkinson (eds.), Patrons, Clients, and Policies:Patterns of Democratic Accountability and PoliticalCompetition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007),pp. 159–81

Mainwaring, Scott, Bejarano, Ana Maria and Pizarro, Eduardo, TheCrisis of Democratic Representation in the Andes (Stanford,Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2006)

Mainwaring, Scott and Scully, Timothy R. (eds.), DemocraticGovernance in Latin America (Stanford, Calif.: StanfordUniversity Press, 2010)

Powell, Bingham, Contemporary Democracies: Participation,Stability and Violence, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1982)

Schaffer, Frederic, Elections for Sale: The Causes and Consequencesof Vote Buying (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2007)

Schmitt, Hermann and Thomassen, J. J. A., Political Representationand Legitimacy in the European Union (New York: OxfordUniversity Press 1999)

Shefter, Martin, ‘Trade Unions and Political Machines: TheOrganization and Disorganization of the American WorkingClass in the Late Nineteenth Century’, in Ira Katznelson andAristide Zolberg (eds.), Working Class Formation: NineteenthCentury Patterns in Western Europe and the United States(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986).

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' Drkdu a&pD[ m jyn fo ljyn fo m;awGu dk wm0ef, lr I&dSpGmt kyfcsKyfjci f;eJYt wlwm0efu kd&, lwJh Oya' awGu dk pepfwu spkpn f;x m;wJhOya' awGeJY wpfckwn f;ao mEkdi fi Ha&;t kyfcsKyfr IyHkpHjzpfw, f/ ' DOya' awGx JrSm ygwDv u frSwfawGt wGu fyHkrSefv kyfu dki faewJh u dk, fpm;v S, fawG&JU t csdefeJYt rQjzpfaewJh a&G;au mu fyGJawGyg0i fw, f/ t J' Dt jyi f t mrcHay;wJhv lr It zGJUt pn f;eJYt rsm;jyn fo lwm0ef&dSo lawGu dk yGi fhv i f;wJhaq G;aEG;ji i f;cHkr Iat mu fx Jx n fho Gi f;zkdY Ekdi fi Ho m;awGt wGu f ae&mv GwfzefwD;ay;wJh Ekdi fi Ha&;t cGi fht a&;awGv n f;yg0i fw, f/ ' gayrJh Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu a&G;au mu fcHEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JU wm0ef, lrIu dku dki fpGJzkdYt cGi fht a&;&o Gm;wJht csdefrSm ygwDeJYo lY&JUEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk b , fv kdEkdi fi Ha&;v kyfaq mi fcsu frsddK;awGu o u fao jyMu o v J/ t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fh Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awGu v mr, fha&G;au mu fyGJu dk v u fOD;r I&, lNyD;Bu dKwi farQmfrSef;aewJht csdefrSm o lwkdY&JUo u fao jycsu fawG&&dSEkdi fzkdY Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu dk b , fv kdwm0ef, lr IrsdK;awGjyo Mu rv J/ v u fawGUu swJho kawo eu rsm;pGmao mcsi fhcsdefr IawG[ mEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu dk Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu t wn fjyKv kdu fwJht cgrSm u pm;yGJt wGi f;u dk

99


0i fa&mu fv mMu w, f/ t aMu mi f;jycsu frsm;pGmt & pHyHkpH' Drkdu &u fwpfo Dt kd&Duru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf yk*¾dKv fa&;A[ kdjyKrJq G, fjci f; pOf;pm;csi fhcsdefr IawGx u f Programmatic t ay:t ajccHwJhygwDawGeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGtMu m;u ' Drkdu &u fwpfNydKi fyGJu dk wefzkd;x m;w, f/

' Dt cef;rSm b maMu mi fhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf yk*¾dKv fa&;t ajcjyKrJq G, fjci f;wi fjycsu ft ay: rSDcdkaejci f;t pm; a&G;au mu fyGJat mi fjr i fr Iu dk&SmazGzdkYt wGu f Programmatic eJYay:v pDawGt ay:OD;pm;ay;? ' grSr [ kwf t m½Hkpkdu fzkdY q Hk;jzwfMu o v Jq kdwmu dk t x l;t m½Hkpdku fx m;wJht ajzawGu dk &SmazGx m;w, f/

' Dt cef;rSm t ydki f; 4 ydki f;ygw, f/ yx r t ydki f;rSm ProgrammaticygwDawGeJY Programmatic ygwDawG&JUpepfawG&JU ax mu fyHhr IawGu dk rdwfq u fx m;w, f/ ' kwd, t cef;rSmawmh Programmatic ygwDawGu dkyHkpHx kwfay;aeyHk&wJh t aMu mi f;t &i f;t pko Hk;cku dk wi fjyx m;w, f/ ' Do kawo eu a&;q GJx m;wJhjzpf&yfawG? t csu ft v u fawGeJYt wlazmfjyjci f;cH&wJh t aysmh?t rmeJY, kwåd&dSwJht aet x m;awGyJjzpfw, f/ wwd, t ydki f;rSm t aMu mi f;t &i f;t pkwpfckcsi f;pD&JU awGU&dSrIawGu dk aq G;aEG;wi fjyx m;w, f/ pwkw¬ajrmu ft ydki f;rSmawmh t "du u swJhawGU&dSrIawG&JU t ESpfcsKyfwpfckeJYed*Hk;csKyfx m;w, f/

Programmatic ygwDrsm;eJYProgrammatic ygwDpepfrsm;

v u fawGUu swJho kawo eu Edki fi Ho m;awGt aeeJY wm0ef, lr I&dSpGmEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk a&G;au mu fzdkYt cGi fht a&;&&dSo Gm;NyDq kd&i f rsm;pGmao mq i fjci fr IawGu u pm;yGJt wGi f;u dk a&mu f&dSv mv dr fhr, fq kdwmjyo x m;w, f/Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu u kd, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG&JU u dk, f&n fu kd, fao G;awGu dk wefzkd;x m;Ekdi fw, f/ (Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;&JU Mo Zmwdu úr)/ yk*¾dKv fa&;? ' grSr[ kwf rdo m;pktawGUt Bu HKt ay:t ajccHwJhygwDwpfcku dk cHpm;csu feJYrJwi f;r IawGzGHUNzdK;Ekdi fw, f/(ygwDu dkt o dt rSwfjyKjci f;)/ v di ft ajcjyKt a&;u dpö? v lrsdK;pkt a&;u dpö? v lrsdK;

100


u GJt a&;u dpö? ' grSr [ kwf v lwef;pm;t a&;u dpöawG (o ½kyfazmfu kd, fpm;jyKr I)v kdrsdK;wln DwJhrSwfau smu fawGu dk rQa0wJhu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awGu dk yGJx kwfzkdYygwD&JUq E&dSrIu kd t av ;t o may;Ekdi fw, f/ ' grSr[ kwf ygwDwpfck o l&JUu dk, fydki frJay;o lawGu dk ypfrSwfx m;wJh½kyf0w¬Kt u sdK;pD;yGm;&JUax mu fyHhrIu dk q kcsD;jr§i fhEkdi fw, f/ v u faq mi f (rJ0, f, ljci f;)? t rsm;jyn fo lYu @t v kyfawG zefwD;ay;jci f; (o lau mi f;jyKjci f;)? ' grSr[ kwf v lr It u sdK;pD;yGm; (u kefu sp&dwfo u fo mao mt rsm;jyn fo lt drf, mrsm;? ro efpGrf;yi fpi frsm;? ' grSr[ kwf t v kyfv u frJhax mu fyHhaMu ;)? o u fo macsmi fcsda&;pmcsKyfrsm;eJY u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;&JU o lau mi f;jyKo l-azmu fo n fq u fq Ha&;&JU t jcm;ao m&n f&G, fcsu fawGjzpfw, f/

Ekdi fi Ho m;awGt aeeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;wkdi f;v kdv m;wJh (Oyrm ai GaMu ;azmi f;yGrIen f;yg;jci f;? Ni drf;csrf;a&;? pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rIIwdkYu Jho dk t pkt aygi f;au mi f;u sdK;rsm;)' grSr[ kwf o lwkdY&JUed*Hk;awGq D azmfjrLv mx kwfx m;wJhay:v pDawGu aejzwfNyD;t kyfpkawGt ESHY (Oyrm jyefv n fjzefYa0wJht cGef? ' grSr [ kwf 0i fai Gax mu fyHhr I?t v kyfv u frJht mrcHcsu f? ' grSr[ kwf u sef;rma&;apmi fha&Smu frI) &i f;jrpfeJYyg0gjyefv n fjzefYa0ay;jci f;awGv kdrsdK; azmfaq mi faewJht u sdK;pD;yGm;x JrSm o lwkdY&JUv kyf&n fu dki f&n fu dkt ajccHNyD; ygwDawGu dkrJay;av hv n f;&dSw, f/

Ekdi fi Ho m;awGt wGu f t J' Dq i fjci frIt m;v Hk;[ m n Dn DrQrQu dk t a&;ygaeNyD; b , fwpfcku rS t q Hk;t jzwfay;Ekdi fwJhq i fjci fr Ir [ kwfb l;/ ygwDawGeJYEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m rwln DwJhq i fjci frIt pOfv kdu fu dk wpfNydKi feu fwn f; u dk;u m;jci f;t m;jzi fh Ekdi fi Ho m;awGeJYcsdwfq u fzkdYv n f;Bu dK;pm;Ekdi fw, f/

½dk;&Si f;pGmeJY ygwDwpfcku dk Programmatic ygwDjzpfv mat mi f b muv kyfo v Jq dkawmh o l&JUEkdi fi Ha&;t ay: t av ;x m;r IyJjzpfw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;[ mEkdi ffi Ho m;awGt au mi f;t jr i feJYjzpfap (t u sdK;pD;yGm;t jzpf)? ' grSr [ kwft q dk;t jr i feJYjzpfap (u kefu srIt jzpf) wefzdk;x m;wJh t u sdK;q u fawGu dk azmfx kwfay;wJh? t cGi fht mP m&dSwJh v kyfaq mi fcsu ft pkt aygi f;jzpfw, f/ t J' D t u sdK;q u fawGu ygwDrJay;zdkYt wGu f t J' Dt aMu mi f;t &mcGJawGeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;awGwpfOD;wpfa, mu fcsi f;u o u fq kdi faeo v m;? ro u fq kdi faeb l;v m;q kdwmu dkEkdi fi Ho m;awG&JU t rSwfrJhapwJhBu D;rm;wJht aMu mi f;t &mcGJu dk t u sdK;o u fa&mu f

101


r I&dSw, f/ ygwDwpfck[ m at mu fygt csu fawGu dkv dku femwJht cg Program-matic ygwDjzpfv mw, f/

- Programmatic &n frSef;csu fawGt ay: x kwfjyefaMu n mNyD; , SOfNydKi fw, f/ ' Dt csu frSm ay:v pDt aet x m;wcsdKUeJY (t awmfawmfrsm;rsm;ao mt ydki f;awGt wGu f) t J' Dt ay: x i fjr i fcsu fwpfckwn f;x m;wJh (pn f;v Hk;r I)t ay: o ab mwln Dr I&dSwJhygwDwpfckt wGi f;u Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dkv kdt yfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;wpfa, mu fcsi f;pD&JUx i fjr i fcsu fu dk au smfv GefNyD;ygwD&JUt o Hu dkzefwD;jci f;jzpfw, f/

- ygwDwGi f;n Dn GwfrIu dk t x l;o jzi fhygwDu t v m;t v m&dSwJht em*wfrJay;o lawG (t a&;ygwJht a&;u dpö) eJYt wl q u fo G, fzkdY o lY&JUa&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&men f;AsL[ mawGx JrSm *½kpdku fNyD; x kwfazmfaewJht a&;u dpöawGrSmt o Hk;jyKw, f/

- ¤i f;&JUt aet x m;awGu wjcm;ao mygwDawGq Du ae u GJjym;ae&r, f/ (t aet x m;, SOfNydKi fr I) ygwDawGt wGi f;rSm u GJjym;jcm;em;rIr&dSb l;q kd&i fo lwkdYt aeeJY t a&;u dpöawG&JUt ajccHt ay:rSm rJay;o lawGu dk q GJaq mi fo drf;o Gi f;Ekdi frSmr[ kwfb l;/ Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;u ygwDawGt aeeJY o u fq kdi f&mu dpöawGrSm q efYu si fb u ft aet x m;awG, lzkdY ygwDawGt wGu f Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mESpfjcr f;u GJr Iv Hkv Hkav mu fav mu fzefwD;Ekdi frSo m zGHUNzdK;w, f/

t Ekdi f&&dSx m;wJhygwD? ' grSr[ kwf t pdk;&t zGJUzGJUwJhygwDawGt aeeJY ygwD&JUa&G;au mu fyGJv Iyf&Sm;rIyv u fazmi f;x JrSm u wdjyKx m;wJh t a&;wBu D;u wdu 0wfawGu dk v kyfaq mi fjy&r, f/ t rSefwu , fyJ b u fawmfo m;t pdk;&awG at mi fjr i frv m;q kdwmu o lwkdY&JUt m;x kwfrIawGt jyi f ay:v pD&v ' ft ay: t jyi fb u fv kyfaq mi fo lawG&JU wcsdKUao majymq kdcsu fawGay;x m;wJh t jyi fb u ft ajct aeawG?' grSr[ kwf ay:v pDawGu kdNyD;ajrmu fat mi fjr i fapzkdY Ekdi fi H&JUt kyfcsKyfrIq kdi f&mpGrf;&n ft ay:rSmrlwn faew, f/ t rSefwu , fu dk t ajct aeawGt wGi f; wjcm;ao mtajymi f;t v J? ' grSr[ kwf v lx kOD;pm;ay;r Iu ' Dv kyfi ef;pOfu dk t [ efYt wm;jzpfapw, f/

ygwDawGu ' Dt ajct aeawG (NydKi fb u fawGeJY q u fpyfv su f&dSwJhygwDwpfckt aeeJY ESpfjcrf;u GJapwJhEkdi fi H&JUt a&;ygwJht a&;u dpöawGrSm ygwDwGi f;n Dn Gwf

102


r IeJY t J' Dt csu fu ygwDt aeeJY t pdk;&t zGJUt wGi f;a&mu fo Gm;NyDq kd&i f jzpfv mv drhfr , f) u dk wpfNydKi feu fwn f;&&dSjci f;[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt o Gi ft jyi fx JuProgrammatic u su sa&G;cs, fjci f;wpfcku dk rJay;o lawGu awmi f;q kdaewmyJjzpfw, f/ &Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f;v kyfaq mi fzdkY ygwDawG&JUt m;x kwfr I? wdu sNyD;u dk;pm;av mu fwJh ay:v pDawGu r&dSr jzpfjzpfayrJh rJay;o leJY ygwDawGt Mu m;Programmatic t csdwft q u fawGt ay:t ajccHwJhygwDpepfwpfcku dk zefwD;zdkYt wGu fawmh rv Hkav mu fwJht aet x m;jzpfw, f/ Ekdi fi Ho m;awGut csdwft q u fawGx Ju dk o lwkdY&JUt u sdK;jyKrIawGx n fh0i f&r , f/ t en f;q Hk;wcsdKUao mEkdi fi Ho m;awGt aeeJY ygwD&JU&n f&Gn fcsu fawGu dk em;v n fzkdYv kdt yfNyD; t J' DOD;wn fcsu fawGt ay: yk*¾dKv fa&;OD;pm;ay;r IawG&dSzkdYv kdt yfw, f/ Edki fi Ho m;awGuo lwkdY&JUyk*¾dKv fa&;u dpöt aet x m;awG zGHUNzdK;v mr, fq kd&i f o lwkdYt aeeJY ygwDawGeJYq u fET, fv mNyD; t J' Do wi f;t csu ft v u fawGu dk b , fygwDu dkt m;ay;ax mu fcHrv Jq kdwJhae&mrSm t o Hk;csEkdi fw, f/ Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m o lwkdY&JU Ekdi fi Hay:v pDOD;wn fcsu fawGt ay:t ajccHNyD; ygwDawGt Mu m;rSma&G;cs, f&r, f/ wjcm;ao mjzpfEkdi fzG, fcsdwfq u fr Ien f;v r f;awGt ay:v Tr f;rdk;zkdY Ekdi fi Ho m;eJYygwDawGt Mu m;u r l0g't pDt pOfwu srJq G, fjci f;q kdi f&mt csdwft q u ft wGu f aq mi f&Gu fzkdY&n f&G, fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu awmi f;q kdwJhay:v pDawGt Mu m; x yfwln DrIawG&dSzdkYv kdw, f/ wjcm;en f;eJYajym&&i f Ekdi fi Ho m;eJY ygwDawGt Mu m; u dk, fpm;jyKr Iq u fq Ha&;wpfcsdKU&dS&r, f/

Ekdi fi Ho m;eJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt Mu m;u Programmatic t csdwft q u fawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? ' grSr [ kwf v lyk*¾dKv fwpfOD;wpfa, mu ft ay:t ajccHa&G;cs, fjci f;t csdwft q u fawGeJY jcm;em;w, f/ ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawG[ m wpfOD;csi f;rJay;o lawG? ' grSr[ kwf rJay;o lt kyfpki , fav ;awGt wGu f ypfrSwfx m;wJht u sdK;pD;yGm;awG t &Ho i fhjyi fx m;jci f;t m;jzi fh rJay;o lawGu dkpkpn f;w, f/ wpfzu frSm v lyk*¾dKv fwpfOD;wpfa, mu ft ay:t ajccHa&G;cs, fjci f;ygwDawGu awmh u s, fjyefYwJhay:v pDwi fjycsu fawG? ' grSr[ kwf t x l;jyKypfrSwfx m;wJh½kyf0w¬Kt u sdK;pD;yGm;awGt pm; , HkMu n fr IawGu dko Gwfo Gi f;ay;NyD;rJay;o lawGt ay: o pömcHwJho lwkdYacgi f;aq mi fawG&JU NydKi fb u fu i f;NyD;? yk*¾dKv f

103


wpfOD;wpfa, mu ft v kdu f u dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;t &n ft ao G;awGt &rJay;o lawGu dk q GJaq mi fw, f/ ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;jyi fq i fr Ix Ju rJay;o lawGeJY ygwDawGt Mu m;u q u fq Ha&;[ m ESpfOD;ESpfzu fpv Hk;&JU t u sdK;jzpfx Gef;r It ay:rSmt ajccHw, f/ rJay;o lawGu o lwkdY? o lrwkdY&JU t m;ay;ax mu fcHrIawGu dk t eD;q Hk;t em*wfrSm x n fh0i fv drhfr , fq kdwJh>ci f;csu feJYt wl ygwDeJY½kyf0w¬Kt u sdK;au s;Zl;zv S, fr Ix Ju dk0i fa&mu fw, f/ t J' Dt u sdK;au s;Zl;u dk rJq Ee, fwpfckv Hk;t wGu frzefwD;Ekdi fayrJh ygwD&JUru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhu Gef&u f&JUt zGJU0i fawGt wGu f ydkrkdeD;pyfw, f/

t csdwft q u ft rsdK;t pm;wpfckcsi f;pDu ygwDawGt Mu m; o lwkdY&JUu dk, fykdi fNydKi fq kdi fr I' dki f;erpfu dkarmi f;ESi fw, f/ Programmatic o wi f;pu m;u dkrJay;o lawGeJYt wlysHUv Ti fhu s, fav mi faewJhae&mrSm ygwDawG[ m q GJaq mi fr I&dSwJhay:v pDt pkt pn f;u dkwi fjyjci f;t m;jzi fh , SOfNydKi fw, f/ ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iuv Trf;rkd;aewJhae&mrSm ygwDawG[ m ypfrSwfx m;wJh? t a&;ay: t u sdK;pD;yGm;awGu dkax mu fyHhjci f;t m;jzi fh wpfOD;eJYwpfOD;t jyeft v Sef t NydKi ft q dki fv k, u fMu w, f/ygwD&JUacgi f;aq mi frIu dk, f&n fu dk, fao G;awGu rJay;o lawG t Mu m;ysHUESHYaewJht cgygwDawG[ m o lwkdY&JUt "du Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUpwkdi fawG? t u si fhawGeJY o au FwawGu dk wl;azmf&SmazGzkdY t x l;*½kjyKMu w, f/

Box 2.1 jzpf&yft aeeJYav hv mcHEkdi fi Hrsm;&JU ygwDpepfrsm;x JrS Programmatic q kdi f&mwn faq mu fyHk

' dkrDeDu ef&Dywfb v pfrSm ygwDawG[ m t en f;i , fao mrl0g't pDt pOfwu srJq G, fjci f;u dkjyo Mu w, f/ ygwD Programmatict aet x m;awGu a&maESmaeNyD; t J' gaMu mi fh rJay;o lawGt aeeJYt J' Do wi f;t csu ft v u fawG t ay:t ajccHNyD; ygwDawGt Mu m;ra&G;cs, fEkdi fMu acs/ ygwDawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;eJY u kd, f&n fu dk, f

104


ao G;eJYrJq G, fjci f;v kyfaq mi fcsu fawGt ay: t "du x m;t ajccHNyD; , SOfNydKi fMu w, f/

b &mZD;rSm rJay;o lawGu ay:v pD&yfwn frIt ay:t ajccHNyD;ygwDawGt Mu m;a&G;cs, fEkdi fpGrf;t en f;i , fu dko m jyo Ekdi fMu ayrJh wcsdKUao mt "du ygwDawGu NyD;cJhwJhESpf 20 av mu fu aepv kdY Program-matic t m;x kwfr IawGu dk pwi fv kyfaq mi fv mcJhMu NyDjzpfw, f/t x l;o jzi fh v u f0J, drf;b u frSm Workers' Party (PT) ? A[ dkv u f, mb u frSm Social Democrats eJY v u f, mb u frSm (Market)LiberalswkdY&dSMu w, f/ b &mZD;&JUygwDpepf[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;q Du ydkrdkNyD; Programmatic wi fjycsu fawGq Du dk Ekdi fi Ho m;-Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;t csdwft q u fen f;AsL[ mawG&JU ' dki f;erpft ajymi f;t v JeJY x dawGUcJhw, f/

x kdi f0rfrSm rMu mao ;rDt x d t "du ygwDBu D;ESpfck[ m wcsdKUten f;i , fao m t a&;u dpöav ;awGav mu fr Sm Programmatict m;jzi fhu GJjym;Mu ayrJh? wo D;wo efYBu D;r [ kwfayrJh t "du t m;jzi fhru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;t m;x kwfrIt ay:rSmo mt ajccHNyD; rJt wGu fq u fv u fNydKi fq dki faeMu w, f/

t dEd, rSm jr i fhrm;pGma&mpyf½Iyfax G;aewJh a' o q kdi f&mu GJjym;rIygwDpepfawG[ m Programmatic q kdi f&m b u fawmfo m; t m;x kwfr IawGx u f ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IawGu dko m t "du x m;armi f;ESi faeMu NyD; rMu mao ;ci f q , fpkESpfawGt wGi f; v Hk;0t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSao ;b l;/ u GefjrLepfygwDi , fESpfckt ygt 0i f a' o cHygwDwpfcsdKUeJYygwDt ydki f;wcsdKUu o m >ci f;csu fx JrSmyg0i fw, f/

awmi fu dk&D;, m;rSm t "du ygwDawG[ m ax mi fpkESpft ajymi f;t v Jq Du dkOD;wn fNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iq Du ae x i fx i f&Sm;&Sm; rl0g'Programmatic t m;x kwfr Iq D o dr farGUpGmt ajymi f;t v Jv kyfzdkY Bu dK;pm;v mcJhMu ayrJh rJay;o lawGu awmh t J' Daemu fu dk v kdu frv mao ;b l;/ o lwkdY&JU Programmatic u GJjym;r It ay:r lwn fNyD; ygwDawGt Mu m;a&G;cs, fr jyKv kyfzdkYt m;o efMu w, f/

105


wl&u DrSm 1990 ckESpfrsm;q Du wn f;u ygwDt o pfawGwn fax mi fcJhMu NyD; ygwDjyKjyi fajymi f;v Ja&;u t "du Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGt wGu f Programmatic q kdi f&mt m;x kwfrIu dk t &Sdefjr§i fhay;cJhw, f/o dkYao mfv n f; ygwDawGu o lwkdY&JUr l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fr It m;x kwfr Iu dk zswfv wfwJh r u fv Hk;ay;r Jq G, fjci f;(t m;v Hk;x u fjr i fhwJhygwD) eJYaygi f;pyfv kdu fMu w, f/ awmi fu dk&D;, m;rSmv kdyJ ygwD&JU Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;u GJjym;r It ay:t ajccHNyD; o lwkdY&JUa&G;cs, fr Iu dk rJay;o lawGu wn faq mu fEkdi fwmu dkckx do u fao t en f;i , fyJawGU&ao ;w, f/

aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY b lv fa*;&D;, m;rSm ygwDawG&JU Pro-grammatic wn faq mu fyHk&JUt x u fwef;v Tmt q i fhawGrSm yHkrSefr [ kwfao ;b J wcsdKUt ydki f;awGrSm q kd&S, fv pfr [ kwfwJhygwDawGt Mu m;u t Ekwft o dr f;eJYwn fNi dr fr IaMu mi fh yHkrSefjr i fawGUaeMur[ kwfao ;b l;/ rJay;o lawG[ m wjcm;t &mawGx u f o lwkdY&JUt a&;u dpöt aet x m;awGt ay:r lwn fNyD; ygwDawGt Mu m; ydkrdk&Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f; a&G;cs, fMu w, f/ ' gayrJh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt x u fwef;v TmawGu awmh awmi fu dk&D;, m;eJY wl&u DrSmv kd b u fawmfo m;OD;pm;ay;r Iu dk &Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f;razmfjyMu b l;/

rSwfcsu f/ / 2013ckESpfrSm *Aam Aadmi Party (AAM)ygwDay:x Gu fv mjci f;u dk >ci f;csu ft jzpfrSwf, lEkdi fayrJh ajymzkdYt wGu fapmv Gef;aeygao ;w, f/

106


b maMu mi fh ygwDrsm;? ygwDpepfrsm;t aeeJYt en f;eJYt rsm; Programmatic u sv mMu wmv J

b maMu mi fhygwDawGeJY? ygwDpepfawGt aeeJY t en f;eJYt rsm; Pro-grammatic u sv mMu wmv Jq kdwmu dk &Si f;jyEkdi fwJht ajct aeawGu dk t aMu mi f;t &mo Hk;ckt jzpf ydki f;jcm;Ekdi fw, f/ yx rOD;q Hk;t aeeJY u mv wkd? ' grSr [ kwfu mv v wfv kyfaq mi frIt wGi f;rSm Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG ½dk;½dk;&Si f;&Si f;rajymi f;v JEkdi fwJhrmau smwJh jyi fyt ajct aeawGjzpfEkdi fw, f/ ' grSr [ kwf ay:v pDyg0gwn faq mu fyHkt wGi f;ajymi f;v JrIu dk jzpfay:apv drfhr, f/ ' Dt ydki f;rSm at mu fygt ajct ae 4 cku Programmatic ygwDNydKi fyGJt wGu f rmau smwJht wm;t q D;(' grSr [ kwf t au mi ft x n fazmfaq mi f&Gu fo l) jzpfo v m;q kdwmu dk &SmazGq ef;ppfx m;w, f/ t J' gawGu awmh (1) a&G;au mu fyGJ&JUv Gwfv yfNyD; w&m;rQwjci f; (2) wdk;yGm;v mao m ' Drkdu a&pDt awGUt Bu HK (3) v lrsdK;pk u GJjym;rsdK;pkHrIeJY(4) pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu frIawGyJjzpfw, f/

' kwd, t aeeJY Programmatic t m;jzi fh ygwD&JUNydKi fq kdi fEkdi fpGr f;u dkpkpn f;Ekdi f? ' grSr [ kwf wGef;t m;ay;Ekdi fayrJh Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUx def;csKyfr Iat mu fu pOf;pm;csi fhcsdefp&myrmP wpfckjzpfwJh t v m;t v m&dSwJhaysmhajymi f;wJht aet x m;t wef;t pm;wpfck&dSw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt aeeJYrl0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fjci f;t m;jzi fh , SOfNydKi fwJhygwDawG&JUpGrf;aq mi fEkdi f&n fu dkjr§i fhwi fzkdY? ' grSr [ kwf av smhcszdkY ' Dt ajct aeawGu kd v Hkav mu fpGmajymi f;v JypfEkdi fw, f/ t J' Daysmhajymi f;wJht ajct aeawGu dk Ekdi fi Hwpfck&JUat mu fygt csu fawGt jzpfrSwf, lEkdi fw, f/ (1) Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' zGHUNzdK;rIen f;AsL[ m (2) pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;? (3) a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mNydKi fq kdi fr I&JU , SOfNydKi fEdki fpGr f;eJY (4)Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JU t wGi f;ydki f;t zGJUt pn f;awGeJY w&m;0i fjzpfwJhb u fawmfo m;o D;o efYt zGJUi , fwkdYjzpfMu w, f/

aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY Programmatic ygwDNydKi fyGJu dk , kwåd&dS&dSo u fa&mu fapayrJh t J' Dt wGu fo u fao awGu awmh v wfwav mrSm b , fv kd, HkMu n frI' D*&DeJYrq kdo lwkdY&JUt rSwfrx i ft cef;u @u dk q Hk;jzwfzkdYt wGu f t v Gefpepf

107


ru seNyD; jyefYu sJpdwfrTmaewJh wwd, t aet x m;t kyfpkwpfck&dSw, f/ t J' gaMu mi fhx kwfazmfEkdi fwJh t v m;t v m&dSwJht aet x m;ESpfcku awmh (1) ' Drkdu &u fwpft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&JUt cef;u @? (2) t &yfb u fv lr It zGJUt pn f;&JUt cef;u @wkdYjzpfw, f/

jzpf&yfESi fht csu ft v u frsm;

o Hk;o yfav hv mcsu fu eu feu f½dIi f;½dIi f;t &n ft ao G;q kdi f&mjzpf&yfav hv mcsu fawGt jyi f pepfwu sEdIi f;, SOfx m;wJhyrmP q kdi f&mo u fao t ax mu ft x m;awGt ay:u a&;q GJrIawGu dk ' Dae&mrSmrSwfwrf;wi fcJhw, f/ yef;wkdi fu awmht J' Dt ajct aeawGat mu frSm b , fygwDu awmh Programmatic pn f;½Hk;r Iu dkOD;pm;ay;zkdYeJY t J' Dv kdt m;x kwfr Iu dkjyKv kyfjci f;t wGu f o lwdkY&JUrJay;o lawGt m;jzi fhwm0ef, lrIu dku dki fpGJo v Jq kdwmu dk q Hk;jzwfay;zkdYjzpfw, f/ yx ro Hk;o yfav hv mjci f;en f;AsL[ mu b &mZD;? b lv fa*;&D;, m;? ' dkrDeDu ef&Dywfb v pf?t dEd, ? awmi fu dk&D;, m;? x kdi f0r feJY wl&u DwkdYq Du t &n ft ao G;q kdi f&mEkdi fi Hjzpf&yfav hv mr I 7 ck&dSwJht pkwpfpku dka&;q GJw, f/ o lwkdYu rwln DwJhq u fwi fawGeJY t csdefydkx JrSm pkpkaygi f; 45 ygwDeD;yg;u dkzHk;t kyfx m;w, f/Ekdi fi Ht m;v Hk;[ m zGHUNzdK;q Ju rÇmu Ekdi fi HawGeJY? ' grSr [ kwf rMu mao ;ci fu rS' Drkdu a&pDu dkjrn f;pr f;Mu n fhzl;o lrsm;jzpfMu w, f/ o lwkdYu dk u GJjym;zdkYt wGu fa&G;cs, fx m;wmjzpfw, f/ (1) rl0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJht m;x kwfrIu dkjyKv kyfwJhygwD&JUyrmP eJY? ' grSr[ kwf NyD;cJhwJh ESpf 20 t wGi f;u o lwkdY&JU t m;x kwfrIawGu dkajymi f;v JcJhwJhyrmP eJY (2) Programmatic t &dyfedrdwft ay:t ajccHwJhygwDawGt Mu m; rJay;o lawG&JUa&G;cs, fEkdi fpGrf;/

' kwd, jzpf&yft pku Democratic Accountablity and Linkage Project(DALP) &JU u Rr f;u si fo lpm&i f;au mu f, lr It ay:rSm a&;o m;x m;w, f/ t J' g[ m t ajccsaex kdi fo l 2 o ef;au smfeJYt wl a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m' Drkdu a&pD?' grSr [ kwf pyfaygi f;t kyfcsKyfr Ipepfx JrSm u rÇmwpfv Tm;u ygwDpkpkaygi f; 506cku dkzHk;t kyfx m;NyD; Ekdi fi H 88 Ekdi fi HrSm jzpf&yft ay:wHkYjyefo l 1400 eJY x dawGUx m;

108


wJh pm&i f;au mu f, lr Ijzpfw, f/ t J' Dt csu ft v u fawGu dk ProgrammaticygwDt m;x kwfrIeJY , SOfNydKi fr I&JU' D*&DawGu dkazmfjyzdkYeJY &Si f;jyzkdY t o Hk;jyKcH&w, f/' Do wi f;t csu ft v u ft pkt a0;awGx JrSm ygwDawGt aMu mi f;o wi f;t csu ft v u f<u , f0r It Mu m; ' Dpm&i f;au mu f, lr Ippfwr f;u ygwDawG&JUProgrammatic eJY ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;t m;x kwfr I&JU azmfjycsu ft wdki f;t wm&JUq kdv kdcsu fu dkcGi fhjyKw, f/- Programmatic t m;x kwfr Iq kdwJht ac:t a0:t & t csu ft v u fawGuygwDu t a&;Bu D;wJhay:v pDt a&;u dpöawG&JU v u fcGJwpfckav mu fyJjzpfjzpft ay:rSm ygwDwGi f;q efq efpkpn f;r Iu dkwi fjyzkdYjyKv kyfNyD; rwln DwJht a&;u dpöt aet x m; (ESpfjcr f;u GJjci f;) awGjzpfay:jci f;t m;jzi fh wpfckeJYwpfck o lwkdYb mo mo lwkdYu GJjym;apwJhyrmP u dk x kwfazmfw, f/ ' Do wi f;t csu ft v u fut J' Daemu frSm n Dn GwfrI? t a&;ygrIeJY ESpfjcr f;u GJv GJrIwkdYu dk pkaygi f;Edki fwJhygwD&JUpGrf;aq mi f&n fwpfcku dk azmfx kwfzkdYt wGu f Programmatic b u fawmfo m;t m;x kwfrI&JU n Tefu def;wpfck&JUq kdv kdcsu fu dk cGi fhjyKay;w, f/ t J' gu kd CoSalPov kdYac:w, f/ CoSalPo n Tef;u def;&rSwfawG[ m wo D;wjcm;ygwDESpfckpv Hk;t wGu feJY ygwDpepft wGu f NydKi fyGJt m;v Hk;t wGu f wGu fcsu fcH&Edki fw, f/- ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;u kd t jr i ft &u Rr f;u si fo lawGu yk*¾dKv fa&;q kdi f&mv u faq mi f? ' grSr [ kwf ai GaMu ; (rJ0, fjci f;)? v lr Izlv Hka&;t u sdK;pD;yGm;?v lx kt dr f, mpDrHu def;? ' grSr[ kwf t v kyft u dki fawG? ' grSr[ kwf v lx kt v kyftu dki fpmcsKyfawGpwJh t u sdK;au s;Zl;awGu dk u rf;v Srf;jci f;t m;jzi fh wo D;wjcm;rJay;o lawG? ' grSr[ kwf rJay;o lt kyfpki , fav ;awGu dk ygwDu ypfrSwfx m;o v m;q kdwmu dk t u Jjzwft rSwfay;w, f/ x yfrHNyD;ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It m;x kwfcsu f&JUaygi f;pyfx m;wJhn Tefu def;u wo D;wjcm;ygwDESpfckpv Hk;t wGu f ay:v pDwpfckt wGi f;u ygwDawGt m;v Hk;t wGu fysr f;rQt jzpf wn faq mu fcH&Ekdi fw, f/- t J' Dn Tef;u def;ESpfckpv Hk;u dk t o Hk;jyKjci f;t m;jzi fh ygwDawG&JU Program-matic wi fjycsu fawG[ m o lwkdY&JUru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It m;x kwfcsu fawGeJYb , fv kdq u fET, faeo v Jq kdwmu dk v u fawGUu su st ajccscH&Ekdi fw, f/ (OyrmygwDawGu o lwdkY&JUv Iyf&Sm;rIawGu kd wpfck? ' grSr[ kwf wjcm;wpfckrSm pkNyHKx m;

109


wm? ' grSr [ kwf ESpfckpv Hk;u dkaygi f;pn f;NyD; t m;v Hk;jr i fhrm;wJhygwDawGjzpfv mwm)/- rJay;o leJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUt Mu m;u Programmatic t csdwftq u fawGu dk cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmav hv mrIu dk t m;jzn fhay;zdkYt wGu f rJay;o lu dk, fykdi fay:v pDt aet x m;awGu o lwkdYu dk a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mv kyfi ef;pOft wGi f;uygwDawGt Mu m; a&G;cs, fzkdYt wGu fu ln Day;Ekdi fwJhyrmP u dkav hv mzkdY t v Geft o Hk;0i fw, f/ ygwD&JUrJay;o lawGu ygwD&JUt Dv pfawG&JU ay:v pDt aet x m;u dkrQa0wJhyrmP eJY rJay;o leJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt Mu m;u Programmaticx yfwln DrIu dkarmi f;ESi fwJhyrmP u dk q Hk;jzwfay;Ekdi fw, f/ t J' gu Ekdi fi Ho m;awGeJYo lwkdY&JUu dk, fpm;v S, fawGt Mu m;u Programmatic t csdwft q u fwpfcku dkn Tefjyw, f/

cu fcJwJht aet x m;/ / t [ efYt wm;rsm;eJYProgrammatic &JU t cGi fht v rf;rsm;

a&G;au mu fyGJ&JU v Gwfv yfNyD; w&m;rQwrI' D*&D

yx rOD;q Hk;t aeeJY a&G;au mu fyGJpepfeJYa&G;au mu fyGJ&JUv Gwfv yfNyD; w&m;rQwwJht q i fhu ygwD? ' grSr [ kwf pepfwdkY Programmatic jzpfv mo v m;q kdwmu dk t q Hk;t jzpfay;jci f;rSm t a&;ygwJht aMu mi f;t &i f;cHjzpfv drfhr, fq kdwm[ m , kwåd&dSyHkay:w, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;eJY t &yfb u ft cGi fht a&;t ay:rSm u efYo wfcsu fawG&dSaewJhae&mrSm a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m, SOfNydKi fr Iu i f;rJhjci f;u Programmatict ay:t ajccHwJhEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu fawmi f;q dkr It ygt 0i f Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUay:v pD Programmatic awGu dk q u fo G, fzkdY t pGr f;t pawGu dkyg u efYo wfay;Ekdi fw, f/ t J' Dt jyi f yg0gu dk x def;o dr f;zkdYt wGu f ' Drkdu a&pDpepfawGen f;yg;wJht x Ju x i f&Sm;wJhygwDawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m x def;csKyfr IawGu dkao csmapzkdY ao ;i , fNyD;t "du u swJhrJq Ee, fawGq D ru fv Hk;ay; rJq G, fwJh

110


t u sdK;au s;Zl;awGeJY 0efaq mi fr IawGt o Hk;jyKjci f;u dk rwwfo mwJht q Hk; u si ffho Hk;&zG, f&dSEkdi fw, f/ (Lust 2009 wGi f½I)

t rSefawmh t csu ft v u fawGu b , fae&mrSm ' Drkdu a&pDt m;en f;aeo v J? Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu Programmatic u sewJht m;x kwfr IawGu dken f;en f;yJv kyfaeo v Jq kdwmu dk x kwfazmfjyo w, f/ a, b k, st m;jzi fh t "dut m;jzi fh Programmatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGu dk jyKv kyfwJhygwDawG&JUBu D;pdk;v Trf;rkd;r IeJYt wl Ekdi fi HawG[ m jyn fh0wJh' Drkdu a&pDjzpfv mzkdY t m;o efMu w, f/

o dkYao mfv n f; t J' Dt &n ft ao G;awG&JU en f;pepft & o do mjr i fo mwJho u fa&mu frI[ m t "du u swJht NydKi f&Si f;v i f;csu ft wGu f aemu fx yfx def;csKyfr IawGu dk x yfx n fhv kdu fwJht csdefrSmyJ aysmu fu G, fo Gm;w, f/ t x l;o jzi fh Ekdi fi HawG&JU EdIi f;&o u fa&mu frIt wGu faygh/ o u fa&mu frIen f;yg;wJhEkdi fi HawGMu m;x JrSmyJwef;wl&dSwJh' Drkdu &u fwpfu pm;u Gi f;wpfck&JUwn f&dSr I[ m ygwDawGt aeeJYProgrammatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGu dk ydkrkdjyKv kyfv dr fhr , fq kdwJht cGi fht a&;awGu dkwkd;wu fapzkdYu s½HI;cJhw, f/ Ekdi fi H 7 Ekdi fi H t ay:av hv mx m;wJhjzpf&yfav hv mcsu fawGu at mu fygt csu fawGu dkt wn fjyKay;w, f/ v GefcJhwJhq , fpkESpfawGt wGi f; o lwkdYt m;v Hk;rSm v Gwfv yfNyD;w&m;rQwwJha&G;au mu fyGJawG&dScJhwJhtwGu f o lwkdY' Drkdu a&pD&JUt &n ft ao G;rSm Bu D;rm;wJhrwljcm;em;csu fu dk o lwkdYrjyo cJhb l;/ ' gayrJho lwdkY&JUygwDawGu t v Gefu Gmjcm;wJhyrmP u dk Program-matic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGrSm x dawGUcJhw, f/

' Drkdu &u fwpft awGUt Bu HK

Ekdi fi HwpfEkdi fi H&JU wpfpwpfpwkd;yGm;v mwJh ' Drkdu a&pDt awGUt Bu HKawGuProgrammatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;q Du dko Gm;zkdYt wGu f t q i fhq i fhajymi f;v JrIwpfck&JUrsu fESmo may;r Ix Ju t m;au mi f;wJht aMu mi f;t &i f;cHwpfckjzpfr , fv kdYarQmfv i fhaeEkdi fw, f/ ' DarQmfv i fhcsu f[ m a&G;au mu fyGJt Bu dr fBu drfu si f;yjci f;eJY(ygwDeJYrJay;o lawGt Mu m; u mv &Sn fq u fq Ha&;t wGi f;) u dkjzwfo ef;NyD; ygwDawGu rJay;o lawG&JUay:v pDt aet x m;u dkem;v n fjci f;eJY aygi f;pyfjci f;awGu dk

111


jr§i fhwi fwJho Dt kd&Dt ay:t ajccHx m;wmjzpfw, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSm rJay;o lawGub , fygwDawGu b , fae&mrSm&yfwn faeMu NyD; o lwdkY&JU&yfwn fcsu fawGub , fav mu fu dk;pm;v kdY&r, fq kdwmeJYywfo u fv kdY o wi f;t csu ft v u fawGu dkydkrkdpkaq mi f;aecJhMu w, f/ a&G;au mu fyGJat mi fjr i fwJht v Sn fhawGrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGt aeeJY o lwkdYay;x m;cJhwJhu wdawGu dk jzn fhq n f;ay;jci f;t m;jzi fh o lwkdYwn faq mu fx m;wJh, HkMu n frIt ay:t ajccHNyD; rJay;o lawGq D o lwkdY&JUo wi f;pu m;awGu dk t o HjyKEkdi fw, f/ (Keefer 2007)

t aMu mi f;rv SpGmeJY av hv mo Hk;o yfcsu fawG&JU v u fawGUu swJht csu ftv u fawGu ' Dt aMu mi f;t u sdK;o i fhwJharQmfv i fhcsu fu dk o , faq mi fo Gm;r, fhyHkray:b l;/ Ekdi fi HwpfEkdi fi HrSm ygwDNydKi fyGJawGt Mu mBu D;jzpfyGm;jci f;eJY t J' DygwDawGt aeeJY b , fav mu f Programmatic u seaeo v Jq kdwmu dk rcefYrSef;Ekdi fb l;/o lwkdY&JUrJq Ee, fawGu dk t u sdK;pD;yGm;awGazmfaq mi fay;Ekdi fzkdY t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&m, EÅ&m;awG o lwkdYwn faq mu fcJhwJht wGu f &Sn fMu mwJh' Drkdu a&pDt awGUtBu HKeJYt wl Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JU ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It m;x kwfcsu fu u eOD;rSmwkd;wu fv mw, f/ o dkYao mfv n f; t awmfu av ;jri fhrm;wJh' Drkdu a&pDt awGUt Bu HKt v GefrSmawmh ' Dq u fq Ha&;[ m ajymi f;jyefjzpfo Gm;NyD; o u fwrf;&i fhwJh' Drkdu a&pD[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Ien f;yg;v mw, f/ (Kitschelt and Kselman 2011wGi f½I) jzpfpOfav hv mrIawGq Du t csu ft v u fawGu t csu ft v u fq kdi f&mav hv mrIu dkt wn fjyKw, f/ Oyrm t dEd, rSm ' Drkdu a&pDo u fwrf;t Mu mq Hk;ygwDawG[ mv n f; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, faewkef;yJjzpfNyD; jzpfpOf 7 cku dk EdIi f;, SOfav hv mr, fq kd&i f ' kwd, ajrmu f' Drkdu a&pDv rf;aMu mi f;t wkdq Hk;jzpfwJhEkdi fi H (awmi fu dk&D;, m;) rSm t m;t au mi f;q Hk; Programmatic u sewJhb u fawmfo m;wi fjycsu fawG&dSaew, f/

v lrsdK;a&;- , Ofau s;rIcGJjcm;rI

yn m&Si ft ajrmu ft rsm;u ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;eJY Ekdi fi HwpfEkdi fi Ht wGi f;u v lrsdK;pk? ' grSr[ kwf , Ofau s;rIt pdwft ydki f;awGt Mu m;rSm t m;au mi f;

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wJhq u fET, fr Iwpfck&dSaer , fv kdY o Ho , jzpfcJhMu w, f/ (o Hk;o yfcsu ft aeeJYKolev and Wang 2010 wGi f½I) ' Dt q kdu dk ygwDawGt wGi f;u Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu o u fq kdi f&mv lrsdK;pk (' grSr [ kwf b mo mw&m;? b mo mpu m;t p&dSo jzi fh) t kyfpkwpfck&JUpdwf0i fpm;rIawGu dku dk, fpm;jyKzdkY zGJUpn f;wmu aemu fwpfBu dr fjyefv n fa&G;au mu fcH&zkdYt wGu f t J' Dt kyfpku dk t u sdK;pD;yGm;awGeJY 0efaq mi fr IawGax mu fyHhay;zkdY t wi f;t u syfjyKo v kdjzpfv drfhr , fq dkwJh t q kdMu rf;awGt m;jzi fh ax mu fcHcJhw, f/ t J' Dt csu faMu mi fh Programmatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGu dk Oayu ©mjyKMu v dr fhr , f/ jzpf&yfav hv mrI 7 cku o u faoawGu ' Dt q dkMu r f;u dk r jzpfraeax mu fcHaewmawmhr[ kwfb l;/

t rSefawmh ' g[ m Programmatic u sewJhJhygwDawGeJYygwDpepfawGuwpfx yfwn f;jzpfwJhv lr It zGJUt pn f;awGt wGi f;rSmv kdrsdK; v lr sdK;pkt &u GJjym;aewJhEkdi fi HawGrSmv n f;zGHUNzdK;v drfhr , fv kdY x i fjr i fjci f;o mjzpfw, f/ jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGx Ju er lemawGx JrSm Programmatic u sewJhygwDt en f;q Hk;eJYt rsm;q Hk;Ekdi fi HESpfckpv Hk; (' dkrDeDu ef&Dywfb v pfESi fh awmi fu dk&D;, m;) [ mv lrsdK;pkt & wpfo m;wn f;jzpfaewJhEkdi fi HawGjzpfw, f/ t J' Dt csdefrSm v lrsdK;pkt &u GJjym;aewJhygwDpepfawGu t edr fhq Hk;u ae t v , ft v wft q i fht wGi f;rSm&dSwJhProgrammatic u sewJht m;x kwfr I (Oyrm t dEd, ) &JU t rsdK;pHkao m' D*&DawGu dkjyo w, f/ t J' D&v ' fawG[ m Bu D;rm;wJh DALP t csu ft v u fpku dkt o Hk;jyKpr f;o yfwJht cgrSmawmi f o efrmq Jjzpfw, f/

v lrsdK;pk-, Ofau s;r Iu GJjym;rIawG[ m Programmatic u sewJh Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUt wm;t q D;wpfckr [ kwfygb l;/ u RefawmfwkdY&JUt csu ft v u fawGu jyaewmu awmh t J' Du GJjym;r IawGeu f½dIi f;wJht cgrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt aeeJYru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fzkdYt m;x kwfrIu dk ydkrdkt m;au mi f;au mi f;jyKv kyf&r, fq dkwmu v GJ&i fb mrSr[ kwfygb l;/ t J' Dq u fpyfr Iu v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGt Mu m; ysr f;rQ0i fai GawGawmfawmfBu D;u dku Gmjcm;aewJht cg jzpfay:v mw, f/ t J' Dv kdjzpfpOfrSm rJay;o lawG[ m o lwkdY&JUwpfo D;yk*¾v at mi fjr i fr IawG[ m o lwkdUt kyfpkawG&JU, HkMu n frIeJYwi f;wi f;u syfu syfcsdwfq u faew, fv kdY awG;x i fzdkYt m;o efw, f/ ' gaMu mi fho lwkdY[ m o lwkdYu kd, fo lwkdY ¤i f;wkdYeJY wpfpdwfwpfydki f;aq GrsdK;aygu fazmfawmf

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pyfw, fv kdYwi fjywJh Ekdi fi Ha&;rSmpD;yGm;wGu f wGu fo lawG&JU azmu fo n fjzpfv mo v kdypfrSwfx m;jci f;v n f;cHv m&Ekdi fw, f/

pDyGm;a&;q kdi f&mzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frI/ <u , f0csrf;o mjci f;t q i fhrsm;

v u fawGUu sepGmo efrmaewJhzu f&Si fx Ju Programmatic u sewJhb u fawmfo m;t m;x kwfrIeJY q u fET, faew, fv kdYawGU&dScH&wJh rmau smwJht aet x m;wpfck[ m Ekdi fi Ho m;wpfOD;csi f;t v kdu f t rsdK;o m;jyn fwGi f;x kwfu kef(GDP) t &wkdi f;wmx m;wJh pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIjzpfw, f/ ydkrkd<u , f0csrf;o mwJhEkdi fi HawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDpepfawGq Du kd t m;o efMu w, f/(yHk 2.1 wGi f½I) t &n ft csi f;jyn fhrDr IeJYt wl jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGu Edki fi HawGydkrkdcsrf;o mv mwmaMu mi fh t rsm;pkax mu fcHrIu dk&&dSwJh Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGu dk Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu v n f; zefwD;v dr fhr , fq kdwJh jr i fhwu fv mwJht cGi fht v r f;wpfck&dSw, fv kdYv n f; t Bu HjyKw, f/

t J' Dq u fET, fr Iu b , fv kdt v kyfv kyfo v J/ ydkrkdcsrf;o mv mwJhEkdi fi HawGt wGu f Ekdi fi Ho m;awG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I&JUt v Jt v S, fu ae ½dk;&Si f;wJhv lr I0efaq mi frIawGeJY pkaq mi f;x m;wJhv u faq mi fawGu ae t en f;i , fyJt u sdK;&&dSr, fht &i f;t jrpfu dk wjzn f;jzn f;&SmazGv mMu w, f/ o lau mi f;jyKjci f;t ajccHt v kyfawGu v n f; yn ma&;wkd;wu frI&JU v lOD;a&t q i fht wkdi f; v lBu dKu fen f;v mw, f/au mi f;pGmyn mwwfx m;wJhrJay;o lawGwjzn f;jzn f;eJY acgi f;aq mi f&JU Mo Zmwdu úr&dSwJhwi fjycsu fawGu dk t x i fBu D;rIen f;v mw, f/ o lwdkYt aeeJY t awGUtBu HKrsm;v mwJhpD;yGm;a&;[ m t ajccHt aq mu ft OD? yn ma&;eJY u sef;rma&;apmi fha&Smu frIwkdYv kd v lx keJYq kdi fNyD; Bu D;rm;u s, fjyefwJh au mi f;u sdK;t pkawG&JUjzn fho Gi f;jci f;u dk cGi fhjyKay;wJh t ax Gax Gay:v pDawGu dk v kdt yfw, fq kdwmu dk o ab maygu fv mMu w, f/ csrf;o mrIen f;yg;wJhEkdi fi HawGrSm rJay;o lawG[ m ay:v pDt ajcjyKEkdi fi Ha&;u dk awmi f;q kdzkdYv lBu dKu fen f;Mu v drfhr, f/ o lwkdY[ m yk*¾dKv fwpfpHkwpfa, mu feJYt kyfpki , fawG&JUt u sdK;au s;Zl;t ay:yJrDScdkaeNyD; t pkd;&t aeeJY t pkt aygi f;au mi f;u sdK;awGu dkax mu fyHhay;r , fht pGr f;&dSw, fv dkY r, HkMu n fMu b l;/ ' gaMu mi fh rJv kd

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csi faewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGrSm Programmatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGx kwfjyefzkdYt wGu f en f;yg;wJhcHpm;cGi fhawGyJ&dSw, f/

yHk 2.1/ "e (2007 ckESpfyg0gwGJzu frI0, f, ljci f; (PPP) rSNrdKUawmf GDP wpfckt v kdu f) eJY Programmatic u sea&;b u fawmfo m;t m;x kwfrI (B15nwe) t Mu m;rS q u fo G, fcsu f(r = 0.62)

115


jzpf&yfav hv mr IawGu yg0geJYpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r Ipmwr f;&JUt u efYt o wfESpfckpv Hk;u dk v kyfaq mi fjyw, f/ q i f;&JwJhEkdi fi Ht rsdK;rsdK; (Oyrmt m;jzi fh' dkrDeDu ef&Dywfb v pf) rSm Programmatic u sewJht m;x kwfr It en f;i , fu dkyJazmfx kwfaewJht csdefrSm er lemx JrSm ' kwd, t csrf;o mq Hk;Ekdi fi HjzpfwJh awmi fu dk&D;, m;rSmawmh Programmatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGu dkjyo w, f/ ' gayrJhx kdi f0rf[ m jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGx JrSm t csrf;o mq Hk;Ekdi fi Hjzpfao mfv n f; t m;en f;wJh Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o m&dSw, f/ t J' Dt jyi f 0i fai Gt v , ft v wf&dSwJhEkdi fi HawGjzpfwJh b &mZD;? b lv fa*;&D;, m;eJY wl&u DwkdYv kdEkdi fi HawGrSmygwDawG[ m t awmfu av ;u GJjym;wJh Programmatic u sewJht m;x kwfr Iu dkjyo x m;NyD; rJay;o lawG[ m rMu mcP q kdo v dk Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu t J' Dt jr i ft wGu ft m;x kwfr IawGjyKv kyfaewmawmi frS o lwkdY&JU Programmatic u sewJhpn f;½Hk;r Iwi fjycsu fawGt ay:t ajccHwJhygwDawGeJY q u fET, fr Ir&dSMu b l;/

ed*Hk;csKyf&&i f t csu ft v u fav hv mrIu pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r I[ m Pro-grammatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JU t o efrmq Hk;t zsu fo rm;jzpfw, fv kdY jyo ayrJhjzpf&yfav hv mrIu awmh &Si f;v i f;wi fjyEkdi fwJhyg0g[ m t q Hk;t jzwfay;Ekdi fzdkYt wGu fv Hkav mu fat mi f ro efrmao ;b l;q kdwmu dkjyo w, f/ jzpf&yfav hv mx m;wJhEkdi fi HawGq Du ygwDawGt ESHYav hv mx m;wJh Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JUysr f;rQt q i fhu t ydki f;awmfawmfrsm;rsm;rSm o lwkdY&JUpD;yGm;a&;zGGHUNzdK;rIt q i fheJYwjcm;ao mEkdi fi HawGeJYEdIi f;, SOfwJht cg arQmfv i fhx m;o v kdyJjzpfw, f/

aysmhajymi f;wJht aet x m;/ /Programmatic u sewJhNydKi fq kdi frIu dk Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;rsm;ua&G;cs, fjci f;&JU o u fa&mu frI

aysmhajymi f;wJht aet x m;u dk Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG? ' grSr[ kwf Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGt aeeJY Programmatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fu dk Bu dKq kdjci f;t m;jzi fho lwkdY&JUygwDu dkt o Gi fajymi f;r , fh cHpm;cGi fhawGeJYx dawGUEkdi fr , fh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt cGi fht v rf;jywi f;awGv kdY o wfrSwfEdki fygw, f/ EdIi f;&t m;jzi fh t en f;

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i , fao mckcHrIawGu dk Bu HKawGUEkdi fwJht ajct aerSmaygh/ ' Dt ajct aeawGu pD;yGm;a&;u ae Ekdi fi Ha&;t aet x m;awGt x d u GJjym;pGmwn f&dSaew, f/ o lwkdYu dkaysmhajymi f;w, fv kdYx i f&jci f;u awmh o lwkdY[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu kd Pro-grammatic u sewJhcsOf;u yfr Iu dk &, lzkdYt wi f;t u syfrwkdu fwGef;wmaMu mi fhjzpfNyD; t J' Dx u fo lwkdYu o pfv Gi fwJhr l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fjci f;wi fjycsu fwpfcku dkt o Hk;jyKNyD; rJay;o lawGq DEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGa&mu f&dSEkdi fzkdY q GJaq mi fr I&dSat mi fjyKv kyfw, f/

Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' q kdi f&mzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIen f;AsL[ mrsm;eJYpD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;rsm;

rwln DwJhpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rIt q i fhawGrSm Ekdi fi HawG[ m pD;yGm;a&;eJY v laer It q i fht wef;u dkjr§i fhwi fzkdY aps;u Gu feJYEkdi fi Ha&;u dk b , fv kdcsdwfq u fr , fq dkwJht ay: t ajccHen f;AsL[ mawGajymi f;v JzkdY o lwkdYu dkv dkt yfwJh pdefac:rIt o pfawGu dk &i fq kdi fzkdYv kdt yfw, f/ wn f&dSaeNyD;o m;zGHUNzdK;rIyHkpHu &u fv GefaeNyD; t pm;x kd;zkdYv kdaeNyDq kd&i f ' gu Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk Programmatic u sewJhtu s, fw0i fha&;o m;csu ft ay:x dawGUzkdYt cGi fht a&;ay;w, f/ ' Drkdu a&pDrSm' Dv kdBu D;rm;wJhq Hk;jzwfcsu fawG[ m zGHUNzdK;r Ien f;AsL[ mu dkyHkazmfay;rJh t pdk;&&JUaps;u Gu f&SmazGrIu dkx def;csKyfzkdYt wGu f Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDNydKi fq kdi frIx Jyg0i fw, f/ o b m0u spGmyJ? t J' gaMu mi fh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m pD;yGm;a&;ay:v pDwkd;wu fajymi f;v Jr IawG&JU Ekdi fi Hv Hk;q kdi f&maq G;aEG;r IawG&JUwn f&mjzpfv mEkdi fw, f/ ' Dt q kdMu r f;o m rSefu efr , fq kd&i f Programmatic u sewJhb u fawmfo m;aq G;aEG;ji i f;ckHrI[ m pD;yGm;a&;v kyfi ef;awGeJY v pm&&dSaeo lawGu t ajymi f;t v Jt wGu f[ pfa<u ;v mwJh pD;yGm;a&;t a&GU? ' grSr [ kwf av smhu sr I&JU&Sn fMu maewJhu mvt NyD;rSm jyi f;jyi f;jyjyjyKv kyfo i fhw, f/

yx rq Hk;t aeeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu frIeJYywfo u fwJhpmayawGq Du ae i Sm;&r f;&r , f/ Haggard(1990) &JU t Bu dKt a&;t o m;awGeJYRogowski (1989) &JU u kefo G, fr IeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;t jyeft v Sefq u fET, fr Iav hv m

117


csu fwkdYu aepwi f&r , f/ pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r IyHkpH 3 cku dk cGJjcm;awGU&dSEkdi fw, f/(Z, m; 2.1) t J' gawGu awmh (1) en f;yg;wJhu kefMu rf;wi fydkYo l (2) t v , ftv wf 0i fai G&dSwJhpu frIx kwfu kefwi fydkYo leJY (3) pu frIacwfv Gef t o dyn mpD;yGm;a&;wkdYjzpfw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhaq G;aEG;ji i f;ckHr IawGu yHkpHwpfrsdK;uarmyef;v mNyD; v kyfaq mi fo lawGu pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;jzpfaewJhu mv rSmyHkpHt o pfu dkwDx Gi fNyD; ax mu fcHMu wJht cg t u sdK;q u fjzpfv mw, f/ o dkYao mfv n f;yJ Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' yHkpHawGu t m;au mi f;wJhpD;yGm;a&;v kyfaq mi fcsu fawGu dk x n fh0i faewJhae&mrSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;&JU b u fawmfo m;-rJay;o lt ajymi f;t v Ju Programmatic u sewJht csdwft q u fawGt pm;0i fae&m, lv mEkdi fw, f/ ' gu u rÇmhen f;yn mwDx Gi fr Ia&SUajy;awGrSm pu fr Iacwfv Gef' Drkdu a&pDeJYt wl Ekdi fi Ha&;u v u fv Srf;rDzkdYBu dK;pm;ae&q JjzpfwJhae&mrSm t en f;q Hk;t aeeJY t o Hk;jyKw, f/

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Z, m; (2.1)? Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' q kdi f&m rlMu rf;rsm;-Programmatic u sewJh Ekdi fi Ha&;t wGu f o Dt kd&Dq kdi f&m o G, f0kdu fo u fa&mu frIrsm;

(1) EGrf;yg;wJh u kefMu rf;wi fykdYo lrsm;

r lMu rf; t csdK;azmfjycsu f t v m;t v m&SdrI jyó emrsm;

- o b m0&i f;jrpfawGu kd ykdi fq kdi fwJht a&SUykdi f;ykdi f&Si frsm; r[ mrdwft zGJUuarmi f;ESi f- EIdi f;, SOft u sdK;t au s;Zl;r sm;?u Rrf;u si fr Ir&SdwJhv kyfo m;? ajr , m?u kefMu rf;rsm;

- EIdi f;&t csdK;t & a, b k, st m;jzi fht cGi fht v r f;t en f;i , fx m;&Sd- t kyfcsKyfo lt pkd;&u pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r It en f;i , fu kd v kyfaq mi fv Qi f t x l;o jzi fht v m;t v m&Sd/

- Ekdi fi Hawm&i f;jrpfaygu fu GJrItcsdeft ykdi f;t jcm;rsm;- u eOD;u Rrf;u si fr I&SdwJh au s;v u fa' o eJYNrdKUjyt v kyfo rm;awG(t x l;o jzi fh n Dn Gwfv Qi f) eJYv lv wfwef;pm;awG&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m v IHYaq mfr I- a&yef;pm;v lBu dKu frsm;wJh Pro-

grammatic u sewJhygwDawGupu frIzGHUNzdK;a&;eJY jyefv n ft au mi ft x n fazmfa&;rSm Ekdi fi Hawmfyg0i fzkdY wkdu fwGef;jci f;

(2) 0i fai Gt v , ftv wf&SdwJhpu frIx kwfu kefwi fykdYo lrsm;

- pu frIt &i f;t ESD;eJYv kyfo m;awG&JUNrdKUjyt ajcjyKEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m r[ mrdwft zGJUu armi f;ESi f- t "du yHkpHESpfrsdK;eJYzGHUNzdK;rIq kdi f&mtajct ae/ o Gi f;u keft pm;x kd; pu frIv kyfi ef; wn fax mi fjci f; (ISI) eJYt a&SU wkdi f;wi fykdYpu frIv kyfi ef;wn fax mi fjci f; (EOI)

- Ekdi fi Hawmfu OD;aq mi fwJht m;au mi f;NyD;at mi fjr i fwJh ISI - EOI

zGHUNzdK;r I[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;x u f v mb fay;rJq G, fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;u kdykdarG;jrLEkdi fw, f/- ISI - EOI Ekdi fi HawGykdrkdcsr f;o mv mwmaMu mi fhygwDawG[ m v mb fay;r Jq G, fjci f;eJYProgrammatic

u sejci f;ay:v pDawGu kd aygi f;pyfv mEkdi fw, f/

- u rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&mpD;yGm;a&;, SOfNydKi frIt o Gi faq mi fjci f;u kd azmfx kwfjci f;0g jyKjyi fwkd;wu ft o m;u sapjci f;u pD;yGm;a&;q kdi f&m v pfb &, frIjyKjci f;&JUpdefac:rIawGu kd , laq mi fv mw, f/- ygwDawG[ m v pfb &, frIjyKjci f;v kyfi ef;pOft wGu fNydKi fq kdi fv mMurSmjzpfNyD; jyKjyi fajymi f;v Ja&;rSm ½IH;edrfho lawGu kd u mu G, fav smfaMu ;ay;Ekdi fw, f/

(3) pu fr Iacwfv Geft o dyn mpD;yGm;a&;

- v lwef;pm;t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;u ae t a0;u kda&GUv sm;r IjzpfNyD;u Rrf;u si frIt ajccHu GJv GJrIq D OD;wn fv mEkdi f- r sdK;q u feJYv lo m;pGr f;&n ft v Tmv kdu fjzpfrIjr i fhwu fjci f;- q ef;jym;½Iyfax G;wJhu kefx kwfv kyfi ef;cGi fawGeJY t &i f;t ESD;aps;u Gu f

- Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGt wGu ft cGi fht v r f;o m- v mb fay;rJq G, fjci f;u Gef, u fawGu kd ab ;z, fcsefv Syfx m;r Iwkd;wu f

- jr i fhrm;wJht &n ft csi f;t q i fhawGeJY aps;u Gu ft ajcjyKpD;yGm;a&;u v mb fay;rJq G, fjci f;v kdpD;yGm;a&;t ajct ae? t csdefu mv t m;v Hk;rSm pGJaq mi fr Ir&Sdat mi fjyKv kyf/


Z, m; 2.1 u t J' Dt q i fh[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&; ay:x Gu fv mjci f;?' gr Sr [ kw f jyi f;jyi f;x efx efjzpfay: jci f;u dk aphaq mfw Jht cGi fht v r f;awGjzpfw, fq dkwJht q kdu dk &SmazGazmfx kwfw, f/ yHkpH 1 eJY 2wkdYu wn fNi drfr I? ' grSr [ kwf t v m;t v mau mi f;r I&JUajymi f;v Jr It q i fhawGu dkjzwfcJhwJht csdefrSm Programmatic u sewJht ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;q D t ajymi f;t v Ju awmh rwln Db l;/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh u Rr f;u si fr Ir&dSwJht v kyfo rm;t i ft m;pkeJY t m;en f;wJhEkdi fi HhpGrf;aq mi fr Iu Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dk u zsu f, zsu fv kyf (yHkpH-1) NyD;? ' grSr [ kwf pDyGm;a&;Mu m;0i faq mi f&Gu faewJhzGHUNzdK;r Iq kdi f&mEkdi fi HawGu ygwDawG[ m a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mrJq Ee, fawGu dkay;acszdkYt wGu f &i f;jrpfawGeJY t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mv kyfEdki fpGr f;awG&dSaev kdYyg/ (yHkpH-2)t J' gu r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJht ajymi f;t v Ju dk t u l;t ajymi f;u mv rSm csef&pfx m;cJhw, f/ rJay;o lawGu &dS&i f;pGJEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu pDyGm;a&;yg&m' dki f;t o pfwpfckq D jyi fq i fcsdefn §djci f;&JUpdefac:r IawGu dk au mi f;au mi f;rGefrGefu dki fwG, fjci f;r&dSb l;v kdY , HkMu n fo Gm;wJht cgrSmaygh/ Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGrSmv n f; pD;yGm;a&;t u sb u fa&mu faewJh &Sn fv sm;wJhu mv t wGi f;rSm ru fv Hk;ay;r Jq G, fwJht csdwft q u fawGwn faq mu fzdkY&i f;jrpf&&dSEkdi fr Ien f;en f;yJ&dSw, f/ wpfNydKi feu fwn f;rSm t q i fhawG[ m v lr I0ef;u si frsu fESmpmpdefac:r IawGt wGu f ydkrkdau mi f;rGefwJht ajzawG&SmazGzkdYt wGu fEkdi fi Ha&;acgi f;aq mi fawGeJY rJay;o lt kyfpkawGu dk q GJaq mi fw, f/ o lwkdYu dk t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mt ajymi f;t v J&JU o pfv Gi fNyD;q ef;o pfwDx Gi fwJh Programmaticu sewJhAm;&Si f;awGeJY pkaygi f;au mi f;u sdK;awG&JU x n fh0i fr IawGu dk v u fcHat mi fjyKv kyf&i f;eJYaygh/

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119


u efYo wfcsu fawG&dSwJht wGu f&&dSEkdi fwJht csu ft v u fawGeJYt wl pr f;o yfEkdi fNyD;t x l;o jzi fh jzpf&yfav hv mrI 7 ckeJY pr f;o yfEkdi fw, f/

yx rq Hk;t q dkMu rf;u awmh zGHUNzdK;rIq kdi f&mt q i fhawG&dSjci f;&JU &Sn fMu mNyD;at mi fjr i fwJht au smh[ m ygwDawG&JU Programmatic u sewJhygwDen f;AsL[ mawGt ay:u o lwkdY&JUt rSwfawGu dk pGefYcGmo i fhw, f/ t csu ft v u fq kdi f&mav hv mcsu fu ? ' grSr[ kwf EOI &JU t v GefBu D;rm;wJhajymi f;v JrIt q i fhawGu dkjzwfo Gm;NyDjzpfwJhEdki fi HawGx Ju t J' D, m, Dau mu fcsu fu dkx kwfay;w, f/ ygwDawGu zGHUNzdK;r Iq kdi f&mt ajct aewpfcku dk t m;wu fo a&mrBu dKq kdwJhEkdi fi HawGx JrSmx u f jr i fhrm;wJhpD;yGm;a&;csrf;o m <u , f0r It q i fhawGrSmawmi f ydkrkdNyD;ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJht m;x kwfrIawGu dk t rsm;t jym;jyKv kyfMu w, f/ t a&t wGu fay:r lwn fwJhav hv mrIu Programmatic u sewJhb u fawmfo m;Ekdi fi Ha&;t ay:ISI-EOI Bu D;rm;wJhzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr I&JU arQmfv i fhx m;wJhx d cdku fysu fpD;apEkdi fwJh o u fa&mu frIu dk &SmazGrawGU&dSEkdi fwJht csdefrSm t u sdK;jzpfx Gef;Ekdi fwJho u fa&mu frIawGr&dSb l;/ a, b k, sEkdi fi Ha&; ab m*aA' t q kdMu rf;wpfpdwfwpfydki f;o m t wn fjyKx m;wmjzpfEkdi fw, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh ISI-EOI t kyfcsKyfr IyHkpHt ajccszkdYt wGu fr lv wGef;t m;r IrSm u kefMu rf;wi fydkYr IOD;pm;ay;r It kyfcsKyfr IyHkpH a&SUa&mu faejci f;&JU t u syft wn f;t csdefu mv t wGi f; t m;au mi f;wJh Programmaticu ser Iq kdi f&mwi fjycsu fawGyg0i fw, f/ t J' D Programmatic u sejci f;q kdi f&mwi fjycsu fawG av smhyg;o Gm;wJht csdefrSmawmi f Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JUt <u i f;t u sefawG[ m u sef&pfw, f/ wzef t u sdK;q u fjzpfay:aewJhzGHUNzdK;r Iq kdi f&mt ajct aeawGu ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IeJY o lau mi f;jyKrJq G, fr Iu aewpfq i fh Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JUo pöm&dSrIu dk x def;o drf;zkdYt cGi fht v rf;awGu dk Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk ay;t yfw, f/ t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fh ISI-EOI ' , dr f;' , dki fjzpfwJht csdefrSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;u csu fcsi f;t a&mi frSdefro Gm;wJht jyi f Pro-grammatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;eJYt jyn fht pm;x kd;jci f;u dkv n f;cH&rSmr[ kwfb l;/awmi fu dk&D;, m;jzpfpOfrSm o u fao jyx m;wJht wkdi f;yJjzpfw, f/ EOI ay:v pD&JUt pm;x kd;jci f;u wjzn f;jzn f;eJYjzpfay:v mNyD; t u syft wn f;t ao ;t rTm;awGyg0i fv mwJhae&mrSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;u ydkNyD;awmi fpGJNrJaeEkdi fw, f/ x kdi f0rfjzpf

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pOfrSm o u fao jyx m;wJht wkdi f;jzpfw, f/' kwd, t csdK;u zGHUNzdK;rIq kdi f&mt kyfcsKyfrIyHkpHeJYywfo u fwJht q kd&JU t "du u s

wJht av mi f;t pm;u dkprf;o yfw, f/ zGHUNzdK;rIedrfhyg;jci f;eJY t v kyfv u frJhaygrsm;jci f;wkdYt &ay:v mwJh? &Sn fMu mwJh? ' grSr[ kwf eu f½dIi f;wJhpD;yGm;a&;' ku ©u yf t csdeft wGi f;rSm Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt aeeJY zGHUNzdK;r Iq kdi f&myHkpHt o pfawGu dk &SmazGzkdYeJYProgrammatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGu dk x dawGUzdkYpwi fo i fhw, f/ o lwkdY&JUEdki fi Ha&;wHkYjyefr Iu au mi f;rGefwJhpD;yGm;a&;o wi f;awGq Dx u f q dk;wJhpD;yGm;a&;owi f;awGq Du dk wHkYjyefwJhae&mrSm ydkrkdt m;o efaewmaMu mi fh t J' gu dk jyn fo lawGeJYt wl t o HjyKo i fhw, f/ wu , fwr f; pHkpr f;ppfaq ;r Iu 2008 DALP ppfwrf; &JUt Bu dKu mv x JrSm t v kyfv u frJhjzpfrIawG t rsm;t jym;wdk;yGm;aewJhEkdi fi HawG' grSr[ kwf pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rIu ' , dr f;' , dki fjzpfaewJhEkdi fi HawGrSm awGU&dS&wmuEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt wGu f ydkrkdBu D;rm;wJh Programmatic u sejci f;q kdi f&mt m;x kwfr IawGu dkjyo zkdY , drf;, dki fr IawG&dSw, fq kdwmyJ/

jzpf&yfav hv mrI&JUZmwfaMu mi f;ajymrIu ' DjzpfpOfu dkjzpfyGm;apwJh, EÅ&m;u dkyHkx kwfw, f/ t ajct aeawGu dk b , fv kdwkd;wu fat mi fv kyf&r , fq kdwJht ay:o pfv Gi fwProgrammatic u ser It kdi f' D, mawGeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ mwn f&dSNyD;o m;ygwDawG (' grSr[ kwf ydkNyD;rMu mrMu m t J' DygwDawGt wGi f;u aex Gu fajy;o lawGay:x Gu fv mv drhfr , f) t wGi f;u ae ay:x Gu fv mv drhfr , f/u eOD;u wn f;u ab ;z, fx kwfcHx m;&wJhygwDawGx Ju Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG?' grSr[ kwf ygwDwpfckv Hk;u dk t o pfzGJUpn f;v kdu fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mpD;yGm;a&;orm;awGu Programmatic u sejci f;q kdi f&mwi fjycsu ft o pfawGeJYt wlx i f&Sm;au smfapmrIq Du dk jri fhwu fv mv drfhr, f/ jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGx JrSm wl&u DeJYb &mZD;u ygwDawGu Oyrmt jzpfwi fjyv drfhr, f/ 2001 ckESpfwkef;u jyi f;x efwJhb @ma&;t u syft wn f;eJYaygi f;pyfx m;wJh wl&u D&JUemwm&Sn faewJh t m;en f;wJhpD;yGm;a&;v kyfaq mi fr I&JUt q u ft pyfx JrSm Justice and Development Party(AKP) [ m pD;yGm;a&;ajzav Qmhjci f;t kdi f' D, mawGu dkBu dKq kdwJh ygwDt o pfwpfcktaeeJY ay:x Gu fv mw, f/ 1980 ckESpfrsm;q Du b &mZD;Ekdi fi H&JU a<u ;NrDt u syftwn f;&JUt v , frSm PT [ m t u syft wn f;&JUNcdrf;ajcmu fjci f;u dkcHae&wJh NrdKUjy

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v lx ku @t &yfb u f0efaq mi fr IawG&JU (t ajccHt m;jzi hfzGJUpn f;x m;wJh) v lr Iv HkNcHKa&;eJY t v kyft u dki f&&dSa&;? pD;yGm;a&;ajzav QmhrI&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUckcHr Ix JrSm Pro-grammatic u sejci f;q kdi f&mwGef;t m;wpfckt jzpf ay:x Gu fv mcJhw, f/ ax mi fpkESpfo pfrSm o lwkdYo r®wae&ma&G;cs, frIrSm t Ekdi f&&dSo Gm;wJht csdefrSm pD;yGm;a&;ajzav Qmhjci f;u dkwdk;jr§i fhNyD; Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt jzpfrSefo pfawG&JUt rsm;pku dk v u fcHv kdu fzkdYPT u dk t OD;t pt aeeJY t u syfu dki fcJhwJh q kd&S, f' Drkdu &u fawG 1990 ckESpfrsm;q DrSmx Gu fay:v mr IeJYt wl Programmatic u sewJhq efYu si fb u f wGef;t m;wpfckv kdu fygv mcJhw, f/ awmi fu dk&D;, m;u wkdawmi f;NyD; w[ kefx kd;q efwJh pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;u wn f&dSNyD;o m;ygwDawGx Ju Programmatic u sejci f;t m;o efr I&dSwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk wGef;t m;ay;zkdYt wGu f t ax mu ft u lt jzpfv kyfaq mi fcJhw, f/

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t m;v Hk;NcHKMu n fhv kdu fr , fq kd&i f av hv mrIu pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;q dku faewJht ajct aerSmawmi f Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awGt aeeJY wkd;wu fajymi f;v JaewJhv Iyf&Sm;r Iv r f;aMu mi f;awGt Mu m; q Hk;jzwfo i fhNyD; Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;[ m t NrJwr f;t au mi f;q Hk;a&G;cs, fr Ir [ kwfb l;q kdwmu dk jyo w, f/b myJjzpfjzpf t x l;o jzi fh t v , ft v wf0i fai GyJ&dSwJhEkdi fi HawGrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m Programmatic u sewJhwi fjycsu fawGu dk v u fcHv kdu fzkdY t Bu Hay;r Iu dkv u fcHv kdu fzkdY ckdi fckdi frmrmt q i fo i fhjzpfaeEkdi fw, f/ t x l;o jzi fh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu o lwkdYu dk, fo lwkdY pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;x JrSm awGU&dSo Gm;wJht csdefrSmaygh/

' Drdku &u fwpfa&G;au mu fyGJrsm;&JUNydKi fq dki frI

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, SOfNydKi fr IawG&JU u Gm[ r Ien f;yg;wJhv kyfaq mi fcsu fawGjzpfw, f/' gayrJh ' Drdku &u fwpfNydKi fyGJawG&JUjyi f;x efwJhNydKi fq dki fr IawGrSm rl0g' t ajccH

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jr i fhrm;wJhygwDt csi f;csi f;NydKi fq dki fr IawG[ m 0i fai Gt v , ft v wf&dSwJhEdki fi HawGrSm r l0g' t ajccHwJhygwDpGJ&dSo lawGt jzpf q GJaq mi fr Iu dkwdk;jr§i fhay;w, fq dkwJht q dkMu rf;awGt wGu f av hv mcsu ft ax mu ft x m;rsm;[ m awmfawmfav ;½Iyfax G;w, f/ ' ght jyi f aMu mi f;u sdK;q u fET, faewJhOD;wn fcsu fawG[ m NydKi fq dki fr Iu ae r l0g' t ajccHwJhAsL[ mawGq Da&GUv sm;aeo v m;? ' grSr[ kwf q efYu si fb u ft ajct aev m;q dkwm r&Si f;v i f;b l;/ r l0g' t ajccHwJhEdki fi Ha&;[ m acgi f;aq mi fygwDESpfckMu m; yx rae&mt wGu f, SOfNydKi fr Ix u f ygwDt csi f;csi f;NydKi fq dki fr Iu dkjyKv kyfw, fq dkwm jzpfau mi f;jzpfEdki fygw, f/

jzpfpOf(7)cku dkav hv m&mrSm NydKi fq dki fr I[ m ' dkrDeDu ef? awmi fu dk&D;, m;eJY2008 ckESpf ygwDESpfckkt ay:t m½Hkpdku fr Irwdki fci f Oya' eJYt n Daemu fq Hk;rJt rsm;q Hk;ay;cJhwJh x dki f0r fwdkYrSm t jr i fhq Hk;jzpfw, f/ r l0g' t ajccHwJhBu dK;yrf;r IawG[ mrwln DwJhOD;wn fcsu fawGq Da&TUv sm;w, f/ awmi fu dk&D;, m;[ m ydkrdkt m;au mi f;wJhrl0g' t ajccHwJhq GJaq mi fr IeJYt wl wdku fq dki fpGmNydKi fq dki frI&Si f;&Si f;v i f;v i f;x Gu fay:v mwJh jzpfpOfwpfckjzpfw, f/ ' gayrJh jzpfpOf(7)ck wn f;u ae aMu mi f;u sdK;q u fwJhau mu fcsu fpGJzdkYq dkwmcu fcJw, f/

(88)Edki fi HrSm&dSaewJh DALP t csu ft v u fawGt & jyi f;x efwJhNydKi fq dki frIeJYBu D;rm;wJhr l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r IMu m;rSm t i ft m;Bu D;t zGJUt pn f;awGu dkawGUEdki fw, f/ ' gawG[ m 0i fai Gt q i fhay: rSDwn faew, fq dkwm&Si f;v i f;ygw, f/

124


NydKi fq dki fr I[ m csr f;o mwJhEdki fi HawGrSmo m r l0g' t ajccHBu dK;yr f;r IeJYydkrdkwdku fq dki fw, f/ 0i fai Gt v , ft v wfeJYen f;yg;wJhEdki fi HawGrSmawmh jyi f;x efwJhNydKi fq dki frI[ m r l0g' t ajccHBu dK;yrf;rIt m;en f;wJhygwDawGeJYq u fpyfaew, f/ q i f;&JwJhEdki fi HawGrSmawmh jyi f;x efwJhygwDNydKi fq dki fr IawGx u f t ay;t , lo ab mBu dK;yrf;r IawGu awmi f jyefv n ft m;au mi f;w, f/

' gayrJh csrf;o mwJhEdki fi HawGrSm t i ft m;Bu D;ygwDawG&JUjyi f;x efwJhNydKi fq dki frIt ajct aeawGMu m; r l0g' u dkt ajccHwJhrJay;o lawGt wGu f Bu D;rm;wJhaps;u Gu fu dkydki fq dki fw, fq dkwm[ mjzpfEdki fajc&dSygw, f/ rwln DwJht csu fawGu ae t csu ftv u frsm;pGmu dkt csdefrDr&&dS&i f NydKi fq dki fr I[ m Bu D;rm;wJhrl0g' t ajccHBu dK;yrf;r Iu dkzefwD;o v m;? ' grSr[ kwf q efYu si fb u ft ajct aev m;q dkwmu dk ro dEdki fb l;/' ght jyi f ygwDawG[ m wpfBu drfwpfcgawmh AsL[ mt m;v Hk;jzpfwJh r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIeJY t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIawGu dk jzefYu su fx m;zkdY Bu dK;pm;Mu w, f/' DjzpfEkdi fajc[ m t mP m&t arGcHygwD&JU&dSaer It wGi f; t v GefaMu mi f;u sdK;q Dav smfw, f/ t mP m&t arGcHygwDawG[ m ISI-EOI ay:v pDawGeJYt wlzGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fwJhjyn fe, fawGt ay:rSDcdkwJh 0i fai Gt v , ft v wf&dSwJhEdki fi HawGrSmt x l;t i ft m;Bu D;w, f/ ' Dv dkygwDawG[ m Edki fi Ha&;eJYpD;yGm;a&;u dk aygi f;u l;ay;wJht v Gef½Iyfax G;wJhu Gef&u fawGrSm jrKyf0i faeNyD; v G, fu lapw, f/ t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;jci f;q u fpyfr Iu dk ' Drdku &u ft ajct aet o pfat mu frSm au mi f;rGefpGmt o Hk;jyKzkdYjyKv kyfw, f/ t mP m&t arGcHygwD[ m t ay;t , lo ab meJY r l0g't ajccHo ab mq GJaq mi fr IESpfckpv Hk;u dkjr§i fhwi fzkdY ESpfo u fw, f/

b lv fa*;&D;, ef;q dk&S, fv pfygwD[ m u GefjrLepfygwDa[ mi f;wpfck&JU rlvyHkpHt ajct aejzpfNyD; r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r Iu dk zefwD;aepOft ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;r Iu dkx def;o dr f;zkdYBu dK;yr f;cJhw, f/ awmi fu dk&D;, m;*&ef;ae&Si fe, fygwD(rwln DwJhygwDESpfckaygi f;pn f;x m;wJhygwD) [ m t mPm&dSpOfpn f;rsOf;awGt wGi f;yg0i fwJht arGcHaemu faMu mi f;awGu dk q efYu si fNyD; v kyfi ef;pOfawGrSm t v m;wlv kyfyHkv kyfen f;awGu kdajymi f;v JcJhw, f/ x dki f0rfu lr i fwefygwD[ m t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;r Iu dk t x l;wv n fx def;o dr f;cJhwJh at mi fjr i fwJhygwDjzpfw, f/ ygwD&JUzGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fwJh jyn fe, fAsL[ mawGrSm pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;awGu dk

125


eu feu feJeJ rpGu fzu fwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ ' g[ m r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r Iu dkydkrdk&Si f;v i f;pGm zGHUNzdK;v mrIeJYywfo u fwmjzpfw, f/ r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r I[ mx dki f0rfu lr i fwefygwD&JUt "du NydKi fb u fjzpfwJh ' Drdku &u fwpfy½kd*&u fppfygwD&JUjzefYjzL;aewJhzdt m;awGu dkq efYu si fNyD; Edki fi Ha&;-pD;yGm;a&;a&SUrwdk;aemu frq kwfo mt ajct aeu dkx def;o dr f;zdkYax mu fcHcJhw, f/

ygwDwGi f;eJY Oya' jyKt zGJYt pn f;

Edki fi Ha&;ygwDt m;v Hk;[ m a&G;au mu fyGJq dki f&mat mi fjr i fzkdYt wGu f u Rrf;u si fr I&dSwJht zGJUt pn f;q dki f&m t aq mu ft t HkawGu dkv dkt yfw, f/ Program-matic u sewJhygwDawGt m½Hkpl;pdku fwJh v Iyf&Sm;o lawGu dkv dkt yfw, f/ ' Dv dkv Iyf&Sm;o lawGeJYyl;aygi f;NyD; at mi fjr i fzkdUt wGu faq G;aEG;jci f;jzpfpOfawGeJY , kwåd&dSwJhay:v pD u wdwm0efawGu dkcsJUx Gi f&r, f/ EdIi f;, SOfrIawGt & rwln DwJhAsL[ mawGu dkpdwf0i f pm;wJhygwDawG[ m o lwdkYygwD&JUay:v pD&n f&G, fcsu fawGu dk aq G;aEG;zdkYeJYyl;aygi f; aq mi f&Gu f&mrSm ygwD0i fawGt wGu f t pn f;t a0;awGzefwD;zkdY rBu dK;pm;b l;/ ' gaMu mi fh r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhygwDawG[ m ygwD0i fawG&JUyHkrSef ygwDwGi f;u Gef&u fawGu dk wn faq mu fzkdYESpfo u fw, f/ rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIr&dSwJhygwDawGt wGu fu awmh ygwD&JUt jyi fb u frSm x i f&Sm;pGmwn f&dSaewJh yHkrSefr [ kwfwJhu Gef&u fawGu t a&;ygw, f/ ' Dt jyi f r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG[ m ydkrdk, HkMu n f&r, fhay:v pD &n f&G, fcsu fawGu dkjyKv kyf&mrSm t v , ft v wfwu f<u v Iyf&Sm;o lawGeJY r lv ygwD0i fawG&JU ygwDAsL[ mydki f;q dki f&m ajymq dkEdki fcGi fhawGu dkv dku fav sm&r, f/ t ay;t , lo ab m pn f;½Hk;r IyHkpHrSmawmh acgi f;aq mi fawG[ m t v , ft v wft q i fhu dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk x def;csKyfzkdYt wGu f jri fhrm;wJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr I&dSwJh Edki fi Ha&;t mP m&dSo lu dk&SmazGw, f (Stokes 2005: Stokesef d.2013)/ t rSefawmh aemu fydki f;ygwDq dki f&mwu fMu Gv Iyf&Sm;o lawG[ m t mP mydki ft zGJU&JUt m½Hkpl;pdku fr IBu D;rm;wJht &mawGeJY r jcm;em;Edki fygb l;/

ygwDt zGJUt pn f;awG&JU ' Dv dkpdwfydki f;q dki f&mt &n ft ao G;awGu dkq efYu si fwJhprf;o yfr Ijzpf&yfawGrSm v kyfaq mi fr Io Hk;cku dk pHkprf;ppfaq ;r I&JUt v , frSmx m;

126


w, f/ ' DpkHprf;r Io Hk;cku awmh (1) ygwDt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f; x i f&Sm;wJhe, fy, fq dki f&mu @u dk cefYrSef;jci f; (u Gef&u ft wGi f;t m;en f;r I&JUo G, f0dku fv u ©P m)? (2)ygwD&JUEdki fi Ha&;acgi f;aq mi fu dk, fpm;v S, ft r n fwi fo Gi f;jci f;t ay:A[ kdcsKyfu dki fr It mP mt q i fh (aphpyfaq G;aEG;rIen f;yg;wJhv u ©P m)? (3) zHk;u G, fx m;wJh ygwDwGi f;b @ma&; (acgi f;aq mi fr It ay:x def;csKyfrIen f;yg;wJhv u ©Pm)pwmawGjzpfw, f/

u s, fjyefYwJh ALP t csu ft v u fawGrSmawmh jyi f;x efwJht ay;t , loab mpn f;½Hk;wJhygwDawG (r l0g' t ajccHr[ kwfwJhygwDawG) &JUBu dK;yrf;r IawG[ myHkrSefygwD0i fwn faq mu fyHkx u f yHkrSefr [ kwfwJhJ x i f&Sm;wJhu Gef&u ft ay:rSDcdkNyD; A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr I&dSw, f/ r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r IeJYt ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIESpfckpv Hk;jyKv kyfwJhygwDawGu awmh yHkrSefzGJUpn f;rIu dkt av ;x m;NyD; jr i fhrm;wJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr I&dSw, f/ jzpf&yfawGu dkav hv m&mrSm wl&u D AKP eJU b la*;&D;, ef;q dk&S, fv pfygwDwdkY[ m AsL[ meJYjri fhrm;wJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki frIESpfrsdK;aygi f;pyfrIu dk em;v n fo ab maygu fw, f/

r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhygwDawG[ m t zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mt mP mjzefYa0&mrSm ygwD&JUOya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, ft rn fwi fo Gi f;r It ay: wu f<u v Iyf&Sm;o lawGeJYo mreft zGJY0i fawGu ydkrdkajymq dka&G;cs, fEdki fzdkY wdu swJhyrmP wcsdKUu dkcGi fhjyKzkdYt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ t rsm;t m;jzi fhawmh Bu D;rm;wJhygwD0i f&&dSrIeJY o mref&S, f, m0i frsm;t wGu f acgi f;aq mi fydki f;wm0efcHrI[ m t ay;t , lo ab mt ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIygwDawGu ae r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIygwDu dk ydkrdku GJjym;jcm;em;apw, f/' gayrJh rl0g' t ajccHygwDawG[ m rsm;jym;wJht zGJU0i fawGeJY&S, f, m0i fu Gef&u fawGrsm;jym;v mwJht cg o lwdkYawGu kdt wlwu GcsKyfu dki fEdki fzkdYt wGu f ydkrdkt mP m&dSwJhacgi f;aq mi fawGx kwfv kyfzkdY wdu sNyD;[ efcsu fn DwJhwdrf;n GwfrI ra&Smi fv GJEdki fb Jjyo &w, f/ (t ao ;pdwfpdppfcsu ft & t apmydki f;awGU&dScsu fawGu dk ppfaq ;jci f;(Kitschelt and Kselman 2014)/ v mb fv mb eJYjr§Lq G, fwJhygwDrsm;eJY EdIi f;, SOfygu r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhygwDawG[ m x l;jcm;pGm o lwdkYu dk, fwdki f b @ma&;q dki f&mpDrHcefYcGJrIawGu dk x n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;w, f/ o lwdkY[ m ygwDb @ma&;u dkydkrdkjri fo mapzdkYeJY rau seyfrIawGu dk Oya' pn f;u rf;t &ajz&Si f;v dkwJhygwDjzpfw, f/

127


jcm;em;csu ft & t ay;t , lo ab m pn f;½Hk;wJhygwDawG[ m r l0g' q dki f&mawGu dkt av ;x m;o n fjzpfap t av ;rx m;o n fjzpfap yGi fhv i f;jr i fo mrIr&dSb J wpfcgwav Oya' eJYrn DwJhb @ma&;q dki f&m t av ht x awGeJY aq mi f½Gu fav h&dSw, f/

jzpf&yfawGu dkav hv mwJhEdki fi HawG&JUygwDwGi f;t zGJUt pn f;awGu dk jyo &mrSmawmh azmfjycJhao mwdr f;n Gwfr IawGeJYv dku fav smn Dax GrI&dSw, f/ (Box 2.2wGi f½I)u s, fjyefYwJhyHk rSeft zGJUt pn f;eJY u efYo wfx m;wJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki frIu dk aygi f;pyfx m;wJhygwDu awmh t i ft m;Bu D;q Hk;r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r IeJY t m;t en f;q Hk;t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIt v m;t v mawGu dkydki fq dki fx m;wJh b &mZD; PT ygwDeJYu dk&D;, ef;ygwDwdkYjzpfw, f/ ' gayrJh ygwDawG[ m rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhygwDjzpfr I?r jzpfr Iu dk t av ;rx m;b J jr i fhrm;wJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iu dkydki fq dki fNyD; yHkrSefr [ kwfwJhx i f&Sm;r Iu dk rSDcdkwmawG&dSw, f/

jzpf&yfawGu dkav hv m&mrSm u efYo wfx m;wJhA[ dkx def;csKyfr IeJYyHkrSeft zGJUt pn f;awGjzpfwJh t zGJUt pn f;q dki f&m ygwDwn faq mu fyHkawGu dk wpfckcsi f;t v dku fa&G;cs, fr Ijzi fhq Hk;jzwfwmu v n f; rao csmygb l;/ t zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mwn faq mu fyHkeJYAsL[ mydki f;q GJaq mi fr Iwdku fq dki fayrJh jzpf&yfav hv mrIawG[ m aMu mi f;u sdK;q u fpyfwJh q u fEG, fr IawGu dkr jyo ygb l;/ r l0g' t ajccHq GJaq mi fwJhygwDawG[ m ygwDt zGJUt pn f;eJYt wlBu D;rm;wJhEdki fi Ha&;ygwD (Oyrm-b &mZD; PT)awGrSm &Si fo efzdkYydkrdkESpfo u fw, fv dkY au mu fcsu fcsEdki fw, f/ ' Dv kdygwDt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m ygwDt kyfcsKyfr Iu dk , HkMu n fEdki fav mu fwJh pn f;rsOf;t wdki f;jzpfapw, f/ ygwD&JUAsL[ mawGu ae acgi f;aq mi f&JUyk*¾dKv fa&;u dkcGJjcm;x m;NyD; Oya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, fa&G;cs, f&mrSmygwD0i fawGu dkv Trf;rdk;cGi fhay;x m;w, f/

128


Box 2.2 jzpf&yfav hv mrIrsm; rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIygwDeJYt ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIygwDrsm;&JU ygwDt zGJUt pn f;rsm;

' dkrDeDu efEdki fi Ht wGi f; ygwDawG[ m t rsm;t m;jzi fh yHkrSefa' orSm ygwDt zGJUt pn f;r&dSb J a' o wGi f;x i f&Sm;o lawG t ay:rSDcdkw, f/o lwdkYrSmv n f; v Gefu JwJhA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iq efwJht zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mwn faq mu fyHk&dSw, f/

x dki f0rfu u s, fjyefYwJhygwDESpfck[ m u s, fjyefYwJha' o wGi f;, lepfawGu dk ydki fq dki fayr , fh rJawGu dkv IHUaq mfzkdYt wGu f Bu dKwi f&dSaewJhao ;i , fwJh v lr It zGJUt pn f;u Gef&u fawGu dk r [ mrdwfzGJUzkdYv dkv m;w, f/ ' Dv dkv m;rIawG t mPmBu D;pdk;r Iat mu f&JU a' o t q i fha&G;au mu fyGJrSm e, fajrcHx i f&Sm;o lawGu dk cu fcu fcJcJz, f&Sm;rIeJYv lt rsm;ax mu fcHrIu dk v kHNcHKaprI[ mKMT &JUaygi f;pyfr IAsL[ mu ae pwi fcJhw, f/

t dEd, &JUygwDt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m Edki fi Ht ESHYt a&;ygpGm u GJjym;w, f/ jyn fe, frsm;wGi fygwDrsm;[ m ydkrdkpn f;½Hk;NyD; ygwDu dk, fpm;jyKa&G;cs, f&mrSm pn f;u rf;q dki f&mx def;csKyfr Iu dk ydkrdk&Si f;v i f;pGmv dku femw, f/ rJ&Si fawG[ m wpfo D;yk*¾v u dk, fpm;v S, fx u f ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dkax mu fcHw, f/ t dEd, ygwDt rsm;pk[ m r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIb u fv dku fwJhq GJaq mi fr IawGu dk v G, fu lapwJht zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mwn faq mu fyHkr&dSb l;/

wl&u DrSmawmh ygwDawG[ m yHkrSeft zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mu s, fjyefYrI&JUt Bu D;rm;q Hk;t q i fhu dk ydki fq dki fx m;w, f/ AKP [ m t a&;ygq Hk;jzpfwJhr l0g' t ajccHBu dK;yr f;r Iu dk jyKv kyfwJhygwDjzpfw, f/ ' gayrJh AKP [ mo l&JUt ay;t , lo ab mBu dK;yrf;r Iu dku ln DzdkY x i f&Sm;o lawG&JU u s, fjyefYwJhu Gef&u fu dkv n f;t m;u dk;w, f/ AKP [ m a&S;q efwJht &mt m;v Hk;v kyfaq mi fwJh ygwDjzpfv mw, f/ o l&JUacgi f;aq mi fr Iu awmh A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr It mP mu dkESpfo u fw, f/

129


u dk&D;, m;ygwDawG&JUrl0g' t ajccHq GJaq mi fr It wGu f t a&;Bu D;wJhwdk;wu frI[ m u i frsdK;q u fo Hk;q u feJYygwDt zGJUt pn f;awGu dk u dk, fydki femrn fay;jci f; t q Hk;o wfr IeJY x yfwlu sw, f/ ygwDawG[ mygwDt wGi f;q Hk;jzwfcsu fcsjci f;jzpfpOfu dk pn f;rsOf;eJYt n DjzpfapzdkYeJYBu D;rm;wJhyGi fhv i f;jr i fo mrIzefwD;zdkY Bu D;rm;wJhBu dK;yrf;rIawGjyKv kyfcJhw, f/

b &mZD;rSmawmh t v kyfo rm;ygwD&JUacgi f;aq mi frsm;[ m b &mZD;o r®w&mx l;t x djr i fhwu fcJhNyD; t J' Drwdki fci f t v kyfo rm;ygwD[ mEdki fi HwGi f; t v Gefpn f;pepfu spGmzGJUpn f;x m;wJhygwDjzpfw, f/ wjcm;ygwDawG[ m o lwdkYacgi f;aq mi fawG&JU yk*¾dKv fa&;t a&;ygrIu dk x n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;ayrJh v lv mu Jho dkY Mo ZmBu D;wJhEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awmi frS o lUygwDwGi f;t acst wi faq G;aEG;r IeJY pr f;o yfcH&w, f/

b lv fa*;&D;, m;rSmawmh wpfpdwfwpfydki f;t ax mu ft x m;rsm;ur l0g' t ajccHq GJaq mi fr I[ m t v Gefpepfu spGmzGJUpn f;x m;wJhygwDawGu dkjyKv kyfw, fq dkwmu dk x yfrHt q dkjyKw, f/ rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIav smhen f;wJhygwDawG[ m yk*¾dKv fa&;q efr IeJY A[ dkcsKyfu dki fwJhpDrHcsu fawGu dk ydkrdkjyKv kyfw, f/

130


Oya' jyKt zGJUt pn f;rsm;

ygwD&JUyg0gwn faq mu frIyHkpH&JUt jcm;t a&;ygwJh ½Iax mi fhu awmh ygwD&JUOya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk t kyfcsKyfjci f;jzpfw, f/ Oya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, fawG[ mygwDn TefMu m;csu fawGu ae w&m;0i fv Gwfv yfo ljzpfw, f/ ' gayrJh de factoygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG[ m o lwdkY&JUOya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, fawGt ay: Mo Zmv Grf;rdk;w, f/ ygwD&JUOya' jyKau mfrwDawG[ m q u fpyfaewJho lwdkY&JUay:v pDo u fa&mu fr Iu dk b , fv dkpDpOfrv J/ Oya' jyKt zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mpDrHr IawG r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhEdki fi Ha&;eJY t Hh0i fcGi fu sjzpfzdkYt wGu f q Hk;jzwfp&mr l0g' ESpfckeJYrv GJrao GBu HKawGU&r, f/ yx rwpfcku awmh Oya' jyKt zGJU[ m ajymq kdr IawGu kdo mruv n fywfaewJhygv Dreft wdki f;r jzpfraev kyfaq mi f&r , f/ ' gu kd Weber &JUazmfjyrI (1919-1978) t wGi f;x m;&Sd&efjzpfw, f/ ' g[ m Oya' jyKo lawGu kday:v pDu Rrf;u si fwwfo dr IawGrSmjr§KyfESHYzdkYt wGu f q GJaq mi fr IeJYpGrf;&n fawGu dkrjzpfraeyHhydk;ay;&r, fv dkY q dkv dkjci f;jzpfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh au mi f;rGefwJhpGrf;&n fawGydki fq dki fx m;wJhOya' jyK au mfrwDpepfrsdK;jzpfw, f/ ' kwd, q Hk;jzwf&r, fht &muawmh Oya' jyKt zGJUawG[ m t csi f;csi f;NydKi fq dki fr Ix u f ygwDt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;yl;aygi f;v kyfaq mi fzkdYwGu f Oya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk q GJaq mi frIawGeJYyHhydk;&r, f/Oya' jyKt zGJU[ m yl;aygi f;v kyfaq mi fr IawGu dk q kv mb fcsD;jr§i fhNyD; wpfOD;wpfa, mu fx u f t kyfpkt zGJUawGu dk pGr f;&n fawGay;t yf&r , f/ Oya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, fawGt wGu f ' Dv dkt u keft u srsm;pGmjyKv kyfjci f;[ m o lwdkY&JUygwDv Trf;rdk;r Iu dkpGefYv TwfzkdYjzpfw, f/

' Dav hv mrIx Ju t en f;q Hk;Oya' jyKt zGJUo Hk;ck (b &mZD;? b lv fa*;&D;, m;eJUawmi fu dk&D;, m;) eJY x dki f0r fwdkY&JUav hv mrIt ax mu ft x m;awGu rMu mrDESpfrsm;t wGi f; ygwDOya' jyKq dki f&mt kyfcsKyfr It zGJUt pn f;awGu dk t m;jzn fh&r, fv dkYt q dkjyKx m;w, f/ ' g[ m Oya' jyKt zGJUeJUygwDaygi f;pn f;r Iu dkajymi f;v JzdkY Oya'jyKt zGJU&JUt zGJU0i fawGt wGu f ydkrdkcu fcJv mo v dk ydkrdkt u keft u srsm;w, f/ au mfrwDv kyfaq mi fr IawGu dk aq mi f½Gu fyHkawG? au mfrwD[ m r l0g' t ajccHwJhpn f;½Hk;r Ipu m;ppfx dk;yGJawGu dk b , fv dkv Trf;rdk;w, f (' grSr[ kwfb , fv dkv Trf;rdk;cH&w, f)

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q dkwmu dk au mu fcsu frcsEdki fb l;/ ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG[ m r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r IawGu dk wm0ef, l&i f Oya' jyKu dk, fpm;v S, ft zGJU&JUb u fv dku fr Ijyi f;x efwJht kyfcsKyfr IawG[ m rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIb u fv dku fwJhNydKi fq dki frIawG ydkrdkjzpfay:v mzdkYjzn f;jzn f;csi f;u ln Day;w, f/

pepfwu sEdIi f;, SOfav hv mq ef;ppfr It wGu f ' DrSwfcsu fawG&JUt u sdK;o u fa&mu frI[ m cu fcJwmu dkawGU&w, f/ Edki fi HawGu dkpepfu sav hv mrIt ax mu ftx m;awG (DALP [ m ' Dv dkt csu ft v u fawGu dk rpkaq mi f;b l;) ray;Edki fjci f;?' grSr[ kwf v u f&Sdu dpö&yfawGrSmav hv maewJhEdki fi HawGt wGi f; Oya' jyKq dki f&mt zGJUt pn f;awG&JUt ao ;pdwfav hv mrIawG ray;Edki fwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ ' DtaMu mi f;t &m&JUjzpf&yfawGu dk av hv mpkaq mi f;x m;wmawG[ m a, b k, sav hv mrIawGt ay: rjzpfraerSDcdkzdkYjyKv kyfNyD; ' Dav hv mrIawGu ae t &JpGefUwJh, lq csu fawGu dkau mu fcsu fcsEdki fw, f/ ygwDeJYOya' jyKt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m Edki fi Ha&;ajymi f;v JrIjzpfpOft wGu ft a&;Bu D;NyD; ' DjzpfpOfawGu dk Edki fi Hwpfck&JU' Drdku &u fwpft av ht x' grSr[ kwfEdki fi Ha&;-pD;yGm;a&;t *Fg&yfawG csdefcGi fv Qmay:&dSaecsdefx u f ydkrdken f;yg;wJhEdki fi Ha&;t [ efYt wm;awGeJYajymi f;v Jau mi f;ajymi f;v JEdki fo v kd ' Du efYo wfr I[ m au seyfzG, fr [ kwfb l;/

jzpfEdki fajc&dSwJh t m;en f;wJhav hv mrIt aMu mi f;&i f;awG[ mEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUrl0g' t ajccHwJha&G;cs, frIawGu dkv Trf;rdk;w, f/

t J' Dt aMu mi f;&i f;awG[ m jzpfEdki fajc&dSw, f/ ' gayrJh t m;en f;wJhav hv mrI? ' grSr[ kwf o kawo et ax mu ft x m;r&dSwJht wn fjyKcsu fawG[ m ygwD&JUrl0g' t ajccHwJhpn f;½Hk;rIt v m;t v meJYEdki fi Ha&;pepfu dk v Trf;rdk;zkdYt wGu f ygwD&JUv kyfEdki fpGr f;u dk ñ Tefjyw, f/ ' Dav hv mrIt csu ft v u fawGu dk &Si f;v i f;jyq dkr Ir&dSjci f;[ m jzpfEdki fajc&dSwJht ajct aeawGu ae rx kwfy, fx m;ayrJh ygwD&JUu @eJYv Trf;rdk;r It ay: o kawo eydkrdkjyKv kyfzkdYv dkt yfr Iu dkñ Tefjyw, f/

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' Drdku &u fwpfpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;ESi fh Programmatic u sewJhygwDzGJUpn f;rI

t csdKUav hv mrIawGu ygwDawG&JUyl;aygi f;r IAsL[ mt wGu f ' Drdku a&pDt a&;rSm NydKi fyGJ&JUpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awGu dk t u sdK;o i fht aMu mi f;o i fhazmfjyw, f/ae&mwpfckt wGu ft v m;t v m&dSwJh wpfOD;csi f;Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awGMu m; av ;eu fwJh NydKi fq dki fr IawGu dkjy| mef;NyD; jyn fo lUt mP mu dkt o Hk;jyKzkdYwm0ef&dSwJhEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dkx def;csKyfjci f;[ m r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhNydKi fq dki fr IawGu dk ydwfq dkYjci f;jzpfw, f/ r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;wJhNydKi fq dki fr IawG[ m wpfOD;csi f;Edki fi Ha&;o rm; (Mo ZmBu D;o l) awG&JUNydKi fb u fu i f;wJht &n ft ao G;eJY q ErJu dkv Jv S, f&mrSmao ;i , fwJhypfrSwfrJq E&Si fawGt wGu f v kyfaq mi fEkdi fwJht &mawG (t ay;t , loab mpn f;½Hk;r I) x u f &n f&G, fcsu feJYt pdk;&&JUv kyf&Sm;r IawGu dk t m½Hkpdku fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;eJYrJq E&Si fawGu dkv dkt yfw, f/ pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awGu wpfOD;csi f;Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk o lwdkY&JUt &i f;t jrpfawGx n fh0i fx m;wJh Bu D;rm;wJht zGJUt pn f;t wGi f; t jcm;Edki fi Ha&;o rm;rsm;ESi hf t wlyl;aygi f;aq mi f&Gu frIeJY r l0g' NydKi fq dki fr I&JUv Trf;rdk;r Iat mu frSm Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUpkaygi f;aq mi f&Gu fr IawGq D wjzn f;jzn f;wGef;ydkYwJhae&mrSm r l0g' t ajccHEdki fi Ha&;u dk jzpfx Gef;zdkYarSsmfv i fhw, f/

pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;q dki f&mt csu ft v u fawG[ m a&G;au mu fyGJNydKi fq dki fr It wGi f; Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUrl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIu dk wdk;wu fapzkdYarQmfv i fhw, f/ygwDq dki f&mu dk, fpm;jyKrI&JUaeYpOft v kyfx JrSm a&G;au mu fyGJq dki f&mOya' ? Edki fi H&JUOya' jyKq dki f&mt kyfcsKyfrIt zGJUq u fET, frIeJY Edki fi Ha&;t mPmjzefYa0rI&JUt q i fhawGyg0i fw, f/

a&G;au mu fyGJq dki f&mOya' eJYywfo u fNyD; ygwDawG[ m Bu D;rm;wJhe, fajrawGrSm t csdK;u su dk, fpm;jyKrIpepft wGi f;, SOfNydKi fw, f/ rJq E&Si fawG[ m u dk, fpm;v S, ft rn fu dkx kwfazmfjci f;r&dSwJhpepf (close-list) u ae wpfOD;wn f;u dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk ra&G;cs, fEdki fb l;/ v kyfx Hk;v kyfen f;t &ygwDawG[ m rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIo wi f;pu m; awGu dkjzefYcsdzkdY t a&;ygwJhq GJaq mi frIawG&dS&r, f/ EdIi f;, SOfrIt &wpfOD;csi f;u dk, fpm;v S, fawG[ m t rn fpm&i f;x kwfjyefwJhpepfESi fht wl u dk, fpm;v S, fwpfOD;rJq Ee, f? ' grSr[ kwf u dk, fpm;v S, fpHkrJq Ee, fawGrSmv dk x i f&Sm;pGm

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, SOfNydKi fwJhae&mrSm rJq E&Si fawG[ m o lwdkY&JUax mu fcHr IawGu dk ygwDq DrSmyJray;t yfb J o D;o efYwpfOD;csi f;u dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk ay;t yfw, f/ ygwDwlEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m o lwdkU&JUydko mwJhrl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIjcm;em;csu fawGu dk ydkrdkay:v Gi fapjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIu rf;v Srf;csu feJY t &dSeft 0gt o Hk;jyKpn f;½Hk;rIawGt & rJq E&Si fawGu dkq GJaq mi fzkdYBu dK;pm;jci f;jzi fh t csi f;csi f;, SOfNydKi fzkdYru fv Hk;awG&dS&w, f/

aemu fwpfcsu fu awmh t a&;ygwJhOya' jyKt mP m (Oya' Mu r f;u dkjyKv kyf? z, f&Sm;? t au mi ft x n fazmfzdkY)? ' grSr[ kwf pDrHcefYcGJrIt mPm (0efBu D;tzGJUeJY&mx l;Bu D;jyn fo lUt &m&dSawGcefYt yfzkdY) eJYt wl wdku f½dku fa&G;cs, fcHo r®w[ mEdki fi Ha&; ajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOfu dk u dk, fydki fjyKv kyf&efpOf;pm;w, f/ o r®wae&mt wGu f&n f&G, fcsu f&dSwJh u dk, fpm;v S, fawGu wpfcgwpf&H o lwdkY&JUygwDwGi f;NydKi fq dki fr IawGu ae o lwdkYu dk, fwdki fx i f&Sm;ay:v Gi fapzkdY t m;ay;r IawGu dk t o Hk;jyKw, f/ wpfBu drfwpfcgt rn fwi fo Gi f;wJh u dk, fpm;v S, fawG[ m t en f;i , f' grSr [ kwf ywfo u fr Ir&dSwJhrJawGu dk t Edki f&zkdYt wGu f o lYu dk, fydki fygwD&JUProgrammatic u sewJhpn f;½Hk;r I&yfwn fcsu fu ae o lwdkYu dka0;u Gmapw, f/o r®wae&mt wGu f&n f&G, fcsu f&dSwJhu dk, fpm;v S, fawG&JU Programmatic u sewJhpn f;½Hk;rIt , lt q [ m a&G;au mu fyGJrwdki fci f½Iyfax G;NyD; a&G;au mu fyGJNyD;aemu frSmv n f; o r®wae&m wm0efu dk v Hk;0rwn fNi dr fat mi feJYrcefYrSef;Edki fzkdYt wGu fOya' jyKq dki f&max mu fcHr IawGjyKv kyfw, f/ t "du Oya' jyKt zGJUt wGu fwdku f½kdu fwm0ef&dSwJh0efBu D;csKyfeJYyg v Drefq dki f&mt pdk;&[ m Programmatic u sewJhpn f;½Hk;rIo ab mw&m;awGeJY 0efBu D;t zGJUt wGi f; t kyfpkv dku fyl;aygi f;jci f;t wGu f Mo Zmt mP mrsm;pGm&dSwJhru fv Hk;awGu dk yHhydk;ay;w, f/

aemu fq Hk;wpfcsu fu awmh t pdk;&&efyHkai GawGu dk cGJwrf;cszkdYt mP mu dka½G;cs, fcHa' o eJY a' o q dki f&m q Hk;jzwfcsu fcso lawGq Dv TJajymi f;w, f/' Dv dkv Iyf&Sm;rI&dSaewJha' o q dki f&mygwDawG[ m t ay;t , lo ab mrJq G, fpn f;&Hk;rIu Gef&u fawGu dkpdppfzkdYeJYydkrdkau mi f;rGefeD;u yfpGmq u fq HzkdYjzpfw, f/ aemu fq u fwGJ&v ' fu awmhzu f' &, fpepfx Ju Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ mEdki fi Ht ESHYay:v pDt ajccHwJhpn f;&Hk;rIawGrSmyg0i f&eft wGu f t csdefeJYt &i f;t jrpf&i f;ESD;&ef ru fv Hk;t en f;i , fo m ydki fq dki f

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w, f/ jcm;em;csu ft &A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr I&dSwJht pdk;&rSm a&G;au mu fyGJq dki f&m ax mu fcHrIawGu dk ao ;i , fwJhpDrHrIt en f;i , fjyKv kyf&ef v kyfydki fcGi fht en f;i , f&dSNyD; ' grSo mrl0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIu dk (t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIx u f) ydkrdkrSDcdkrSmjzpfw, f/

av hv mrIrsm;t & DALP t csu ft v u fawGu dk t o Hk;jyKao m jzpf&yfav hv mrIa&mu s, fjyefwJhEdIi f;, SOfppfaq ;rIyg ' Dv dkpn f;rsn f;pn f;u rf;q dki fwJht q dkMu rf;awGu dk t v Geft r i f;rax mu fcHb l;/ (Kitschelt 2011 b) t ao csmq Hk;au mu fcsu fcsrIu awmh o r®wae&meJYywfo u fwJh' Drdku a&pD[ m t ay;t , lo ab mpn f;½Hk;rIeJYq dki fwJh Bu dK;yrf;r Iu dk t en f;i , ft m;ay;au mi f;ay;Edki fw, f/ t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fhygv Dref ' Drdku a&pD[ m r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;rIeJYq dki fwJh Bu dK;yrf;rIawG (t a&SUtcef;rsm;wGi f Luna &JUq ef;ppfr It wdki f;)u dkpepfwu sydkrdkwdk;wu faprIu dkrawGU&b l;/a&G;au mu fyGJq dki f&mOya' u dkx n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;&i f Oya' awG[ m t m;en f;wJho u fa&mu frIawGu dkyJazmfjyw, f/ ' Do u fa&mu frIawG[ m t x u frSmazmfjyx m;wJht &mawGeJYarQmfv i fhx m;o v dk wpfcgwav a&SUaemu frn Dygb l;/ aemu fq Hk;u awmhygwDt ay: zu f' &, fpepfo u fa&mu frIr&dSjci f;[ m pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rI? ' grSr[ kwf<u , f0rIt q i fht wGu f csi fhcsdeft o Hk;jyKwJh x def;csKyfr IawGrSmawmi f wpfen f;r[ kwfwpfen f;awGUEdki fw, f/

jzpf&yfav hv mrIazmfjycsu fawGu ae rSefu efwJht ax mu ft x m;u wmht csdKUpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;q dki f&m t jyKt r IawG[ m t v Gefpepfru swJhyHkpHr&dS ayr, fhpn f;rsOf;pn f;u r f;q dki f&mt q dkMu r f;eJYo i fhav smfn Dn GwfwJh en f;v rf; awGx JuygwDcsi f;aygi f;u l;r [ mAsL[ mawGeJYt jyeft v Sefq u fq Hw, f/ t dEd, &JUrJt rsm;q Hk;&o lt Edki f&wJh a&G;au mu fyGJpepf[ m ckdi frmwJhzu f' &, f0g' eJYyl;aygi f;x m;w, f/ zu f' &, f0g' [ m pD;yGm;a&;t &i f;t jrpfawGt ay: Edki fi Ha&;t mPm&JUBu D;rm;wJhv kyfi ef;pOfawGu dk jyn fe, feJYa' o q dki f&mawGu dk u dk, fpm;v TJay;NyD;?b u fv dku fwJhEdki fi Ha&;&JUu dk, fydki fjyKjci f;u dk t m;ay;&ef&n f&G, fo v dk? t rSefwu , fapmi fhMu n fhygu jyi f;x efwJht ay;t , l o ab mpn f;½Hk;rIu dk t m;jzn fhw, f/' ght jyi f t dEd, &JU (35) jyn fe, f zu f' &, ft kyfpkt wGi f; jyn fe, ft q i fhygwDawGw[ kefx dk;rsm;jym;v mjci f;&JU&v ' f zu f' &, ft q i fhrSm n GefYaygi f;t pdk;&t wGu frsm;pGmao mt pdwft ydki f;awGu dk pka0;zkdYt a&;ygr Iu dk jyKv kyfw, f/ wu , fawmh

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u @t v dku fo [ Zmwjzpfr I[ m t dki f' Dt kdv kd*sDq dki f&m a&SUaemu fn Dn GwfrIq Hk;½HI;jci f;rSm at mi fjr i fw, f (Gowda and Sridharan 2010)/ zu f' &, f0g' rSmn GefYaygi f;t pdk;&[ m r l0g' t jccHpn f;½Hk;r IawGu dk pepfu spGmt m;en f;apw, f/b &mZD;rSmawmh ygwDt rsm;t jym;u Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q dki f&mt ajct aeawGu dkv kyfaq mi fw, f/ ' Dv kyfaq mi fr IawG[ m a&G;au mu fyGJOya' v kdu @awGrSm Programmatic u serIr [ kwfwJhEdki f i Ha&;awGu dkt u lt n Day;w, f/x dki f0rfrSmawmh (Single non-transferable vote system) u dk, fydki fjyKa&G;au mu fyJGpepfu ae u dk, fpm;v S, fwpfOD;wn f;a&G;cs, fr I e, fajreJYu dk, f pm;v S, fav mi f;t rn frazmfjywJh t csdK;u su dk, fpm;jyKpepfu dk ajymi f;v J&mrSm r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fr Iq dki f&m Bu dK;yrf;r IawGu dkq efYu si fwJhu dk, fpm;v S, fawGu dk ygwDwGi f;NydKi fq dki fr Iu aez, f&Sm;w, f/ t cu ft cJu awmh t v Gefjr i fhrm;wJh a&SUaemu fq u fpyfyg0i fr Ien f;v r f;awGt wGi f; ygwDawG&JU' Drkdu &u fwpft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&JUaq mi f&Gu f&r, fht &mawGjzpfNyD; ' DOyrmawGu ae ' Drkdu &u fwpft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awGu kd a, b k, sem;v n fo ab maygu fzkdY cu fcJv mat mi fjyKv kyfw, f/

' Dau mu fcsu fu awmh ygwDt jyi fb u fcu fcJwJhu efYo wfrIawG&JU yg0gu dko wday;w, f/ r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk t en f;i , fv lBu dKu frsm;awmi f;q dkr IawG&dSwJhae&mawGu dk zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu frIawGo u fa&mu frI&dSNyD;Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJYpn f;rsOf;pn f;u r f;a&;q GJo lawG[ m r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDpepfu dk u ßGrf;u si fpGmrpDpOfEdki fb l;/ Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m v kyf&n fu dki f&n f&dSNyD; r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhNydKi fq dki fr IawGt wGu f t cGi fht v rf;to mwJh pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awGu dk jyKjyi fwJht zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mygwDwn faq mu fyHkawGu dk zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fapw, f/ b &mZD; PT ygwD[ m ygwDt wGi f;wpfOD;csi f;NydKi fq dki fr IawGu dk jyi fq i fx m;wJhpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awGeJY [ efcsu fn Dapw, f/ u dk, fpm;v S, ft rn fwi fo Gi f;rIeJYt jyeft v SefrSDcdkrIawG[ m ygwD&JUa&G;cs, fcHu dk, fpm;v S, fawG&JU yI;aygi f;aq mi f&Gu fr IeJYOD;aq mi fr IawGu dk pn f;u r f;o wfrSwfjci f;jzi fh[ efcsu fn Dapw, f/

Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfawG[ m &n f&G, fcsu fwpfckwn f;&SdwJh t Ekpdwfv kyfaq mi frIawGu kd v G, fu lemcHyHkray:b l;/ t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m jyefv n f

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jyKjyi fr IawG[ m Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfo kdYu l;ajymi f;r Iu kd v si fjrefpGmt au mi ft x n fay:at mi f u ln Dau mi f;u ln DEkdi fw, f/ pD;yGm;a&;<u , f0zGHUNzdK;jci f;? ' grSr [ kwf pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r IEkdi fi H&n frSef;csu f&JU wkd;wu frIq kdi f&m , kwfav smhjci f;v kd Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfay:x Gu frIu kd u ln DNyD; wjcm;t o Hk;0i fwJh? rmau smwJh? ' grSr[ kwf aysmhajymi f;wJht ajct aeawGeJY aygi f;pyfr IawGjzpfyGm;w, f/ wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&myHkpHwpfckwn f; b mu kdrSrx rf;aq mi fEkdi fayrJht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&m t ao ;pdwfpDrHcsu fawGu awmh aq mi f&Gu fEkdi fw, f/

t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;v Iyf&Sm;rI

Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJYu i f;v GwfwJh rsm;jym;t &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawGeJYt wlx i f&Sm;wJht &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awGu dk jzpfay:apw, f/ u s, fjyefYwJh v lBu dKu frsm;ax mu fcHrIu dk ESpfo u fwm[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhAsL[ mawGx u f Pro-grammatic u sewJhq GJaq mi fr IawGu dk ydkrdkv u fcHzdkY Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawGu dkzdt m;ay;w, f/ wn fax mi fx m;wJhEdki fi Ha&;ygwDawGx u f t rSDt cdku i f;wJht &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawGeJY ydkrdkx dawGUrI&dSwJh Edki fi Ho m;awG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iu Gef&u fawGu dk v G, fv G, fu lu lv u frcHb l;/ ' ght jyi f v Gwfv yfpGmaq mi f½Gu fwJht &yfb u ft o i f; t zGJUawG&dSjci f;[ m wn f&dSaewJhEdki fi Ha&;ygwDawGt wGu fNcdrf;ajcmu frIawGjzpfw, f/ wn f&dSaewJhEdki fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m v Gwfv yfpGmv kyfaq mi fwJht&yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawG&JUawmi f;q dkr Iu dk yl;aygi f;&efysu fu Gu fr, fq dk&i f t &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawG&JUEdki fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;o lawG[ m Edki fi Ha&;jzpf&yfawGx J0i fa&mu fu m ygwDt o pfawGu dk t m;ay;Edki fw, f/ t &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawG[ mt ajccHu swJh Programmatic u ser IawGeJY rJq E&Si fawGt wGu f v dkt yfcsu fu dkjzn fhwi f;r , fh ygwDawG&JUEdki fi Ha&;o rm;u dkax mu fcHw, f/

' Dt q dkjyKcsu fawG[ mv u fawGUav hv mrIawGeJY u dku fn Dygo v m;/ tax mu ft x m;av hv mrI[ m cdki fv Hkr Ix u f t en f;eJY t rsm;o wday;csu fawGjzpfw, f/ t aMu mi f;t &mav hv mrIawGu dk ' Dx u fydkjyKv kyfzdkYv dkt yfw, f/ ygwDq GJaq mi fr IeJY t &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawG&JU u s, fjyefYwJhEdIi f;, SOfr IawG[ m DALP

137


&JUt csu ft v u fawGt ay: t ajccHx m;w, f/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDeJY t &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawGeJY o lwdkY&JUaygi f;pn f;r IMu m;u q u fET, fcsu f[ mzGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr It ay:rSDwn fw, f/ t v kyfo rm;eJY t rsdK;o rD;v Iyf&Sm;r IawGeJYeD;pyfwJhaygi f;u l;r I&dSwJh ygwDawG[ m t m;au mi f;wJh Programmatic u ser IBu dK;yrf;csu fawGu dkjyKv kyfzkdYq E&dSw, f/ ' gayrJh ' Dv dkjzpfpOfawG[ m csrf;o m<u , f0wJhEdki fi HawG (wpfOD;v Qi f GDP t ar&du efa' :v m 10000 t x u f) rSmyJawGU&w, f/ q i f;&JwJhEdki fi HawGrSmawmh t rsdK;o rD;v Iyf&Sm;rIeJYt jyeft v Sefq u fq HrI[ mt jyKo ab mraq mi fygb l;/ ' g[ mt "du v Tr f;rdk;wJh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawG&JUat mu frSm t v kyfo rm;eJYt rsdK;o rD;v Iyf&Sm;rIawG[ m yl;aygi f;aq mi f½Gu frIedr fhu swmaMu mi fh jzpfau mi f;jzpfEdki fw, f/

t &yfb u ft o i f;t zGJUawG&JUyk*¾v du v Gwfv yfr I[ m Programmaticu ser IawG ydkrdk? ' grSr [ kwf t en f;i , fjyKv kyf&mrSm ygwDEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dkx n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;at mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ b mo ma&;eJYv lrsdK;pkq dki f&m t o i f;t zGJUawG&JUt zGJU0i fawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iu dk ydkrdkv u fcHw, f/ &n f&G, fcsu fwlt kyfpkawGeJYcsefv SyfrIawGu Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJYq u fpyfr Iu dk v Jv S, fw, f/ t v kyfo rm;t zGJUt pn f;awGjr i fhrm;pGmyg0i fr I[ m Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUaygi f;pn f;r IeJYBu D;rm;wJhyrmP jzefYa0rIwm0efawG x rf;aq mi fw, fq dkwmu dkazmfjywmeJYwln Dw, f/ jr i fhrm;wJh t v kyfo rm;t zGJUt pn f;yg0i fr I[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iu dk rESpfo u fb JProgrammatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dk v u fcHzkdYt v m;t v m&dSw, f/

awmi fu dk&D;, m;&JUjzpf&yfawGu dk pOf;pm;Mu n fhwJht cg 1980 ckESpfrsm;wGi fu dk&D;, m;rSm ppfwyft kyfcsKyfr Iu ae zdESdyfx m;wJht rSDt cdku i f;t v kyfo rm;v Iyf&Sm;rIawG&dSw, f/ ' gayrJhaemu fydki f;rSm v Gwfv yfpGmaq mi f½Gu fwJhEdki fi Ha&; t i ft m;wpfckt jzpf jyefv n fay:aygu fv mw, f/ 1997ckESpf pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;t NyD;rSmawmh v Iyf&Sm;r I[ m u dk, fydki fygwD (The Korea Democratic Labour Party)u dkwn fax mi f&efjyKv kyfw, f/ u dk&D;, m;' Drdku &u fwpfav b mygwD[ m u efYo wfx m;wJh a&G;au mu fyGJat mi fjr i fr IeJYa0;u GmayrJh u dk&D;, m;t "du ygwDESpfckeJYt wlt u syfwn f;t v Gef Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk v u fcH&eft o i fhjzpfaecJhw, f/ EdIi f;, SOfrIt & x dki f0rfrSmt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m jyn fe, fzGJUpn f;r IyHkazmf&mrSm

138


t v Gefu GJjym;jcm;em;pGm wdk;wu fajymi f;v Jw, f/ t zGJYt pn f;awG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJYt v GefeD;u yfpGm q u fpyfywfo u fw, f/ Bu D;rm;wJht v kyfo rm;t zGJUtpn f;awG[ m t mPm& KMT ygwDeJYwGJzu fNyD; ao ;i , fwJht zGJUawG[ m q efYu si fb u f DPP ygwDeJYq u fpyfw, f/ ' Dv dkygwDwGJzu fr It zGJUt pn f;awG[ mppfwyf&JUyg0i fr Ien f;yg;wmu dkazmfjyNyD; ygwDEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awGu dk au mi f;rGefjywfo m;wJh Programmatic u serIq Du dk wGef;ydkYzdkYt wGu f zdt m;awGjzpfw, f/

b &mZD;rSmawmh t ajccHu swJht v kyfo rm;v Iyf&Sm;r IawG[ m PTygwDeJYv u fwGJw, f/ PT ygwD[ m &Si f;v i f;wJh r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fr Iu dkax mu fcHwJhyx rq Hk;ygwDjzpfw, f/ aemu fydki f;rSm t jyeft v Sefv Iyf&Sm;rIeJYwi f;rmrIawGjzpfwJht csdefrSmt v kyfo rm;v Iyf&Sm;r Iq efYu si fb u ft kyfpkawGu PT ygwD&JUwdk;wu frIu dka0zefcJhw, f/

wjcm;Ekdi fi HawGu dk av hv mrIawGrSmawmh DALP u Rr f;u si fo lawG[ mt i ft m;Bu D;ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwD eJYt v kyfo rm;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGt Mu m;eD;u yfwJhcsdwfq u fr IawGu dkawGU&w, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh ' Dv dkjzpf&yfawG[ m t dEd, rSmq dk&i ft "du ygwDawGu dk t u sdK;o u fa&mu fw, f/ t dEd, t rsdK;o m;v TwfawmfeJYao ;i , fwJht zGJUt pn f;awGo mru Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) ygwDeJYu GefjrLepfygwDi , fESpfcku dkyg t u sdK;o u fa&mu fw, f/ b la*;&D;, m;rSmawmh u GefjrLepft v Gef Bulgarian Socialist Party wpfckwn f;u o m eD;pyfwJht v kyfo rm;q u fpyfr Iu kd *kP f, lpGmajymq kdw, f/ v u fwi ft ar&du rSmawmh arQmfv i fhcsu fen f;yg;NyD; t v kyfo rm;v Iyf&Sm;rIawG[ m t rsm;t m;jzi fht m;en f;u m ygwDt kyfcsKyfa&;pepft wGu f t m;au mi f;wJhaESmi fzGJUrIawGr&dSb l;/

139

Box 2.3 ' Drdku &u fwpft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;eJYProgrammatic u sewJhygwDzGJUpn f;rI

awmi fu dk&D;, m;wGi f Programmatic u ser IawGu dk rsu fESmo mray;wJh ' Drdku &u fwpft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&dSw, f/ t weft o i fht mP m&dSwJh A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iq efwJh' Drdku a&pDjzpfw, f/ o r®w


ae&mu dkwdku f½dku fa&G;cs, fNyD; a½G;au mu fyGJpepf[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJht v Jt v S, fq u fET, fr It wGu f o do mpGmu ln Dr Ien f;yg;at mi fjyKv kyfx m;wJhjyKjyi fr Iu dk rMu mrDu x kwfjyefx m;w, f/

wl&u D[ m av hv mx dku fwJhProgrammatic u serIb u f v dku fwJhBu dK;yrf;r IawGu dk n Dn Gwfr I&dSwJht au mi f;q Hk;t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG&dSw, f/wl&u D&JUu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;t rn frazmfjywJh u dk, fpm;v S, faygi f;pHk PRpepf[ m Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk rsu fESmo may;w, f/ t kyfcsKyfa&;pDrHcefYcGJrIeJYt pdk;&wm0ef&dSo lawG&JUA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Iu dk ygv Drefu yHkazmfw, f/

b lv fa*;&D;, m;[ m u dk, fpm;v S, ft av mi f;t rn fu dk razmfjywJhPR pepfeJY t pdk;&&JUA[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Ipepfu dk ydki fq dki fw, f/ ' DESpfckpv Hk;[ mProgrammatic u sewJhygwDawG, SOfNydKi fr Iu dk rsu fESmo may;w, f/ ' ghjyi fo r®wae&ma½G;cs, fr IawGrSm t m;en f;csu fawG&dSaew, f/ ' Dv dkt ajct aersdK;eJY ' Dv dkpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r IawGrSm Programmatic u sewJht u sdK;au s;Zl;awGt wGu f t m;au mi f;wJhax mu fcHrIawGu dk t rSefwu , ft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mv dku femrIx u f ydkrdkarQmfv i fhv dkY&w, f/

b &mZD;rSmawmh Programmatic u sewJhNydKi fq dki fr IawGt wGu ft en f;eJYt rsm;t EÅ&m, f&dSwJh t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awGu dk ydki fq dki fw, f/ v GefcJhwJhESpfrsm;t wGi f; a&G;au mu fyGJpepfjyKjyi fr Iu ae Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;t pm; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk t m;ay;wJhemrn fq dk;½Iax mi fhu dk z, f&Sm;x m;cJhwmjzpfw, f/ rn fo dkYq dkap t v kyfo rm;ygwDv kd ygwDrsm;[ m a&G;au mu fyGJq GJ aq mi fr Iu dkajymi f;v JcJhNyD; , ckt cg Program-matic u ser IawGu dk ydkrdkt av ;t eu fx m;w, f/

' dkrDeDu ef&Dywfb v pf? t dEd, eJYx dki f0rfrSmawmh t "du ygwDawGx JrSm Programmatic u sewJhygwDt en f;i , f&dSw, f/ ' DEdki fi HawG&JUt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awG[ m Programmatic u sewJh NydKi fq dki fr IawGt wGu f t cGi fhtv r f;ro mb J ru fv Hk;ay;pn f;½Hk;wJhEdki fi Ha&;u dkt ax mu ft yHhay;w, f/

140


ed*Hk;

' Dt cef;[ m aphpyfao csmwJhjzpf&yfav hv mrIawGeJYrsm;jym;wJhav hv mcsu fawG&JUpkaygi f;r Iu dk t o Hk;jyKu m Programmatic u ser Ib u fv kdu fwJh Bu dK;yr f;r IawG&JUo b m0u dkcefYrSef;jci f;jzpfw, f/ pdwfcs&wJht ajct aeawGo m&dSw, fq dk&i f ygwDawG[ mP rogrammatic u sewJhay:v pDawG t ay:t m½Hkpdku fw, f/ ' Dv dkt ajct aeawG rao csmb l;q dk&i f ygwDawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I? ' grSr [ kwf Mo Zmwdu úr jzi fhrJq G, fr IawGq D OD;wn fzkdYt v m;t v m&dSw, f/r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDawG[ m zefwD;r IeJYaygi f;pn f;r I&JUrwln DwJhv r f;aMu mi f;awGu dk ajc&mcHyHkazmfw, f/ rwln DwJhq GJaq mi fr IawG[ m ' Dv dkv r f;aMu mi f;awGu dkyHkazmfw, f/ jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGx Ju Programmatic u sewJhygwDwn faq mu fyHk&JUerlemt m;v Hk;u dk t aMu mi f;&i f;t en f;i , fx Ju awGU&dSwmjzpfw, f/

' gayrJh t jyeft v Sefq u fq Hr IawGu dk av hv mEkdi fNyD; pr f;o yfav hv mx m;wJhpkaygi f;v kyfu dki fr I 9 ck[ m ygwDawG&JU Programmatic u sewJhq GJaq mi fr IawGt jzpf o wfrSwfEdki fjci f;t ay: aMu mi f;u sdK;pyfwJhv Trf;rdk;rIawG&dSw, f/

- pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr I[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dkrsu fESmo may;wJh ywf0ef;u si fu dk yHkazmfw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JUq GJaq mi fr It wGu f cu fcJwJht ajct aeawGu dk OD;pm;ay;jci f;[ mpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rIjzpfw, f/ yn mwwfNyD; wpfOD;csi f;0i fai Gjr i fhrm;rI[ m t aMu mi f;t rsdK;rsdK;aMu mi fh Programmatic u ser Ib u fv dku fwJhwm0efcHr IawGu dk ydkrdkESpfo u fNyD; ajymi f;v JrIeJYt wl pdwfau seyfr It en f;i , fu dk&SmazGw, f/ t jyeftv Seft m;jzi fh Edki fi Ht wGi f;q i f;&Jr IysHUESHUjci f;[ m Programmatic Ekdi fi Ha&;t wGu fedrdwfrau mi f;b l;/

- pDyGm;a&;u syfwn f;r Iu mv awGrSm ygwDNydKi fq dki fr IawG[ m Program-matic u serIyg0i fjci f;u dkjr§i fhwi fzdkY t cGi fht v rf;awGu rf;v Srf;w, f/ a&SUrwdk;

141


aemu frq kwft ajct aeawG[ m x dcdku fr IawGjzpfv mwJht cg rJq E&Si feJY Edki fi Ha&;o rm;ESpfOD;pv Hk;[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dk x n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;v dkMu w, f/ ' Dv dkay:v pDawG[ m Bu D;rm;wJhrJq E&Si ft kyfpkawG&JU t u sdK;au s;Zl;eJYwefzdk;u dko u fa&mu fr I&dSw, f/ wn f&dSaewJha&&Sn fpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;rIt pDt pOfawGt m;en f;v mwJht cg Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;t wGu ft cGi fht v rf;awG t v m;t v m&dSw, f/ ' Dv dkt cGi fht v rf;awG[ m ydkYu keft pm;x dk;u kefMu rf;x kwfv kyfr Iu ae zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fwJhjyn fe, fpu fr Iv kyfi ef;AsL[ mawGu dkajymi f;v JrIjzpfpOfrSm? ' grSr[ kwf acwfeJYt n Dwdk;wu frIu ae pu fr Iq dki f&mo dyÜHeJY0efaq mi fr It ajccH pD;yGm;a&;awGt v Gefu dk ajymi f;v JrIawGrSm x Hk;pHt wdki f;jzpfay:w, f/ ' Dv dkt u syft wn f;t ajct aeawGrSm ygwDeJYygwDpepfawG[ mProgrammatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;awGjzpfv mr , fq dkwmawmh rv GJrao Gr[ kwfygb l;/ &v ' fu dk Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJYEdki fi Ho m;awGu a&G;cs, fr IjyKv kyfwmyg/zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fwJhjyn fe, fawG ay:aygu fv mjci f;[ m Programmatic u ser Ix u f ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IawGu dk ' Drdku &u fwpfaygi f;u l;r Iywf0ef;u si fwn faq mu f&ef ru fv Hk;t rsm;t jym;eJYu r f;v Sr f;&w, f/

- ' Drdku &u fwpfa½G;au mu fyGJ&JUNydKi fq dki frIu dkydkrdkjyi f;x efapwJh ydkrdkv lBu dKu frsm;wJhygwDawG[ m ydkrdkcsr f;o mwJhEdki fi HawGrSmt en f;q Hk;t aejzi fh Programmaticu ser IawGu dk jr§KyfESH&rSmjzpfw, f/ b u fv kdu fwJhEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awGt wGu ft Edki ft ½HI;yrmP jr i fhrm;w, fq dk&i f Edki fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m rJq E&Si fawGu dk q GJaq mi fzdkY ydkrdkBu dK;pm;&rSmjzpfw, f/ ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Ix u f Programmaticu sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dk awmi f;q dkwJhae&mawGrSm ydkrdkcsr f;o mwJh Edki fi HawG&JUjzpf&yfawGt wdki f; NydKi fq dki fr Ijr i fhrm;wJht q i fh[ m ay:v pDt ajct aeawGyg0i fzdkYt wGu fEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUBu dK;yrf;r IawG ydkrdkv kyfaq mi f&w, f/ EdIi f;, SOfrIt & q i f;&JwJhv lUt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;u jyi f;x efwJhNydKi fq dki fr IawG[ m rJq E&Si fawGt wGu fay:v pDajymi f;v JrI&JUu wdawGt ay: t a&;Bu D;t u sdK;au s;Zl;awGu dk ypfrSwfx m;zdkYydkrdkt v m;t v m&Sdo v kd ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, frIb u f, drf;wJhBu dK;yrf;r IawGu dk x kwfv kyfzkdY t v m;t v m&dSw, f/

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- ygwDt zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mpDrHcefYcGJr I[ m Programmatic u sewJhBu dK;yr f;r IawGu dkcdki frmapw, f/ ' gayrJh ygwDzGJU pn f;yHkq dki f&myHkpHawG&JUEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUa&G;cs, fr I[ m o lwdkY&JUygwDawGu dk Programmatic u sewJhAsL[ men f;eJYt rsm;u dk jzpfapw, fq dkwmu awmh v u fcHEdki fzG, fr&dSygb l;/ wcsdKUao mpn f;rsOf;pn f;u r f;q dki f&mpDrHr IawGu awmh wjcm;NydKi fq dki fr Ix u f Program-matic u sewJhNydKi fq dki fr IawGu dk t m;ay;NyD; ydkrdko [ Zmwjzpfw, fq dkwmu awmhrQwcdki frmwJhawGU&dScsu fjzpfw, f/ A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr Ien f;yg;wJht zGJUt pn f;awGt wGi f;q Hk;jzwfcsu fjyKv kyfr IawGt ay: yHkrSeft zGJY0i fawG v Tr f;rdk;wJhygwDawGrSm acgi f;aq mi fawG[ m ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG&JUt rn fpm&i f;wi fo Gi f;r It ay:x def;csKyfr Ien f;yg;NyD; yGi fhv i f;jr i fo mw, f/ pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;awGcsrSwfx m;wJhb @ma&;t av ht u si fhawGu v n f; Programmatic u sewJht m;x kwfr IawGu dkydkrdkx def;x m;Edki fat mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDrsdK;pHk[ mygwDpGJ&dSo lawGu dk wpfcJeu fpkpn f;zkdY Mo ZmBu D;rm;wJhacgi f;aq mi fawGu dk v kdt yfw, f/

- ' Drdku &u fwpfNydKi fq dki fr Ie, fy, ft q i fhwpfck[ m a&G;au mu fyGJNydKi fq dki fr It wGi f; NydKi fb u fawGt ay: Ekdi fi Ho m;eJYEkdi fi Ha&;t cGi fht a&;awGu dk wln DwJht cGi fhtv rf;awGeJYwln DwJhapmi fha&Smu frIawGay;w, f/ a&G;au mu fyGJ, SOfNydKi fr I[ m Edki fi Ha&;pepfyHkazmfjci f;t wGu f &dSx dku fwJhpHo wfrSwfx m;wJh&n f&G, fcsu fwpfck jzpfau mi f;jzpfEdki fw, f/ ' gayrJh ' g[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGu dk ydkrdkjzpfx Gef;r IeJYv u fawGUu su swpfyHkpHwn f;rwln Db l;/ ' Drdku a&pD[ m Programmaticu sewJhygwDawGr&dSv n f; Edki fi Ho m;eJYEdki fi Ha&;t cGi fht a&;&&dSjci f;jzi fhv n f; jyn fhpHkygw, f/- Bu D;rm;wJh' Drdku &u fwpft awGUt Bu HKawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGu dk x kwfv kyfzdkYrv Hkav mu fygb l;/ a&G;au mu fyGJawGrSm t Bu drfBu drf½dk;&Si f;pGm, SOfNydKi fjci f;jzi fhv n f; Programmatic u sewJhpepfawG jzpfrv mb l;/- v lrsdK;pka' o awGeJYEdki fi HwGi f;yg0geJY0i fai Gt csdK;rn DrIawG[ m Program-matic u ser Iu dkt m;ay;o n fjzpfap? t m;ray;o n fjzpfap o lwdkYawG[ m Pro-

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grammatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk ygwDwGi f;rSmawmh rav smhcsb l;/ wcsdKUawGu0i fai Gv n fywfr I? Edki fi Ha&;eJY Edki fi Ho m;v Gwfv yfcGi fheJY , Ofau s;r It av ht xawGu dko n f;cHr IpwmawGv kdrsdK; v lrsdK;pkawG&JUt zGJU0i fawGt wGu f t u sdK;jzpfx Gef;r Iu dkawmi f;q dkw, f/ ' Dt csu fawG[ m v lUt zGJUt pn f;&JUv lt m;v Hk;t wGu fo u fa&mu frI&dSNyD; t u sdK;jzpfapwJhay:v pDawGu dkawmi f;q dkwJh a, b k, s Pro-grammatic u ser IawGu dk &n f½G, fwJhpn f;rsOf;ab mi fawGjzpfw, f/ rdrdu dkjr§i fhwi fay;wJho lu dk rJx n fho lawG? ' grSr[ kwf rJq E&Si ft zGJUt pn f;t wGi f; u dk, fpm;jyKrIt rsm;t jym;&x m;wJhv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGu dk r&n f&G, fb l;/

- a&G;au mu fyGJpepf&JUt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;a&;q GJrIawG? t pdk;&pDrHcefYcGJa&;eJYOya' jyKt zGJUq u fET, frIawGeJY A[ dkcsKyfu dki fr I v GJajymi f;jci f;awG[ m t v Gefjr i fhrm;wJhq u fpyfrIt ajct aeawGu dk u ln Day;zdkYjzpfw, f/ aemu fq u fwGJpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;q dki f&mjyKjyi fr IawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;o dkYu l;ajymi f;r Iu dkt v si ft jrefjyKv kyfNyD; Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;[ m pD;yGm;a&;awmi fhwi f;r I? ' grSr[ kwf zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fwJhjyn fe, fawG q kwf, kwfrIv kdrsdK; t pdwft ydki f;awGu dk t jcm;t u lt n DeJYt wl q u fpyfrIt wGi f;jzpfyGm;wmawGu dk ax mu fyHhw, f/zGJUpn f;yHkq dki f&myHkpHMu rf; t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q dki f&m t ao ;pdwfpDrHcsu fawGu dk jyKv kyfw, f/

- Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawGt wGu f wm&Sn fcHwJhpkpn f;r IeJY t m;au mi f;wJhzGJUpn f;r I[ m Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk t m;ay;w, f/ wcsdKUae&mawGrSmygwDt rsm;pkzGJUaygi f;pn f;rI[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhEdki fi Ha&;eJY t x l;pdwf0i fpm;wJh&i f;ESD;jrKyfESHrI&SmazGjci f;u dkt m;ay;NyD; ygwDq GJaq mi fr IawG&JU Programmaticu sewJhNydKi fq dki fr IawGu dkt m;ay;w, f/

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1/ jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGu dk International IDEA u aq mi f&Gu fNyD; o kawo eu dkawmh Herbert Kitschelt &JUBu D;Mu yfrI at mu frSmjyKv kyfw, f/ ' Djzpf&yfav hv mrIawGu dk Edki fi H(7)cku ygwDawG&JU Programmatic u ser IawGu dk OD;aq mi fwJhjzpfpOfawGu dk t ao ;pdwfazmfjyx m;w, f/ ' gawGu awmh Brazil: ‘A CaseStudy of Clientelistic vs. Programmatic Political Parties in Brazil’, bySandra Osterkatz (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill); Bul-garia: ‘Electoral Volatility Polarization and Financial Deficits Lead toReduction of Clientelism’, by Kiril Kolev (Hendrix College); Domini-can Republic: ‘Electoral Politics in the Dominican Republic: Low Lev-els of Programmatic Competition’, by Matthew Singer (University ofConnecticut); India: ‘Party Competition: Continued Weak ProgrammaticStructuration of Partisan Alternatives: A Proto-case Study’, by HerbertKitschelt (Duke University); South Korea: ‘A Case Study of Parties’Programmatic and Clientelistic Appeals’, by Yi-ting Wang (Duke Uni-versity); Taiwan: ‘A Case Study of Parties’ Programmatic and ClientelisticAppeals’, by Yi-ting Wang (Duke University); and Turkey: ‘The Evolu-tion of Electoral Accountability in Turkey: Cyclical Evolutions in Pro-grammatic and Clientelistic Politics’, by Daniel Kselman (Juan MarchInstitute). o kawo eawG[ m Duke University OD;aq mi fwJh the Demo-cratic Accountability and Linkage Project (DALP) awGu t csu ft v u fawGu kd v Iyf&Sm;r IrSm t o Hk;cswJhen f;v r f;ao csmrIt wGu f t o Hk;jyKw, f/ DALP[ m rwln DwJhv kdu femrIawGeJY ' Drkdu a&pDygwD 88 ck&JU t csu ft v u fawGjzpfw, f/ ' gawGu kd at mu fygv i fhrSm Mu n fh½IEkdi fw, f/ <https://web.duke.edu/democracy/>

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Ekdi fi Ha&;ESi fhay:v pD146

2/ Edki fi H&JUjzpf&yfav hv mrIawGu awmh ' Dt csu ft v u fpkaq mi f;r Iu dk u rÇmhb P f? Duke University eJY Chilean National Research FoundationwdkYu &HyHkai Gax mu fyHhw, f/

3/ jzpfEdki fajc&dSwJhaygi f;pyfr IawG&dSw, f/ jr i fhrm;wJh0i fai G&dSwJh u kefMu rf;wi fydkYo lrsm;/ ' g[ m Format (1)eJY wln Dapw, f/

4/ DALP t csu ft v u fpkaq mi f;r I&JUrlMu rf;awG[ m cu fcJw, f/ t csu ft v u fawG[ m t csdefwpfck(2008)u dk av hv mx m;r It ay:o m o u fa&mu fwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ ajymi f;v JrIjzpfpOf? t csdefwdki f;&JUrsdK;pHkav hv mcsu fawGt ay:t ajccHx m;wJh aMu mi f;u sdK;o i fhazmfjycsu fawGu dk v dkt yfw, f/

5/ o wday;r I&JUpu m;v Hk;wpfv Hk;[ m wefzdk;&dSwJhazmfjycsu fawGjzpfw, f/jzpf&yfav hv mrIawG[ m ' Drdku a&pDzGHUNzdK;rIt wGi f;ygwDt zGJUt pn f;awG&JUo b m0t ay:t v Gefao ;i , fwJho kawo ejyKrIu dk &SmazGawGU&dSw, f/ b &mZD; PT ygwDu dkpdwf0i fpm;r Iu awmh >ci f;csu fjzpfw, f/

6/ q i f;&JwJhEdki fi HawGrSm t zGJUt pn f;q dki f&myg0i fv Iyf&Sm;rIawG[ m ygwDu Gef&u fawGeJYcsdwfq u faewJht cg ' Dv dkt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m rl0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk ydkrdkajymi f;v JEdki fjci f;r&dSb l;/ ' D&v ' f[ m ay:v pDzGHUNzdK;rI&JUNrdKUjyv Trf;rdk;wJhpmay (Bates 2008) awGeJY b 0pdefac:rI&JUrn DrQrIeJY x yfwlru srIawGu dkt wwfEdki fq Hk;u ln Day;aewJh t v kyfo rm;t zGJUt pn f;awG&JUt cef;u @awGeJYo i fhav smfn Dn Gwfw, f (eg. McGuire 1999)/



This International IDEA report includes only a minimum of references.For further literature, consult the extensive bibliographies in Hicken(2011), Kitschelt and Wilkinson (2007), Luna (2010) and Stokes (2007),as well as the bibliographies of the case studies associated with thisIDEA report available at <http://www.idea.int/development/>.

Achen, Christopher H., ‘Toward a New Political Methodology:Microfoundations and ART’, Annual Review of PoliticalScience, 5 (2002), pp. 423–50

Adserà, Alícia and Boix, Carles, ‘Trade, Democracy and the Size ofthe Public Sector: The Political Underpinnings of Openness’,International Organization, 56 (2002), pp. 229–62

Baldwin, Kate and Huber, John D., ‘Economic versus CulturalDifferences: Forms of Ethnic Diversity and Public GoodsProvision’, American Political Science Review, 104/4 (2010),pp. 644–62

Bartolini, Stefano, The Political Mobilization of the European Left,1860–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)

Bates, Robert, When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late-Century

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Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)

Benoit, Kenneth and Laver, Michael, Party Policy in ModernDemocracies (London: Routledge, 2006)

Carey, John M. and Shugart, Matthew Soberg, ‘Incentives to Cultivatea Personal Vote: A Rank Order of Electoral Formulas’, ElectoralStudies, 14/4 (1995), pp. 414–39

Chhibber, Pradeep, Refsum Jensenius, Francesca and Suryanarayan,Pavithra, ‘Party Organization and Party Proliferation in India’,Party Politics (2012)

Chhibber, Pradeep and Kollman, Kenneth, The Formation of NationalParty Systems: Federalism and Party Competition in Canada,Great Britain, India and the United States (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 2004)

Downs, Anthony, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York:Harper and Row, 1957)

Fish, M. Steven and Kroenig, Matthew, The Handbook of NationalLegislatures: A Global Survey (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2009)

Galston, William, ‘Can a Polarized American Party System Be“Healthy”?’, Brookings Institution, Issues in GovernanceStudies papers, 34 (2010)

Gerring, John, Bond, Philip, Barndt, William and Moreno, Carola,‘Democracy and Economic Growth: A Historical Perspective’,World Politics, 57/3 (2005), pp. 323–64

Gowda, M. V. Rajeev, and Sridharan, Eswaran, ‘Political Parties andDemocracy in India’, in Baogang He, Anatoly Kulik and KayLawson (eds.), Political Parties and Democracy: Volume III:Post-Soviet and Asian Political Parties (Santa Barbara, Calif.:Praeger, 2010), pp. 149–72

Haggard, Stephan, Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics ofGrowth in the Newly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1990)

Haggard, Stephan and Kaufman, Robert, Development, Democracy,

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and Welfare States: Latin America, East Asia, and EasternEurope (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 2008)

Hicken, Allen, ‘Clientelism’, Annual Review of Political Science, 14(2011), pp. 289–310

Iversen, Torben and Cusack, Thomas R., ‘The Causes of Welfare StateExpansion: Deindustrialization or Globalization?’, WorldPolitics, 52/3 (2000), pp. 313–49

Jones-Luong, Pauline, and Weinthal, Erika, Oil Is Not a Curse:Ownership Structure and Institutions in Soviet Successor States(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)

Keefer, Philip, ‘Clientelism, Credibility and the Policy Choices ofYoung Democracies’, American Journal of Political Science,51/4 (2007), pp. 804–21

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘Linkages between Citizens and Politicians inDemocratic Polities’, Comparative Political Studies, 33/6–7(2000), pp. 845–79

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘The Demise of Clientelism in Affluent CapitalistDemocracies’, in Herbert Kitschelt and Steven Wilkinson (eds.),Patrons, Clients or Policies? Patterns of DemocraticAccountability and Political Competition (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2007a), 298–321

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘Party Systems’, in Carles Boix and Susan Stokes(eds.), Handbook of Comparative Politics (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2007b), pp. 522–54

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘Clientelistic Linkage Strategies: A DescriptiveExploration’, Paper prepared for the Workshop on DemocraticAccountability Strategies, Duke University, Durham, N.C., 18–19 May 2011a

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘Do Institutions Matter for Parties’ PoliticalLinkage Strategies?’, Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting ofthe American Political Science Association, Seattle, Wash., 1–4September 2011b

Kitschelt, Herbert, ‘Explaining Clientelistic and ProgrammaticPartisan Linkage Strategies: The Role of Political Economy’,

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Paper prepared for a workshop at the University of California,Davis, 4 November 2011c

Kitschelt, Herbert and Freeze, Kent, ‘Programmatic Party SystemStructuration: Developing and Comparing Cross-National andCross-Party Measures with a

New Global Data Set’, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theAmerican Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 2–5September 2010

Kitschelt, Herbert, Hawkins, Kirk, Pablo Luna, Juan, Rosas,Guillermo and Zechmeister, Elizabeth, Latin American PartySystems (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010)

Kitschelt, Herbert and Kselman, Daniel, ‘The OrganizationalFoundations of Democratic Accountability: OrganizationalForm and the Choice of Democratic Linkage Strategy’, Paperprepared for the Annual Meeting of the American PoliticalScience Association, Washington D.C., 2–5 September 2010

Kitschelt, Herbert and Kselman, Daniel, ‘The Effect of DemocraticExperience on Political Parties’ Linkage Strategies’, Workingpaper, 2011

Kitschelt, Herbert, Mansfeldova, Zdenka, Markowski, Radoslav andToka, Gabor, Post-Communist Party Systems, Competition,Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (New York:Cambridge University Press, 1999)

Kitschelt, Herbert and Rehm, Philip, ‘Occupation as a Site forEconomic and Non- Economic Preference Formation’, Paperprepared for the 11th Conference of the Council ofEuropeanists, Barcelona, 19–21 June 2011

Kitschelt, Herbert and Singer, Matthew, ‘“Do Everything” Parties:When Can Politicians Combine Clientelistic and ProgrammaticAppeals?’, Paper prepared for the Workshop on DemocraticAccountability Strategies, Duke University, Durham, N.C., 18–19 May 2011

Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven, ‘Citizen–PoliticianLinkages: An Introduction’, in Herbert Kitschelt and Steven

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Wilkinson (eds.), Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns ofDemocratic Accountability and Political Competition(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)

Kirkpatrick, Evron V., ‘“Toward A More Responsible Two-PartySystem”: Political Science, Policy Science, or Pseudo-Science?’, American Political Science Review, 65/4 (1971), pp.965–90

Kolev, Kiril and Wang, Yi-ting, ‘Ethnic Group Divisions andClientelism’, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theAmerican Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., 2–5September 2010

Lee, Yoonkyung, Militants or Partisans: Labor Unions andDemocratic Politics in Korea and Taiwan (Stanford, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 2011)

Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucian, Competitive Authoritarianism:Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2010)

Luna, Juan Pablo, Rosenblatt, Fernando and Toro, Sergio, DeskReview on Programmatic Parties for IDEA International(Stockholm: International IDEA, 2011), available at <http://www.idea.int/development/upload/Luna_ Desk-Review_Full.pdf>

Lust, Ellen, ‘Competitive Clientelism in the Middle East’, Journal ofDemocracy, 20/3 (2009), pp. 122–35

McGuire, James W., ‘Labor Union Strength and Human Developmentin East Asia and Latin America’, Studies in ComparativeInternational Development, 33/4 (1999), pp. 3–34

Przeworski, Adam and Sprague, John, Paper Stones (Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press, 1986)

Rehm, Philip, ‘The Party Manifesto Data Set: Some Critical Results’,Paper presented at the Workshop on Political Methodology,Duke University, Durham, N.C., 3 April 2008

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Rogowski, Ronald, Commerce and Coalitions (Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 1989)

Ross, Michael J., ‘Does Oil Hinder Democracy?’, World Politics, 53(2001), pp. 325–61

Ross, Michael J., ‘A Closer Look at Oil, Diamonds, and Civil War’,Annual Review of Political Science, 9 (2006), pp. 265–300

Ross, Michael J., ‘Political Clientelism’, in The Oxford Handbook ofComparative Politics, in C. Boix and Susan Stokes (eds.) (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 604–27

Ross, Michael J., ‘Oil, Islam, and Women’, American PoliticalScience Review, 102/2 (2008), pp. 107–23

Stokes, Susan C., ‘Perverse Accountability: A Formal Model ofMachine Politics with Evidence from Argentina’, AmericanPolitical Science Review, 99/3 (2005), pp. 315–25

Stokes, Susan C., Dunning, Thad, Nazareno, Marcelo, and ValeriaBrusco, Brokers, Voters and Clientelism: The Puzzle ofDistributive Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press,2013)

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- ' De, fy, fx Ju , ci faq mi f&Gu frIawG[ m v lrsdK;pk (' grSr[ kwf b mo mpu m;wl? b mo ma&;wleJYa' o wl) awGeJY Programmatic u ser Iu dk wpfcsdefwn f;jzpfEdki fwJhygwDawGu dkt o dt rSwfjyK&efysu fu Gu fMu w, f/ cGJjcm;q u fq HrI

156


&JUo rdki f;q dki f&mer lemawG[ m v lrsdK;pkeJYv Ir IpD;yGm;a&;wpfx yfwn f;jzpfr ItwGi f;&v ' fx Gu fay:wJht cg? ' grSr[ kwf wcsdKUao mt zGJUt pn f;awG&JUEdki fi Ha&;t wGi f;yg0i fr I[ may:v pDe, fy, ft wGu f ydkrdkwkHYjyefr IawGjzpfv mwJht cg' Dv kd t ajct aeawGjzpfay:w, f/ Edki fi Ha&;ygwDwpfck[ m a&SUaemu fn Dn GwfwJhay:v pDpn f;½Hk;rIawG&JUt ay: yg0i fv Iyf&Sm;ayr, fh wpfck? ' grSr[ kwf wpfckx u fydkwJhv lrsdK;t kyfpkawGeJY csdwfq u fx m;wJht aMu mi f;t &meJYt dki f' D, mawGu dkrSDcdkaeo v dk ' Dv dkt kyfpkawGu aev lr lu Gef&u fawGeJYt zGJUt pn f;rsm;t ay:t csdK;rn DpGm q GJaq mi fwJht cgrSmv n f; ' Dv dkt ajct aeawG jzpfay:w, f/' Dv dkygwDawG[ m o lwdkYq GJaq mi fx m;wJht kyfpkawGu dk rsu fESmo may;wJh ay:vpD&yfwn fcsu fawGu dk a&G;cs, f&eft v m;t v m&dSw, f/ ' g[ m ygwDawGu dkzGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fat mi fv kyfaq mi fr IeJY Programmatic u sewJhv kyfaq mi fr IawG[ m ½dk;pi f;v G, fu lr Iu aea0;u Gmw, fv dkY t "dyÜg, fo u fa&mu fw, f/wjcm;½Iax mi fhu awmh v lrsdK;pkygwDv dkUo wfrSwfx m;wJhygwDawG[ m t jyeft v Seft u JjzwfrIawG jyKv kyf&efv dkt yfw, f/ ' Dv dkjyKv kyf&jci f;[ m v lrsdK;pkygwDawGt wGu f r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDawGu dk yHkrSeft m;jzi fhq u fpyfaewJht aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJh&v ' fawGu dk ydki fq dki fwJha&SUaemu fn Dn GwfwhJay:v pDawG v r f;pOfawGaemu fu dkv dku fwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/½Iax mi fhwpfcku awmh wcsdKUt ajct aeawGat mu frSm v lrsdK;pkq dki f&m Pro-grammatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m ay:v pDt ajccHwJhEdki fi Ha&;t wGu f jywfo m;wJhpGefYpm;r IawGu dku dk, fpm;jyKNyD; ' Dv kdu dk, fpm;jyKr Iu dko d&dSem;v n fzkdY t a&;Bu D;w, f/ ygwDawG[ m v lrsdK;t kyfpkwpfckwn f;eJYo lwdkY&JUcsdwfq u fr It ay:t v Geft r i f;rSDcdkwJht cg ' Drdku a&pDpepft wGi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;rwn fNi drfrIu dk t m;ay;wJhv lrsdK;pkwi f;rmr Iu dk ydkrdkq dk;0g;apw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh v lrsdK;pkq dki f&mr l0g'Programmatic u sewJhygwDeJY Edki fi Ho m;q dki f&m Programmatic u seygwDawGu dk cGJjcm;zkdYt a&;Bu D;w, f/

- Edki fi Hwpfck[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDwpfck? ' grSr[ kwf ESpfckx u fykdydki fq dki fNyD; wjcm;v Tr f;rdk;r I&dSwJhygwD[ m Programmatic pn f;½Hk;r I r [ kwfwJht cg ' g[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDpepft jzpfro u fa&mu fygb l;/

157


q ef;ppfav hv mrIawGu Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m Program-matic u sewJHygwDpepf&JUr l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhaq mi f&Gu fr IawGu dkarmi f;ESi fv dr fhr , fv dkY, lq w, f/ ' gayrJh ' gu dkjzpf&yfav hv mrIawGut m;ray;ygb l;/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m o lwdkU&JUjydKi fb u fawGt ay:t m;o mcsu ft csdKU&dSayrJhv n f; o lwdkYo mt Edki fr&b l;q dk&i f ay:v pDt ajccHwJhygwDawG[ m o u fa&mu frIt en f;i , fo m&dSNyD; t &i f;t jrpfawGu dkBu D;rm;wJh&ydki fcGi fh&dSwJh v lrsdK;pk? Mo Zmo u fa&mu fr IeJYru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawGu dk q efYu si f, SOfNydKi f&w, f/ ' Dv dkt ajct aeawGat mu frSm Pro-grammatic u seygwDeJY Programmatic u ser Ir [ kwfwJhygwDawG[ mt wlwu Gr&dSEdki fygb l;/

- ' Djzpf&yfav hv mrIav ;ck&JUEdIi f;, SOfr I[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JUzGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr Ix Ju t ajccH(2)csu fu dkazmfjyw, f/ Programmaticu sewJhygwDawG[ m cHEdki f&n f&dSwJh Programmatic u seygwDpepf&JU zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr IawGt wGu f cdki frmwJht jyeft v Sefcsdwfq u fr IawG&dSw, f/ t ajccHESpfcsu fu awmh (1)rJq E&Si fawGt wGu fzGJUpn f;x m;wJhygwDawG&JUaygi f;u l;r IyHkpH? (2)t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawGeJY cdki frmwJhwn faq mu fEkdi fr Ijzpfw, f/

158


Box 3.1 jzpf&yfav hv mrIrsm;t &Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk u si fho Hk;jci f;eJYt "dyÜg, fzGi fhq dkjci f;

Luna &JUt apmydki f;t Bu HjyKcsu ft wdki f; Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m ygwD&JUt ajccHzGJUpn f;r IeJYv kyfaq mi fr IawGrSmyg0i fwJhwn fNi dr fwJht dki f' Dt dkv dk*sDq dki f&mu wdwm0efeJYau mi f;rGefpGmwn faq mu fx m;wJhygwDjzpfw, f/ jzpf&yfav hv mrIav ;ckx JrSm ygwDawGu dk u s, fjyefYwJhe, fy, fawGt m;v Hk;jzefYa0w, f/ ' Dx JrSm Programmatic u ser It en f;i , fyg0i fr IeJYt wl Bu D;rm;wJhr u fv Hk;ay;r Jq G, fwJhygwD(Zr fb D, mu ygwDpHk' Drdku a&pDv Iyf&Sm;rIu Jho dkU) awGu ae v dkt yfwJhtax mu ft yHht wGu f ai GaMu ;ax mu fyHhr It csdwft q u fawGu dkrSDcdkNyD;a&SUaemu fn DwJhay:v pDt ajccHv rf;pOfawGu dk v dku fwJhygwD awG (t dEd,u Gef*&u fygwDu Jo dkY)? Programmatic u serIq dki f&mOD;wn fcsu ft wGu fv dkt yfwJht ax mu ft yHhawGeJY Programmatic u ser Iq dki f&m ay:v pDzGJUpn f;r IawGu dk jr§i fhwi f&eft wGu f ygwDt wGi f;ydki f;zGJUpn f;r Iu dk a&;q GJx m;NyD; t zGJU0i frsm;t wGi f;wn fNi dr fwJht dki f' Dt kdv dk*sDq dki f&m &n fñ Tef;csu fawGcsrSwfr Iv rf;pOfv dku fwJhygwD (b &mZD; PT ygwDeJYt a&;ygr Ien f;wJh, lu &def;q dk&S, fv pfygwD) awGyg0i fw, f/ ' kwd, t csu fu awmh' DOyrmawGjyo u Jho dkY ygwDawG[ m rwln DwJh½Iax mi fhawGt ay: Pro-grammatic u serIo ab mt en f;eJYt rsm;o u fa&mu fw, f/ ygwDawG[ mwcsdKUe, fawGrSm r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fr Ijr i fhrm;NyD; wjcm;e, fawGrSmawmh Programmatic u ser IawGr jyKv kyfb l;/ ygwDawGu dk yHkaoo wfrSwf&efcu fcJw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh b &mZD; PSDB ygwD (b &mZD;q dk&S, fv pf' Drdku &u fygwD) [ m Programmatic u serI&n frSef;csu fawGu dkwkdu f½dku fOD;wn fx m;wJhygwDzGJUpn f;yHkydki fq dki fNyD; t zGJU0i fawGx JrSm' D&n fr Sef;csu fawGu dk t au mi ft x n fazmf&efBu dK;yr f;ayr , fh

159


v dkt yfwJhrJq E&Si fawGt wGu fawmh Programmatic u ser Iq dki f&men f;v r f;x u f ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It ay:rSDcdkw, f/ Zr fb D, m Pa-triotic Front (PF) ygwD[ m Programmatic u ser It ajct aeu dkpOf;pm;NyD; rJq E&Si fawGeJY Programmatic u ser Iaygi f;u l;r It csdKUu dkwn faq mu fw, f/ ' gayrJh ygwDu dkb , fv kdzGJUpn f;x m;o v JeJYr l0g'awGu dk b , fv dkjyKv kyfo v Jq dkwmu awmh ygwD&JU Programmaticu seIq dki f&m, HkMu n fr IawGu dk pkpn f;&efv dkt yfw, f/ ' Dar ;cGef;u dkt x u frSmazmfjyx m;wJhProgrammatic u serIq dki f&m½Iax mi fho Hk;ckx Jub , ft &mu t a&;Bu D;q Hk;v Jq dkwm q Hk;jzwfjci f;r&dSb Jt ajz ray;Edki fygb l;/

160


Box 3.2 jzpf&yfav hv mrIt ESpfcsKyf , lu &def;

q dkAD, u fjyn fax mi fpkNydKu GJNyD;aemu f , lu &def;[ m o kn u aeygwDpepfu dk wn fax mi fzkdYpdefac:r IeJY&i fq dki f&w, f/ v GefcJhwJhq , fpkESpf(2) ckt wGi f;.ygwDpepf&JUay:x Gu fv mrIeJYcdki frmr Iu dk jyó emt rsm;t jym;eJYwdk;wu frIajymi f;jyefjzpfr IawGu x i f&Sm;w, f/ ' Du mv awGrSmygwDawG[ mpn f;rsOf;pn f;u r f;awGr&dSo v dk Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGv n f;r [ kwfb l;/ v Trf;rdk;rIBu D;rm;wJho r®w? u dk, fpm;v S, fwpfOD;o ma&G;cs, fwJh a&G;au mu fyGJpepfeJYx i f&Sm;wJht u si hfysu fr IawGu 1990ckESpfrsm;t wGi f; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawGu dk jzpfx Gef;zdkYcGi fhjyKw, f/

, lu &def;ygwDawG&JU Programmatic u ser IyHk&dyfawG[ m2004 v dar®mfa&mi fawmfv Sefa&; (Orange Revolution) eJY 2006a&G;au mu fyGJt NyD;rSm o do do mo myHkay:v mwmjzpfw, f/ ' Du mv awGrSm Edki fi Hawmfb mo mpu m;eJYywfo u fwJh v lrsdK;pkq dki f&m, Ofau s;r Ijyó em&yfawGeJY Oa&myo r*¾ (EU) eJY½k&Sm;awGr[ mrdwfjzpfr IawGuygwDEdki fi Ha&;u dk zGJUpn f;apcJhw, f/ 2006 eJY 2010 Mu m; rJay;r Ipepfajymi f;v Jjci f;[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IeJYAsL[ mawGu dk jzpfEdki fajcen f;yg;at mi feJYcdki frmrIen f;yg;at mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ ' g[ mygwDt mPm&dSo lawGu dkProgrammatic pn f;½Hk;rIawG ydkrdkjyKv kyfzkdY wGef;ydkYNyD; t zGJYt pn f;q dki f&mzGHUNzdK;r IawGrSmjrKyfESHUw, f/ wjcm;en f;v r f;t & ' g[ m wcsdKUygwDawG&JYygwDpn f;v Hk;r Iu dk wjzn f;jzn f;x dcdku fNydKu GJapw, f/ ' gayrJh' Dv kdajymi f;v Jr It rsm;t jym;u dk 2012 a&G;au mu fyGJt wGu f jyefv n f½kyfo dr f;cJhw, f/

161


Box 3.3 jzpf&yfav hv mrIt ESpfcsKyfb &mZD;

b &mZD;ygwDpepf[ m ½Iyfax G;NyD;a&max G;aew, f/ 1980ckESpfrsm;eJY1990 ckESpfrsm;rSm b &mZD;ygwDpepf[ m t m;en f;rIrsm;aMu mi hf emrn fq dk;eJYau smfMu m;w, f/ b &mZD;Edki fi Ha&;pepfrSm ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I[ mt &n ft ao G;edr fhyg;o v dk Programmatic u serIr&dSb l;/ ' gayrJh v GefcJhwJhq , fpkESpf ESpfckt wGi f; pepfru swJhygwDawG[ m ydkrdkwn f Ni drfv mNyD;t v kyfo rm;ygwD (Workers' Party) x Gu fay:v mu wn f;u Pro-grammatic u ser IawGjzpfx Gef;v mw, f/

PT ygwD[ m t v kyfo rm;o r*¾awGeJYv u f0JpGef;ax mu fcHrIawGt ay:rSDcdkwJh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawGu dk q efYu si f, SOfNydKi fcJhw, f/ wcsdKUjyn fe, fawGrSm t mP m&wJht cg &mx l;&dSo lawG&JUt m;o mcsu fawGu ae t u sdK;au s;Zl;awG&&dSw, f/ PT ygwD[ m 2002ckESpfrSmo r®wae&mu dk ae&m, lNyD;wJhaemu f ¤i f;&JU Programmatic u sewJhAsL[ mawG[ m NydKi fb u fawG&JUru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IawGt ay: t Bu drfBu ddrft o m&at mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ wHkYjyefcsu fu awmh PSDB ygwD[ m o l&JUProgrammatic u sewJhyHk&dyfu dk t m;jzn fhw, f/ PT ygwDeJY PSDBygwDacgi f;aq mi fav mi f;awGjzpfwJh Silva eJY Cardoso wdkY[ m o lwdkY&JUu dk, fydki fau smfMu m;rIeJYq GJaq mi fEdki fo lawGjzpfw, f/ ' gayrJh o lwdkYawG[ mt m;en f;wJh Programmatic u ser Iu dk t cdki ft rmwn faq mu fNyD;o lwdkY&JUay:v pDawGt wGu f yk*¾dKv fa&;eJYyHk&dyfawGay;t yfw, f/b &mZD;ygwDpepf[ m wpfpdwfwpfydki f;o m u sef&dSawmhao mfv n f; 2000ckESpfrsm;rSmPT eJY PSDB wdkY[ m o mrefv u f0JeJYv u f, mn GefYaygi f;t pdk;&&JUt ajccHu dkzGJUpn f;cJhNyD; ' Dt ajct aeu dk Edki fi Ha&;t ci f;t u si f;x Jaq mi f, lcJhw, f/' Dpmu dka&;aecsdefrSm wn faq mu fx m;wJhygwDpepf[ m wn faq mu fx m;wJh ' Drdku a&pD&JU Programmatic u ser Iv u ©P mawGq DcsOf;u yfwJhb &mZD;u dk pn f;r sOf;pn f;u r f;awGo wfr Swfw, f/ (Hagopian,Gervasoni and Moraes 2009)

162


Box 3.4 jzpf&yfav hv mrIt ESpfcsKyf t dEd,

t dEd, rSm&dSwJh Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dk av hv mrI[ m t "du t o Gi fajymi f;v Jr IESpfckt ay:t m½Hkpdku fw, f/ ' DESpfckuawmh jyn fe, ft q i fheJYEdki fi Hawmft q i fhjzpfw, f/ Edki fi Hawmft q i fhrSmt dEd, ygwDpepf[ m 1980ckESpfrsm;aESmi f;ydki f;rSm wpfppDjyefYu sJrIu dkBu HKawGUzl;x m;w, f/ u Gef*&u fygwD&JUq , fpkESpfrsm;pGm pdk;rdk;r I[ m ygwDpHk, SOfNydKi fr Iu dk v rf;pjyKzkdYpwi fjci f;jzpfw, f/ t dEd, u Gef*&u fygwD&JUProgrammatic u sewJht kyfpkawGu dk the Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP) ygwD? the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) ygwDeJY a' o q dki f&mygwDawGu pdefac:w, f/ ' Dv dkygwDo pft rsm;t jym;[ m &Si fv i f;wJhProgrammatic u sewJht csu ft v u fawG&dSw, f/ o lwdkYawG[ m t rsm;eJYu dku fn DwJhrl0g' t rsdK;t pm;awGu dk q efYu si fw, f/ ' Dv dk q efYu si fjci f;[ m o lwdkYawG[ m ypfrSwfx m;wJhrJq E&Si fawGt wGu f v lrsdK;pkq GJaq mi fr IeJY Programmatic u ser IawGu dkaygi f;pyfx m;wmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ t rSeft m;jzi fh' Dv dkygwDv rf;pOfawG&JUt csu ft v u fawG[ mv lOD;a&x Ju u GJx Gu faewJh t csKdUv lrsdK;pkawGu dkydkrdkq GJaq mi fw, f/ t x l;o jzi fh v lr IpD;yGm;a&;t q i fheJv lrsdK;pkt a&; x yfwljzpfwJhae&mawGrSmydkrdkq GJaq mi fw, f/ Edki fi Ha&;&JUaemu fq u fwGJt u sdK;q u fu awmh ½Iyfax G;w, f/ ½Iax mi fh wpfcku awmh ' Dv kdygwDawG[ m Mo Zmwdu úrt o Hk;jyKwJhygwDawGeJYv lx ku Gm[ rIawGt Mu m; wHwm;x dk;ay;w, fv dkY q dkw, f/wjcm;½Iax mi fhwpfcku awmh rMu mcP o ab mx m;u GJv GJwJho lwdkY&JUAsL[ mawG[ m t dEd, u Jho dkUBu D;rm;NyD; u GJjym;aewJh' Drdku a&pDt wGi f;wn fNi drfr I&at mi f t NrJwr f;u ln DEdki frSmr[ kwfygb l;/ Oyrmt m;jzi fhBJP ygwD[ m v lrsdK;pkq dki f&mrkef;wD;rIv IHUaq mfjci f;eJYrwln DwJh t ao ;tzGJUjzpf&yfawGaMu mi fh pGJcsu fwi fcH&w, f/ ' gayrJh t csdefMu mwJht cgo u fao t ax mu ft x m;awGjzpfv mw, f/ ' Dv dkygwDawG[ m aemu f

163


ydki f;rSm o lwdkY&JUav ;eu fr Iu dkx def;o dr f;cJhw, f/ &v ' fu awmh o lwdkY&JUEdki fi Ha&;pepfx JrSm v lrsdK;pkt a&;u dk av smhcszkdYpwi fcJhw, f/ t m;en f;wJhProgrammatic u sewJhygwDawG ay:x Gu fv mrI[ m o lwdkkY&JU Pro-grammatic u ser Io b m0u dk t rSDjzpfapzkdY wjcm;ygwDawGu armi f;ESi fw, fq dkwmawmh r jzpfEdki fygb l;/

jyn fe, ft q i fhrSmawmh u dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG[ m jyn fe, fa&G;au mu fyGJt wGi f; r l0g' awGu dkau mi f;rGefpGmx def;csKyfr I?t Edki f&r IeJY, HkMu n fEdki fav mu fwJh t u si hfysu fr Iq efYu si fwJhr l0g' t pDt pOfawGu dkt au mi ft x n fazmfr IawGt ay: v Iyf&Sm;r IawGjyKv kyfw, f/ TeluguDesam ygwDt Edki f&r IeJYcsef' &mb mb lem' l0efBu D;csKyft jzpf a&G;cs, fcH&rI[ m t au mi f;q Hk;Oyrmjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdOD;aq mi fv Trf;rdk;rIjyKv kyfjci f;[ m v lx kt ay:o u fa&mu fr IawGu dkv Tr f;rdk;w, f/ Edki fi Ha&;pGefYpm;v dko lawG[ m v u fawGUq efrIr&dSayrJh q GJaq mi fr I&dSap&ef ' Dv dkEkdi fi Ha&;AsL[ mawGu dk t v si ft jrefwkyw, f/ &v ' fu awmh jyn fe, f0efBu D;csKyfeJYygwD[ m x i fay:v mNyD; o lwdkU&JUEdki fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGrSm x i f&Sm;wJhyg0i fr Ijzi fh au mi f;rGefwJht kyfcsKyfa&;eJYpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr Iu dkjyKv kyfw, f/

164


Box 3.5 jzpf&yfav hv mrIt ESpfcsKyf Zrfb D, m

Zr fb D, mrSmawmh Ekdi fi Ha&;[ m Programmatic u ser IawGydkrdkjzpfx Gef;v mwJht cg t a&;ygwJht cdku ft wefYawG jzpfv mcJhw, f/' gayrJha&G;au mu fyGJt & v lBu dKu ft rsm;q Hk;at mi fjr i fpepf[ m 2002u wn f;u ay:x Gef;v mcJhw, f/ ' Dv kday:x Gu fr I[ m rx l;jcm;ayrJhwjcm;ae&mrSmawmh Programmatic u sewJhygwDt wGu f t a&;ygw, f/ 1991eJY2011ckESpfawGt wGi f; Zrfb D, mygwDpepfu dk t pdwft rGmjyefYu sJaewJh q efYu si fb u fygwDawG0dki f;&Hx m;wJh t "du ygwDuazmfaq mi fcJhw, f/ ygwDaq mi fyk' fawGu dk ygwDay:v pDawG&JUazmfjyrItjzpft o Hk;r jyKb l;/ ygwDawG[ m rJq E&Si fawGu dk ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It &csdwfq u fw, f/ Edki fi Ha&;[ m yk*¾dKv fa&;? v lrsdK;a&;eJYacwfrDwJhq u fcHrIjzpfNyD; ' Dt csu fawG[ m wpfckeJYwpfckq u fpyfaeo v dk t jyeft v Seft m;jzn fhw, f/ ' Dv kd0dao o v u ©P mawGu kd t jcm;t mz&du jzpf&yfawGrSmv n f; awGUEkdi fw, f/ ' Dv kdq u fpyfr It ajct ae&Sdayr , fhr l0g' t ajccHpn f;½kH;rIt pDt pOfawGu kdax mu fcHwJhygwDo pfwpfckx Gu fay:v mw, f/ t J' gu awmh Patriotic Front (PF) ygwDjzpfw, f/ppfr Ix rf;a[ mi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm; rD&S, fq mwmOD;aq mi fwJh PF ygwD[ mrBu D;u s, fwJhepfemrIawGu kd &Si f;v i f;ajymq kdjci f;eJY o lwkdYt ay:o u fa&mu fwJhay:v pDawGu kd wkd;wu fjci f;jzi fh , ci ft o Hk;r jyK&ao ;wJhrJq Ee, fawGu kd t m;au mi f;wJhcsdwfq u fr IawGjyKv kyfw, f/ ' Dv kdjyKv kyfEkdi fwm[ m q mwm&JUyk*¾dKv fa&;Mo Zm&SdwJhq GJaq mi fr IaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ t v kyfo rm;o r*¾awGeJY Church u Gef&u fawGu kd q GJaq mi fEkdi fr Iu v n f; Bu D;rm;wJhv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;u kd jyKv kyfw, f/ PF ygwD[ m v lrsdK;pkeJYNrdKUjyt kyfpkawGu kd wdu sao csmwJhq GJaq mi fr IawGeJY ypfrSwfx m;jci f;jzi fhygwD&JU t ajccHu kdcsJUx Gi fw, f/ v u fawGUu dpöawG[ m

165


v lrsdK;pku kd, fpm;jyKEkdi fi Ha&;u Jho kdYygwD&JU t rsdK;t pm;o wfrSwfrIu kd &v ' fx Gu fay:apw, f(Cheeseman ad. 2013)/ ' DAsL[ mawG[ m PFygwDu kd Ekdi fi Ha&;q u fET, fr I t edrfhq Hk;o wfrSwfcsu fu ae q , fESpftwGi f;o r®wae&mu kd t Ekdi f&zkdYx Gu fay:v mapcJhw, f/

ygwD[ m v si fjrefpGmat mi fjr i fayrJh o lY&JUrl0g' t ajccHpn f;½kH;r I&n frSef;csu fawGu kd pn f;rsOf;pn f;u r f;rcsrSwfb l;/ PF ygwD[ m b &mZD;u PT ygwDeJY t dEd, u BSP ygwDwkdYjyKv kyfcJho v kdygwDt wGi f;rSm t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawGu kd rwn faq mu fcJhb l;/ ygwD[ m v si fjrefpGmjzpfx Gef;cJhayrJh zGHUNzdK;rIt wGu f pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;q kdi f&mckdi frmrIawGu kd q Hk;½IH;w, f/ PF ygwD&JU r l0g' t ajccHpn f;½Hk;r Iv u ©P mawG[ m q efYu si fb u fjzpfEkdi fwJh t m;en f;r IawG&Sdw, f/ ' ght jyi f PF ygwDx Gu fay:r I[ m wjcm;ygwDawGu kd wcsdKUjyó emawGrSm &yfwn fcsu fawGjyKv kyf&ef q Gay;cJhw, f/ ' gayrJh' g[ m rl0g' t ajccHpn f;½kH;rIt ajymi f;t v Jt wGu f zGHUNzdK;rIu kd t m;ray;ygb l;/

166


Programmatic u sewJhygwDrsm;&JUwn faq mu fyHkq dki f&mv si fjrefrIeJYaESmi fhaES;rIrsm;

Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m Edki fi Ha&;t ci f;t u si f;wdki f;rSmr jzpfx Gef;b l;/ t rsdK;o m;a&;eJY t r sdK;o m;a&;v u fat mu fcHt ajcaeawG&dSwJht csdKUEdki fi HawGrSm Programmatic u sewJhygwDzGHUNzdK;rIawG ydkrdkjzpfx Gef;w, f/jzpf&yfav hv mrIawGeJYt jcm;a0zefq ef;ppfr IawGt ay:t ajccHav hv mrIawGt &t csdKUao maemu fcHt ajcaeawG[ m ay:v pDOD;wn fwJhygwDawGu dk jr§i fhwi f?' grSr [ kwf aESmi fhaES;apwmu dkawGU&w, f/

yx rq Hk;t aeeJY t m;au mi f;wJhpn f;rsOf;awGu dkt ajccHwJh jyn fe, fawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dkt m;ay;w, f/ t ay;t , lo ab mrJq G, fwJhygwDawG[ m t &i f;t jrpfawGu dk ai GaMu ;ax mu fyHho lawGu ae v dkt yfwJht ax mu ft yHhawGq D jzefa0w, f/ ' Dt &i f;t jrpft rsm;t jym;[ m wpfcgwpf&HrSmjyn fe, f&JUw&m;r0i fr IawGu aev mw, f/ jyn fe, f[ m pn f;rsOf;t ajccHwJhAsL½dku a&pDeJY t rSefu dkt ajccHwJhpepfawGu dkt av ;x m;wJht cg t ay;t , lo ab mrJq G, fwJhygwDawGt wGu f e, fy, fu sOf;ajrmi f;apNyD; t jyeft v Seft & Pro-grammatic u serIt wGu f ydkrdkt u sdK;o u fa&mu frIjzpfapw, f/ EdIi f;, SOfr It &, dkpdr fhr IawG&dSaewJhjyn fe, fawG[ m (Oyrm jyn fe, fx Ju t &i f;t jrpfawGu dkt wGi f;t jyi fx kwf, lEdki fr I) Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGay:x Gu fv m&eft cGi fht a&;awGen f;yg;NyD; a&SUrwdk;aemu frq kwfEdki fi Ha&;t ajct aeawGu dk pdefac:w, f/

' kwd, t aeeJYu awmh v lYt zGJUt pn f;&JUwn faq mu fyHkawG[ m a0zefa&;q dki f&mt ajccHt aMu mi f;awGjzpfw, f/ v lUt zGJUt pn f;q dki f&mt kyfpkawGeJYu Gef&u fawG&JUt csdKUpkzGJUr I[ m Programmatic u sewJhv Iyf&Sm;r IawGu dk ydkrdkcu fcJat mi fjyKv kyfNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhv Iyf&Sm;rIu dk ydkrdkjzpfx Gef;Edki fw, f/ ' Dt ajcaeawG[ m t jyeft v Sefjzpfw, f/ v lUt zGJUt pn f;x Ju t kyfpkawG[ m au mi f;rGefpGmyn mwwf? au mi f;rGefpGmo wi f;&&dS? au mi f;rGefpGmOD;aq mi fNyD; o lwdkUawG[ mjyn fo lYt wGu ft u sdK;jzpfx Gef;aprI[ m jyn fe, f&JUyHhydk;rIu dk q u fv u frSDcdkaewJht cg

167


o lwdkYawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IAsL[ mawGu dk ydkrdkckcHu mu G, fNyD; Program-matic u sewJhv Iyf&Sm;rIawGu dk ydkrdkv kdv m;w, f/ t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fh v lYt zGJUtpn f;[ m yn mwwfrIedrfhyg;? o wi f;&&dSrIedrfhyg;?OD;aq mi fEdki fr Iedrfhyg;NyD; jyn fo ltwGu ft u sdK;jzpfx Gef;aprIt wGu f jyn fe, f&JUyHhydk;r I[ mro u fa&mu fwJht cg o lwdkYawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhv Iyf&Sm;rIawGu dk ydkrdkv u fcH&efv dkv m;w, f/t csKdUta&;Bu D;wmawGrSv GJNyD; NrdKUjyt kyfpkawG[ m x l;jcm;ay:v Gi fr IawGu dk OD;pGmo d&dSNyD;au s;v u ft kyfpkawG[ m aemu fq Hk;t csdefrS o d&dSzdkYrsm;w, f/ ' gaMu mi fh NrdKUjyt kyfpkawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhq GJaq mi fr IawGu dk au s;v u ft kyfpkawGx u fydkrdkv u fcH&efv dkv m;w, f/ ' g[ mw&m;ao pn f;rsOf;awGu aea0;u Gmw, f/ t m;au mi f;NyD;ydkrdkEdki fi Ha&;q efwJht &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awGu dkx kwfv kyfwJh v lUt zGJUtpn f;[ m jyn fe, ft wGu fr[ kwfwJhv kyfaq mi fr IeJYAsL[ mq u fET, fcsu fawGt wGi f;0i fa&mu f&eft cGi fht v rf;awGeJY Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawGu dkwi fjyw, f/jyn fe, ft wGu fr [ kwfwJhv kyfaq mi fr IawG[ m at mu fwGi faq G;aEG;x m;wJh t csu ft v u fawGt wdki f; Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;&JUzefwD;rIeJYrIab mi fcsrSwfrIawGu dk u ln Dw, f/

wwd, u awmh ygwDrsm;o mr[ kwfb J Edki fi Ha&;pepfeJYygv Drefpn f;rsOf;awGu dkyg pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;a&;q GJrI[ m ygwDawmi fhwi f;r IeJYn Dn GwfrIu dk o u fa&mu fNyD; t J' Dv kd o lwdkY&JU Programmatic u serIawGu dkv n f; o u fa&mu fw, f/' Dv dkt aMu mi f;&i f;awGrSm ygwDajymi f;v JrIu dk [ efYwm;wJhpn f;rsOf;awGyg0i fo v dkygwDu efYo wfcsu fawGu dk t m;jzn fhrIawGv n f;yg0i fNyD; a&G;au mu fyGJpn f;rsOf;awGa' o eJYjyn fe, fq dki f&m t ajccHawGu dkv dkt yfwJhrJq E&Si fawGt wGu f ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fawG&JUq GJaq mi frIawGu dk , kwfav smhapwJh a&G;au mu fyGJpn f;rsOf;awGv n f;yg0i fw, f/ ' Dt aMu mi f;&i f;awG[ m ygwDawGu dk o lwdkYpn f;u rf;awG v dku femzkdYaocsmapNyD; ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawGeJYygv Dreft zGJY0i fawGt ay:x def;csKyf&efBu dK;pm;Edki fw, f/t v Sn fhu st m;jzi fh ' g[ mygwDawGu kd a' o q dki f&mjrSi fhwi fjci f;u dka&Smi f&Sm;rIawGydkrdkjyKv kyfNyD; ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr IawG[ m ygwD&JUu s, fjyefYwJh Programmaticu sewJh&n f&G, fcsu fawGu dk q efYu si fzkdYu wdjyKw, f/

aemu fq Hk;u awmh r lab mi fcsrSwfx m;wJhygwDpepf[ m Programmatic

168


u sewJhygwDawG zGHUNzdK;zkdYt wGu f t cGi fht v r f;awGu dk ax mu fyHhay;u r f;w, f/ygwDawG[ m wn fNi drfNyD; a&G;au mu fyGJt ay: o lwdkY&JUcsOf;u yfr I[ m v dku fav smn Dax G&dSwJht cg o lwdkYawG[ m t m;au mi f;NyD;ydkrdko i fhav smfwJhay:v pDt ajcaeawGu dkwn faq mu fEdki fNyD; ' Dv dkt ajccHawGt ay:Edki fi Ho m;awGt wGu f ydkrdkx da&mu fwJhcsdwfq u fr IawGzGHUNzdK;jci f;&JUydkrdkau mi f;rGefwJht cGi fht v rf;awGwn f&dSEdki fw, f/ x dkYjyi fProgrammatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m ygwDpepfu dk r Iab mi fcsrSwf&efu ln DwJhen f;v r f;awGeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;u dkwn faq mu fEdki fw, f/ r Iab mi fcsrSwfjci f;eJY Pro-grammatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;[ m t jyeft v Sefawmi fhwi f;at mi fjyK v kyf&eft v m;t v m&dSw, f/

Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;t wGu f v rf;pOfrsm;

169

Box 3.6 v lrsdK;pkq dki f&meJYrI0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhEdki fi Ha&;

' Do kawo e&JUav hv mwJhav ;Edki fi Hx Ju o kH;Edki fi HjzpfwJh t dEd, ? , lu &def;eJYZrfb D, mwdkYrSm Programmatic u sewJh q GJaq mi fr IawGu dkwdk;wu fapwJhEdki fi Ha&;ygwDawG&dSNyD; Programmatic u sewJhaygi f;u l;r IawGwn faq mu f&ef&SmazGw, f/ ' gayrJh ' Dv dkay:v pDyv u fazmi f;awG[ m o D;o efYv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGt wGu f t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr IawGay;Edki f&ef &Si f;v i f;pGma&;q GJw, f/ t dEd, rSmv kdrsdK; v lrsdK;pkeJYv lwef;pm;x yfwlu swJht cg ' g[ mjzpfEdki f&eft v m; t v m&dSayr, fh BSP v dkygwDawG[ m wcsdKUao mv lwef;pm;? rsdK;EG, fpkeJYb mo ma&;v len ;fpkawGu dk u dk, fpm;jyKzkdY t x l;v kyfaq mi fw, f/ Zr fb D, mrSmawmh v lrsdK;pkeJYv lwef;pm;x yfwlu sr I[ mt dEd, rSmu Jho dkYreD;pyfygb l;/ ' gayrJh u GJjym;wJhacgi f;aq mi fawGeJY t kyfpkwpfckcsi f;pD&JUo rdki f;q dki f&mEdki fi Ha&;t o d[ m o D;o efYt kyfpkawGt wGu ft csdKUao may:v pD ½Iax mi fhawG&JUa&maESmrIu dk t m;ay;wJho u fa&mu fr IawG&dS


w, f/ Michael Sata [ m ¤i f;&JUu dk, fydki f b efb mrsdK;EG, fpkt wGi f;Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;t wGu fBu D;rm;wJht m;ay;r IawGu dkt o Hk;jyKEdki fcJhw, f/ NrdKUjy{&d, mt wGi f;v lrsdK;pkaygi f;pHkax mu fcHrIu dkt ajccHq GJaq mi fwJho u fa&mu fr I&dSwJh v lr sdK;pk- Programmatic u sewJhv Iyf&Sm;rI&JUo u fa&mu frIu Jho dkY t o Hk;jyKEdki fcJhjci f;jzpfw, f/ v lrsdK;pkq dki f&mv u ©P meJYt &yfb u ft kyfpkawG[ m Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUt ajccHjzpfv mwJht cg Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;[ m v lrsdK;pkq dki f&m½Iax mi fhawG ydki fq dki f&eft v m;t v m&dSw, f/ t dEd, BJP ygwDawG[ m [ dELv lr Ia&;t zGJUt pn f;awGeJYt &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awGu ae ay:x Gu fv mNyD;Edki fi Hv Hk;q dki f&mrl0g' t pDt pOfeJYt rsdK;o m;a&;ygwDjzpfv mcJhw, f/ ygwD[ m' Dv dkt zGJUt pn f;awGt ay:t ajccHjci f;[ m [ dELt dki f' D, mawG[ m ygwD&JUay:v pDyv u fazmi f;t wGu f A[ dku spGm u sef&dSaew, fq dkwm ao csmapcJhw, f/

v lrsdK;pkq dki f&m Programmatic u ser IeJY t &yfo m; Pro-grammatic u serIMu m; cGJjcm;o wfrSwf&eft a&;Bu D;w, f/ v lrsdK;pkq dki f&mProgrammatic u sewJhygwDawG&JUBu D;x Gm;r IeJYrlab mi fcsrSwfrIawG [ mProgrammatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;u dkt m;jzn fhNyD; rwln DwJh wm0ef, lr IawGu dkwi fjyw, f/ v lrsdK;pkq dki f&m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ mo lwdkY&JUv lrsdK;pkt ajccHt ESpfo m&awGu dk t m½Hkpdku fa&G;cs, fr , fq dk&i fv lrsdK;pkq dki f&m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m v u fat mu fcHEdki fi Ho m;v u ©P mawGu dk Edki fi Ha&;rSmydkrdkyg0i fapw, f/ t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fho lwdkYawG[ m o lwdkY&JUv lrsdK;pkt ajccHt ESpfo m&awGu dk wjcm;ygwDawGq DcsJUx Gi f&efBu dK;pm;r , fq dk&i f o lwdkY[ m o lwdkY&JUProgrammatic u sewJho wi f;pu m;awGt ay:t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr Iav smhen f;apw, f/


Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;[ m cdki frmwJh Programmatic u sewJhv u ©P mawG&dSwJh ' Dr dku a&pDpepfu dk&n fn Gef;w, f/ Programmaticu sewJhygwDawG[ m ' Drdku a&pD&JUt "du a&G;au mu fyGJNydKi fb u fawGjzpfw, f/rwln DwJhwdk;wu fajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOfawGt & Programmatic u ser IEdki fi Ha&;ay:x Gu fv mEdki fayrJh ' Dt cef;&JUjzpf&yfav hv mrIawG[ m o mrefpwi fr It ajct aejzpfw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhv u ©P m&SdwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGx Gu f ay:v mzkdYt Bu HjyKx m;w, f/ t ajccHu swJh? ' gr Sr [ kwf wn faq mu fr Iq kdi f&mt aMu mi f;t &i f;awG[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u kd zefwD;jci f;t wGu fo i fhawmfwJhywf0ef;u si fu kdq Hk;jzwfwJh b &mZD;? t dEd, ? , lu &def;eJY Zrfb D, mwkdYrSmEkdi fi Ha&;&JUaemu fq Hk;t ajct aeu kd ygwDeJYygwDpepf&JUwkd;wu fajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOfawGu yHkazmfw, f/ ' DjzpfpOfawG[ m t pysdK;aewJhygwDo pfawGu kdajymi f;v Japw, f/ ' Dv kdajymi f;v Jr IawG[ m v r f;aMu mi f;rsdK;pHku kdjyKv kyfcH&NyD;jzpfEkdi fajc&SdwJh&v ' frsdK;pHku kd &&SdcJhw, fq kdwmu kd t o dt rSwfjyK&eft a&;Bu D;w, f/' Dwkd;wu fr IjzpfpOfawGrSm ygwDt &i f;t jrpf? ygwDr lab mi fjyKr IeJY Program-matic u sewJhpepf&JU wn fax mi fr Iq kdwJht q i fho Hk;q i fhyg0i fw, f/

ygwDt &i f;t jrpf

b &mZD;? t dEd, ? , lu &def;eJYZr fb D, mwkdYrSm ygwDzGJUpn f;yHkeJYzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr I&JU o m"u awGt rsm;t jym;&Sdw, f/ wkd;wu fajymi f;v Jr Iwkdi f;rSm u kd, fykdi fjcm;em;wJhyHkpHawG&SdNyD; b &mZD;eJYZr fb D, mrSmawmh pu fr IzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr I&JUt a&;ygr Iu kd u dk, fykdi fyHkpHawG&Sdw, f/ t dEd, rSmawmh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJht &i f;t jrpfawGu kd av smhcsr IyHkpHeJY, lu &def;rSmawmh t rsdK;o m;Ekdi fi Ha&;"av hx Hk;pHawGu kd x i f&Sm;at mi fjyKjyi fr IyHkpHawGjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOfwkdi f;[ ma, b k, st m;jzi fh wln Dr Iwpfck&Sdw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhzGHUNzdK;r I&JUjzpfpOfawG&Sm;yg;NyD; wn f&SdaewJh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I? yk*¾dKv fa&;q kdi f&meJYv lrsdK;pkygwDawG[ m n Dn GwfwJhay:v pDt ajccHawGykdrkdjzpfx Gef;wmu kd v u fcHzkdYq Hk;jzwfjci f;jzpfw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhzGHUNzdK;r Iu kd a, b k, st m;jzi fh


Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDo pfawG&JU ay:x Gu fv mrIu armi f;ESi fw, f/ ' grSr [ kwf wpfck?' grSr[ kwf wpfckx u fykdwJha&S;½kd;Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu s½IH;r Iu kd em;v n fNyD; t m;en f;wJhygwDu kd t apmwv si f v si fjrefpGmzGHUNzdK;at mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ Programmaticu ser Iu kd jr §i fhwi fay;wJht aMu mi f;t &i f;[ m Programmatic u ser Ir [ kwfwJhygwDawGu kd &i fq kdi f&efq efYu si fb u fygwDo pfawGu kd jr§i fhwi fay;r Ijzpfw, f/ jzpf&yfav hv mrIav ;ckrSm Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JUzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr I[ m t "du u swJht aMu mi f;t &i f;o Hk;ckaygi f;pyfjci f;&JU &v ' fjzpfw, f/ (1) Ekdi fi Ha&;t ajct aet wGu f t "du swJhajymi f;v Jr I[ m q efYu si fb u fygwDawG&JU wkd;wu fjci f;u kd v G, fu lapr I (2) Programmatic u sewJhrJq Ee, frsm;wn f&Sdr I (3) Ekdi fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;r I&JUyHkpHo pfu kd Bu HKawG&ef Ekdi fi Ha&;pGefYpm;v kdpdwf&JU pGr f;&n feJYq E&SdrIwkdYjzpfw, f/

' Dt aMu mi f;t &i f;awG&JUo u fao jyrI[ m wpfEkdi fi HeJYwpfEkdi fi Hu GJjym;aew, f/ , lu &def;rSmawmh Ekdi fi Ha&;t ajct aet wGu f t "du u swJht ajymi f;t v JawGu ' Dt aMu mi f;t &i f;u kdarmi f;ESi fw, f/ u eOD;rSm v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m, Ofau s;r Iu dpö[ m EU &JU t zGJU0i fjzpf&eft v m;t v m&Sdr Iu Jho kdY t v Geft a&;Bu D;v mw, f/ ' kwd, u awmh v dar®mfa&mi fawmfv Sefa&;u ygv Dreft ay: ykdrkdx def;csKyfEkdi fr Iu kd Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGq Day;t yfcJhNyD;aemu f a&G;au mu fyGJeJYygv Drefpn f;rsOf;awGu kd rdwfq u fay;cJhwmjzpfw, f/

' Djzpf&yf[ m ' Dv kdEkdi fi Ha&;&i fMu m;aphr It o pft ay:t ajccHwJh n Dn GwfrIyv u fazmi f;awGu kdzefwD;&efeJYjr§i fhwi f&ef 2012 x dygwDawGu kd ae&may;r Ijzpfw, f/ a&G;au mu fyGJ wpfzefajymi f;v JcJhw, f/

t dEd, u awmh 1980 ckESpfrsm;&JU b @ma&;pdefac:r I[ m t pkd;&&JUt &i f;t jrpfawGu kd u efYo wfNyD;ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhcsOf;u yfr IawG&JU jzpfEkdi fajc&Sdr Iu kdt m;en f;apw, f/

Ekdi fi Ha&;[ m t &i fv kdv Iyf&Sm;rIr&SdwJh&v ' fawGt wGi f; t &yfb u fv lYt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;rSm t ajccHwJhygwDawG[ m t &i fu v spfv sL½Ix m;cJhwJh [ dELtrsdK;o m;a&;eJYq i f;&JrIv kdu dpöawGu kd t m½kHpkdu fzkdYay:x Gu fv mw, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSmyJ jyn fe, fawGu kdEkdi fi Hwu mb @ma&;pn f;rsOf;awGeJYt wl wkdu f½kdu faq mi f

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&Gu fEkdi f&efcGi fhjyKcJhwJhpn f;rsOf;o pf[ m u dk, fykdi f Programmatic u ser It pDt pOfawGaemu fv kdu f&ef v u fat mu fcHEkdi fi Ha&;acgi f;aq mi fawGu kd v kyfykdi fcGi fht yfESi f;cJhw, f/

b &mZD;rSmawmh u kefo G, fa&;t zGJUt pn f;v Iyf&Sm;rIeJY o lY&JUax mu fcHo lawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhrJq Ee, fawGu kd zGJUpn f;cJhw, f/ PT ygwD[ mv lYt zGJUt pn f;&JUau mi f;rGefpGmzGJUpn f;x m;wJh t ykdi f;awG&JUawmi f;q kdr It ay:o u fa&mu fr I&SdwJh ygwDzGJUpn f;yHku kd zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu f&eft wGu f t v kyfo rm;o r*¾&JUv kyfaq mi fcsu fu kd wn faq mu fw, f/

Zr fb D, mrSmawmh ajymi f;v Jr I&JUaphaq mfrIawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;pGefYpm;rIawGjyKv kyfv kdNyD; rpr f;o yf&ao ;wJh Programmatic u sewJh q GJaq mi fr Iu kdjzefYa0v kdwJhq efYu si fb u fygwDacgi f;aq mi f Michael Sate &JU q Ejyi f;jyr Iuaev mw, f/ o l[ m u kefo G, fa&;t zGJUa[ mi f;eJY csu fu Gef&u f (church net-work) u v lawGu kd t zGJU0i fo pfpkaq mi f;w, f/ csu fu Gef&u feJY t v kyfo rm;o r*¾a[ mi f;[ m wpfcsdefwn f;rSm o lY&JUo wi f;pu m;awGu kd r Jq E&Si fawGq DykdY&efeJY o wi f;pu m;u kdcsdefn d§&ef wpfcgwn f;jyKv kyfw, f/ o lY&JUv Iyf&Sm;r I[ m b r fb m (Bemba) pu m;ajyme, fawGt wGi f; , ci ft i ft m;Bu D;cJhwJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDt wGu f ax mu fcHrIawGu kd wjzn f;jzn f;wkdu fpm;rIu kd t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdcJhw, f/ b r fb mpu m;ajymwJhe, fawG[ m v lrsdK;pkwln Dr I? u GJjym;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;eJY pD;yGm;a&;epfemrIawGx yfwlu swJhae&mjzpfw, f/

ygwDrlab mi fjyKrI

jzpf&yfav hv mr Iav ;ck[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGu kdzefwD;r Iaemu fykdi f;ygwD&JUv r f;aMu mi f;awGu kd Programmatic u sewhJwm0efawGu kdrlab mi fjyKr IeJY Ekdi fi Ho m; (' grSr [ kwf v lrsdK;pk) u kd t m½kHpkdu fwJh zGHUNzdK;rIawGu yHkazmfw, fv kdY t Bu HjyKw, f/ wen f;q kd&&i f Programmatic u sewJhOD;wn fcsu ft wkdi f;zGJUpn f;x m;wJhygwD&JU u s, fjyefYr I[ m ygwD&JUr l0g' t pDt pOfwu s r lv t wkdi f;rSefu efaer It v m;t v mawGu kd yHkazmfw, f/ Ekdi fi H

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o m; Programmatic u sewJhygwDjzpfr Ir jzpfr I[ m t a&;Bu D;ygw, f/ t csdKUao mt ajct aeawGat mu frSm v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m v lrsdK;pko ab mx m;u GJv GJr IawGu kd wkd;jr§i fhapNyD; t csdefMu mwJht cgo lwkdY&JU Programmatic u ser It ajccHu kd q Hk;½IH;wmaMu mi fh Ekdi fi Ho m;r l0g'ygwD[ kwfr[ kwfq kdwmt a&;Bu D;w, f/ EIdi f;, SOfwJhzGJUpn f;r Iq kdi f&mrlab mi ft wGi f;' Dv kd a[ mu def;ESpfcku kd aygi f;pyfjci f;[ m ygwDeJYygwDpepft q i fh (PartySystem Levels) ESpfckpv Hk;rSm Programmatic u sewJhzGHUNzdK;rIu kd t v GefarQmfv i fhw, fq kdwmjyo w, f/

r lab mi fjyKrIeJYEkdi fi Ho m;OD;wn frI&JU t "du t u sq Hk;armi f;ESi fwmu awmhygwD&JUOD;q Hk;ax mu fcHrIt ajccHeJY Bu dKwi f&SdaewJht &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awGu aeay:x Gu fv mwJhygwDawG&JU u s, fjyefYrIu kdaygi f;pn f;x m;wmjzpfw, f/ v lrsdK;pkwlawG&SdwJhEkdi fi Hrsm;[ m o rkdi f;t &Ekdi fi Ha&;o ab mu kdem;v n fNyD; t dEd, ? Zr fb D, mv kdEkdi fi HawGrSm x Hk;pHt &ygwDt o pfawG[ m x i f&Sm;wJhv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGu kdu kd, fpm;jyKw, f/ o lwkdY[ m Programmatic u sewJht ajct aeawGx JrSmyg0i fwmawmi frS ' Dv kdu dk, fpm;jyKw, f/ ' g[ mt "du u swJh aemu fq u fwGJ&v ' fESpfcku kdjzpfapw, f/ yx rwpfcku awmh ygwD[ m ½Iyfax G;wJhaygi f;u l;r IawG&SdwJh ¤i f;&JUv lrsdK;pkeJY Programmatic u ser It ajccHMu m; [ efcsu fn Dr IawGx def;o drf;zkdY½kef;u ef&w, f/ ' D½kef;u efr I[ m ykdrkdn Dn GwfwJhay:v pDyv u fazmi f;awG&JUzGHUNzdK;r Iu kd aESmi fhaES;apzkdYt v m;t v m&Sdw, f/ ' kwd, t csu fu awmhygwD&JUv lrsdK;pk½Iax mi fhu kd x def;o dr f;x m;jci f;[ m wcsdKUjzpf&yfawGrSm v lrsdK;pkwln DwJhEkdi fi Ha&;yg0i fr Iu kd jyi f;x efapEkdi fw, f/ EIdi f;, SOfrIt & ygwDawGv lrsdK;pkq kdi f&maygi f;u l;r Iu kdrwn faq mu fwJhae&mawGrSm jyn fo lYt u sdK;jzpfx Gef;apr IzefwD;ay;jci f;u Jho kdY Programmatic u sewJh&n frSef;csu fawGu kd t m½kHpkdu fzkdYygwDacgi f;aq mi ft wGu f v G, fu lpGmt v Sr f;a0;apw, f/ ygwDeJYt &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;v kyfaq mi fcsu fawG&JUq u fpyfr I[ m t a&;Bu D;w, f/ t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awG&JUu efYu Gu fcsu fu aex Gu fay:v mwJhygwDawG? ' grSr[ kwf t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdwJh t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&m wn faq mu fyHku kdzefwD;v kdrIawGaMu mi fh' Dq u fET, fr I[ m t a&;Bu D;wmjzpfw, f/ u eOD;rSm t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyf

174


pkawGu ae x Gu fay:v mwJhygwDawG[ m ygwDwGi f;zGJUpn f;yHku kday;Ekdi fwJh ygwDawG&JUyHkpHu kdaq mi f&Gu fw, f/ ' kwd, u awmh q u fpyfaewJht &yfb u ft zGJUtpn f;t kyfpkawG[ m av hu si fhx m;wJh0efx r f;? ai Gx def;o drf;r Iu Jho kdY t zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mwn faq mu fyHkawGu kd wkd;wu fat mi fv kyf&w, f/ ygwDawG[ m t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawGax mu fcHwJh Programmatic u sewJh&n frSef; csu fu kdrv kdu fb l;q kd&i f ' Dt &i f;t jr pfawGu kd u efYo wfx m;Ekdi fw, f/ t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawG[ m ykdrkdwm0ef&SdwJhq u fET, fr IawGu kd v G, fu lapw, f/wwd, u awmht &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawG[ m o lwkdY&JUax mu fcHr It wGu fwHkYjyefwJht zGJU0i feJY &S, f, mygo lawGu Jho kdY ygwDt wGi f;yHkrSeft mP mu kd &, lEkdi f&r , f/ o lwkdYu kdBu D;rm;wJhv Grf;rkd;r Iay;Ekdi fjci f;[ m ay:v pDjyKv kyfjci f;jzpfpOfu kdt v kdt av smu fv Grf;rkd;w, f/ ' Dt aMu mi f;t &i f;awG&JU t jyeft v Sefcsdwfq u fr IawGu kd x n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;r I[ m Programmatic u sewJh ygwDzGHUNzdK;r I&JUt "du yHkpHav ;cku kd t Bu HjyKw, f/

1- t awGUt Bu HKr&SdwJhygwDawG[ m v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGeJY csdwfq u fr IawGrwn faq mu fb J t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawGeJYckdi frmwJhpn f;aESmi fr IawGyHkazmfwJht cg o lwkdY[ m Ekdi fi Ho m;r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDt jzpfx Gu fay:v mEkdi fajc&Sdw, f/ (b &m;ZD; PT ygwDu Jho kdY)' Dv kdygwDawG[ m Programmatic u sewJh t pDt pOfawGu kdazmfaq mi f&efeJYjyKv kyf&ef t m;au mi f;wJhq GJaq mi fr IawGykdi fq kdi fw, f/ t J' Dv kdygwD[ m ay:v pDt ajccHcsOf;u yfr Iu kd x def;o drf;v kdv m;wJhyHkpHjzpfNyD;' DcsOf;u yfr Iu kd ygwDpepfq Du l;ajymi f;w, f/

2- Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m v lr sdK;pkt kyfpkawG&JUax mu fcHr Iu kdpkpn f;NyD;t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawGeJY t m;au mi f;wJhaESmi fzGJUrIawGu kd wkd;wu fat mi fv kyfwJht cg ' Dv kdygwD[ m r lab mi fjyKx m;wJhv lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mt pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDu Jho kdY ' Dt zGJUt pn f;awG[ may:v pDt ajct aeu kd wm0efcHwJhygwDt wGi f;eJYt jyi fESpfckpv Hk;&JU zGJUpn f;r Iq kdi f&mt ajccHawGu kd ykdrkdzGHUNzdK;at mi fv kyfw, f/ ' gayrJh o lwkdY&JU

175


t rsdK;rsdK;ao maygi f;u l;r IyHkpH[ m ay:v pDn Dn Gwfr Iu kd x def;o dr f;zkdYykdrkdcu fcJapw, f/ ' g[ m 1925 ckESpfrSm wn fax mi fcJhwJh [ dELv lr Ia&;v Iyf&Sm;r I Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh u aeay:x Gu fv mwJht dEd, BJP ygwDv kdjzpfw, f/

3- Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m o D;jcm;v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGeJYt pykdi f;rSm aygi f;pn f;r Ir jyKv kyfb l;/ ' gayrJh t &yfb u fv lYt zGJUt pn f;awGeJYckdi frmwJhaESmi fzGJUr IawGyHkazmfzkdYysu fu Gu fw, f/ ' Dv kdygwD[ m r lab mi fjyKrIr&SdwJhEkdi fi Ho m;r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhygwDjzpfv mw, f/' Dv kdygwDawG[ m BJP ygwDBu HKawGUcJh&o v kd 0da&m"djzpfwJhzdt m;awG&i frq kdi fo v kd o lwkdY&JU Programmatic u sewJh pkd;&dr fr IawGu kdv n f;jyKjyi fzkdYt wGu fao csmapwJhaq mi f&Gu frIeJY ckdi frmrIawGwkd;wu fapzkdYv n f;rv kyfaq mi fb l;/ b &mZD; PSDB eJY t dEd, u Gef*&u f ygwD? ' Dv kdygwDrsdK;u kdOyrmjyKw, f/ o lwkdY[ m &Si f;v i f;jywfo m;pGm ay:v pDyv u fazmi f;awGu kd yg0i fv Iyf&Sm;w, f/ ' gayrJh Programmatic u sewJhv Iyf&Sm;r IawGeJYax mi fcHo lawGt Mu m;csdwfq u fjci f;r&Sdr I[ m o lY&JUax mu fcHrIawGeJYa0;u Gmo Gm;apw, f/ &v ' fu awmh ' Dv kdygwDawG[ mygwDpepft q i fhrSm r l0g' q kdi f&mzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIu kd armi f;ESi fjci f;r&Sdb l;/

4- Programmatic u sewJhygwD[ m v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mt &yHkpHawGeJY ckdi frmwJhcsdwfq u fr IawGwn faq mu fNyD; t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awGeJYq u fET, fr IrSm t m;en f;w, f/ ' Dv kdygwD[ m r lab mi fjyKr Ir&SdwJh v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m-Programmatic u sewJhygwDjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdygwDawG[ mx da&mu fwJht ajccHzGJUpn f;r Ir&Sdo v kd rJq E&Si ft kyfpkawGu kd ygwDacgi f;aq mi frIq Dq u fo G, fwJht wGi f;ykdi f;wn faq mu frIawGu kd wkd;wu fat mi fjyKv kyfr Ien f;yg;w, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSmyJ ' Dv kdygwDawG[ m x i f&Sm;wJhv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGu kd u kd, fpm;jyKw, f/ v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawG[ m ygwDay:v pD&JUt ajccHt u sdK;cHpm;cGi fhjzpfo i fhr Iu kd awmi f;q kdv kdw, f/ jyn fe, ft &i f;t jrpfawG[ m ygwDt wGu f yg0gjzpfv mo i fhw, f/ o lwkdY[ m v lrsdK;pk? ' grSr [ kwf ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It av ht u si fhawGu

176


t cu ft cJawGu kdv n f; t u lt n D&w, f/ ' Dt aMu mi f;aMu mi fh r lab mi fjyKr Ir&SdwJhv lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m Programmatic u sewJhygwD[ m r l0g't pDt pOfawGzGJUpn f;r IeJYay:v pDt ajccHcsOf;u yfrIawGu kd pkpn f;Ekdi fr I en f;yg;w, f/ Zr fb D, m PF ygwD[ m ' Dv kdygwDrsdK;jzpfw, f/ MichaelSata [ m o lY&JUb rfb mpu m;ajymv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGrSm v Iyf&Sm;zkdYpwi fw, f/ ' gayrJh aemu fykdi f;rSmawmh ' Dv kdt ajccHeJY NrdKUjyrJq E&Si fawGaygi f;pn f;zkdY&SmawGUcJhw, f/ BJP ygwDv kdyJ r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJho wi f;pu m;t wGu f PF &JU v lrsdK;pkrJq Ee, f&JUBu D;rm;wJhx dcdku fr I[ m ygwDt ay: rn Dn GwfwJh ay:v pDawGeJY t wi f;ckdi f;apcJhw, fv kdYt "dyÜg, fo u fa&mu fw, f/ ' gayrJh r jzpfEkdi fwJhwm0efawGeJY q mwm[ m 2011 rSm a&G;au mu fyGJat mi fjr i fr I&&SdcJhw, f/ ½Iax mi fhwpfckuawmh au s;v u fb r fb mrJq E&Si fawG[ m pkdu fysdK;a&;x kwfu kefeJY Bu D;rm;wJhzGHUNzdK;rIt wGu f ai GaMu ;x kwfay;jci f;t wGu fjr i fhrm;wJh wefzkd;awGu kd arQmfv i fhcJhw, f/ wjcm;½Iax mi fhu awmh NrdKUjyt v kyfo rm;awG[ mt cGefen f;yg;r IeJYt pm;t pmaps;EIef;edr fhu szkdYarQmfv i fhw, f/

177


Programmaticu sewJh

ygwDo pf

u eOD;ax mu f

cHr It ajccH

v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkeJYcsdwfq u fr It m;en f;

v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkeJYcsdwfq u fr It m;au mi f;

CSO rsm;eJYjr i fhrm;wJhaygi f;pyfr I

CSO rsm;eJYav smhen f;wJhaygi f;pyfr I

CSO rsm;eJYjr i fhrm;wJhaygi f;pyfr I

CSO rsm;eJYav smhen f;wJhaygi f;pyfr I

t &yfb u ft zGJUtpn f;rsm; (CSOs)

eJYq u fpyfr I

t rsdK;t pm;

Ekdi fi Ho m;t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;

t o Gi fjyKrI

Ekdi fi Ho m;t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;t o Gi fr jyKrI

v lrsdK;pkt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;

t o Gi fjyKrI

Ekdi fi Ho m;t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;t o Gi fr jyKrI

Programmatic u sewJhygwDzGHUNzdK;rI&JU u GJjym;wJhyHkpHrsm;

yHk 3.1/ / Programmatic u sewJhygwDpepf&JU wn fax mi frI

178


Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JU wkd;wu fr I[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDu G, faysmu fapNyD; t aMu mi f;t &i f;o Hk;ckaMu mi fh Programmaticu sewJhygwDawG[ m ckdi frmpGmwn fax mi fEkdi fw, f/ yx r t csu fu awmh Pro-grammatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m v n fywfzkdYu kefu sp&dwfen f;yg;w, f/r u fv Hk;ay;wJhygwDawGjyKv kyfo v kd r Jq E&Si fawGq Du kd t u keft u srsm;wJht u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I? ' grSr [ kwf wefzkd;Bu D;wJhu wdawGay;p&mrv kdb l;/ ' g[ m t Ekdi f&wJhrJq E&Si fawGeJYq u fpyfaewJh t jcm;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGt wGu f t &i f;t jrpfawGu kd wkdu f½kdu fjzpfapw, f/ ' kwd, u awmh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawG t mP m&SdaepOft csdeft wGi f; pD;yGm;a&;u sq i f;r IawGjzpfv mwJht cg o lwkdY&JUrJq E&Si fawGu kd 0efaq mi fr Iay;zkdY t &i f;t jrpfawGu kdu efYo wf&w, f/ ' gaMu mi fhrJq E&Si fawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JU u r f;v Sr f;r Ijzi fhEkdi fi Ha&;csOf;u yfr It o pfu kd pr f;o yfv kdw, f/ aemu fq Hk;u awmh Program-matic u sewJhygwDawG t pkd;&u kdyHkazmfwJht cg ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawG[ mo lwkdY&JUrJq E&Si fawGt wGu f pDpOfay;aewJh t &i f;t jrpfawGeJYv kyfEkdi fpGr f;awGt wGu f &ykdi fcGi fhawGv si fjrefpGmq Hk;½IH;w, f/ ' g[ mo lwkdY&JU wpfck wn f;ao men f;v r f;u kdz, f&Sm;jci f;jzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdjzpf&yft rsm;t jym;[ m Programmaticu sewJhAsL[ mawGu kd v u fcH&efzdt m;ay;w, f/

rao csmwJht aMu mi f;t &i f;t rsm;t jym;[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;NydKi fq kdi fr IeJYajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOfawG&JU yl;wGJjzpfpOfawGaMu mi fh Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;o kdYajymi f;v JrIawGu kd v r f;acsmfapw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ mt pkd;&t zGJUt wGi f; csdKUwJhpGmaq mi f&Gu fwJht cg v Hkav mu fwJhjyn fo lawG&JUt jr i frMu n fr Iu kd zefwD;jci f;[ m ru fv Hk;ay;r Jq G, fwJhNydKi fb u ft wGu fwHcg;zGi fhay;v kdu fwmjzpfw, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSm rarQmfv i fhx m;wJh pD;yGm;a&;, dr f;, kdi fr IawG? t ½Iyft ax G;awGeJY Ekdi fi Hjcm;ay:v pDt EÅ&m, fawG[ m jyn fo l&JU , HkMu n fr Iu kd x dckdu fapw, f/ ay:v pDt ajccHygwDawG[ m au mi f;rGefpGmpGrf;aq mi fEkdi f&r, f/ ygwDrlab mi fjyKrI&JU edrfhyg;wJht q i fhu v n f;t a&;Bu D;w, f/Programmatic u sewJhygwD[ m ay:v pDt ajccHu wdwm0efawGu kd t ½IH;ay;&wJht cg ajymi f;v Jr Ir&SdwJhygwDpepfay:aygu fv mw, f/ Programmatic

179


u sewJhyHkpHr&SdwJh r lab mi fjyKr Ir&SdwJh v lrsdK;pkygwDawG[ m ay:v pDt ajccHwJhcsOf;u yfr I&JUq u fwkdu fjzpfr Iu kd ao csmapw, f/ ' Dv kdygwD[ m v lrsdK;pkt zGJUt pn f;wpfck&JUax mu fcHrIu kd ESpfo u fwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ ' Dv lrsdK;pkt zGJUt pn f;awGu kdjzn fhq n f;zkdYt wGu fa&G;cs, fo wfrSwfrIawGjyKv kyfw, f/ ' Dv kdygwDawGt Ekdi f&wJht cg jyn fe, ft &i f;t jrpfawGu kd &, lEkdi fw, f/ (Oyrmt m;jzi fh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhAsL[ mawG[ m ykdrkdt o m&Ekdi fw, f/) Programmatic u sewJh &yfwn fcsu fawGx def;o drf;wJhjzpf&yf[ m r jzpfraev kyfaq mi f&rIu kd av smhu sv mapw, f/v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m Ekdi fi Ho m; Programmaticu sewJhygwDawGt wGu f rwln DwJhwm0efawGu kdazmfaq mi fw, f/ v lr sdK;pkt kyfpkwpfpku kd o lwkdY&JUu kd, fpm;jyKrI[ m ygwDt wGi f;u dk, fpm;jyKrIr&SdwJh t jcm;v lrsdK;pkt zGJUt pn f;awGMu m; o djr i fem;v n fr Iu kdzefwD;w, f/ ' g[ m &Sm;yg;wJht a&;rygwJhv lrsdK;pkt zGJUt pn f;awGt wGu f NydKi fb u fygwDawGu kdjzpfv mapEkdi fw, f/ ajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOf[ m t rsm;eJYq kdi fwJht kyfpkawG&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;x i f&Sm;r Iu kdjr§i fhwi fNyD; wjcm;v lrsdK;pk? ' grSr [ kwf v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGx Gu fay:r Iu kd ykdrkdv G, fu lapw, f/

180


Box 3.7 ygwDpepfrlab mi fjyKrIeJYProgrammatic u sewJhygwD zGHUNzdK;rI&JUjcm;em;csu fOyrmESpfck

1980 ESpfrsm;eJY 1990 ESpfrsm;wGi f b &mZD;ygwDpepf[ mt pjyKcJhNyD; Bu D;rm;wJh Programmatic u ser Ir [ kwfwJh ygwDawGu kdajymi f;v JcJhw, f/ rJq E&Si fawG[ m ygwDaq mi fyk' fu kd u kd, fpm;v S, f&JUay:v pDt ajct aet wGu f o wi f;t csu ft v u fq kdi f&mx da&mu frIt jzpft o Hk;r jyKb l;/ ' Dv kdt o Hk;r jyKwm[ m ygwDawGu kd r , HkMu n fwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ pepf&JUrwn fNi dr fr IeJYwpfppDjzpfr I[ m ygwDawG&JUwm0efcHr Iu kd q kyfu kdi fr It ay: rJq E&Si fu kdcu fcJat mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ v u f0J PTygwDeJY v u f, m PSDB ygwDay:x Gu fv mrI[ m ygwDpepfr lab mi fjyKr IeJY Programmatic u ser I&JU wkd;wu fr IjzpfpOfu kd t jyeft v Seft m;jzn fhjci f;jzi fht pysdK;w, f/ Programmatic u sewJhyv u fazmi f;[ mwn fNi drfwJhrJt ajccHpepfu kd v HkNcHK&eft wGu f PT eJY PSDB u kd v kyfykdi fcGi fhay;w, f/ rJt ajccHrI[ m a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mn GefYaygi f;t pkd;&t zGJUu kdt jcm;ygwDawGyHkazmfo v kd ykdrkdn Dn GwfwJhygwDpepfu kdjyKv kyfw, f/' Dv kdwn fNi drfr I[ m b &mZD;&JUygwDpepfu kd o ab maygu fem;v n fat mi fjyKv kyfcJhNyD; ygwDawG&JUrl0g' yv u fazmi f;awGu kd ykdrkd, HkMu n fpdwfcsapw, f/

Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ mrl0g' q GJaq mi frIu kd Oayu ©mjyKr Irsm;wJh rJq E&Si ft kyfpkawG&SdwJh Ekdi fi HawGt wGi f; NydKi fq kdi fr , f q kd&i fProgrammatic ru sewJhygwD[ m AsL[ majymi f;v JrIu aeq Hk;½IH;rIrsm;jym;NyD;t o m&rIen f;yg;w, f/ Zrfb D, mrSmawmh PF ygwDay:x Gu fv mrI[ m


Programmatic u sewJhcsOf;u yfr IawGu kd ykdrkdv u fcHzkdY t jcm;ygwDawGu kdt en f;i , ft m;jzn fhr IawGjyKv kyfcJhw, f/ Bu D;rm;wJha' o awGrSmawmh' Dv kdv u fcHr IawG[ m PF ygwD&JUx i f&Sm;v mrIaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ (2006a&G;au mu fyGJv Iyf&Sm;r It wGi f;) PF ygwD[ m Ekdi fi H&JUt "du Program-matic u sewJh rJq E&Si ft kyfpkawGu kd q GJaq mi fcJhw, f/ Ekdi fi H&JUt "duu swJhrJq Et kyfpkESpfck[ m au s;v u fb r fb mt kyfpkeJY NrdKUjyaex kdi fo lawGjzpfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh ygwDpHk' Drkdu a&pDt wGu fv Iyf&Sm;r IeJY Ekdi fi HawmfzGHUNzdK;r It wGu faygi f;pn f;x m;wJhygwDawG[ m ay:v pDt ajccHq GJaq mi fr IawGykdrkdjzpfx Gef;v m&ef ru fv Hk;t csdKUu kdu r f;v Sr f;w, f/

182

Programmatic u sewJh Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUo u fa&mu frI

av hv mq ef;ppfr IjyKv kyfwJh Ekdi fi Hav ;ckt wGi f; Programmaticu sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JUt q i fheJYo b m0awGu kdajymi f;v JcJho v kd o lwkdY&JUEkdi fi Ha&;eJY t kyfcsKyfyHkawG[ mv n f;ajymi f;v JcJhw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ mEkdi fi Ha&;ji i f;cHkaq G;aEG;rIawG0i fa&mu fv mNyD; t pkd;&ay:v pDawGu kdx dcdku fwJht cgt csu fo Hk;ckt ay: wln DwJho u fa&mu frI&Sdw, f/ ' Do Hk;csu fu (1) u kd, fpm;jyKr IeJYwm0efcHr I? (2) t kyfcsKyfyHkeJY (3) Ekdi fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;r I wkdYjzpfw, f/

u dk, fpm;jyKr IeJYwm0efcHr Iu kdx n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;wJht cg Programmaticu sewJhygwDawG[ m pDrHu def;csrSwfx m;wJh &Si f;v i f;wJhay:v pDawGu kdazmfaq mi fwJhygwDawGjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdygwDawG[ m rJay;&wJht aMu mi f;t &i f;? ygwDu kd, fpm;jyKr I&JU rJq E&Si fawG&JU zGJUpn f;yHkawGeJYywfo u fNyD; &Si f;v i f;wJht o dawGu kdrJq E&Si fawGq Day;w, f/ rJq E&Si ft zGJUt pn f;awG[ m t pkd;&t zGJUt wGu f wpfBu drfa&G;cs, fcH&wJhygwDawGu kd arQmfv i fhw, f/ a&G;au mu fyGJaemu fq u fwGJ&v ' f[ m wm0efcHwJhygwDt wGu f &Si f;v i f;wJhay:v pDu wdawGu kd azmfaq mi fw, f/' Dv kdazmfaq mi fr I[ m a&G;au mu fyGJpu f0ef;rsdK;pHk&JUv rf;aMu mi f;t ay: rJq E&Si f


awGt wGu f Ekdi fi Ha&;pepft wGi f; Bu D;rm;wJh, HkMu n fcsu fu kdao o Gm;apw, f/Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m t "du u swJhay:v pDji i f;cHkaq G;

aEG;r I? t kyfcsKyfr I? acgi f;aq mi f&JUv kyfEkdi fpGr f;eJY t pkd;&&JUrSwfwr f;awGt ay:t m½kHpkdu fw, f/ ' Dv kdt m½kHpkdu fr I[ m pD;yGm;a&;t ay: t pkd;&&JUt &n ft csi f;eJYwjcm;u dpöawGu kd rJq G, fwJhygwDawGx Gu fay:r I[ m t &i ft a&;rygwJht kyfpkawGeJYt pkd;&&JU q i f;&Jo m;rsm;t u sdK;jzpfx Gef;apr Iu kdv u fcHr It wGu f Bu D;rm;wJhv IHYaq mfr I&v ' fx Gu fay:apw, f/ t dEd, rSmawmh Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;[ m jyn fe, ft q i fhrSm au mi f;rGefwJht pkd;&&JUv kyfi ef;pOfawGu kdv kdu fygrIaMu mi fh v si fjrefpGmjzpfay:w, f/ av ;eu fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;t rSefw&m;awG[ m jyKv kyf&r, fhwkd;wu frIawGu kd u efYo wfayrJh r l0g' Ekdi fi Ha&;u awmh v si fjrefpGmjzpfay:cJhw, f/ b &mZD;rSmv kd Programmatic u sewJhygwDpepfwkd;wu fv mwJh t cgygwDawG[ m ygwDEkdi fi Ha&;eJYay:v pDyHkpHawG&JU t pDt pOfeJYpepfu kdwm0efcsrSwfw, f/ ygwDEkdi fi Ha&;eJYay:v pDyHkpHawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfu kdykdrkdv G, fu lapNyD;ygwDu kd, fpm;jyKrI&JUwm0efcHrIu kd csKyfu kdi fzkdYrJq E&Si fawGu kd ykdrkdv G, fu lapw, f/v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&meJYv lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mr[ kwfwJhrl0g' t ajccH ygwDESpfckpv Hk;x Gu fay:v mwJht cg ygwDawG[ m x Hk;pHt wkdi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfESpfcku GJr Iu kdjzpfay:apw, f/' Dv kd jzpfay:wm[ m pkpn f;r Ix u f u GJjym;rIt ay: t m½kHpkdu fr Iu kdt av ;x m;wJhrwln DwJhrJq Ee, fawGMu m; x i f&Sm;wJht kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mt u faMu mi f;awG&JUwkd;wu fr IaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/

' Dv kdv Trf;rkd;x m;wJhjzpf&yfawGrSm Programmatic u sewJhygwDwkdi f;[ mq i f;&Jr Iav smhcsjci f;eJY zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr It ay:t m½kHpkdu fw, f/ t pkd;&eJYtwkdu ft cHawGu awmh 0i fai Gedr fhu swJhrJq Ee, feJYq i f;&Jo m;t u sdK;jzpfx Gef;r It wGu f zGHUNzdK;rIAsL[ mawGu kd csdwfq u fr Iwn faq mu fjci f;jzi fh Bu D;rm;wJhax mu fcHr IawGu kd&&Sdw, f/ b &mZD;rSmawmh PT ygwD[ m Bolsa Familia eJY FomeZero (Zero Hunger) v kd r l0g' t pDt pOfawGu kdjr§i fhwi fw, f/ ' Dv kdacwfrDwJhay:v pD0i fai GeJY zGHYNzdK;r It ay:x l;jcm;x i f&Sm;wJho u fa&mu fr IawG&Sdw, f/ (Rocha2001) t dEd, rSmawmh BJP ygwD&JUq GJaq mi fr I[ m ae&Si fe, fu Gef*&u fygwD&JUt kyfcsKyfa&;OD;aq mi fr Iu kd t rsdK;o m;au s;v u fzGHUNzdK;r It mrcHu kd rdwfq u f&ef


armi f;ESi fw, f/ ' Dau s;v u fzGHYNzdK;rIt mrcH[ m t pkd;&&JUwpfESpfv kyfaq mi frIt wGi f;au s;v u fwkdi f;&JU t drfax mi fpkwpf&mu kd t mrcHw, f/ v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m , Ofau s;r Ijyó emu kd OD;pm;ay;wJh, lu &def;u v GJNyD; rn DrQr IEIef;jr i fhrm;wJhEkdi fi HawG&JUProgrammatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m q i f;&JrI&JUv kdt yfcsu fawGu kdax mu fcHw, f/

ygwDt rsm;t jym;[ m au mi f;rGefwJht kyfcsKyfr Iq kdi f&mv Iyf&Sm;rIawGt ay:pDrHaq mi f&Gu fw, f/ t u sdK;q u ft ajct aeawGu jcpm;rIawGu kdt q Hk;o wfzkdYeJY ykdrkdt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdwJh Ekdi fi Ho m;t ajcjyKt pkd;&u kd ax mu fyHhr , fq kdwJho lwkdY&JUu wdawGu kd q u fv u faq mi f&Gu fw, f/ t x i f&Sm;q Hk;u awmh t dEd, &JUau mi f;rGefwJht kyfcsKyfr Iu kdu kd, fpm;v S, fav mi f;awG[ m jyn fe, ft q i fhawG&JUt pkd;&t zGJUawGrSm x i f&Sm;wJho u fa&mu fr IawGjyKv kyfEkdi fjci f;jzpfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh b D, mrSm Nitish Kumar [ m jyn fo lYq kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;rsm;eJYv r f;pOfXmeawG&JUe, fy, fu kd au smi f;aewJhrdef;u av ;awGt wGu f pu fb D;eJYv , fo rm;awGt wGu f acs;ai GpDrHcsu fawGax mu fyHhay;cJhw, f/ ' Dv kdjyn fe, fawG[ m t u sdK;o u fa&mu frI&SdwJhpD;yGm;a&;jyKjyi fr I[ m x i f&Sm;wJhEkdi fi Hjcm; wkdu f½kdu f&i f;ESD;jr§KyfESHrIu kdq GJaq mi fNyD; t v kyft u kdi fo pfawGpDpOfay;o v kd jr i fhrm;wJhpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r I&v ' fx Gu fay:apw, f/

Programmatic u sewJhcsdwfq u fr I[ m acgi f;aq mi fawGjcpm;r Ien f;yg;at mi fjyKv kyfwJhv kyfaq mi fr It wGu f t m;au mi f;wJhyl;aygi f;aq mi f&Gu frIpepfu kdjzpfay:apw, f/ yx ru awmh ae&m, lr Iq kdi f&mjyó emeJY t a&;ygwJhau mi f;rGefwJht kyfcsKyfr It wGi f;jyó emawGu o lwkdY&JUa&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&max mu fcHr Iu kd wjzn f;jzn f;zsu fq D;wJh jcpm;r It ½IyfawmfawG[ m ygwDt wGu f t x l;t m;en f;csu fawGjzpfv mw, f/ &v ' fu awmh Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m jyn fe, ft &i f;t jrpfawGu kd t v GJo Hk;pm;jyKzkdYv kdt yfcsu fen f;yg;w, f/ ' Dv kdt v GJo Hk;pm;jyKr Ien f;yg;wm[ m o lwkdY&JUa&G;au mu fyGJat mi fjr i fr IeJYo lwkdY&JUax mu fcHo lawGt wGu f cGJa0x def;csKyfr IawGt ay: r rSDckdwmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdr rSDckdr I[ m r l0g' t ajccHygwDawG&JU Programmatic u sewJhygwDpepft wGi f;rSm t x l;o jzi fhrSefu efNyD; r l0g' t ajccHygwDawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJh ygwDawGeJYr, SOfNydKi fb l;/ ' gaMu mi fh o lwkdY[ m u kefu sp&dwfawGu kd

184


ykdrkdt o Hk;jyKEkdi fNyD; a&G;au mu fyGJrSm ½IH;edrfhzkdYt v m;t v men f;w, f/ zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr I&SdwJhEkdi fi HawGq Du ygwDt m;v Hk;[ m ai GaMu ;ax mu fyHhr Ijyó emeJY&i fq kdi f&w, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kd&i f ygwDawG&JUax mu fcHo lawG[ m ygwDt zGJUt pn f;&HyHkai Gt wGu f x Hk;pHt &q i f;&JwJhae&mawGjzpfw, f/ jcpm;r Iwkdu fzsu fwJhv Iyf&Sm;r IawGu kd wm0ef, lwJhr l0g' t ajccHygwDawGt wGu f ru fv Hk;awG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawGv kd q GJaq mi fr It m;rau mi f;b l;/

ay:v pDEkdi fi Ha&;u kd t ajccHr It ay:rSDckdwJh u dk, fpm;jyKr I? t kyfcsKyfr IeJYykdrkdu s, fjyefYwJhEkdi fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;rIawGt ay: rl0g' q kdi f&mwkd;wu frI&JUo u fa&mu frIu kdt rSwf&aezkdYt a&;Bu D;w, f/ Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;, SOfNydKi fwJh ygwDpepfu kd ckdi frmpGmwn faq mu fv mwJht cg ' DEkdi fi Ha&;pepf[ m en f;yg;wJhjcpm;rIeJYykdrkdwHkYjyefrI&SdwJh ygwD? wn fNi drfwJhygwDpepfeJY ykdrkdt u sdK;o u fa&mu frI&SdwJht pkd;&u kdax mu fcH zkdYq E&Sdw, f/ ' gayrJh Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m r l0g't ajccHpepft wGi f; t pdwft ykdi f;t &, SOfNydKi fwJht cg wm0efcHrIeJYu kd, fpm;jyKrI&JUwn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&marmi f;ESi fr I[ m t m;en f;w, f/ ' Dv kdt m;en f;wm[ m v lrsdK;pkygwDeJY ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawG&SdaewmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/

v lrsdK;pkygwDeJYru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwD[ m ay:v pDt ajccHwJhpu m;ppfx kd;yGJu kd wm0ef, lzkdYpdwfr0i fpm;b l;/ o lwkdY&JUai GaMu ;ax mu fyHho lawG? ' grSr[ kwf t m½kHpkdu fzkdYrJq E&Si fawGu kd t m;ay;NyD; r l0g' q kdi f&mpdwf0i fpm;r It ay:t m½kHpkdu fr Iu kd t m½kHv GJapw, f/

185


Box 3.8 Programmatic u sewJh Ekdi fi Ha&;&v ' frsm;u dk, fpm;jyKrIr&SdwJht zGJUt pn f;awGt wGu fo ab mx m;rsm;cGi fhjyKjci f;

' Djzpf&yfav hv mrIt o D;o D;rSm r l0g' t ajccHwJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JU zGHYNzdK;rI[ m t &i fu kd, fpm;jyKrIr&SdwJht zGJUt pn f;awG&JU ay:v pDa&G;cs, fr It wGu fo ab mx m;awGu kd cGi fhjyKw, f/ Zrfb D, mrSmawmh eD, kdv pfb &, fay:v pDv kyfi ef;pOf[ m v lBu dKu frsm;wJhay:v pDo ab mx m;eJYru kdu fn DwJhEkdi fi Hwu mb @ma&;pn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;&JU Bu D;rm;wJhv Grf;rkd;r IrSm t ajccHw, f/ 2010rSmawmh v lBu dKu frsm;v Trf;rkd;wJhwln DrI[ m jy| mef;x m;wJhygwD&JUpD;yGm;a&;t kyfcsKyfr Iu s½IH;jci f;eJY pD;yGm;a&;t wGi f;Bu D;rm;wJhjyn fe, ft wGu f v kdt yfwJhMu m;0i fajz&Si f;r IawGeJYpyfv sOf;NyD; ay:aygu fv mw, f/ PF ygwDx Gu fay:v mwJht x d Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m ' Dt jr i fawGu kdu kd, fpm;jyKzkdY r&SmazGcJhb l;/ t "du ygwDawG[ m v lrsdK;pkeJY t m;ay;r IjzefYa0jci f;awG&JU t ajccHwJhax mu fcHr IawGeJY t wkdu ft cHygwDawGu kd t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdpGmNzdKcGJcJhw, f/ Michael Sata acwfaemu fykdi f;rSo m v lrsdK;pkt zGJUt pn f;to D;o D;&JU ra&mi fh&JwJhygwDawG[ m v lt rsm;pku kd t wlwu Gaq mi f, lNyD;wn faq mu fw, f/ Zr fb D, m[ m ygwDpHk' Drkdu a&pDt pkd;&v Iyf&Sm;r I&JUpD;yGm;a&;ay:v pDawGt ay: rESpfo u fr Iu kd v Gwfv yfpGmazmfjyEkdi fcJhw, f/

t dEd, rSmawmh rwln DwJh Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGay:x Gu fv mrI[ m ygwDt wGi f; t v Gefjcm;em;wJhrJq Ee, ft kyfpkESpfck&JUu dk, fpm;jyKr Iu kdjr i fhwu fapcJhw, f/ v lYt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;t v Gefq i f;&Jjci f;&JUv kdt yfcsu f[ m u Gef*&u fygwD&JU v Trf;rkd;r IaMu mi fh t a&;rygb l;v kdYo ab mx m;cH&w, f/ u Gef*&u fygwD[ m BJP ygwDx Gu fay:v mrIaMu mi fh


ygwDpepft wGi f;t a&;ygwJh u dk, fpm;jyKrIawGu kdpDpOfw, f/ wpfcsdefwn f;rSmyJ BJP ygwDay:x Gu fv mrI[ m [ dELt rsdK;o m;a&;&JUay:v pDpdwf0i fpm;rIu kday:v Gi fapcJhw, f/ ' g[ m ykdrkdwkd;wu fwJh Ekdi fi Hjcm;r l0g' u kdv u fcHwJht pkd;&t jri fu kdawGUv kdwJho lwkdY&JUq Et wkdi f;jzpfNyD; Ekdi fi H&JU, Ofau s;r Iq kdi f&mv u ©P mawGu kdu mu G, f[ m t jcm;Ekdi fi Hwu meJYe, fpyfjzwfau smfEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;x Hu t dEd, &JUv Gwfv yfr Iu kd t m;au mi f;apw, f/

ax mu fcHcsu frsm;

Programmatic ygwDawGeJYpepf&JUzGHUNzdK;rI&v ' fx Gu fay:apwJh t ajct aeeJY t aMu mi f;t &i f;awGu kdaq G;aEG;NyD;aemu f ' Dv kdygwDawGeJYpepf&JUzGHUNzdK;r Iu kdt m;ay;r IeJYjr§i fhwi fr IawGjyKv kyfEkdi fwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDzGJUpn f;r IawGu kd t "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdzkdYt a&;Bu D;w, f/

wn faq mu frIq kdi f&m t q Hk;t jzwfay;ao mt &mrsm;

v lr IpD;yGm;a&;t ajct aev kd wn faq mu frIq kdi f&mt q Hk;t jzwfay;wJht &mawG[ m r l0g' q kdi f&mq GJaq mi fr Iu kd rJq E&Si fawG&JUv u fcHrIeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;pGefYpm;o lawGt wGu f ay:v pDt ajccHAsL[ mawG&JU t u sdK;&Sdr Iu kd o u fa&mu fr I&Sdw, f/ ' Dv kdt ajct aeawG[ m Programmatic u sewJhcsdwfq u fr IawG&JUwkd;wu fr Iu kdu efYo wfwJht cg Oyrmt m;jzi fh yn ma&;t q i fhedr fhu sr I? yHkrSeftv kyft u kdi f&&Sdr Ien f;yg;jci f;eJY t "du ax mu fcHo lawGu kd ckdi frmwJhcsn faESmi fr IawGedr fhu sNyD; ' g[ m Programmatic u sewJhygwDpepfawG&JU zGHUNzdK;r Iu kd&yfwefYapw, f/ ' Dav hv mrIt rsdK;t pm;rsm;eJY pD;yGm;a&;t aMu mi f;&i f;awG[ m


t ajymi f;t v Jt wGu f q , fpkESpfrsm;pGmt csdef, l&w, f/ ' g[ m ygwDrl0g' t ajccHpepf[ m r l0g' t ajccHq GJaq mi fr It wGu f ykdrkdwHkYjyefr I&SdwJhv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGr jzpfv mEkdi fb l;v kdY rq kdv kdb l;/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh Bu D;rm;wJhrD' D, m&ykdi fcGi fh[ mwn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&mt aMu mi f;t &i f;u aex Gu fay:v mw, fv kdYajymwJh r l0g' tajccHEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu f aESmi fhaES;Mu efYMu mrIt csdKUu kd au smfv Tm;zkdYu ln Dw, f/ rQwwJht ajct aerSm au s;v u frJq E&Si fawG[ m NrdKUjyeJYwef;wljzpfr Ix u f r l0g' q kdi f&maq mi f&Gu frIu kd ESpfo u fr Ien f;yg;w, f/ ' Dv kdESpfo u fr Ien f;yg;wm[ m o lwkdYawGu kd v lrsdK;pkeJYru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iu kd ykdrkdESpfo u fNyD; yn ma&;edr fhyg;o v kd , Ofau s;r It &wpfpkwpfpn f;x Jjzpfae&wm jyn fo lYt u sdK;jzpfx Gef;apr IawGu kd ab ;csdwfx m;wmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdx i f&Sm;wJht aMu mi f;t &i f;awGu kd Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDaq mi f&Gu fr IeJYEkdi fi Ha&;pu m;ppfx kd;yGJeJYywfo u fwJh t a&;Bu D;t csu ft v u fawGu kd q i f;&JwJhrJq E&Si fawGu kdray;b J rD' D, m&ykdi fcGi fhawGu kd u efYo wfx m;rIawGu a&maESmx m;wmjzpfw, f/ r l0g' t pDt pOfawGu kd t au mi ft x n fazmfjci f;[ m rD' D, m&ykdi fcGi fhu kd wkd;wu fapNyD; n DrQapo v kd ygwDv u fat mu fcHax mu fyHho lawG[ m r l0g' t ajccHyg0i fr Ien f;yg;wJh au s;v u fe, fajr&JU &n f&G, fcsu ft csdKUu kd ykdrkdau mi f;rGefapzkdYpwi fv kyfaq mi fEkdi fw, f/ ax mu fyHhrIawG[ m jyn fo lYrD' D, m&ykdi fcGi fhr&SdwJh rJq Ee, fawGu kdazmfjyzkdY e, fy, fav hv mo lawGu kd v kyfi ef;t yfESHYo i fhNyD; Ekdi fi Ht ESHY Ekdi fi Ha&;pu m;ppfx kd;yGJ&JU b u frv kdu fr IeJY t &n ft ao G;t rsdK;rsdK;u kd cefYrSef;&efjzpfw, f/

ygwDzGJUpn f;yHk

ygwDo pfawGeJY t apmykdi f;zGHUNzdK;rI[ m r l0g' t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;u kd wkd;wu fapwJhay:x Gu fv mrIt wGi f; t a&;Bu D;wJht ckdu ft wefYawGrSm zGJUpn f;w, f/' gaMu mi fh r&i fhu su fao ;wJh ygwDo pfeJYv kyfaq mi fjci f;[ m ykdrkdt a&;ygw, f/ygwDv u fat mu fcHr l0g' t pDt pOf[ m ' Drkdu a&pDu kdzGHUNzdK;r IeJYt v m;t v m&SdwJhrJq Ee, fawGu kdazmfaq mi fjci f;Mu m;x Ju u Gm[ rIu kdu kd, fpm;jyK&SmawGUjci f;eJYr l0g' t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;zGHUNzdK;r Iu kd v IHYaq mfu ln Dw, f/ ' Dv kd av hv mrIawG[ m

188


ay:v pDOD;pm;ay;r I ygwDyv u fazmi f;awGMu m; q u fo G, fr Ir&Sdjci f;u kd prf;o yf&eft v kdYi Sm x kdESpfck&JU jzefYa0rIu kd t pDt pOfq GJ&eft wGu f NcHKi Hkav hv mrIt csu ft v u feJY ygwDr l0g' v r f;pOfpdppfcsu fawGt ay: au mu fcsu fq GJw, f/

t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;eJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;t Mu m; t m;au mi f;wJhcsddwfq u fr Iwn faq mu fjci f;[ m t a&;ygw, f/ ' Dv kdt a&;ygjci f;[ m csdwfq u fr IawG wpfcgwav Programmatic zGHUNzdK;r Iu kd v Iyf&Smap&efaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/o do mx i f&Sm;wmu awmh t &yfb u ft zGJYt pn f;awG? wn f&SdNyD;o m;? ' grSr[ kwfygwDo pfawGeJY n Dn GwfwJh Programmatic rJq Ee, fawG&JU u kd, fpm;v S, fawGMu m; yl;aygi f;aq mi f&Gu fr IawG&JU zGHUNzdK;r IawG v G, fu lapzkdY t v SL&Si fawGu kdb u frv kdu fwJh Mu m;0i fpDpOfo lawGt jzpfv kyfaq mi fzkdY au mi f;rGefpGmae&may;w, f/

ygwDt i fpwDu sL;&Si f; t o Gi fjyKjci f;

ygwDai GaMu ;ax mu fyHhrI[ m wpfcgwav Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&i fq kdi f&wJht zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mpdefac:r It csdKUu kd &n fñ Tef;Ekdi fw, f/ yk*¾v du t u sdK;t jrwf&SmazGwJhacgi f;aq mi fawG? ' grSr[ kwf t v Geft u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdwJh ygwDzGJUpn f;yHkawGu kd aMu mu f&GHUo lawG[ m x def;csKyf&efcu fcJNyD; ygwD&JUypfrSwfx m;wJh&n f&G, fcsu fawGu ae ygwDai GaMu ;ax mu fyHhr Iu kd wdr f;acsmfapw, f/ ' gayrJhygwDawGu kd u ln DzkdY &n f&G, fx m;wJh t ax mu ft yHhawGu kd *½kwpkdu fax mu fyHhay;jci f;[ m ykdrkdckdi frmwJht zGJUt pn f;u kd ay:aygu fzkdYjzpfw, f/ ppfrSefwJh&n f&G, fcsu f&SdwJh acgi f;aq mi fawGyg0i fwJhjzpf&yfawGrSmawmh o lwkdY&JUt "du v kyfaq mi fcsu fawGu kd t m;jzn fhay;NyD; t v SLawG[ m Programmatic t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;t o Gi fjyKjci f;&JUjzpfpOfu kd ax mu fyHhEkdi fw, f/

t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&ma&G;cs, fr IawG[ mv n f; Programmatic ygwDawGu kd t m;au mi f;ap? ' grSr [ kwf t m;en f;apw, f/ ygv DrefeJY a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mpn f;u r f;awGu kd rdwfq u fjci f; , lu &def;rSm ygwDt mP mykdi fawG&JUwkdu fpm;r Iu kd q efYu si fb u fjzpfapwJh t [ efYt wm;awGu kd zefwD;w, f/ x kdY

189


t jyi f t m;au mi f;wJho r®wae&meJY u kd, fpm;v S, fwpfOD;wn f;a&G;cs, fwJhe, fajrawGu ae t m;en f;wJho r®wae&meJY t csdK;u su kd, fpm;jyKpepf&JU u dk, fpm;v S, ft rn frazmfjywJhpepfu kd ajymi f;v Jjci f;[ m , lu &def;ygwDawG&JU v Gwfv yfwJh u kd, fpm;v S, fawGu kd pGr f;aq mi f&n fjr§i fhwi fay;NyD; ygwDawGu kd o lwkdY&JUwefzkd;? au smfMu m;r IeJY ay:v pDv kyfi ef;pOfawGu kd x def;o drf;&ef v kyfykdi fcGi fhay;w, f/ t jyeft v Seft & ' g[ may:v pDt ajccHwJh ygwDpepfay:x Gu fv mrIu kdt m;ay;w, f/ wen f;q kd&&i f ygwDeJYygwDpepft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;t o Gi fjyKr I[ mygwDacgi f;aq mi fawGu kd ygwDpn f;u r f;awGv kdu femapwJh Oya' jyKpn f;rsOf;eJY a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mpn f;rsOf;awGt & jr§i fhwi fEkdi fw, f/

a&G;au mu fyGJpepfajymi f;v Jr I[ m &Sm;yg;ayr , fhv u fcHv mwJho drIawGeJYo ab mx m;u GJv GJNyD; ' g[ m wpfcgwav t v SLawGu t "du u swJhu @awGu kd u pm;wJhe, fy, fjzpfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh t u syft wn f;awGau smfv GefcJhwJhjzpf&yfawG&SdwJh u Gef*kd? v pfAsm;eJY q D, mv D, GefeDwkdYrSm t v SLawG[ m a&G;au mu fyGJpepfu kd a&G;cs, f&efeJY wn faq mu f&efu ln Dw, f/ wu , fawmh ' De, fy, ft wGi f;yg0i faq mi f&Gu f&ef ykdrkdrsm;jym;wJht cGi fht v rf;awG yHkrSeft m;jzi fh¤i f;wkdYu kd, fwkdi f , laq mi fw, f/ ' ght jyi f ' Dv kdu dpöawGrSm t v SLawG[ mu kdi fwG, f&efcu fcJwJhae&mawGrSmawmi f o lwkdY[ m t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mjyefv n f jyKjyi fr Iu kdax mu fcHwJh t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;awGu kd ax mu fyHhjci f;jzi fht o Hk;0i fwJh Mu m;0i fpGu fzu fr IawGeJYt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdEkdi fao ;w, f/

ygwDwGi f;' Drkdu a&pD q Hk;½IH;&eft v kdYi Sm t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;t o Gi fjyKr Iu kdjr§i fhwi fwJh ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG&JUt ajct aeu kd t m;jzn fhr I[ m t EÅ&m, f&SdNyD; ' gaMu mi fh ygwDacgi f;aq mi f&JUq Et ay:rSDckdaewJh ygwD&JU Program-matic v u ©PmawG jyKjyi fx def;o drf;r Iu kd jzpfapw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh ydkrkdwn fNi drfNyD;pGr f;aq mi fEkdi fpGrf;&dSwJhygwDawGjzpfay:apjci f;&JU &n frSef;csu f[ m o lwkdY&JUacgi f;aq mi fawGt aeeJY ygwD0i fawGeJY wu f<u v Iyf&Sm;o lawGt ay: wm0ef, lr I?wm0efcHrI&dSapa&; ygwDawGu dk t m;ay;ax mu fcHzkdY v kdt yfcsu feJY n DrQaewJht csu fu t a&;Bu D;w, f/ ' Drkdu a&pDpepfo pfawGrSm ygwDwGi f;' Drkdu a&pD[ m t kyfpkzGJUrI(Boucek 2010) eJY ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr Iq kdi f&m ygwDwGi f;Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfawGt m;jzi fh

190


rMu mcP azmfjycH&w, f/ ' gayrJhv n f; ygwDawGu t m;au mi f;wJh Pro-grammatic u sejci f;t csdwft q u fawGu dk t x kdi fcsv kdu fNyD;NyDq kdwJht cg u dk, fpm;jyKrIeJY wm0ef, lr I? wm0efcHrI&dSwJhwn faq mu fyHk&JU zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu frI[ m ygwDn Dn GwfrIeJY ¤i f;ygwD&JUt kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&m&yfwn fcsu ft ay: ygwD&JUu wdu 0wfckdi frmpGmwn fax mi fjci f;u dk t m;jzn fhay;zkdYt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ t J' Dv kd jzpf&yfawGeJY&i fq kdi f&wJht cg ygwDt u lt n Dax mu fyHho lawG[ m o lwkdY&JUt m;ay;rIawGu dkygwDwGi f;' Drkdu a&pD&JUjr§i fhwi fjci f;t ay: t ajct aet & jzpfapzkdYBu dK;pm;o i fhw, f/

ed*Hk;

Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfwpfck[ m ygwDawGt wGi f;rSm ay:v pDeJYax mu fcHrIpn f;½Hk;v HIYaq mfjci f;u dk t "du t m;jzi fhazmfaq mi fNyD; t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSb J a&SUaemu fn Dn GwfwJht kdi f' Dt kdv kd*sDq kdi f&mt ajct aewpfck&JU t ajccHt ay:rSmt kyfcsKyfwJht csdefrSmProgrammatic u sejci f;jzpfw, f/ Programmatic u sev kdwJhygwDawGt wGu fo lwkdYt aeeJYo lwdkY&JUay:v pDawGt ay:rSm t ajccHNyD; t m;ay;ax mu fcHr Iu dkpn f;½Hk;v HIUaq mf&rSmjzpfo v kd t J' Day:v pDawGt wGu f ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG&JUu wdu 0wfawGu dkx def;o drf;r , fh ygwDwGi f;wn faq mu fyHkv n f;&dS&r, f/ t J' Dt jyi ft J' Day:v pDawGu dk t pdk;&t zGJUx Ja&mu f&dSwJht cg q u fv u fv kyfaq mi f& r , f/t J' Dv kdygwDawG[ m v lr I? ' grSr [ kwf v lrsdK;pkax mu fcHr It ajccHt ay:rSmwn faq mu fcH&Ekdi fw, f/

i kyfaewJht aMu mi f;t &i f;yrmP wpfcku ay:v pDu dkt ajccHwJhygwDawG&JUay:x Gu fv mrIu dk jr§i fhwi fw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhygwDwpfck[ mjr i fhrm;wJht &n ft ao G;t ay:t ajccHwJh AsL½dku a&pDpepfeJY t v Geft ri f;<u , f0wJhv lr It zGJUt pn f;wpfckjzpfwJh NrdKUjyv lOD;a&rsm;jym;wJh pu frIzGHUNzdK;NyD;Ekdi fi Hwpfckx JrSmzGHYNzdK;zkdY ydkrkdt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ t J' Dv kdygwD[ m v lr It zGJUt pn f;&JUyg0i fywfo u fr Iu dk t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;yHkpHjyKNyD; t ajccsNyD;jzpfwJhygwDwGi f;' Drkdu a&pD , EÅ&m;awGeJYt wlwu f<u wJht zGJU0i fawGyg&dSwJh wn faq mu fyHkwpfcku dk arGUav smfwJht cgProgrammatic u sewJhygwDjzpfaezdkY ydkrdkt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ t J' Dv kdyg

191


wDawG[ m ygwDpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;eJY x kx n fBu D;rm;wJhrJq Ee, fawGeJY au mi f;rGefwn fNi drfpGmcsdwfq u fx m;wJhygwDpepfu dk t m;ay;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;eJY ygv Drefq kdi f&mOya'awGu ae t u sdK;au s;Zl;cHpm;&w, f/

' Dt ajct aeawG wn f&dSwJhae&mrSm yHkrSeft m;jzi fh t o pfjzpfwJh? ' grSr [ kwf t pOft v mt m;jzi fh ao ;i , fwJhygwDawGjzpfwJh t m;au mi f;wJh Pro-grammatic u sewJhygwDawG zGHUNzdK;zkdYt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ ' gayrJh o lwkdYb , fav mu f <u , f0v mrv Jq kdwmu awmh t q u ft pyft ay:rSm r lwn faew, f/Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGay:x Gu fv mjci f;u dk Ekdi fi Ha&;? ' grSr [ kwfpD;yGm;a&;u ao mi f;u ei f;jzpfr Iwpfck&JU &v ' fwpfckt jzpf ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu ft ajccHu dk at mu fajcu v dIu fpm;wJh Ekdi fi Ha&;ywf0ef;u si fq DBu D;rm;x i f&Sm;wJht ajymi f;t v JawGt m;jzi fh azmfaq mi fw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;u dk ay:v pDt ajccHNyD;csOf;u yfjci f;u dk awmi f;q kdaewJh rJq Ee, fwpfck Ekdi fi HwpfcktwGi f;rSm&dSzkdYv n f; t a&;Bu D;w, f/ t J' Dv kdt ajct aeawG wn f&dSw, fq kd&i fwpfOD;? ' grSr[ kwf wpfOD;x u fydkwJhEkdi fi Ha&; acgi f;aq mi fawGu ay:v pDt ay:t ajccHwJhEkdi fi Ha&;pn f;½Hk;v HIUaq mi fr It wGu ft v m;t v mu dk t o dt rSwfjyKrdNyD;Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfawGu dk u GJjym;pGmzGJUpn f;zkdYt a&; Edki fi Ha&;pGefYpm;rIwpfcku dk jyKv kyfzkdYq Ejyi f;jywmu v n f; t a&;Bu D;w, f/

wu , fv kdY Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG at mi fjr i fo Gm;cJhr , fq kd&i f Ekdi fi Ha&;pepfwpfckv Hk;u dk Programmatic u sewJhpepfq Dajymi f;v Jr Iu dkOD;aq mi fo Gm;Ekdi fw, f/ t mPm&&dSv mwJht cg t J' DygwDawG (wu , fv kdY o lwkdY[ mau mi f;au mi f;rGefrGeft kyfcsKyfEkdi fpGr f;&Sdr , fq kd&i f) u ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawGu dk Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGt jzpft o Gi fajymi f;v JzkdYBu D;rm;wJhzdt m;awG o u fa&mu fapv dr fhr, f/ b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawG[ m t wkdu ft cHt ajct aerSm yHkrSeft &u dk ½kef;u efae&wmaMu mi fhjzpfw, f/ t J' gu v n f; o lwkdYrSm o lwdkY&JUrJay;o lawGu arQmfv i fhaecJhwJh&i f;jrpfawGeJY csdwfq u fr Ir&dSv kdYb J/

Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGeJY ygwDpepfawGu Ekdi fi HwpfEkdi fi Hu dk rsm;pGmao mt u sdK;au s;Zl;awGay;t yfw, f/ t J' gawGu awmh t J' Dv kdygwDawG

192


t pdk;&t jzpfa&G;cs, fwi fajr§mu fcH&wJht cg rJay;o lawGt aeeJYb mawGu dk arQmfv i fhx m;&r, fq dkwmeJYywfo u fv kdY ydkrdk&Si f;v i f;wJhem;v n fr Iwpfck&dSv mw, f/ t J' Dtjyi f rJay;o lawG[ m ygwDawGu aMu mfji mx m;wJhay:v pDawGt wGu f wm0ef, lrI?wm0efcHrI&dSat mi f q kyfu dki fx m;Ekdi fpGrf;&dSv mwmawGjzpfw, f/ t J' Dv kdygwDawG[ mv mb fpm;rI? q i f;&JrGJawr IeJY wjcm;ao mzGHYNzdK;wkd;wu frIq kdi f&mt a&;u dpöawGu dku dki fwG, fajz&Si f;wJh au mi f;rGefwJht kyfcsKyfyHk&dSwJhrl0g' t pDt pOfawGu dk aMu mfji mzkdYydkrkdt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ t J' Dt jyi f Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGEkdi fi Ha&;pepfu dkv Tr f;rkd;x m;wJht cg rJay;o lawGrSm ay:v pDeJYygwDyv u fazmi f;awGt Mu m; &Si f;v i f;wJha&G;cs, fr IawG&dSv mw, f/ ' g[ m ydkrkdwn fNi drfNyD; cefYrSef;wGu fcsu fEkdi fwJh Edki fi Ha&;pepfx Ju &v ' fx Gu fay:jci f;yJjzpfw, f/

Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JU zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr Iq Du &Si f;v i f;wJht u sdK;&v ' fawG&dSw, fq kdwmu dkjyx m;wJht cg Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDax mu fcHrIt zGJUtpn f;awGu ' DEkdi fi Ha&;pepfx JrSm t q i fhq i fhajymi f;v Jwkd;wu frIawGu dk jr§i fhwi fzkdYeJYt m;ay;ax mu fcHzkdY o lwdkY&JUMu m;0i fpGu fzu fr I[ m en f;AsL[ mu sezkdY t a&;Bu D;w, f/ ' Drkd*&u fzpfeJY pu frIzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fjci f;wkdYv kdrsdK; wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&mt a&;u dpöu dk t a&;pdku frIeJYt wl Bu D;rm;x i f&Sm;wJhajymi f;v JrIu dk t u sdK;o u fa&mu frI&dSEkdi fw, f/ ' gayrJh t m;ay;ax mu fcHrIu t pOft v mt m;jzi fh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJhygwDawGu dkq u fv u fax mu fcHaeEkdi fwJh au s;v u feJYwjcm;ao mv lOD;a&awGq Do wi f;t csu ft v u fawG&&dSzdkYeJY rD' D, mcsdwfq u frI&&dSzdkYt wGu f ax mu fyHhEkdi fw, f/ygwDzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr It pDt pOfawGu ygwDo pfawGt ay: t m½Hkpdku fo i fhw, f/b maMu mi fhv Jq kdawmh o lwkdY[ m Programmatic u sewJhcsOf;u yfr Iwpfcku dkt m;ay;ax mu fcHzkdYt v m;t v m&dSNyD; v lr It zGJUt pn f;awGq D csdwfq u fr IawGu dkt m;ay;wJht jyi f Programmatic u sewJhcsOf;u yfr Iwpfcku dk t m;ay;ax mu fcHEkdi fwJh t v m;t v m&dSwJhrJq Ee, fawGu dk x kwfazmfwmaMu mi fhyJjzpfw, f/ aemu fq Hk;t aeeJY zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frI t zGJUt pn f;awG[ m o u fq kdi f&mygwDawGu aewpfq i fhProgrammatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;pepfu dk t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;t o Gi fjyKzkdY o lwkdYv kdt yfaewJh&i f;jrpfawGu dk Ekdi fi Ha&;acgi f;aq mi fawGq Day;zkdYt wGu f t v m;t v m&dSwJhygwDb @ma&;pepfawGzefwD;jci f;u dk t ax mu ft u ljyKEkdi fw, f/

193


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1- ' Djzpf&yfav hv mrIawGu dk International IDEA u wm0efay;jyKv kyfapwmjzpfNyD; at mu fygt wkdi f;o kawo ejyKx m;ygw, f/ t dEd, -Adi Dasgupta(Harvard University and South Asia Institute), b &mZD;- DanielEpstein(Colgate University), , lu &def;- Oleh Protsyk(University ofFlensburg), Zrfb D, m-Dan Paget (University of Oxford) wkdY&JUjzpf&yfav hv mrIwpfckcsi f;pDu b , fygwDawGu ydkrkdNyD; Programmatic u sev mo v Jq kdwJhjzpffpOfawGu dk yHkazmfjyzkdYeJY Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;pepfeJY ra&r&mt ajct aet ay:t m;x m;ae&wJht aMu mi f;t &i f;cHawG&JU wn faq mu fyHkq kdi f&mjzpfysu fyHkawGeJY t wm;t q D;awG&JUjzpfpOfu dk ax mu fyHhay;zkdYt wGu f o rkdi f;aMu mi f;q kdi f&maemu fcHt ajct aeawGu dkay;t yfw, f/ Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dk jzpf&yfwpfckcsi f;pDrSm cGJjcrf;pdwfjzmo Hk;o yfx m;NyD; t J' Daemu frSmygwDt u lt n Dax mu fyHho lawGeJY t kyfcsKyfrIq kdi f&mt v SL&Si fawGt wGu f jzpf&yfwpfckcsi f;pD&JU q Dav smfr Iu dk q u fv u faq G;aEG;w, f/ ' Dx n fh0i fr Iu CheesemaneJY Paget wkdY&JUt jr i fawGu dk u kd, fpm;jyKx m;wm jzpfayrJh Dasgupta, Epstein,Protsky eJY Paget wkdYOD;aq mi fOD;&Gu fjyKaq mi f&Gu fx m;wJhav hv mrIawGt ay:Bu D;Bu D;rm;rm;a&;q GJx m;w, f/2- ' Dae&mrSm v lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGq dkwm t rSwfo n mt ay:t ajccHwJht kyfpkawGu dk &n fn Gef;NyD; b mo mw&m;? a' o q kdi f&m? rsdK;½dk;eJY, Ofau s;r IwkdYv kdwpfOD;csi f;t rSwfo n mawGt ay:t ajccHwJht kyfpkawGv n f; yg0i fw, f/

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Jorge Valladares Molleda, Kristen Sample and Sam van der Staak

' Dt cef;rSm Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUay:x Gu fv mrIt ay: o kawo ejyKx m;jci f;awGu aeay:x Gu fv mwJh *, u fawGu dk a&;q GJx m;w, f/ Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGq kdwmu t "dyÜg, fjyn fh0wJhay:v pDa&G;cs, fr IawGeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu dk ax mu fyHhwJhygwDawGjzpfw, f/ ' D*, u fawGu dk azmfjrLv mx kwfwJhae&mrSm at mu fygar ;cGef;awGu dk u dki fwG, fw, f/t J' Dar ;cGef;awGu awmh b , ft aMu mi f;t &mawGu ygwDawGt aeeJY Pro-grammatic u sejci f;t ay: ydkrkdBu D;rm;wJht av ;ay;r Ix m;v mapo v Jq kdwJhar;cGef;yJ/ ' DBu dKwi fjyi fq i fx m;wJht ajzawGu ' Dpmt kyfwpft kyfv Hk;awmu fav Qmu fjyKv kyfv mcJhwJhji i f;cHkrIt q kdawGeJY , kwåd&dS&dS? n Dn Dn Gwfn Gwfcsdwfq u fay;w, f/

wm0efu awmh rv G, fu lv Sb l;/ o kawo e&JU <u , f0rIeJY t awGYt Bu HK&i fhu su fjci f;awGu dk o D;jcm;q DjzpfaewJh t acsmo wfo kawo eya&m*su fo Hk;cku dkt wlwu Gx n fho Gi f;x m;NyD; ' Dpmt kyfrSmazmfjyx m;w, f/ Luna et al &JU pmayo Hk;o yfcsu f[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;jzpfwJh wm0ef, lr I&dSwJhygwDt pdk;&yHkpH&JU pHo wfrSwfx m;wJh t rSwfeJYu dku fn DwJh pmay&JU 11 rsdK;ao mu GJNym;wJhpkpn f;r IawG&JUt q u ft pyfx JrSm t aMu mi f;t &mu dkae&mcsw, f/ o lwkdY&JUo kawo eu t jyeft v Seft m;jzi hf DALP t csu ft v u ft pk (a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f

203


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204


t ao G;wpfckt jzpfazmfjyw, f/ t J' Daemu f Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG[ m ' Drkdu a&pDeJY zGHUNzdK;wdk;wu frI&JUydkrkdau mi f;rGefwJht &n ft ao G;eJY b , fv kdv u fawGUu su sq u fo G, faeo v Jq kdwmu dk t wdkcsHK;t ESpfcsKyfw, f/ wwd,t ydki f;u Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGay:aygu fv mjci f;u dk t cGi fht v r f;o mapwJht ajct aeawGt ay:o kawo ejyKjci f;&JU o u fq kdi f&m*, u fawGu dkwi fjyw, f/ zwf&v G, fu lo u fo mapzkdYt wGu f ' Dt cef;rSmyg0i fwJht ji i f;tq kdawGu o lwkdY&JUpma&;o lawGu dk*kP fjyK rSwfwr f;wi fNyD; rsm;jym;wJh&n fn Tef;azmfjyr IawGawmh ryg0i fb l;/ jzpfEkdi ffwJht csdefrSm y#dyu ©jzpfaewJht jr i fawGeJYo u fq kdi f&mjzpfpOfawGu dk rSwfo m;x m;w, f/

Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JU t "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdcsu f

b , fygwDu rS v Hk;0Bu D; r l0g' t pDt pOft ay:t ajccHrx m;b l;q dkwmu dkrSwf, laewJht csdefrSm ' Dpmt kyfx JrSmyg0i fwJht cef;wkdi f;u Programmaticu sewJhygwDwpfck&JU t ao ;i , fq Hk;t "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdcsu fwpfcku dk v u fcHw, f/t J' gu awmh wjcm;ao mygwDawG? ' grSr[ kwf ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;eJY rJq Ee, fawG?a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m, SOfNydKi frIeJY ygwD&JUcsdwfq u fr It wGu ft ajccHu dk zGJpn f;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;r l0g' t pDt pOfv dku fav smn Dax G&dSjci f;? ' grSr[ kwf pkpn f;n Dn GwfrI&dSjci f;u dkt "du t m;jzi fhjyo wJhygwDwpfckjzpfw, fq kdwmyJ/

t x u fygt "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdcsu fq Du ae o ½kyfv u ©P mwpfckt jzpf Progr-ammatic u sejci f;t &n ft ao G;u t v m;t v m&dSwJht jyi f ½Iax mi fht rsdK;rsdK;&dSw, fv kdY q u fv mw, f/ t rSefwu , fawmh wu , fhv u fawGUb 0Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m ao o yfwJht ydki f;awGx Ju dk u sro Gm;Ekdi fb l;/ t zGJU0i fawGt m;v Hk;uo lwkdY&JUEkdi fi Ha&;yef;wkdi fawGu dk en f;v r f;wpfckwn f;eJYrv kdu fMu o v kdayhg/ygwD0i fawG[ m t Bu dr fcyfpdwfpdwfrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;r l0g' t pDt pOfawG v kdu fav smn Dax G&dSrI&JUt ajccHt ay:rSmo m jyKrljci f;r&dSMu b l;/ u GJjym;wJhen f;AsL[ mawG[ mygwDwpfckt wGi f;rSm a, b k, st m;jzi fh wpfNydKi feu fwn f;t v kyfv kyfMu w, f/(Oyrm-Mo Zmwdu úrt o Hk;jyKrJq G, fjci f;? v lrsdK;pkt rSwfo ½kyft o Hk;jyKrJq G, fjci f;?

205


ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;? yk*¾dKv fa&;t ajcjyKrJq G, fjci f;) t J' Daemu f Program-matic u sejci f;t &n ft ao G;[ m ½Iax mi fht rsdK;rsdK;&dSw, fq kdwmv n f; v kdu fv mw, f/ ygwDu yg0i fv kyfaq mi fwJhe, fy, fawGt ESHYu u GJjym;wJhen f;AsL[ mawGv kdygyJ/ ygwD0i fawG[ m ay:v pDcsrSwfjci f;rSm wn Dwn Gwfwn f; pkaygi f;pHerlem aemu fu dkv kdu fEkdi fNyD; t ckt csdefrSmawmh t J' DpHerlemawGu dk rJawGpkpn f;wJht cgacgi f;aq mi f&JUyk*¾dKv fa&;Mo Zmwdu úrt ay: t "du t m;jzi fhrDSckdzkdY ab ;z, fx m;v kdu fw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh Programmatic u sejci f;cH, lcsu f[ m ' Dav hv mr IrSmEkdi fi Ha&;ygwD&JU t "du t m½Hkpkdu fr It jzpf t n Tef;cH&NyD; Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;u dkawmh wpfcgwpf&HrSm t "du ygwDBu D;awGt m;v Hk;u t "du t m;jzi fhProgrammatic u sewJhygwDawGjzpfaewJhpepfwpfckt jzpf &n fn Tef;cH&av h&dSw, f/

' gaMu mi fh Mo Zmwdu úr&dSwJhacgi f;aq mi fawGt wGu f yk*¾dKv fa&;q efwJh, mOft jzpft "du t m;jzi hf jyKr laewJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG? ' grSr [ kwf t J' DygwD&JUt zGJU0i fawGu ygwDt wGu fr&dSrjzpfv kdt yfwJhay:v pDt a&;u dpöt ay: o ab mwln Dr I&&dSzdkY t ajymi f;t v Jr&dSu s½HI;aewJhygwDawG? ' grSr [ kwf t x u fygt &n ftao G;awGu dkx dckdu fapzkdYt wGu f rJawGu dkq GJaq mi fzdkY t m;au mi f;wJhru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fjci f;, EÅ&m;awGu dk t o Hk;jyKwJhygwDawGt aeeJY ' Dpmt kyfx JrSmat mu fygt wdki f;rSwfo m;x m;wJh r l0g' t pDt pOft ajccHygwDwpfck&JU wpfcsdKUao ma, b k, st u sq Hk;t o Gi ft jyi fawGu dk v u fawGUjyo zkdYcu fcJw, fq kdwm awGUv m&v dr fhr , f/

- v lo drsm;wJhygwD&Ju ay:v pDyHkpHrsm;u kdpkaq mi f;r I - ygwDwGi f;n Dn Gwfr IeJYay:v pDyHkpHawG&JU yrmP t ay:o ab mwln DrI&JU

t q i fh - , HkMu n fEkdi fwJhu wdwm0efeJYx r f;aq mi fEkdi fwJhpGrf;&n f - r l0g' q GJaq mi fr IeJYygwD0i fawGu kd yg0i faq mi f&Gu fr IrSm t ajccHu sr Iu kd

t "dyÜg, fzGi fhq kdwJh ygwDr l0g' t pDt pOf

206


Programmatic u sewJhygwDawG&JUt a&;ygrI

' Dpmt kyfx JrSmyg0i fwJh jzpf&yfawGjyo o v kd Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m v GefcJhwJhESpfrsm;t wGi f; u rÇmha' o t m;v Hk;eD;yg;rS Ekdi fi HawGt wGi f;ay:x Gu fv mwJhProgrammatic u ser Io ½kyfawG&JU rwln DwJhyHkpHawGu kdazmfjyx m;w, f/wpfcsdefwn f;rSmyJ t csdKUEkdi fi HawGrSm Ekdi fi Ha&;eJYEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m r l0g' t ajccHr [ kwfwJh t o Gi fu GJjym;r It wGi f;q u fv u f&Si fo efaew, f/ Programmaticu sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JUjr i fhrm;wJht q i fheJY Ekdi fi HawG[ m v lr Ia&;eJYpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r I&JUpdefac:r IawGu kd ykdau mi f;rGefpGmajz&Si f;Ekdi fw, fq kdwmu kd pOf;pm;zkdYv u fawGUu sr It csdKU&Sdw, f/

v lemeJYcsdpfref;[ m ay:v pDjyKv kyfjci f;&JU t &n ft ao G;t ay: r l0g't ajccHwJhEkdi fi Ha&;&JUo u fa&mu fr IawGu kd pl;pr f;ppfaq ;w, f/ o lwkdYESpfa, mu fv Hk;[ m ay:v pDjyKv kyfjci f;jr i fhrm;wJht &n ft ao G;eJYjyn fo lYt u sdK;jzpfx Gef;aprIu kd au mi f;rGefpGmax mu fyHhrI&SdwJhEdki fi Ha&;u wm0efawGt ay: t m;au mi f;wJhav ;eu fr IawG&SdwJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu kdazmfjy&eft ajcjyKav hv mcsu fawGu kd&SmazGw, f/v lem[ m r l0g' t ajccHEdki fi Ha&;eJYo i fhav smfr I&SdwJhEdki fi Ha&;pepf&JUo ½kyf (cdki frmwJhrJay;r IeJYygwDawGeJYygv Dreft wGi f; jyn fo l, HkMu n fcsu fjr i fhrm;rIeJY o u fa&mu frI&SdNyD;wm0efcHEdki fwJhay:v pDjyKv kyfjci f;awG jcpm;rIjzpfyGm;jci f;en f;yg;r I? Bu D;rm;wJhyHkrSefv kyfaq mi fEdki fpGrf;? jyn fo lU0efaq mi fr I&JUax mu fyHhrI? Ekdi fi Ho m;rsm;t wGu fBu D;rm;wJho ab mx m;azmfx kwfEdki frI) awGMu m;x i f&Sm;wJht jyeft v Sefcsdwfq u frIu kdpm&i f;Z, m;t &&SmazGw, f/ ' DawGU&Sdcsu fawG[ m csdpfref;&JUav hv mcsu fawGeJYo i fhav smfn Dñ Gwfw, f/ csdpfref;&JUav hv mrI[ m b &mZD;? t dEd, eJYZrfb D, mEdki fi HawGt wGi f; Edki fi Ha&;ygwDawGt kyfcsKyfr I&JUt &n ft ao G;eJY o lwkdYacgi f;aq mi fawG&JUt &n ft ao G;t ay: t a&;ygwJhay:v pDji i f;cHkaq G;aEG;rIawGjyKv kyfwJht cg ' Dv dkjyKv kyfr I[ m q i f;&Jo m;t u sdK;jyKay:v pDu kd ykdrdkt v m;t v m&SdpGmv u fcHzkdY t pdk;&u dkjyKv kyfw, f/

' Drdku a&pDwm0efcHrIjr i fhwu fjci f;[ m ' Dv dk&v ' fawGx kwfv kyfrIt wGi f;uaq mi f&Gu frIawGjzpfyHkay:w, f/ ykdrdkau mi f;rGefwJhrl0g' t ajcjyKv kyfaq mi fEdki fpGrf;eJY


ygwDawG[ m ykdrdkt u sdK;o u fa&mu frI&SdwJhEdki fi Ha&;pepfx Ju t pkt zGJUawGu kdpdwf0i fpm;w, f/ ' DEdki fi Ha&;pepf[ m wjcm;en f;t m;jzi fh ab ;z, fx m;wJhrJq E&Si ft kyfpkawG&JU t a&;ygwJho ab mx m;eJYu kd, fpm;jyKrIt wGu f &n f&G, fw, f/ ' Dv dkjyKv kyfjci f;jzi fh t pkd;&[ m ab ;z, fwJhrJq E&Si fawG&JUv kdt yfcsu fu kd ykdrdkwkHYjyefr I&Sdat mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ Ekdi fi Ho m;rsm;u kd&Si f;v i f;x da&mu fwJha&G;cs, fr IawGyJ ru rf;v Srf;b l;/a&G;au mu fyGJu kdOD;aq mi fr IjyKwJht cg o lwdkYawG[ m t &i ft pdk;&&JUv kyfaq mi fcsu fq Hk;jzwfjci f;jzi fh a&G;cs, fr IawGu kd&SmazGw, f/

v lemu v n f; rl0g' t ajccHygwDawG&JU jcpm;rIen f;yg;wmu kdazmfjyw, f/' Dv dken f;yg;wm[ m a&G;au mu fyGJt wGi f; r l0g' t ajccHygwD&JUt zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mv dkt yfcsu fen f;yg;r IaMu mi fhjzpfau mi f;jzpfEdki fw, f/ r l0g' t ajcjyKygwDawG&JUowi f;pu m;u kdo ab mu swJhrJq E&Si fawG[ m t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fh t m;ay;ax mu fcHrIeJYru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It wGi f; wn fax mi fx m;wJhygwDawG[ m wpfcgwpf&Hjyn fe, fu kefu sp&dwfx kwfEIwfrIt ay:? ' grSr[ kwf ydkrdku kefu swJha&G;au mu fyGJv Iyf&Sm;rI&JUw&m;r0i fai GaMu ;t wGu f jcpm;wJhv kyfi ef;awGt ay:rSDcdkw, f/ r l0g' t pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJhAsL[ mawG[ m o efY&Si f;, Hkru q u fv u fv kyfaq mi fzkdYu kefu sp&dwfen f;w, f/ ' Drkdu a&pDeJYzGHUNzdK;wdk;wu fr It ay: t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJht u sdK;o u fa&mu frIarQmfv i fhcsu fay;NyD; ' Do kao we[ m r l0g' t ajccHwJhygwDawGx Gu fay:v mzkdYt wGu f t v Gefu ln DwJhywf0ef;u si fjzpfay:jci f;t wGu f t ao ;pdwft pDt pOfcsrSwfzkdYBu dK;pm;w, f/

Programmatic u sewJhEdki fi Ha&;&JU jzpfEkdi fapo lrsm;? t aMu mi f;t &i f;cHt ajct aersm;? av mhu mrsm;eJY u kd, fpm;v S, frsm;

t "du t m;jzi fhrl0g' t ajccHwJhygwDEdki fi Ha&;ay:x Gu frIu kd ykdrdkv G, fu lapwJht aMu mi f;t &i f;[ m b mv J/ o lawo e[ m t csdKUt aMu mi f;&i f;awGu kdazmfjyw, f/ ygwDawG[ m q u fpyfr I ' grSr[ kwf zGJUpn f;yHkt q i fhq i fhwGi f zGJUpn f;r Ir&Sdygu ½dk;&Si f;wJhazmfjrLv mt wGi f; t H0i fcGi fu sr jzpfEkdi fb l;/ o lwdkY&JUt u sdK;au s;Zl;[ m t v Gef½Iyfax G;yHkay:w, f/ o lwdkY[ m r l0g' t ajccHajymi f;v JrI&JUpwi frSwft

208


ay: rSDcdkjci f;u kdu GJjym;jcm;em;pGmaq mi f&Gu f&r, f/ (Oyrmt m;jzi fh Mo Zmwdu úrjzi fhrJq G, frI? ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I? v lrsdK;pkt ajcjyKrJq G, fr I t "du v Trf;rdk;wJhpwi frSwfu Jho dkY) o kawo eawGU&Sdcsu fawG&JU ½dk;&Si f;wJhjzpfEkdi fajc&Sdr IrSm ' Dv dkv Tr f;rdk;r ItaMu mi f;&i f;awG[ m r l0g' t ajccHEdki fi Ha&;u kdykdrdkv G, fu laprIt ay: o lwdkY&JUtu sdK;o u fa&mu f r Iu kd&n fñ Gef;wJh jzpfEkdi fapo lawG? t aMu mi f;t &i f;cHt ajct aeawG? av mhu mawGeJY u kd, fpm;v S, fawGu kdpOf;pm;w, f/

t csKdUao mEdki fi H&JUwn faq mu fyHkt ajcaeawG[ m r l0g' t ajccHEdki fi Ha&;&JUjzpfEkdi fapo lrsm;u Jho kdYv kyfaq mi f&w, f/ ' Dv lr Iq kdi f&m (NrdKUjyjzpfaprI)? r lab mi fjyKr Iq kdi f&m (AsL½dku a&pD)? ' grSr [ kwf pD;yGm;a&; (<u , f0csr f;o mr I) awG[ mEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDeJYEdki fi Ha&;o rm;awGx n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;wJh q GJaq mi fr I&JUa&G;cs, fr Iu kdt u sdK;o u fa&mu fw, f/ rJq E&Si fawGeJYaq mi f&Gu frIawG&JUv kyfyHkv kyfen f;awGt ay:q Hk;jzwfwJht cg ' Dv dkt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr IawGjzpfay:w, f/ ' Dt cef;[ m ' Dv dkjzpfEdki fajc&SdwJht aMu mi f;&i f;awG&JUq u fET, fr It &Sdq Hk;o G, f0dku fazmfjycsu fu kd wi fjyx m;NyD; ' DjzpfEkdi fajc&SdrI[ m ygwD&JUrl0g' q kdi f&mu wdawGu kdv u fq i fhu rf;zkdY jyn fe, f&JUv dkt yfwJhv kyfEkdi fpGrf;u kdygwD&JUq Hk;jzwfrIjzpfw, f/ ' gayrJh ay:v pDeJYrl0g' q kdi f&mrSmBu D;rm;wJht a&;ygrIawGx m;&SdzdkYt wGu f Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGu kdOD;aq mi fEkdi fwJh½kd;&Si f;wJhazmfjrLv mawmhr&SdEdki fygb l;/ ' Dv dkjyKv kyfjci f;u kd zHk;u G, fx m;wJhx l;jcm;wJhwn faq mu fr Iq kdi f&mt ajct aev n f; r&Sdygb l;/ o kawo e&JU' kwd, o wi f;pu m;u awmh ay:v pDt ajccHr It ay: Ekdi fi Ho m;v Iyf&Sm;aq mi f&Gu fr I[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt wGu f rau smfv GefEkdi fwJhydwfq kdY[ efYwm;rIawGr&Sdb l;q kdwmygyJ/

ykdrkdv G, fu lapwJht aMu mi f;&i f;&JU ' kwd, t csu fu awmh Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;Mu m;x Ju r l0g' t ajccHwJhyg0i faq mi f&Gu fr It aMu mi f;&i f;cHt jzpft ysu fawGykdi fq kdi fEkdi fr Ijzpfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh rsu fESmo mray;wJht ajct aeawG pD;yGm;a&;wn faq mu fwJh v lrsdK;wln Dr I? ' grSr [ kwf jyn fe, fv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGr f;awG&JU pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;u Jho kdYrx i frSwfwJht jzpft ysu fawG[ mrl0g' t ajccHrIawGykdrkdjzpfay:apzkdY armi f;ESi fv mw, fv kdY o kawo eawGu azmfjyw, f/ ' Dv kdt x l;t ajct aeawG[ m ygwDt wGi f;r l0g' t pDt pOfawGu kd t ajccHwJhay:v pDawGu kd t v m;t v m&SdpGmjzpfay:Ekdi fw, fv kdY o kawo eawGu jyo

209


w, f/wwd, u awmh av mhu mawG[ m v HkNcHKwJhrl0g' wkd;wu frIt wGu f yg0i f

u ln DwJhpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;q kdi f&m jy| mef;r IawGt wGu f &n fñ Tef;w, f/ at mu frSmazmfjyx m;wJhjy| mef;r IawG[ m u kd, fpm;v S, ft rn fpm&i f;wi fo Gi f;r It ay:A[ kdcsKyfu kdi frIav smhcswJhEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDeJY o lwkdY&JUOya' eJYn DwJht zGJUMu m;pn f;u rf;awGu kdu ln Dw, f/ Oya' eJYn DwJht zGJU[ m q u fpyfrI&SdwJh t ajct aet wGi f;av ;eu fwJhr l0g' t pDt pOfu kd Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt wGu f ru fv Hk;ay;zkdYzefwD;yHkay:w, f/

aemu fq Hk;wpfcku awmh r l0g' t pDt pOfu swJhEkdi fi Ha&;q Du l;ajymi f;r I[ marmi fESi fhwJhu kd, fpm;v S, fawG&n f&G, fcsu f&Sd&Sdv kyfaq mi fwJh v kyfaq mi fr IawGr&Sdb JrjzpfEkdi fb l;/ ½Iax mi fhu awmh Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m r l0g' t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu fay:x Gu fv mwJht cGi fht v rf;awGu kd r jzpfraeq kyfu kdi f&r, f/ t csdKUt aMu mi f;t &i f;awG[ m at mi fjr i fzkdYt v m;t v m&SdwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;Bu dK;yrf;t m;x kwfrIu kdv Trf;rkd;w, f/pGrf;&n f&SdwJhacgi f;aq mi fr I[ m v spfv sL½Io i fhwJht cGi fht v rf;eJY&, l&r, fht cGi fhtv rf;awGMu m;x JrSm jcm;em;rIu kdjyKv kyfw, f/ wjcm;½Iax mi fhu awmh r l0g' t pDtpOfu swJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JU wpfu dk, fwn f;jzpfrI[ m rv Hkav mu fb l;/ o lwkdYawG[ m v Hkav mu fwJht &n ft csi f;eJY au mi f;rGefpGma&G;cs, fcHEkdi fr IawG&Sd&r, f/ aemu fq Hk;rSmawmh Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;[ m r l0g' t ajccHwJho wi f;pu m;awGt wGu f t en f;q Hk; t aeeJYv u fcHEkdi fwJh rJq E&Si fawGu kdv kdt yfw, f/ aemu fwpfcsu fu awmh ' Dt aMu mi f;t &i f;av ;ck&JUawGU&Sdcsu feJY o G, f0kdu fazmfjycsu fawGu kdv kyfaq mi fr It wGu f q u fpyfr It &Sdq Hk;o wi f;pu m;awGu kd pDpOfay;r It ay:t m½kHpkdu fr IawGeJYt wlaq G;aEG;x m;w, f/

Ekdi fi Hv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;&JUjzpfEkdi fajc&SdwJho u fa&mu frI

rwln DwJht "dyÜg, fo u fa&mu frI&Sdao mfv n f; ' Dt cef;&JUacgi f;pOfawGt m;v Hk;[ m zGHYNzdK;wkd;wu fr IeJYrl0g' t ajccHay:x Gu fr I&JUt q i fhawGMu m;yl;aygi f;v kyfaq mi fr It csdKUu kd t Bu HjyKx m;w, f/ Kitschelt ? Luna eJY Cheesemant o D;o D;wkdY&JUu kd;u m;csu fawGt & wkd;wu fr I&JUv kyfykdi fcGi fht jzpft o Hk;jyKwJh

210


jyn fo lY0efaq mi frIeJY AsL½kdu &u ft zGJUt pn f;&JU t &n ft ao G;t ay:t o Hk;p&dwfjzpfwJh Ekdi fi Ht q i fh0i fai GawG[ m r l0g' t ajccHygwDpepfu kd ykdrkdjzpfay:apwJhajymi f;v Jr It ajc t ae&JU jzpfEkdi fajcawGeJYeD;u yfpGmq u fpyfaew, f/

q i f;&Jr I? ' grSr [ kwf csrf;o mr Ir&SdwJht ajct aeawG[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUe, fy, fu kd u efYo wfw, f/ ' g[ m rwln DwJhen f;v rf;awGt wGi f; Ekdi fi Ht wGi f;jyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr Iu kdaq mi f&Gu fwJh ay:v pDawGu kd t au mi ftx n fazmfrIeJYv kdu fygaq mi f&Gu frIawGt wGu f u efYo wfrIawGjzpfw, f/ ' Dv kdu efYo wfr IawG&JUOyrmwpfcku awmh jyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu frIawGu kdax mu fyHhwJht pkd;&&JUv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;csKyfcs, frIjzpfw, f/ Ekdi fi Ht ESHY&du ©max mu fyHhwJh0efaq mi fr I[ m ½Iyfax G;wJhb @ma&;t ay:t ajccHwJh Bu D;rm;wJhb @ma&;t &i f;t jrpfawGu kd v kdt yfo v kd t pkd;&t zGJUt wGi f; Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m Ekdi fi Hax mu fcHrIt wGu ft v Jt v S, fjyKv kyf&mrSm 0efaq mi fr IawGeJYt wl u sOf;ajrmi f;wJhrJq Ee, fawGu kd ax mu fyHhzkdYt wGu f q GJaq mi fr Iu kd&SmazGw, f/ ' gayrJh jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr Irsm;u kd yk*¾v du ykdi fjyKv kyfzkdY t pkd;&rSm t NrJwrf;jzpfEkdi fajc&Sdw, f/ ' Dv kdjzpf&yfawGrSmEkdi fi H[ m jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr I&JUax mu fyHhrIu kdpn f;u rf;o wfrSwfzkdY? pdppfr IeJYx def;csKyfr It wGu f v kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGr f;u kd azmfjyzkdYv kdt yfw, f/ ' gaMu mi fh Ekdi fi H&JU0i fai Gt q i fh[ m jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr Iax mu fyHhr Iu kdpkpn f;&efEkdi fi H&JUv kyfaq mi fr It wGu fpkaygi f;x m;wJhjzpfEkdi fajc&Sdr Ijzpfw, fv kdY Kitschelt et al u azmfjyw, f/

' DazmfjyrI&JUt ESpfo m&t u sOf;csKyf[ m pn f;rsOf;u efYo wfrSwfrI? au mi f;u sdK;t ajccHwJhAsL½kdu a&pDawG Cheeseman &JUazmfjyrIeJYwln DNyD; ' Dv kdAsL½kdu a&pD[ mv lYt zGJUt pn f;&JUt wm;t q D;u aev Gwfajrmu fw, f/ rsu farSmu facwfrSm au mi f;rGefpGmzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fwJh AsL½kdu a&pD[ m rJawGu kdt Ekdi f&zkdYt wGu f jyn fo lt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I? ' grSr [ kwf ax mu fcHr IawGjzefYa0r Iu ae t kyfpkawGu kd z, f&Sm;zkdYt wGu f Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUq GJaq mi fr Iu kd ru efYo wfb l;/

rsu farSmu facwfAsL½kdu a&pDpepfawG[ m au mi f;u sdK;t ajccHwJhv lo pf&SmazGrIt zGJUeJY Ekdi fi Ho m;0efaq mi fr It wGu f Ekdi fi Ho m;t ajccHcsOf;u yfykdrkdjzpfx Gef;apr IawGaMu mi fh Ekdi fi Ht ESHYjyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr IawGu kd x r f;aq mi fzkdYykdrkdau mi f;rGefwJhpGrf;aq mi f&n feJYEkdi fi Hu kd ax mu fyHhw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUrl0g'

211


t ajccHu wdpu m;awG[ m ykdrkdjzpfEkdi fajc&Sdw, fq kd&i f t pkd;&t zGJUwGi f;o lwkdY[ mo lwkdY&JUay:v pDawGu kd t au mi ft x n fazmfzkdYt wGu f v kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;u kdykdi fq kdi fw, f/ &mpkESpft ajymi f;t v Jt wGi f;rSmazmfjyx m;wJh awmi fu kd&D;, m;t ajctaev kd jyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr Iu kd csJUx Gi fv kdwJhEkdi fi H&JUv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;[ mEkdi fi Ho m;awG&JUt jr i ft wGi f; r l0g' t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu f *kP fo du ©mu kd t u sdK;o u fa&mu fr I&SdpGm x yfaygi f;yg0i fw, f/

Cheeseman t Bu HjyKx m;wJh t u sdK;q u f[ m zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr Irv kdwJhNrdKUjyjzpfr IawGrSm t wlawGU&Sd&w, f/ acwfrDwJhajymi f;v JrIjzpfpOft wGi f;aq mi f&Gu frIyHkpH[ m wpfcgwpf&Hjyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu frIt wGu f &ykdi fcGi fhcsJUx Gi fr IawGeJYq u fpyfaew, f/ NrdKUjyEkdi fi Ha&;o ab mwln Dcsu f[ m t v Gefq i f;&JrIu kd 0i fai Gt v , ft v wfeJYjr i fhrm;wJht kyfpkawGv kd ae&may;w, f/ o lwkdY&JUjr i fhrm;wJho dyfo n f;rI[ m jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr It ax mu ft yHht zGJUt pn f;awGu kd v G, fu lr I&Sdat mi feJY u kefu sp&dwfen f;yg;at mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ NrdKUjy{&d, mawG[ m jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr It ax mu ft yHhawG&JU ykdrkdo u fa&mu fr IawG&SdwJht cg NrdKUjy{&d, m[ mr l0g' q kdi f&mq GJaq mi fr Iu kd ykdrkdv u fcHw, f/ ' Dv kdv u fcHr IawG[ m yn ma&;eJYo wi f;t csu ft v u fv r f;aMu mi f;t wGu f Bu D;rm;wJh&ykdi fcGi fhawG? ' grSr [ kwft &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawGeJY u kefo G, fa&;t zGJUt pn f;awG&JU v kyfaq mi fcsu fawGeJYq u fpyfaewmu kd o kawo eu t Bu HjyKx m;w, f/ ' Dt Bu HjyKcsu f[ mEkdi fi Ha&;o wi f;pu m;awGa&max G;r Iu kd ykdrkdv G, fu lapw, f/

r l0g' q kdi f&mrJq Ee, fawGu kd jyKv kyfjci f;&JUt au mi f;q Hk;zGi fhq kdr Iv kd ' DawGU&Sdcsu fawG[ m t aMu mi f;&i f;awGu kd razmfjyb l;/ ykdrkdau mi f;rGefwJhEkdi fi H&JUv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;[ m r l0g' q kdi f&mrJq Ee, fawGu kdykdrkdq GJaq mi fw, fq kdwmuawmh &Si f;v i f;w, f/ NyD;awmh' g[ m r l0g' t ajccHAsL[ mawG NrdKUjy{&d, mawGrSm b maMu mi fhq GJaq mi fw, fq kdwmu kd &Si f;v i f;w, f/ 0efaq mi fr It ax mu ft yHhawG u kefu srIen f;NyD; ykdrkdu s, fjyefwJhau s;v u f{&d, mawGrSm Zr fb D, mjzpf&yfawGv kdazmfjyw, f/

Programmatic u sewJh Bu dK;yr f;r IeJYzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr IMu m;x Juq u fET, fr I[ m Kitschelt &JUrSwfpkt wkdi f; t q Hk;t jzwfay;Ekdi fr Iu ae a0;u Gm

212


w, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh o lYt zGJU&JUau mu f, lx m;wJh t csr f;o mq Hk;ckepfEkdi fi HrSmt en f;q Hk;r l0g' t ajccHpepfawG&Sdw, f/ b &mZD;? ' grSr[ kwf b la*;&D;, m;v kdcsrf;o mrIen f;yg;wJhEkdi fi HawGt zkdYawmh EIdi f;, SOfrIt & r l0g' t pDt pOfwu sBu dK;yrf;r IawG&JU &Si f;v i f;wJho ½kyfu kdazmfjyw, f/

' Daq G;aEG;rIx Ju kdaygi f;x n fhx m;wJh razmfjyx m;wJho G, f0kdu fazmfjycsu fawG[ m q i f;&Jr IeJYpD;yGm;a&;csdKUwJhrIESpfckpv Hk;&JUt csdefu efYo wfr Ijzpfw, f/ Ekdi fi Hv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;[ m zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIt aMu mi f;&i f;u kd csu fcsi f;au mi f;rGefat mi frjyKv kyfb l;/ o rkdi f; (t apmykdi f;av hv mrI) ½kyfykdi f;q kdi f&mt ajct aeawG&JU t csdefMu mv mwmeJYt rQwkdi f;jyn ft wGu f ydkrkdwkd;wu fapr I? ' grSr[ kwf q kwf, kwfr Iu kd azmfjywJh<u , f0wJhOyrmawGjzpfw, f/ Oyrmt m;jzi fh v GefcJhwJhESpf 20 twGi f; t mz&du ? t m&SeJYv u fwi ft ar&du &JU ' Drkdu a&pDzGHUNzdK;v mwJhEkdi fi HawG[ m wpfESpft wGi f;Ekdi fi H&JUpkpkaygi f;x Gu fu kefeJY0efaq mi fcwefzkd;&JU&S, f, mawGv kd v lr Iq kdi f&mt o Hk;p&dwfawGu kd jr§i fhwi fzkdYpDrHcJhw, f/ ' Dazmfjycsu fawG[ mrajymi f;v JrIu ae a0;u GmayrJh ' DEkdi fi HawG[ m Ekdi fi Hv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGr f;wkd;wu fapzkdYt wGu f rsu fESmo may;wJht ajct aeawGt csdefay:r lwn fNyD; azmfaq mi fEkdi fr Iu kdjyo w, f/

zGHUNzdK;r I[ m r l0g' t ajccHq kdi f&m, drf;, kdi fr Irsm;t wGu f jzpfEkdi fajc&SdwJht aMu mi f;&i f;jzpfw, f/ ' g[ mv Hkav mu fwJht ajct aer [ kwfb l;/ Ekdi fi H&JUv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;ax mu fyHhrI? ' grSr[ kwf Ekdi fi H&JUv kdai Gu kdau smfv Tm;apwJh rsu fESmo may;t ajct aeu kd q kyfu kdi fzkdY b , fv kdBu dK;yr f;r IyHkpHawGu ygwDawGu kdv IYHaq mfo v J/ Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;[ m ay:v pD? jyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr IeJY Ekdi fi Ht wGu f ykHrSefx u fykdrkdau mi f;rGefwJh v kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGr f;t wGu f t aMu mi f;&i f;awGt ay: t m½kHpkdu fwJh t u sdK;au s;Zl;awGu kd cHpm;&w, f/ au mi f;rGefwJhv kyfaq mi fr IrSwfwr f;[ m ykdrkd, HkMu n fEkdi fwJhr l0g' q kdi f&mu wdwm0efawGu kdjyKv kyf&mrSmu ln Dw, f/ pGrf;&n f&SdwJhAsL½kdu a&pDeJYjyn fo lYt o Hk;p&dwfv kdv kyfaq mi fEkdi fr IpGr f;t m;au mi f;wJhae&mawGrSm t ao ;pdwft pDt pOfcsrSwfr Iu kdjyKv kyf&efv kdt yfNyD; ' Dv kdv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGr f;&JU o D;o efYen f;v r f;awGu kdem;v n fr Ijr§i fhwi fjci f;[ mv kyfaq mi fr IrSwfwrf;&JU AsL½kdu a&pDt wGi f;ykdrkdBu D;rm;

213


wJhjr§KyfESHrIawGu kd wkd;wu fapzkdYv kyfaq mi fcsu fawGu kdo wfrSwfEkdi fw, f/

v lYt zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mt aMu mi f;&i f;rsm; v lrsdK;pkt ajccHeJYrl0g' t ajccHx yfwlu srI

pdwf0i fpm;zG, fau mi f;wJho kawo eawG[ m v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mt rsdK;rsdK;u GJjym;r IeJY v lrsdK;pkwln Dr Irsm;wJh v lYt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;r l0g' q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;ay:x Gu fv mrIt ay: 0da&m"dt jr i fawGu kdjyo w, f/ Luna &JUygv Drefq kdi f&mq ef;ppfr I[ m' Dv kdjzpfEkdi fajcawGt wGu f rax mu fcHrIu kdjyo w, f/ Cheeseman &JUjzpf&yfav hv mrIu awmh t m;au mi f;wJhv lrsdK;pkwln Dr I[ m Programmatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu f [ efYwm;rIr jzpfEkdi fb l;v kdY t Bu HjyKw, f/ v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mq GJaq mi fr I[ m v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m0i fai Gt q i fht wGi f;t a&;ygwJh wln Dr IeJYwGu fcsu fwJht cgu pfcsu f&JUazmfjyrIv kd v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&m½Iax mi fhawG[ m r l0g' q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu fpGefYpm;r IawGu kd v kyfaq mi fw, f/

' Dv kdrwln DrIawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr It wGu fpkpn f;r IawGu kd jyKv kyfw, f/ v lrsdK;pkt kyfpk&JUrJq E&Si fawG[ m wjcm;o lawGeJYq u fpyfaewJho lwkdY&JUwpfu kd, fwn f;at mi fjr i fr Iu kd&Si f;jyNyD; x i f&Sm;wJht kyfpk? ' grSr [ kwf {&d, mawGu kd Bu D;rm;wJht u sdK;o u fa&mu fr IawGeJY ypfrSwfx m;zkdY ru fv Hk;awGu kdzefwD;w, f/ Cheeseman awGU&Sdx m;o v kd t u sdK;cHpm;&o lawG[ m t u sdK;rJhwJht kyfpkawGjzpfr , fq kd&i f ' DjzpfpOf[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;&JUa&SUq u fwkd;wu faewJh r l0g' q kdi f&mtwGu f pwi ft rSwfjzpfw, f/

v lrsdK;pkeJYr l0g' q GJaq mi fr IawGx yfwlu sr IeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m v lYt zGJUt pn f;wGi f; t jcm;t zGJUt pn f;awG&JUq u fpyfr It wGi f;o lwkdY&JU v lrsdK;pkt ESpfo m&u kd Ekdi fi Ha&;rSm ykdrkdyg0i fapzkdY a&G;cs, fv dr fhr , f/ v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mt ajccHygwDawGu kd t "du t kyfpkawGx u fcsJUx Gi fr I[ m t pkd;&t wGi f;ygwD&JUv Tr f;rkd;r It m;au mi f;wJhv lrsdK;pkt kyfpkawGt ay: u kd, fpm;jyKr I? ' grSr [ kwf r jyKr It ay:rSDckdaew, f/ v lrsdK;pkq kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;awG[ m ygwDt ay:zdt m;awGu kd q u fv u fo u fa&mu f&i fv n f; ' Dv kdjzpfpOfawGjzpfay:w, f/ (t dEd, BJP ygwDu Jh

214


o kdY jzpf&yfawGt wkdi f;) wjcm;½Iax mi fhu awmh jyn fo lY0efaq mi fr It wGu fBu D;rm;wJh&ykdi fcGi fhv kd ay:v pDawGv len f;pkawG&JUEkdi fi Ho m;eJYEkdi fi Ha&;v Gwfv yfr IcsJUx Gi fjci f;eJY , Ofau s;r I"av hawG&JUo n f;cHEkdi fr Iu kd wkd;jr§i fhjci f;awG[ m Ekdi fi Ht zGJUcsJUx Gi fr It wGu fv kdt yfcsu fawGu kd v IHYaq mfw, f/

v lrsdK;pkt ajccHawG[ m ygwDazmfaq mi fr IeJYr l0g' q kdi f&mBu dK;yr f;r IawGu kd rx dcdku fEkdi fr IawGwn faq mu fzkdYu ln DwJht cg ' DawGU&Sdcsu fawG&JU t v G, fwu lem;v n fEkdi fwJhazmfjycsu f[ m OyrmawGjzpfw, f/

rl0g' q kdi f&mAsL[ mawGat mi fjri f&eft wGu fu syfwn f;wJht aMu mi f;&i f;cHt ajct ae&JU t cGi fht v rf;rsm;

' Do kawo e[ m t u syft wn f;? ' grSr[ kwf ajymi f;v Jr IjzpfpOft wGi f;ay:x Gu fv mwJh r l0g' q kdi f&mAsL[ mawGu kd t av ;t eu fx m;zkdYt cGi fht v r f;awGu kd azmfjyw, f/ Kitschelt &JUo kawo erSmazmfjyx m;wJh ' Dv kdt cGi fht v rf;wpfck[ m wn f&SdaewJhpD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;r I? ' grSr [ kwf Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mpD;yGm;a&;yHkpHawG&JU y#dyu ©t wGi f;u sq i f;r IawGjzpfw, f/ v si fjrefwJhpD;yGm;a&;u sq i f;r I?' grSr[ kwf y#dyu ©u mv t wGi f; r l0g' t ajccHwJhygwDawGt wGu f t cGi fht v rf;awGazmfaq mi fw, f/ r l0g' t ajccHygwDawG[ m o lwkdY&JUq u fET, fr Ijr§i fhwi fzkdYeJYEkdi fi Ha&;v Iyf&Sm;r It wGi f; t "du NydKi fq kdi fo lawGjzpfv mw, f/

1990 ckESpfwGi f b &mZD;? wl&u DeJYawmi fu kd&D;, m;rSm 2000 ckESpfrsm;v kd r l0g' t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;&JU pl;prf;r It wGi f;y#dyu ©t wGu ft ajzawGx Gu fay:v mwJht cg o kawo e[ m OyrmawGu kd ay;w, f/ rJq E&Si fawG[ m o lwkdY&JUt cu ft cJawGt wGu f t &i fx u fykdrkdwkYHjyefr I&SdwJh r l0g' q kdi f&mawGu kd rsu fESmo may;w, f/ ' Dv kdygwDawG[ m u efYo wfcHx m;&w, f/ ' gayrJh Ekdi fi Ha&;a&SUrwkd;aemu frq kwft ajct aeawGu kd ar ;cGef;x kwfNyD; ajz&Si f;csu fawGu kdjyKv kyfw, f/ acgi f;aq mi fawG[ m jyefv n fjyKjyi fr It wGu f zdt m;awGu kd&i fq kdi fo u Jho kdY ' Dv kdt wkdu ft cHygwDawG[ m acgi f;aq mi fajymi f;v Jr Ix u fykdrkd&Si f;v i f;wJhajymi f;v Jx m;wJhay:v pDawGu kd ax mu fyHhu rf;v Sr f;&w, f/ ax mu fcHr IawGu kd

215


pkpn f;jci f;eJYt pkd;&t zGJUt wGi f;ae&m&wJht cg ' Dv kdacgi f;aq mi fawG[ m a&G;au mu fyGJat mi fjr i fr Iu kdo mru t pkd;&t wGi f;pGrf;aq mi fEkdi fr Iu kdyg o u fao jy&w, f/ , HkMu n fEkdi fwJh pdefac:o lawGt jzpf u sef&SdaezkdYt wGu f t wkdu ft cHtwGi f;ygwDNydKi fq kdi fr I[ m pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;awGajz&Si f;r It ay: o lwkdY&JUo wi f;pu m;u kdt m½kHpkdu fzkdY jyi f;x efwJhzdt m;awGu kd&i fq kdi f&w, f/ ' Dv kdt ajct aeawGt m;v Hk;wkdu fq kdi fr I[ m Ekdi fi Ho m;eJYEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;ESpfrsdK;pv Hk;u kd o lwkdY&JUEkdi fi Ha&;wm0efawGajymi f;v JrIt wGi f;wefzkd;awGu kd &SmazGat mi fjyKv kyfw, f/ t pkd;&t zGJUt wGi f; pGrf;aq mi fEkdi fr Iu kdazmfjyjci f;[ m a&wkdpOf;pm;r IeJYt v si ft jreft Hh0i fcGi fu sr I&JUq GJaq mi fr Iu kd q efYu si fjci f;awGv kdt yfNyD; t v , ft v wfeJYa&&Sn ft jr i fawGeJYt wlcu fcJwJhq Hk;jzwfcsu fawGu kd jyKv kyfjci f;awGv kdt yfw, f/

' gayrJh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mpD;yGm;a&;yHkpHcsrI&JU t u syft wn f;awG[ m r l0g'q kdi f&majymi f;v Jr It wGi f; t NrJwrf;&v ' frx Gu fay:Ekdi fb l;/ u rÇm&JUae&mt rsm;t jym;rSm 1987 ckESpf Zi fb mab GeJY 1990 ckESpf yD½l;rSmv kd wpfcgwpf&Ht mP m&Si fq efwJh&v ' frao csmwJh r l0g' q GJaq mi frI? ' grSr[ kwf a&wkdrl0g' q GJaq mi fr IjyKv kyfwJh ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fwJh acgi f;aq mi fawG[ mv n f; t u sdK;jzpfx Gef;wJh&v ' fawGu kdykdi fq kdi fcJhw, f/ t m;au mi f;wJht a&;ygrIawGu kd ay:v pDrSmae&may;wJht cg Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGo wfrSwfwJh a&G;cs, fr IawG[ mq GJaq mi fr Ir&SdpGm? ' grSr [ kwf t &n ft ao G;edr fhyg;pGm u sef&Sdaev dr fhr , f/

r l0g' t ajccHwJhAsL[ mawGt ay: t a&;ygrIwkd;jr§i fhjci f;&JUjzpf&yfawG[ my#dyu ©awGaMu mi fht v si ft jrefjzpfay:w, f/ b &mZD; (1980 ckESpfrsm;eJY 1990ckESpfrsm;) eJY wl&u D (2000 ckESpfrsm;) &JUjzpf&yfrsm;[ m r l0g' q kdi f&macgi f;aq mi fr It & wcsdKUe, fy, ft wGu f t cGi fht v rf;t o Hk;csr I&JUOyrmawGjzpfw, f/Ekdi fi HESpfckpv Hk;rSm ykdYu keft pm;x kd;pu fr IzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIyHkpHawG[ m u kefaps;EIef;jr i fhwu fr I? ' grSr [ kwf u kefaps;EIef;rajymi f;v Jr I (b &mZD;rSmu Jho kdY)? ' grSr [ kwfav ;eu fwJh b @ma&;jyó emawG (wl&u DrSmu Jho kdY) awGu kdt ao ;pdwfav hv mMu n fh½IcJhw, f/ ygwDt a[ mi f;eJY ygwDt o pfrsm; r l0g' t pDt pOfwu sawG[ m ru fv Hk;ay;rJq G, fr I? ' grSr [ kwf au smfMu m;r It o Hk;csrJq G, fjci f;v kd t jcm;v Iyf&Sm;rIAsL[ mawGu kd v Hk;0v u fav smhjci f;r&Sdb J jyi f;x efpGmv kdu fygaq mi f&Gu f

216


w, f/awmi fu kd&D;, m;&JUjzpf&yf[ m Ekdi fi Hv kyfaq mi fEkdi fpGrf;rsm;jzpfEkdi fwJh pm

wrf;t wGu fax mu fcHrIawGu kdt m;jzn fhw, f/ ' gayrJh r l0g' t ajccHq kdi f&m zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu fr It aMu mi f;&i f;cHt ajct aeawGeJY t m;jzn fhjci f;r [ kwfb l;/ Ekdi fi H[ m1990 ckESpft wGi f; csrf;o mNyD;o m;jzpfNyD; Ekdi fi Hu kdjyi f;x efwJhb @ma&;t u syft wn f;o u fa&mu frIt wGi f;u si f;ywJh 2000 ckESpfa&G;au mu fyGJt NyD; Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUr l0g' q kdi f&m Bu dK;yr f;r IawGu kd jr i fawGUcJh&w, f/ wang wi fjyx m;wJh o lrEkdi fi H&JUt pD&i fcHpmt wkdi f; b @ma&;t u syft wn f;[ m at mu fyga&SUaemu ft pOfawGu kd t pysdK;cJhw, f/ a&SUaemu ft pOfawGu awmh at mi fjr i fwJhpdefac:o l (aemu fq Hk;rsdK;q u fu i f)? av ;eu fwJhv lr Ia&;o u fo macsmi fcsdr IjyKjyi fjci f; (Oyrm Ekdi fi Hv Hk;q kdi f&mv lr Ia&;t mrcHeJY u sef;rma&;t mrcH) Bu D;rm;wJhEkdi fi Ha&;jyefv n fcsdefn d§rIwkdYjzpfw, f/

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- t cGi fht v rf;[ m wHcg;v macgu fwJht cg t q i fo i fhjzpfr Iu kdjyKv kyfx m;&r, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG[ m zefwD;r Ien f;v r f;t wGi f; wHkYjyefr IawGu kdax mu fyHhr Iay;Ekdi fzkdYt wGu f o lwkdYu dk, fwkdi fjyi fq i fx m;o i fhw, f/t em*wfazmfaq mi fwJht awG;t ac:eJY q ef;ppfr I[ m pD;yGm;a&;y#dyu ©t wGu f t em*wfrSmwHkYjyefEkdi frIu kdt m;ay;w, f/ av hv mq ef;ppfr It ay:pepfu spGmrSDckdwJhen f;pepf[ m v u f&Sdu mv u kd t m½kHpkdu fjci f;x u fv u f&Sdu kdau smfv GefawG;awmrIu ykdrkdat mi fjr i fapw, fq kdwmo u faojyEkdi fw, f/ t jyeft v Seft m;jzi fh t em*wfu kdarQmfMu n fhwJhav hv mq ef;ppfr IeJYjyn fo leJYt au mi f;q Hk;t Bu HÓP fawGu kd o wday;r I[ m t em*wfrSmjzpfv mr , fh Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mpD;yGm;a&;jzpfpOfu kdazmfjyzkdYu ln Dw, f/

217


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- pD;yGm;a&;t u syft wn f;t wGi f; t u syft wn f;q efYu si fwJhyv u fazmi f;awGu kd ykdrkdazmfaq mi fEkdi fwJh v si fjrefpGmykdrkdt m;au mi f;wJhBu dK;yrf;r IawG[ m aemu fu sjci f;x u f apmpD;pGmat mi fjr i fEkdi fwJha&wkd-a&&Sn fAsL[ mawGMu m; [ efcsu fn DrIu kdjzpfapw, f/ acgi f;aq mi ft m;v Hk;eJY t x l;o jzi fhacgi f;aq mi ft o pfawG[ m t pkd;&t wGi f;a&m t wkdu ft cHt wGi f;yg rSefu efwJhru fv Hk;awGu kd ay;x m;r , fq kd&i f y#dyu ©wkdu fcdku fr IrSm r l0g' q kdi f&mAsL[ mawGt wGu f ydkrkdv G, fu lapw, f/

rl0g' q kdi f&mu dk, fpm;v S, fu Jho kdY t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;rsm;

o kawo e[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;pepft wGi f; t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;eJY t m;au mi f;wJhrl0g' q kdi f&mq GJaq mi frIawGMu m; jzpfEkdi fajc&SdwJht aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJht zGJUt pn f;ESpfcku kdcGJjcm;o wfrSwfw, f/ yx rwpfcku awmh u rÇmwpf0ef;Ekdi fi HeJYygwDawG&JU u s, fjyefYwJhEIdi f;, SOfr It wGi f; Kitschelt &JUazmfjyx m;wJhyHkpHjzpfw, f/ v lYt zGJUt pn f;t wGi f;o dyfo n f;wJht zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mawG[ m r l0g'q kdi f&mjyefYyGm;rI&JUyHkpHt & t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJhzdt m;awGo u fa&mu fapw, f/ Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGeJY t &yfb u ft zGJUt pn f;t kyfpkawG[ m x i f&Sm;wJhjyó emawGu kdt m½kHpkdu fwJht cg Programmatic u serI[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUrl0g' q kdi f&m o ½kyfu kdt m;jzn fhay;w, f/ ygwDawG[ m a, b k, st m;jzi fht pkd;&&JU t jyi fb u fu kdcsJUx Gi fzkdYv kdt yfNyD/ rJq Ee, fo pfawGv Iyf&Sm;rIt wGu f t zGJU0i fo pfawGcefYt yfjci f;r&SdwJht cg eD;pyfr Ijzi fhjyefYyGm;jci f;[ m aMu mi f;u sdK;q Dav smfr I&Sdv mw, f/ pD;yGm;a&;zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frI[ m t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJh o u f

218


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r l0g' q kdi f&m Ekdi fi Ha&;t ay:o u fa&mu fwJhjyi fyv Iyf&Sm;r I[ m Shefter(Oa&myt wGu f) eJY LeBas (t mz&du t wGu f) jyKv kyfwJhq GJaq mi fr Iazmfjycsu fawGeJYwkdu fq kdi fw, f/


1 o G, f0kdu fazmfjycsu fwpfcku awmh Bu D;rm;wJhpdwf0i fpm;rIt ajccHwJh t zGJUt pn f;awG (Oyrm ya&mfzu f&Si fe, ft zGJUt pn f;? u kefx kwfv kyfr I?t ao ;pm;u kefo G, fa&;eJY u kefo G, fa&;t zGJU) Mu m; eD;pyfwJhyl;aygi f;v kyfaq mi fr I? ' grSr [ kwf ½kd;&Si f;wJht jyeft v Sefv kyfaq mi fr IawGt &AsL[ maygi f;pn f;r IjzpfNyD; Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG[ m r l0g' t ajccHEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu f t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJhru fv Hk;awGu kd zefwD;Ekdi fw, f/ru fv Hk;awG[ m r l0g' t ajccHrJawG&JU &S, fawGBu D;rm;pGmv Hkav mu fwJhae&mawGrSm t m;au mi f;wJhv Grf;rkd;r IawGu kd Bu dK;pm;t m;x kwfNyD; Ekdi fi H&JUv lr Ia&;eJYpD;yGm;a&;zGJUpn f;yHku kd ykdrkdNyD;ajrmu fapzkdY jyKv kyfw, f/

2 t en f;q Hk;u awmh Ekdi fi Ha&;-v lr Ia&;t jyeft v Sefaq G;aEG;rI[ m r l0g'q kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;awG&JU wkd;wu faprIeJY v lr Iq kdi f&mv kyfi ef;pOft wGu fBu D;rm;wJh azmfx kwfr Iu kd t v m;t v m&SdpGm ygwDawGu kday;w, f/t au mi f;q Hk;u awmh o lwkdY[ m ' Dv kdt zGJUt pn f;v kyfi ef;pOfwpfckv Hk;&JUt "du u swJht csu fu kd &n fñ Tef;&i f ' Dv kdazmfx kwfr I[ m ygwD&JUwHkYjyefEkdi fpGr f;u kd wkd;jr§i fhw, f/

a&max G;wJhu dk, fpm;v S, fawGv kdrsdK;t wkdu ft cHygwDawG&JUt cef;u @

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220


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Zmo u fa&mu fw, f/ jyn fo lYt u sdK;o u fa&mu fr It wGu f x i fo mjr i fo m&SdwJh ay:v pDawG[ m wdu swJhrJq Ee, f&JUwkdu f½kdu ft u sdK;&v ' ft wGu f q GJaq mi fNyD; at mu fykdi f;rSm ' Day:v pDawGu kd at mi fjr i fat mi ft au mi ft x n fazmfr Iu kd ax mu fyHhw, f/

a&wkdv lx kau mi f;u sdK;awG&JU at mi fjr i fwJhaq mi f&Gu frIu Program-matic u sewJhrJq Ee, fawG&JUt &G, ft pm;x Ju ESpfwkd;&&dSrIq DOD;wn fo Gm;Ekdi fNyD;t pdk;&awGu t u sdK;&dS&dSv kyfaq mi fv dr fhr , fq kdwJhEkdi fi Ho m;arQmfv i fhcsu fawGu dkjr i fhwu fv mapEdki fw, f/ rJay;o lawGu dk q GJaq mi fr I&dSr , fq kd&i f t J' gu Pro-grammatic u sewJhrJay;r IawGu dk x def;x m;Ekdi fjci f;q D yx rajcv Srf;u dk u dk, fpm;jyKw, f/

Programmatic u sewJht u sdK;&v ' fawGx Jut v m;t v m&dSwefzkd;eJYu dku fn DwJh u pm;yGJpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;rsm;

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222


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ygwDwGi f;ae&m, lr It q i fhrSm o kawo eu ygwDwGi f;yg0gA[ kdcsKyfu dki fr Iav smhcszkdY o u fq kdi f&m, EÅ&m;awGu dk&SmazGawGU&dSw, f/ n Dn GwfrIeJYygwD&JU t rSwfwHq dyf (Oyrm yk*¾dKv fa&;q efrIu dkav smhcsjci f;) u dk x def;o drf;jci f;u ygwD&JUrl0g't pDt pOfwu srJq G, fwJht m;x kwfrIawGu dkckdi frmapzkdY? ' grSr[ kwf t v m;t v m&dSwJhwefzkd;eJYu dku fn DzkdY u ln DEkdi fw, f/ t J' Dx u fydkNyD; ygwDu dk, fpm;v S, fav mi f;a&G;cs, fjci f;u dk ' Drkdu a&pDq efapjci f;? ygwDb @m a&;wn fNi drfrIu dk wkd;jr i fhapjci f;eJYProgrammatic u sewJht q u ft pyfwkd;wu fjci f;eJY w&m;0i fawGUq HkyGJ&JUpn f;rsOf;pn f;u rf;u ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawG? ' grSr [ kwf ygwD0i fawG&JU Program-matic u sewJht m;x kwfr IawGu dk x n fho Gi f;pOf;pm;jci f;eJY ydkrkdo [ ZmwjzpfEkdi fw, f/ csDv DEkdi fi Hu t "du u swJhEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&m &n frSef;csu fwln DwJhrJay;o l?' grSr [ kwf Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;t kyfpkESpfck (O½ka*G;eJYt wlwu G t J' Dt kyfpkESpfckrSmv u fwi ft ar&du rSmrl0g' t pDt pOft u sq Hk;ygwDpepf&dSw, f)u 2013 ckESpfuv u fwav mt u sq Hk;or®wq kdi f&ma&G;au mu fyGJx JrSm wpfNydKi feu fwn f;jzpfay:wJht "du t csu fawGu dkx kwfazmfjyo w, f/ Osterkatz eJY Epstein wkdY&JUjzpf&yfav h

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v mrIx JrSm&Si f;v i f;jyx m;wJht wkdi f; b &m;ZD;jyKjyi fajymi f;v Jr I[ m 2002ckESpfrSmzsu fo dr f;cHv kdu f&wJh aemu fx yfa&G;au mu fyGJrSm 0i fa&mu f, SOfNydKi fzkdYarG;zGm;cGi fht cGi fht a&;v kdrsdK;0wå&m;awGu dkt mrcHwJh candidato nato ax mu fyHhjci f;u Jho dkY Programmatic u sewmr[ kwfwJhEkdi fi Ha&;pepfawGu dk wjcm;wpfzu fut cGi fht v rf;o mapwJh o u fa&mu frIBu D;rm;wJhv u ©P m&yfawGu dk acszsu fcJhw, f/Protsyk &Si f;jyx m;cJhwJht wkdi f; 2004 ckESpfwpfav Qmu fv Hk; ygv DrefwGi f;ae&m&, lr It ay: , lu &def;&JUjyKjyi fajymi f;v JrIu edrfhyg;wJhygwDawGu dk t wn fjyKwJht csdefrSm (1998-2001t wGi f;rSm jzpfpOf 563 ck&dSNyD; 2006-07 t wGi f;rSmjzpfpOf 6 ck&dSw, f) ajymi f;v Jjci f;u dk u ln Day;Edki fw, f/

t J' Do kawo eu t J' Dt zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&mpDpOfaq mi f&Gu fcsu fawGuProgrammatic u seo lawG&JUwn f&dSrI? Ekdi fi H&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' yHkpH? ' grSr[ kwfygwDu dk, fwkdi f&JUt &G, ft pm;wkdYv kdr sdK; t q u ft pyfq kdi f&mt pdwft ydki f;awGt ay:rSm t J' Dt m;ay;ax mu fcHrIt cef;u @u ra&r&mjzpfaewJht wkdi f;yg0i fw, ffq dkwmu dkv n f; t Bu HjyKw, f/

Programmatic u sewJht u sdK;&v ' fawGx Ju t v m;t v m&dSwJhwefzkd;eJYu dku fn DwJh ygwDwGi f;pDpOfaq mi f&Gu frIawGu r[ mAsL[ mu swJhEkdi fi Ha&;t kyfpkkjyefv n fzGJUpn f;jci f;v kyfi ef;pOfwpfcku dkjzwfNyD; Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGo Gm;jci f;t wGu f q GJaq mi frI&dSEkdi fw, f/ ' grSr[ kwf ygwDwGi f;t zGJUt pn f;&JU en f;v rf;o pfu dkwefzkd;x m;wJh t en f;i , fx dawGUwJhrJq Ee, fawGu dk v kdv kdv m;v m;v u fcHEkdi fzG, f&dSwJh t wkdu ft cHx Ju ygwDawGjzpfw, f/

t ajccHt m;jzi fh t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mjyKjyi fajymi f;v JrIawGu Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUawmi f;q kdrIawGt m;jzi fh en f;v r f;u sepGm pwi fNyD; armi f;ESi fw, f/t J' Dt jyi f jyKjyi fajymi f;v Ja&;v kyfi ef;pOfawGu o u fq kdi f&mt q u ft pyfq kdi f&mEkdi fi Hjyó emawGu dk u dki fwG, frSmjzpfNyD; Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JU t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awGeJYx dawGUwJho rkdi f;0i ft awGUt Bu HKawG&JU t arGt ESpft ay:t ajccHNyD; q Hk;jzwfcH&zkdY t v m;t v mt &dSq Hk;jzpfw, f/ o u fq kdi f&mt i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q kdi f&mpDpOfaq mi f&Gu frIawG&JU ax mu fcHcsu fu dkcGi fhjyKzkdYt wGu f o kawo eu cGi fhr jyKayrJh at mu fygt ajccHpn f;rsOf;awGu t i fpwDu sL;&Si fq kdi f&mjyKjyi fajymi f;v JrIawGu dk v rf;n TefzkdY

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- ay:v pDat mi fEkdi fo lawGq Du dk yg0gv TJay;zkdY t , Hko Gi f;cH&NyD; t q i fht wef;u aeydkrkdv Trf;rkd;wmu dkcGi fhjyKwJh ygwDacgi f;aq mi fawGeJY t v , ft v wfwef;acgi f;aq mi fawG[ m ay:v pDu dkwdrf;n TwfwJhyl;wGJb u fawmfo m; t o pfawGu dkq GJaq mi fzkdY ydkrdkt v m;t v m&dSw, f/ ydkrdkwHkYjyefr I&dSwJhygwDawG[ m ydkrdkBu D;rm;

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- ygwDeJY¤i f;&JUOya' jyKt zGJUMu m;q u fEG, fr Iu kd t m;jzn fhjci f;rSmwefzkd;&Sdw, f/ Oya' jyKt zGJU0i fawGu kd pn f;u rf;o wfrSwfzkdYygwDu kdt mP mt en f;i , fay;jci f;[ m Programmatic u ser Iu kdu mu G, fu ln DEkdi fw, f/ wpfOD;csi f;pD&JUajc&mt m;v Hk;u kdzsu fzkdY r jzpfEkdi fo v kd rv kyfo i fhb l;/ a&G;cs, fx m;wJhu dk, fpm;jyKr I[ m rJq E&Si fawGq Du v u fcH&&SdwJh v r f;aMu mi f;t wGi f; ñ TefMu m;csu fjzpfwJh a&G;cs, fr Iu kdjyKv kyfzkdY ae&mv GwfawGv kdt yfw, f/ pkaygi f;x m;wJhOya' jyKo lawGeJYwpfOD;wn f;Oya' jyKo lawGMu m;o i fhav smfwJh [ efcsu fn Dr Iu kd&SmazGzkdYcu fcJw, f/ ygwD&JUjzpfwn fr IeJY eD;pyfwJht wGi f;ykdi f;ay:v pDeJYu dpö&yfMu m;t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;u kd pn f;u r f;o wfrSwfrIt ay:wefzkd;Bu D;pGmae&may;&i f wpfOD;wn f;Oya' jyKo lawG[ m ygwDae&mu aeao Gzn fzkdY wefzkd;Bu D;pGmay;q yf&r, fq kdwmu kdawGUv drfhr, f/ t a&;ygrIen f;yg;wJhu dpöawGrSm v kdu fav smrIt csdKUjyKv kyfo i fhNyD; o ab mx m;u GJv GJr I[ m rJq E&Si fawGeJYru i f;u Gmb J [ efcsu fn DrIu kd&SmazGzkdY v u fawGUu swJhen f;v r f;jzpfEkdi fw, f/

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Programmatic u sewJhe, frsm;t wGu f v kdt yfcsu f

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w, f/ 0i fai GeJYo wi f;t csu ft v u f&ykdi fcGi fhawGu kd wdu spGmazmfjywJhe, fy, fawG[ m o kawo et wGi f;rJq E&Si fawG&JU r l0g' q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;rx i f&Sm;r Iu kdyHkazmfw, f/ Cheeseman &JUazmfjycsu fwpfcku awmh ]wkdi f;jyn f&JU0i fai Gt q i fheJYyn ma&;&ykdi fcGi fhu kd *½krpkdu fb l;q kd&i f Ekdi fi Ha&;aq G;aEG;yGJeJYo wi f;t csu ft v u f&ykdi fcGi fh[ m r l0g' q kdi f&m, dr f;, kdi fr IawGt wGu f u ln DEkdi fw, f} v kdYq kdw, f/

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229


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at mi fjr i fwJhr l0g' t pDt pOfajymi f;v Jr IawG[ m a&G;au mu fcHEkdi f&zG, f&SdwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;t &o d&Sdem;v n fr IeJY pGrf;aq mi f&n f&SdwJhEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awGt ay:rSDckd&w, f/ b &mZD;? t dEd, eJYZr fb D, mv kdEkdi fi HawGrSm acgi f;aq mi fr Iu @&JUProgrammatic Ekdi fi Ha&;o kdYcsOf;ei f;0i fa&mu frIjyKv kyf&mrSm t v Geft a&;Bu D;w, fq kdwJhOyrmawGu kd Cheeseman eJY Kitschelt u ax mu fyHhw, f/ Program-matic Ekdi fi Ha&;t ay: t aygi f;v u ©P maq mi fwJho u fa&mu frI&SdzkdY ay:v pDarmi f;ESi fwJh Ekdi fi Ha&;acgi f;aq mi fawGu kd ax mu fcHjci f;[ m at mu fygt csu fawGu kdq kdv kd&ma&mu fw, f/

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r l0g' q kdi f&m, dr f;, dki fr Iu kdjyo wJh ygwDo pfeJY t wkdu ft cHygwD&JUacgi f;aq mi fawG[ m v Iyf&Sm;rIjyKv kyf&r, fhAsL[ mrsm;u kd t v Gefpdwf0i fpm;w, f/ t x l;o jzi fh cu fcJwJha&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&mv Iyf&Sm;rIawGt ay: pdwf0i fpm;w, f/ ' gayrJh' g[ m ckdi frmwJhrJay;r Iu kdv kdt yfNyD; Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JU Ekdi fi Ho m;rsm;o djr i fr Iu kd u mv &Sn fav hv mq ef;ppfr IjyKv kyfwm[ m t u keft u srsm;apw, f/ ' Dv kden f;v rf;awGt wGu f ykdrkdu s, fjyefYwJht cGi fht v rf;awG[ m t EÅ&m, fr&Sdb J o lwkdY&JUAsL[ mwefzkd;awG[ m u kd, fpm;v S, feJYygwDawGt wGu fykdrkdq GJaq mi fwJh Program-matic u ser IawGu kd jyKv kyfzkdYt wGu f yg0i fu ln Dw, f/

' Dpmt kyfx JrSm azmfjyx m;wJho kawo eeJY ' Dt cef;&JUed*Hk;csKyf[ m Pro-grammatic u sewJhEkdi fi Ha&;t wGu f u ln DwJhEkdi fi H&JUywf0ef;u si fu kd jyKv kyfwJht ajct ae&JU yrmP eJY t eD;pyfq Hk;zGi fhq kdr Iu kdax mu fyHhw, f/ azmfjycsu f[ med*Hk;eJYa0;u GmrIu kdjyKv kyfw, f/ ' Dt ajct aeawG[ m t q kd;q Hk;[ efYwm;r IeJY tau mi f;q Hk;t cGi fht v r f;awGu kdazmfjyNyD; o lwkdY&JUu kd, fykdi ft ay: ajymi f;v JrIwkdi f;u kd t mrrcHb l;v kdYq kdv kdw, f/ azmfjyx m;wJht ajct aeawG&JUwpfck? ' grSr[ kwfwpfckx u fykdNyD;wn f&Sdaer I[ m &Si f;v i f;w, f/ ygwDwpfck[ m t v kdv kdae&i f;r l0g' t ajccHygwDr jzpfv mb l;/ ' gayrJh ' Dv kdjzpfr IeJYywfo u fNyD; ajymq kdr It csdKU&Sdygw, f/ arQmfv i fhcsu fBu D;pGmeJY ' Dpmt kyf[ m Programmatic u sewJh Ekdi fi Ha&;u kd t q Hk;pGef&Si f;jyx m;wJh t ajct aeawGjzpfNyD; ' Dt ajct aeawGt ay:o u fa&mu fwJh pmzwfo lu kdq GJaq mi f&mrSmat mi fjr i fzkdY arQmfv i fhw, f/



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Nic Cheeseman [ m at mu fpfzkdY' fwu úo dkv fu t mz&du av hv ma&;pi fwm&JU' g½dku fwmwpfOD;jzpfw, f/ o lY&JUo kawo eawG[ m a&yef;pm;r It , lt q [ mt mz&du u t u sdK;o u fa&mu frI&dSwJhEkdi fi Ha&;pn f;½Hk;v HIYaq mfrIwpfck[ kwfo v m;?t cGefaq mi fjci f;u Ekdi fi Ho m;awG&JU ' Drkdu a&pDeJYv mb fpm;rIq Do dkY t jyKt r lawGu dkb , fav mu fajymi f;v Jo Gm;apo v JeJY t kyfpdk;aewJhygwDawGyg0gq Hk;½HI;r Iat mu fut ajct aeawGu dk u dki fwG, fav hv mw, f/ pmt kyfx Ju t cef;awGeJY aq mi f;yg;ta&t wGu fwcsdKUt jyi f o l[ myl;wGJwn f;jzwfwJhpkpn f;r IESpfcku dkv n f; x kwfa0x m;NyD;jzpfw, f/ t J' gawGu awmh v Gwfv yfa&;&&dSwJht csdefu aepv kdY u i fn m&JUEkdi fi Ha&;u dkzHk;v Tr f;x m;wJh Our Turn To Eat (2010) eJY The Handbook ofAfrican Politics (2013) wdkYyJjzpfw, f/ yn m&yfq kdi f&mpmt kyfwpft kyfjzpfwJhDemocracy in Africa u dk 2014 ckESpfrSm u def;b &pfwu úo dkv fyHkESdyfwkdu fu aex kwfa0rSmjzpfNyD; ' kwd, wpft kyfjzpfwJh How to Rig An Election u awmhv u f&dSt csdefrSm a, ;v fwu úo dkv fyHkESdyfwkdu feJY pmcsKyfcsKyfx m;NyD;jzpfw, f/ Nic[ m o lY&JUt csdeft rsm;pku dk UK (u u fb deu f½Hk;? Ekdi fi Hjcm;a&;½Hk;? Ekdi fi Hwu mzGHYNzdK;r IXme) eJY jyn fy (b &mZD;t pdk;&&JU Instituto Rio Branco ? Lagos jyn fe, ft pdk;&? yeft mz&du efygv Dref? u rÇmhb P f) wdkYrSm ay:v pDcsrSwfo lawGeJYywfo u fwJho lY&JUt v kyfawG (t a&;t o m;awG) &JU o G, f0kdu fo u fa&mu fr IawGu dk&Si f;v i f;wi fjy&i f;u kefq Hk;w, f/ o l[ m African Affairs &JUyl;wGJt , f' Dwm?t mz&du efwkd;wu f a&;yi fe, f&JU t Bu Hay;wpfOD;eJY q u fo G, fa&;o kawo e(t mz&du ) rSm UNICEF o b mywdt Bu Hay;b kwft zGJU0i fwpfa, mu fjzpfw, f/

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234


Herbert Kitschelt [ m Duke wu úo dkv fu Ekdi fi Ha&;o dyÜHXmerSm Ekdi fi Hwu mq u fq Ha&;b mo m&yf&JU George V.Allen Professor jzpfw, f/ o l[ mEdki fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJY a&G;au mu fyGJawG&JU EdIi f;, SOfrIq kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;ab m*aA' wdkYrSmt x l;jyKav hv mw, f/ o l&JUpmt kyfeJY aq mi f;yg;awGx JrSm o l[ m Logics ofParty Formation(Cornell University Press,1989), Beyond the EuropeanLeft (Duke University Press,1990), The Transformation of EuropeanSocial Democracy (Cambridge University Press, 1994), The Radical Rightin Western Europe (University of Michigan Press, 1995, Winner of theAmerican Political Science Association's Woodrow Wilson FoundationAward), Post-Communist Party Systems (Cambridge University Press,1999), Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism (CambridgeUniversity Press,1999), Patrons, Clients, and Policies (Cambridge Uni-versity Press,2007) eJY Latin American Party Systems (Cambridge Uni-versity Press,2010) pmt kyfawG&JUpma&;o l? yl;wGJpma&;o leJY t , f' Dwmjzpfw, f/ o l[ m v wfwav mrSm o kawo eya&m*su fESpfcku dk t NyD;o wfaew, f/wpfcku u rÇmwv Tm;u , SOfNydKi fr Iq kdi f&m' Drkdu a&pDpepfawGx Ju ' Drkdu &u fwpfb u fv kdu fwJht csdwft q u fawGt ay:rSm jyKv kyfaewmjzpfNyD; o lY&JUn TefMu m;r Iat mu fu ' Drkdu &u fwpfwm0ef, lr I? wm0efcHrIESi fh t csdwft q u fya&m*su fuau mu f, lx m;wJht csu ft v u fawGt ay: t ajccHx m;wmjzpfw, f/ aemu fx yfwpfcku awmh pu fr Iv Gef' Drkdu a&pDpepfx Ju b u fv kdu fwJhEkdi fi Ha&;jyefv n fzGJUpn f;jci f; (Philipp Rehm eJYt wlwu GjyKv kyfwJh) t ay: jyKv kyfwmjzpfw, f/o l[ m t ar&du efEkdi fi Ha&;o dyÜHt o i f;&JU 2000 ckESpf Franklin L.Burdetteq ku dk 1999 ckESpf APSA ESpfpOft pn f;t a0;rSm t au mi f;q Hk;pmwrf;wi fo Gi f;Ekdi fcJhwJht wGu f&&dScJhNyD; t ar&du ef0dZÆmESi fh o dyÜHt u , f' rD&JU t zGJU0i fwpfa, mu fjzpfw, f/

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Juan Pablo Luna [ m Instituto de Ciencia Politica, PontificiaUniversidad Catolica de Chile u v u fax mu fygarmu ©jzpfw, f/ o l[ mEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJY ' Drdku &u fwpfu dk, fpm;jyKrIeJY rn DrQrIeJY Ekdi fi Hht i fpwDu sL;&Si f;o b m0awG&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;o u fa&mu frIawGu dkav hv mrIjyKv kyfzkdY pdwf0i fpm;w, f/o l[ m Segmented Representation: Political Party Startegies in UnequalDemocracies (Oxford University Press,2014) &JU pma&;o ljzpfNyD; TheResilience of the Latin American Right (Johns Hopkins University Press,2014) &JUyl;wGJt , f' Dwmv n f;jzpfw, f/ 2010 ckESpft wGi f;rSm o l[ m LatinAmerican Party Systems (Cambridge University Press) pmt kyfu dk yl;wGJa&;o m;cJhw, f/ o l&JUb GJU, lo kawo eu dk 2008 ckESpfrSm t ar&du Ekdi fi Ha&;o dyÜHt o i f;&JU EdIi f;, SOfav hv mrIq kdi f&m' Drkdu a&pDt o Gi fu l;ajymi f;jci f;u @u JuanLinz t au mi f;q Hk;b GJ, lYpmwrf;q kay;t yfcJhw, f/ o lY&JUv u f&m[ m Com-parative Political Studies, Politicay Gobierno, Revista de Ciencia Politica,Latin American Politics and Society, International Political Science Re-view, Third World Quarterly, Journal of Latin American Studies, Journalof Democracy, Prefiles Latinoamericanos eJY Democratization wkdYrSmazmfjycHcJh&w, f/ o l[ m y&i fpwefwu úo dkv f(2008)? b a&mi f;wu úo dkv f(2011)eJY [ m;Au fwu úo dkv f(2013)wdkYrSm {n fhygarmu ©&mx l;eJYaq mi f&Gu fcJhw, f/

Dan Paget [ m at mu fpfzkdY' fwu úo dkv fu t mz&du q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;b mo m&yf&JUPh.D av mi f;wpfOD;jzpfw, f/ o l[ m a&G;au mu fyGJq kdi f&m' Drkdu a&pDpepfrsm;x JuEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJY o lwkdYv kyfu dki fwJh get-out-the-vote r [ mAsL[ mawGu dk av hv mw, f/ o lY&JU, ci ft v kyf (t a&;t o m;) x JrSm Dan [ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JUo wi f;pu m;awGeJY v Trf;rdk;x m;wJhygwDawG&JU t kyfpk*dkP f;*P zGJUrI0g' u dk q ef;ppfav hv mcJhw, f/ wu úo kdv fyn m&yfq kdi f&m t 0ef;t 0kdi f;u kd ra&mu f&Sdci fwkef;uDan [ m zGHUNzdK;q JEkdi fi HawGu v u fr Iyn m&yfawGeJY ao ;i , fwJho wÅKwGi f;awGt ay: t x l;jyKav hv mcJhw, f/ o l[ m OECD, the Department for Inter-national Development (UK), eJY IDH wkdYv kdY Ekdi fi Hwu mat *si fpDawGt wGu f

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t ao ;pm;o wÅKwGi f;v kyfi ef;&Si fawG&JU pD;yGm;a&;t cGi fht v rf;awGwkd;wu fv ma&;q dki f&mya&m*su fawGeJY t pdk;&awGt wGu f Ekdi fi Hwu mv r f;n TefeJY NGOsawGu dkt pjyKzkdYeJY t ao ;pm;rkdi f;wGi f;v kyfaq mi fr IawGu dk t q i fhjr§i fhwi fzdkYawGv kyfu dki fcJhw, f/

Fernando Rosenblatt [ m Escuela de Ciencia Politica, UniversidadDiego Portales, Chile rSv u fax mu fygarmu ©wpfOD;jzpfw, f/ o l[ m b maMu mi fh wcsdKUao mEkdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGrSm t csdefau smfv GefaewJh wu f<u wJhEkdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mt zGJUt pn f;awG u sef&dSaeao ;NyD; wpfcsdefwn f;rSm wjcm;t zGJUt pn f;awGu ' Drkdu &u fwpfu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;&JU au seyfESpfo drfhp&m, mOfawGt jzpf aq G;ajrU? ajcmu fu yfo Gm;v Jq dkwmu dkpdwf0i fpm;w, f/ o l[ m o ab mo b m0q kdi f&mprf;o yfr I o kawo e' DZkdi f;awGu dkv n f;pdwf0i fpm;w, f/ o l&JUb GJU, lpmwrf;o kawo eu dk Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile u 2013 ckESpft wGu ft au mi f;q Hk; a' gu fwmb GJU, lpmwrf; 5 ckt eu frS wpfckt jzpf t o dt rSwfjyKcJhw, f/ o lY&JUt v kyf(t a&;t o m;)awG[ m Democratization eJY Revista deCiencia Politica wkdYrSmazmfjycH&w, f/

Kristen Sample [ m Ekdi fi Hwu m IDEA u rÇmv Hk;q dki f&mt pDt pOf&JU' g½dku fwmwpfOD;jzpfNyD; u rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&mt o dyn mv kyfaq mi fjci f;&JU NcHKi Hko Hk;o yfr IeJYt wl Programmatic u sewJhv kyfazmfu dki fzu ft jzpf wm0ef, laq mi f&Gu fw, f/ , ci fu o lr [ m Ekdi fi Hwu m IDEA &JU Andean a' o t wGu f t pDtpOft Bu D;t u JjzpfNyD; ¤i f;&JU' Drkdu a&pD? zGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIeJY v di fu GJjym;rIq kdi f&mt a&;u dpöawGt wGu f a' o q kdi f&mu dk, fpm;v S, ft jzpfv n f; aq mi f&Gu fcJhw, f/ o lr[ m rsm;pGmao mpmt kyfawG&JU t , f' DwmwpfOD;eJY pma&;o lwpfOD;v n f;jzpfw, f/t J' Dpmt kyfawGx JrSm ' Poverty and Politics in Andean Region' ; ' A Democ-racy Results Approach : The Present Debate and Growing ConsensusSurrounding the Inter-American Democratic Charter'; Latin AmericanPolicy Journal x Ju ' The Role of International Electoral Observation

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Missions in the Promotion of the Political Rights of Women: The Case ofthe OAS's' ? The 2007 -12 Electoral Cycle in the Americas, x JrSm 'Dimea quien escuchas: Think tanks y partidos politicos en America Latina'; 'From Words to Action: Best Practices for Women's Participation in Po-litical Parties';'Riding the Wave: Women's Political Participation in LatinAmerica'; eJY 'Democracia en la Region Andina: los telones de fondo'wdkYyg0i fw, f/ o lr [ m [ m;Awfwu úo dkv fu ae v lx kay:v pDb mo m&yfeJYr [ mb GJU&&dScJhw, f/ IDEA eJYryl;aygi f;ci fwkef;u Kristen [ m yD½l;? b dkv D;AD;, m;? *GgwDrmv meJY csDv DwkdYrSm ' Drkdu a&pDwn faq mu fjci f;eJY v lr It zGJUt pn f;u dkax mu fyHhjci f;eJYq u fpyfwJhrsm;pGmao mwm0efawGu dk v kyfaq mi fcJhw, f/

Sergio Toro [ m Instituto de Ciencia Politica, Pontificia UniversidadCatolica de Chile u v u fax mu fygarmu ©wpfOD;jzpfw, f/ o l[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;eJY csDv DOya' jyKo lawG&JU o lwkdY&JUrJq Ee, fawGt ay: t jyKt r lawGu dk av hv mrIrSm pdwfyg0i fpm;w, f/ o l&JUt v kyft u dki f(t a&;t o m;)awG[ mElectoral Studies , World Political Science Review, Revista de CienciaPolitica eJY Politica y Gobierno wkdYrSm azmfjycH&w, f/

Jorge Valladares Molleda [ m Ekdi fi Hwu m IDEA &JU ' Drkdu a&pDeJY zGHUNzdK;rIy½dk*&rf&JU y½dk*&rfwm0ef&dSo lwpfOD;jzpfNyD; t J' DrSm o l[ m ' Drkdu &u fwpfwm0ef, lr I? wm0efcHr I? Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawGeJY v lr Ia&;eJYab m*aA' Xme&JUt q u ft pyfx Ju t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;q dki f&m' DZkdi f;t ay:rSm t m½Hkpdku fw, f/ o l[ m 2000ckESpfu ae 2006 ckESpft wGi f; yD½l;u TRANSPARENCIA &JU a&G;au mu fyGJapmi fhMu n fhav hv ma&;eJY Ekdi fi Ha&;jyKjyi fajymi f;v JrIrSm yl;wGJaq mi f&Gu fo lt jzpfEkdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG? v lr It zGJUt pn f;q kdi f&macgi f;aq mi fawG? ay:v pDcsrSwfo lawGeJYt wl Ekdi fi Ha&;jyKjyi fajymi f;v JrIt a&;u dpö? ygwDt ax mu ft u ljyKeJY a&G;au mu fyGJav hv mapmi fhMu n fha&;t v kyfawGu dk yD½l;? b kdv D;AD;, m;? ' dkrDeDu ef&Dywfb v pf?t Dau Ga' geJY Ai feDZGJv m;wkdYrSmaq mi f&Gu fcJhw, f/ o l&JUaemu fq Hk;t u sq Hk; o kaw

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o eu awmh Oya' jyKa&;q kdi f&mEkdi fi Ha&;pepfrsm;? ygwDNydKi fyGJrsm;eJY ygwDn Dn Gwfr IawGt ay:rSm t m½Hkpdku fx m;wmjzpfNyD; Unity and Differentiation in Peru'sLegislature 2006-2012 (2013); Representation and Competition in Peru(2011) ; Studies on Peru's Congress (editor,2009) wkdYrSmyg0i fcJhw, f/ o lY&JUb GJUv Gefav hv mrIu awmh zGHUNzdK;r Iq kdi f&mav hv mrI(ISS, The Hague) eJY t pdk;&u (Essex,UK)wkdYjzpfw, f/

Sam van der Staak [ m Edki fi Hwu m IDEA &JU Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDrsm;t o i f;u dkOD;aq mi fw, f/ o l[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG? ' Drdku a&pDt u lt n Day;a&;t zGJUawGeJYt wl IDEA eJY Netherlands Institute wkdYt wGu f u i fn m? rGef*dkv D;, m;?b l&r f' dki f;? Zi fb mab G? a*smf*sD, meJY t mz*efepöwefwdkYv kd Ekdi fi Hrsm;q Du rsdK;pHkao m' Drkdu a&pDt wGu ft v kyfv kyfcJhw, f/ o l&JU Programmatic u sewJhygwDawGt ay: o lY&JUt v kyfawGt jyi f Sam [ m Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDawG&JU' dki f, mav mhcf?Ekdi fi Ha&;t wGi f;u ai GaMu ;&JUt cef;u @eJY Ekdi fi Ho m;v Iyf&Sm;rI&JUt u sdK;o u fa&mu frIawGu dk o kawo ejyKcJhw, f/ o l[ m Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&mb @ma&;Oya' eJY Ekdi fi Ha&;ygwDOya' wkdY&JUe, fy, fawGrSm t Bu Hay;Oya' yn m&Si fv kyfcJhw, f/ ' Drkdu a&pDtax mu ft u ljyKrSm ryg0i fci fwkef;u Sam [ m e, fo mv efu dk, fpm;v S, fv TwfawmfrSm t v kyfv kyfcJhw, f/ o l[ m awmi ft mz&du Ekdi fi H? *sdK[ efempb wfu0pf0gwm;&efYwu úo dkv fu ae Ekdi fi Hwu mq u fq Ha&;yn m&yfeJY r[ mb GJU&&dSx m;o v kd armf' efpmayb mo m&yfeJY e, fo mv efEkdi fi H? , l&mhcsfwu úo dkv fu aer [ mb GJUx yfrH&&dSx m;w, f/

Yi-ting Wang [ m q GD' i fEkdi fi H? *dko mrfb mh*fwu úo dkv f&JU Ekdi fi Ha&;o dyÜHXmerSm' Drkdu a&pDt rsdK;rsdK;ya&m*su f (V-Dem) rSm a' gu fwmb GJU, lNyD;v kyfu dki faeo ljzpfw, f/ o lU&JUt v kyfawG[ m Oya' jyKa&;t i fpwDu sL;&Si f;eJY Ekdi fi Ha&;o rm;awG&JUwm0ef, lr I wm0efcHrIen f;AsL[ mawGt ay: ' Drkdu &u fwpfwn fNi drfa&;t wGu ft ajct aeawGt ay:rSm t x l;jyKav hv mjci f;eJYt wl t m½Hkpdku fw, f/ u rÇmwpf0ef;u ' Drkdu a&pDpepf 70 au smfu au mfrwDpepf&JUt cef;u @u dk t x l;o jzi fh

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v u fawGUu su syHkazmfwJh r l&i f;t csu ft v u ft pHkwpfckt ay:t ajccHNyD; o lr&JUb GJU, lpmwrf;u b , fv kdeJYb maMu mi fh Oya' jyKa&;au mfrwDawG[ m o lwkdY&JUv kyfu dki fEkdi fpGrf;awGrSm ' Drkdu a&pDpepfawGu dkjzwfo ef;NyD; ay:v pDv Trf;rdk;rIawGjyKv kyfzkdYu GJjym;aeo v Jq kdwmu dk u dki fwG, fav hv mw, f/ o lr&JUv u f&dSya&m*su fuOya' jyKa&;eJY ' Drkdu a&pDt &n ft ao G;u dkq ef;ppfzdkYawGrSm yl;aygi f;yg0i fzdkY rwln DwJhOya' jyKa&;pGrf;aq mi fEkdi f&n fawG&JU t u sdK;q u fawGu dk&SmazGwmjzpfw, f/

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International IDEA q dkwm b mv J/

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance(International IDEA) [ m u rÇmht ESHY' Drkdu a&pDa&&Sn fwn fwHha&;u dk ax mu fyHhzkdYwm0efeJY t pdk;&wpfydki f;t zGJUt pn f;wpfckjzpfw, f/

t zGJU&JUOD;wn fcsu fawGu awmh t m;au mi f;wJh' Drkdu &u fwpft i fpwDu sL;&Si f;awGeJYv kyfi ef;pOfawGu dkt m;ay;zkdY? ydkrkda&&Sn fwn fwHh? t u sdK;jyKNyD; w&m;Oya' pdk;rkd;wJh' Drdku a&pDu dk ax mu fyHhzkdYyJjzpfw, f/

International IDEA b mawGv kyfo v J/

t zGJU&JU t v kyfawGu dk u rÇmv Hk;q kdi f&m? a' o q kdi f&meJY Ekdi fi Hq kdi f&mt q i fhawGt jzpfzGJUpn f;x m;NyD; t ajymi f;t v Ju dk armi f;ESi fo lawGt jzpf Ekdi fi Ho m;awGu dkt m½Hkpdku fw, f/

International IDEA u EdIi f;, SOft o dyn mawGu dk x kwfv kyfNyD;t J' Dt x JrSm u Rrf;u si fr I&JU t "du u swJhe, fy, fawGyg0i fw, f/ t J' gawGu awmha&G; au mu fyGJv kyfi ef;pOf? zGJUpn f;yHkt ajccHOya' wn faq mu fa&;? Ekdi fi Ha&;q kdi f&myg0i fywfo u fjci f;eJY u dk, fpm;jyKjci f;? ' Drkdu a&pDeJYzGHUNzdK;wkd;wu frIwdkYt jyi f ' Drkdu a&pDeJYq u fET, faewJh v di fu GJjym;rI? rsdK;u GJpHkv i frIeJY v HkNcHKa&;wkdYv n f;yg0i fw, f/

IDEA [ m t J' Dt o dyn mawGu dk ' Drkdu &u fwpfjyKjyi fajymi f;v Ja&;eJY

IDEA ESifhywfoufí

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' Drkdu a&pDt ajymi f;t v Ju dkax mu fcHzkdYt wGu f ' dki f, mav mhcfawGu dkv kyfaq mi fwJhEkdi fi Ht q i fheJY a' o wGi f;t q i fhv kyfaq mi fo lawGq Du dk o , faq mi fv mw, f/

t zGJU&JUt v kyfx JrSm IDEA [ m at mu fygt csu fawGu dk &n f&G, fw, f/

-v kyfEkdi fpGrf;wkd;wu fjci f;? w&m;Oya' pdk;rkd;jci f;eJY ' Drkdu a&pD&JUu dk;pm;Ekdi fjci f;-ydkrdkyg0i fEkdi fwJhyl;aygi f;v kyfaq mi fjci f;eJY wm0ef, lr I&dSwJhu dk, fpm;jyKjci f;-ydkrdkt u sdK;o u fa&mu fNyD; w&m;Oya' pdk;rkd;wJh ' Drkdu a&pDyl;aygi f;aq mi f&Gu fjci f;

wkdYjzpfw, f/

IDEA u b , fae&mrSm v kyfu dki faewmv J/

International IDEA [ m u rÇmt ESHYrSm v kyfaq mi faew, f/ pawmh[ krf;? q GD' i frSm t ajcpdku fNyD; t mz&du ? t m&SeJY ypdzdwfa' o ? v u fwi ft ar&dueJY ajrx Jyi fv , fa' o ? t aemu ft m&SeJY ajrmu ft mz&du a' o awGrSm t zGJU&JU½Hk;cef;awG&dSw, f/

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