EDUCATION-DRIVEN

UNIVERSITY-BUSINESS COOPERATION

ENGAGEMENT OF ACADEMICS AND BUSINESS

Balzhan Orazbayeva

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ISBN/EAN 978-94-91901-44-7 E-ISBN/EAN 978-94-91901-45-4

Copyright © Balzhan Orazbayeva, 2020. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system of any nature, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, and recording, by print, or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the proprietor.

Design by Mariya El, 2020

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VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT

EDUCATION-DRIVEN UNIVERSITY-BUSINESS COOPERATION

ENGAGEMENT OF ACADEMICS AND BUSINESS

ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad Doctor aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam,

op gezag van de rector magnificus prof.dr. V. Subramaniam,

in het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van de promotiecommissie van de Faculteit der Bètawetenschappen op woensdag 3 juni 2020 om 11.45 uur

in de aula van de universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105

door Balzhan Orazbayeva

geboren te Almaty, Kazachstan

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promotoren: prof.dr. P.C. van der Sijde prof.dr. T. Baaken

copromotor: prof.dr. C. Plewa

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Account and funding

This research project received funding from several organisations and research partners. These are the German Federal Foreign Office (Auswärtiges Amt), which awarded a STIBET scholarship (Stipendien- und Betreuungsprogramm für ausländische Doktoranden und Postdoktoranden) of the DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) for 2017, as well as the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre at the Münster University of Applied Sciences (MUAS).

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Table of contents

Table of contents……………………………………………………………………..…..vi

List of figures……………………………………………………………………..….…..viii

List of tables……………………………………………………………………………….ix

List of abbreviations……………………………………………………………………….x

Introduction to the dissertation………………………………………………………..…1

1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 2 2. Research design ......................................................................................16

Study A Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation…...24

1. Introduction ..............................................................................................27 2. Academics and university-business cooperation ....................................28 3. Education-driven university-business cooperation ..................................29 4. Self-determination theory: needs for autonomy, competence,

relatedness ...............................................................................................31 5. Methodology ............................................................................................36 6. Results ......................................................................................................40 7. Discussion and conclusion ......................................................................40

Study B Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: a motivation-based perspective…………………………..…………... 44

1. Introduction ..............................................................................................47 2. University-business cooperation ..............................................................48 3. Education-driven UBC activities ..............................................................49 4. Motivations of academics for UBC ..........................................................50 5. Methodology ............................................................................................57 6. Results ......................................................................................................58 7. Discussion and conclusion ......................................................................62

Study C What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education? Motivation-based perspective………………………………………………………..... 66

1. Introduction ..............................................................................................69 2. University-business cooperation from a business perspective ...............70 3. Education-driven university-business cooperation ..................................71 4. Business engagement in university-business cooperation .....................73 5. Methodology ............................................................................................76

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6. Results ......................................................................................................77 7. Discussion and conclusion ......................................................................78

Study D Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis………..…….. 83

1. Introduction ..............................................................................................86 2. University-business cooperation ..............................................................88 3. Methodology ............................................................................................92 4. Results ......................................................................................................94 5. Discussion and conclusion ......................................................................97

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………100

1. Discussion ..............................................................................................101 2. Contributions to theory ...........................................................................114 3. Managerial and policy implications .......................................................116 4. Limitations and future research directions ............................................120

References………………………………………………………………………………122

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List of figures

Introduction to the dissertation

Figure 1. Conceptual model…………………………………………..……………….. 23

Study A Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic

engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

Figure 1. Conceptual model 1: direct effect…………………………………...…….. 35

Figure 2. Conceptual model 2: moderation effect…………………………….…..… 36

Study B Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business

cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

Figure 1. Theoretical framework: motivational orientations of academics…..…..... 56

Conclusion

Figure 1. Summary of the results…..………………………………………...…..…..113

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List of tables

Introduction to the dissertation

Table 1. Education-driven UBC activities ................................................................12

Table 2: Dissertation overview ................................................................................22

Study A Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic

engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

Table 1. Results of the factor analysis .....................................................................38

Table 2. Results of GLMs ........................................................................................39

Study B Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business

cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

Table 1. Results of the factor analysis .....................................................................58

Table 2. Results of GLZMs ......................................................................................59

Table 3. Summary of the hypotheses ......................................................................61

Study C What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education?

Motivation-based perspective

Table 1. Results of the ordinal logistic regressions ................................................78

Study D Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis

Table 1. fsQCA results .............................................................................................96

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List of abbreviations

CEO Chief executive officer EC European Commission fsQCA Fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis GLM General linear model GLZM Generalised linear model HEI Higher education institution IP Intellectual property LLL Lifelong learning PLUM Polytomous universal model R&D Research and development RBV Resource-based view SDT Self-determination theory SME Small and medium sized enterprises UBC University-business cooperation

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Introduction to the dissertation

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1. Introduction

1.1 Research background

Being under constant pressure of rapid technological change, financial instability and increasing globalisation, academia is increasingly rethinking its role in society, thus allowing its image as an ‘ivory tower’ to gradually fade (Davey, 2017; Etzkowitz, 2017). Indeed, the role of universities has expanded from the traditional missions of teaching and research to include new functions (Ankrah & Al-Tabbaa, 2015; Paleari, Donina, & Meoli, 2015; Sam & van der Sijde, 2014). This evolutionary development of universities resulted in a trend of including the ‘third mission’, whereby the efforts of academia are focused to a greater extent on social contribution in the form of knowledge and technology transfer as well as greater engagement with external organisations (Benneworth & Jongbloed, 2010; Sánchez-Barrioluengo & Benneworth, 2019).

Prevailing discourse emphasises the universities’ role as a paramount player in knowledge society, where they have shown themselves being capable of not only dealing with cultural conservation, preservation and transmission of knowledge (Etzkowitz, 2008), but also adapting to external pressures and contributing to society in a meaningful way (Bercovitz & Feldman, 2006; Breznitz & Feldman, 2012). This new role is manifested in the growing expectation that universities have to increase relevance of the generated knowledge and education that is aligned with the employer market. It has resulted in the gradual transformation of universities into a recognised source of technology, innovation and human capital, capable of transmitting knowledge and technology to the outside world (Davey, 2017; Di Nauta, Merola, Caputo, & Evangelista, 2018).

This transformation in turn provoked a development of relationships between universities with diverse stakeholders including industry, government, and society at large. It gave a way to a symbiotic multidirectional collaboration (Etzkowitz, 2008; Mars, Bronstein, & Lusch, 2012), which not only creates value for the parties involved, but also for society at large, as it contributes to the raise of innovation and employability, and thus stimulates economic and societal progress. In this context, universities are now increasingly expected to deal with new challenges and embrace the call for public commitment, whilst businesses engage in a permanent adaptation to survive and be successful in the modern economic reality by creating for themselves a new sustainable competitive advantage (Berbegal-Mirabent, García, & Ribeiro-Soriano, 2015; Paleari et al., 2015).

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These relationships resulted in the development of a more symbiotic dyadic interaction between universities and businesses. They increasingly work together and unite their efforts to allow the diffusion of knowledge and technology within national and regional ecosystems, and collaboration between them is considered nowadays as a promising tool to foster innovation and economic growth, and create a value for the society. Thus, university-business cooperation (UBC) has become a popular and relevant research topic, encouraging at the same time discussions also among practitioners and policy makers.

Opening several research avenues, UBC related literature, however, has remained biased towards joint research and valorisation (Perkmann et al., 2013) and mostly dedicated to the topics such as intellectual property (IP) rights, licensing and patenting (Fulop & Couchman, 2006; Meagher & Copeland, 2006). The growing debate around such cooperation often overvalues these UBC activities and obscures the presence of other engagement areas that usually result in much less visible financial output, but are equally important in terms of their social and economic impact, as is the case of education-driven cooperation (D’Este & Patel, 2007). Indeed, the principal focus of academic research on research and development (R&D) and commercialisation often results in the fact that universities’ cooperation with business in education simply does not gain enough academic attention (Galán-Muros, van der Sijde, Groenewegen, & Baaken, 2017).

In light of the increasing pressure of socio-economic challenges, universities are expected today to actively align their functions to the knowledge and skills needs of students, and to better meet the requirements of the employers. In this context, the systematic cooperation between employers and universities is considered to be of vital importance for economies that need to address skills gap and thus ensure that human resources are appropriately aligned with the evolving labour market requirements (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b; Healy, Perkmann, Goddard, & Kempton, 2014; McAleese et al., 2013). Education-driven UBC is thus ever increasing, proving itself effective in enriching teaching (Hasanefendic, Heitor, & Horta, 2016), reducing the skills gap (Herrmann, Hannon, Cox, Ternouth, & Crowley, 2008; Siegel & Wright, 2015) and meeting the needs of the employers‘ at large (Herrmann et al., 2008)

The growing importance and literature’s insufficient focus on such interaction demonstrate the necessity of investigating cooperation in education, or education-driven UBC, and its role in the further development and improvement of human capital as well as effective knowledge creation and transmission (Bercovitz & Feldman, 2006; Plewa, Galán-Muros, & Davey, 2015). Even though several studies have already confirmed that UBC in the area of teaching and training has a

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variety of benefits for both parties (Baaken, Kiel, & Kliewe, 2015; Hasanefendic et al., 2016; Rampersad, 2015; Rossano, Meerman, Kesting, & Baaken, 2016), education-driven UBC still remains underexplored (Galán-Muros et al. 2017) – leading to the subject of this dissertation.

1.2 Towards university-business cooperation

The modern university evolving around its three missions, including education, research and knowledge transfer, is fairly a recent phenomenon (Davey, 2017; Wissema, 2009). Since its conception predominantly as a ‘house of education’ and a repository of wisdom (Paleari et al., 2015), universities didn’t commonly expose themselves to the outside world, not to mention, interact with industry. Instead, it was fully committed to the execution of its original function of cultural conservation, preservation and transmission of knowledge (Etzkowitz, 2008), manifested in teaching (first mission).

Centuries later in the 1800s, caused by industrial revolution and, in consequence, by the need to generate new knowledge and develop relevant skills, another role emerged, with universities embracing their second mission of conducting scientific research (Etzkowitz, 2001). Hence, in response to changing society, universities were expected to contribute to social and economic capital in a more meaningful way, through discovery and knowledge exchange (Breznitz & Feldman, 2012), in addition to the development and provision of education.

Over three decades ago, teaching and research roles have been complemented by the ‘third mission’ (Laukkanen, 2003), and universities were increasingly expected to take responsibility for knowledge exploitation and transfer and, thus, embrace a more active role in the regional development. As a result, universities are now held accountable not only for the provision and generation of knowledge, but also for their contribution to economic growth and social development through different activities such as technology transfer, commercialisation of research results (Audretsch, 2014; Etzkowitz, 2017; Paleari et al., 2015), and the creation of new ventures and spin-offs (Di Nauta et al., 2018; Perkmann et al., 2013). Hence, in order to be able to execute the third mission in a more meaningful way, universities are increasingly exposing themselves to the outside world, and, thus, actively building relationships with external organisations (Davey, 2017; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000).

With the emergence of ‘entrepreneurial’ (Etzkowitz, 1983) and ‘engaged universities’ (The Kellogg Commission, 1996) paradigms, HEIs are being called upon to more effectively embrace their third mission (Laukkanen, 2003) by

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increasing transfer of knowledge, engagement with society and valorisation through interactions with a wider population of external stakeholders including business (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000; Subotzky, 1999). This in turn has given way to the development of multidirectional symbiotic relationships between them, which are also described by the models such as ‘triple helix’ and ‘quadruple helix’.

As one of the early paradigms, ‘triple helix’, first introduced by Etzkowitz (1993) and Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff (1995) presents the concept of universities’ external engagement through the cross-sections between three helices, namely university, industry and government in the process of co-creating and exchanging new knowledge and driving innovation. This model further redefines the role of universities in a modern economy and puts an emphasis on their ‘new positioning’ (Hladchenko & Pinheiro, 2019; Nyman, 2015), in which they have an expanded and, at least, equally important role alongside government and industry. Thus, together with other stakeholders, universities are expected to build and drive the knowledge society, where public–private interaction is considered essential for social and economic development (Abramo, D’Angelo, & Solazzi, 2012). The notion of triple helix has been critical in the last few decades in guiding the emerging research and policy making in the areas of knowledge society and regional innovation systems (Dzisah & Etzkowitz, 2008; Etzkowitz & Dzisah, 2008). Indeed, much of the UBC literature lies on its theoretical foundations.

Originally proposed by Carayannis and Campbell (2009), the ‘quadruple helix’ model expands the triple helix by adding the fourth helix – civil society – into the framework. While the triple helix describes how the trilateral relationships between university, industry and government generate knowledge and innovation in a knowledge economy, the quadruple helix puts an emphasis on a broader cooperation, with society being the key beneficiary of knowledge. Hence, the emergence of the quadruple helix model explains the need for a more sustainable development of a knowledge society through an ultimate co-evolution and co-creation of the triple helix together with society (Carayannis, Barth, & Campbell, 2012; Carayannis, Grigoroudis, Campbell, Meissner, & Stamati, 2018).

In the context of triple helix, quadruple helix or n-tuple of helices, collaboration is commonly organised in either bottom-up or top-down fashion, and is mostly of a voluntary nature (Leydesdorff, 2012). The level of engagement of the actors can therefore be unbalanced and asymmetrical (Leydesdorff, 2012; Mandrup & Jensen, 2017). As for positioning UBC in this multi-actor setting, the dyadic cooperation between universities and business is often considered as separated from, and subservient to government-industry relations (Dzisah & Etzkowitz, 2008; Etzkowitz

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& Dzisah, 2008), since the stakeholders often have to operate in isolation and, thus, interact across strongly defended boundaries.

1.3 Definition of university-business cooperation

In the strategic alliances literature, cooperation is defined as the voluntary collective efforts of two organisations that engage in a mutually beneficial interaction and exchange (Gulati, 1998; Gulati & Singh, 1998), and refers to their ultimate belief that the cooperative relationship with a partner organisation is able to help both involved achieve their strategic goals (Zhang, Shu, Jiang, & Malter, 2010). The relationship between a university and business is often perceived as taking the form of a strategic alliance, because such cooperation is commonly initiated voluntarily to exchange and co-develop resources and capabilities (Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016). Notably, strategic alliances focus on a specific form of relationships (Plewa, Quester, & Baaken, 2005) and are commonly limited to rather formal interactions, characterised by the creation of a separate entity and based on a long-term specifically developed strategy (Webster, 1992).

Strategic alliances closely resonate with relationship marketing, one of the most prolific areas in current marketing theory and practice (Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner, & Gremler, 2002), and are often described as one of its forms (Hunt, Lambe, & Wittmann, 2002). Since relationship marketing is concerned with dyadic and multilateral relationships and integrates a range of relationship types (Eiriz & Wilson, 2006), each organisation is seen in this context as part of the network of diverse relationships aimed at creating the value (Plewa et al., 2005). With a focus beyond inter-firm commercial relationships, any sort of interaction between universities and businesses – not necessarily strategic and formal – can also be conceptually embedded in networks of different relationships (Plewa et al., 2005). Seen as a dyadic relationship that involves diverse collaborative activities, UBC1 is understood as any sort of formal and informal interactions between universities and businesses for mutual benefit and bilateral value (Davey, Baaken, Muros, & Meerman, 2011).

1 For the purpose of this study, the term 'university' has been chosen as it incorporates all higher education institutions (HEIs). The term ‘business’ is used, since it can encompass a variety of organisations and institutions that might benefit from engaging with universities and that are not themselves research organisations, including for-profit and non-profit firms, governments, and associations, to name a few.

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Universities and business commonly cooperate in the areas that include activities associated with the three university missions, namely education, research and valorisation (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a). Research-driven UBC entails activities related to joint research and mobility of academic staff. The universities’ role in this context is commonly associated with the provision of research services or outputs, as well as with the provision of expertise or methodology for R&D. Research may also be undertaken by both parties together, whereby both academic staff and business representatives work on joint projects. Furthermore, universities can be contracted for executing activities oriented towards concrete needs of businesses in form of contract research (Bekkers & Freitas, 2008; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011) or R&D and innovation consulting (Cohen, Nelson, & Walsh, 2002; Etzkowitz, 2001). Academic mobility is a further UBC research activity whereby scientists or professors temporarily move from universities to businesses for research related purposes (Bienkowska & Klofsten, 2012; Kitagawa & Lightowler, 2013).

Valorisation-driven UBC refers to the third mission activities focused on value creation and utilisation of scientific knowledge in practice that include commercialisation of research results (Bercovitz & Feldman, 2006; Lam, 2011) and academic entrepreneurship (Bienkowska & Klofsten, 2012; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Klofsten & Jones-Evans, 2000). By adopting entrepreneurial attitude, universities in this context try to enter the market by commercialising the research and technologies as well as by creating start-ups and spin-outs.

1.4 Education-driven university-business cooperation

Education-driven UBC entails activities undertaken together by universities and business in designing and delivering teaching and training. While education is the original mission of the university, there is a lack of research on education-driven UBC, despite its long history (Rosenberg & Nelson, 1994; Siegel & Wright, 2015) and widespread practice (Davey et al., 2018). The lack of emphasis on this UBC area is particularly surprising in a European context, given the high rates of European unemployment (Eurostat, 2019), and thus a growing urge to enhance employability (European Commission, 2016). Furthermore, today’s society is increasingly facing the need to frequently update and enhance skills of the labour market (European Commission, 2016; OECD, 2016), to ensure human capital is fully equipped with the knowledge and skills that are well-matched with the emerging and rapidly changing labour market needs. The responses to these pressures have forced universities to bring about new practices ensuring higher levels of graduate employability and to innovate education and modernise curricula in cooperation

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with employers by adopting an entrepreneurial approach (Davis & Jacobsen, 2014; McClure, 2015; Plewa et al., 2015).

Education-driven UBC is ever increasing, proving itself effective in enriching teaching, introducing novelties to educational practices (Hasanefendic et al., 2016), reducing the skills gap (Herrmann et al., 2008; Siegel & Wright, 2015) and meeting the needs of the labour market at large (Herrmann et al., 2008). Hence, it has a wide variety of advantages for all stakeholders involved.

For students, collaborative activities in education are considered to be highly beneficial in improving their employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013; Plewa et al., 2015), at the same time contributing to the development of their entrepreneurial skills (Rossano et al., 2016). It allows them to gain practical experience (van der Sijde, 2012) as well as make new contacts and build professional networks (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013).

For academics, education-driven UBC can help to further develop their relationships with industry as well as open new research and teaching possibilities (van der Sijde, 2012). Furthermore, through collaborative activities, academics can get access to new knowledge, resources (Rossano et al., 2016) and potentially even funding (Santoro & Chakrabarti, 2002). Thus, by embracing universities’ first mission and improving educational offerings, academics help their HEIs to increase the reputation and improve image (Ahrweiler, Pyka, & Gilbert, 2011).

Businesses, in turn, get ultimate access to a pool of talented future graduates for prospective employment (Broström, 2012; Guimón, 2013), which allows them to identify, recruit and integrate them in their companies, and at the same time lower hiring and training costs (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b). Furthermore, they can the improve skills of their current employees through cooperation with universities in a variety of training offerings (Guimón, 2013; Healy et al., 2014). Overall, when engaging in UBC, businesses are able to improve their own innovative capacities by taking advantage of complementary knowledge and skills available at the universities (Ankrah et al., 2013; Siegel et al., 2003).

In summary, education-driven UBC comprises a number of formal and informal activities that are undertaken in collaboration between universities and businesses. While informal UBC, which includes, for example, networking with practitioners, interviews or organisation of career fairs etc., is increasingly recognised as beneficial especially when initiating and developing relationships, formal education-driven cooperation refers to collaborative activities that require certain level of commitment and generally more established relationships between university or academics on one side and businesses on the other. The following types of

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activities, namely student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery, lifelong learning, dual study programmes, student projects and industrial doctorate, have been documented in the literature (also see the overview in the Table 1).

Student mobility

Student mobility, one the most common education-driven UBC activity, refers to the temporary movement of students from HEIs to businesses (Davey et al., 2011; Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a). It can include placements, apprenticeships or internships (Davey et al., 2018), doctoral studies (Bienkowska & Klofsten, 2012; Borrell-Damian, 2009) or the recruitment of students through the academics’ business contacts. Student mobility has the potential of providing various benefits to students including access to professional networks and a better development of employability skills (Rampersad, 2015). Besides, student mobility can also give students an impression of salaries and working conditions in industry (Stephan, 2001), whereas companies benefit by engaging with the students for future prospective employments (Rampersad, 2015) and by accessing talent with problem-solving competences (Lee, 2011; van der Sijde, 2012).

Curriculum design

Recognising the need for a better preparation of a future workforce, fully equipped with relevant skills and capable of meeting challenges and opportunities in the professional environment, universities increasingly embrace collaboration with companies to revisit and update the curricula (Ishengoma & Vaaland, 2016; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015). Thus, curriculum design in the context of UBC relates to the joint development of a fixed programme of courses, modules and related contents at all levels (Plewa et al., 2015). The participation of business representatives in the process of designing education is considered increasingly valuable in addressing the skills mismatch and better aligning with the employer needs to improve and optimise talent development and student learning in general (Healy et al., 2014).

Curriculum delivery

While curriculum co-design refers to a joint development of educational programmes, curriculum co-delivery is understood, as the name suggests, as the actual delivery of programmes, courses and contents to students through a multitude of different channels including guest lectures, workshops and project-based learning (Davey et al., 2011; Plewa et al., 2015), with an involvement of

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business delegates. These kind of activities can be established through personal relationships and informal channels (Davey et al., 2018), ultimately allowing companies to try a different to their normal duties role of a lecturer, trainer or mentor (Plewa et al., 2015).

Lifelong learning

Lifelong learning (LLL) in the context of UBC refers to adult educational offerings for businesspeople provided by the university that include industry training, executive education as well as professional workshops (Davey et al., 2018; Finne et al., 2009). Originally documented as learning throughout life (Dehmel, 2006), LLL may take the form of face-to-face training courses focused on specifically defined business needs (Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011) or distance and open learning (Dinevski & Dinevski, 2004), among others. By means of LLL, HEIs have the possibility to utilise their cross-faculty university-wide expertise in enriching their professional educational offerings (Harrison et al., 2007), while at the same creating a new income source. On the other hand, businesses get a chance for filling the skills gap in their employees and executive staff (Davey et al., 2011).

Dual study programmes

Combining vocational education at university with an apprenticeship in a company, dual study programmes are also known as ‘workplace learning’ (Keeling et al., 1998). They aim at a direct application of knowledge and competences acquired during study periods delivered by HEI (Kupfer & Stertz, 2011). This means that graduates are not only able to attain the academic degree, but also work experience and potentially even a job, making dual study programs an increasingly relevant educational path. Founded in a stable long-term cooperation between university and a partner company that is necessary for this type of cooperation, dual study students spend extended periods in both university and business learning environments (Graf, 2014). This hybrid from of education is considered an effective strategy for the students’ skill formation process, including the early development of their professional identity and direct transfer of knowledge into practice (Poortman et al., 2014).

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Student projects

Student projects, and thus projects that are developed with business and executed by students, represent another education-driven UBC activity. Relying on business cooperation, these projects are integrated into curriculum offered by different faculties depending on the subject of the project. Often acting like consultants and supervised by their lecturers, students work on the project defined by a company (Rossano et al., 2016). Alternatively, offered as part of entrepreneurship courses students develop products and services that can result in the establishment of a business idea, potentially with a consequent start-up creation (Davey et al., 2011; Gibb, 2011). Relying on problem-based learning methodology, this type of cooperation with business allows students to apply theory in a real-life setting and gain experiences (Baaken, Hagen, Orazbayeva, & Riemenschneider, 2016; Hasanefendic et al., 2016), whereas businesses can access talent for the prospective employments and get solutions to their problems (Rossano et al., 2016).

Industrial doctorates

Cooperation between universities and businesses also provides a formal opportunity for PhD candidates to engage in a company-based doctorate (Borrell-Damian et al., 2010; Kolmos, Kofoed, & Du, 2008), also known as an industrial PhD. In this activity – industrially focused research projects – companies employ students who at the same time are also being enrolled in a PhD programme at a university (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b). Splitting their time between two organisations, these students increasingly play a substantial role in knowledge transfer processes between universities and businesses (Thune, 2009). As part of their learning, they develop both advanced scientific and practical knowledge, as well as skills to solve concrete industry or business research problems (Thune, 2010).

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Activity Definition

Student mobility

The temporary movement of students at all levels from HEIs to business in the form of internships, apprenticeships, work placements etc.

Curriculum design

The joint development of a fixed programme of courses, modules, planned experiences at all levels by HEIs in cooperation with business

Curriculum delivery

The joint delivery of the teaching content as well as guest lectures by or in cooperation with delegates from business

Lifelong learning

The provision of executive/continuing education by HEIs to businesspeople in the form of courses, seminars, workshops etc.

Dual study programmes

The hybrid from of higher education that combines vocational education at HEI and apprenticeship in a company

Student projects

The development of projects designed, planned and executed by students as part of the curriculum, often for and/or with business, or as part of an entrepreneurship programme

Industrial doctorates

The hybrid from of PhD education that combines employment of a PhD student by a company and enrolment in a PhD programme at the university

Source: adapted from Davey et al. (2011)

Table 1. Education-driven UBC activities

1.5 Engagement of academics and business in education-driven UBC

With the rise of UBC, expectations of academics in pursuing business cooperation in addition to their traditional tasks, such as conducting research and teaching, have also increased (Loi & Di Guardo, 2015). Notwithstanding this expectation, UBC is not always institutionalised or centrally managed at HEIs (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a), with third mission activities not commonly recognised in academic career progression (Perkmann et al., 2013; Perkmann & Walsh, 2008) to date. Hence, UBC commonly takes place voluntarily, instigated and executed by academics rather sporadically through informal channels and via personal links and is individually driven (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Franco & Haase, 2015; Rampersad, 2015). Thus, engagement with business is still perceived as a discretional academic activity by many academics (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011). Hence, establishing what motivates academics to engage in UBC becomes essential for advancing and supporting the development of UBC – especially so in education-driven cooperation that lacks management and comprehensive support

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system within university, whereas there is now greater management and support at on the research front (Davey et al., 2018).

The extant research that places emphasis on academics as crucial university players in interaction with business is mostly focused on the R&D and commercialisation based engagement (Carayannis, Cherepovitsyn, & Ilinova, 2016; Perkmann et al., 2013; Skute, Zalewska-Kurek, Hatak, & Weerd-Nederhof, 2017), as well as academic entrepreneurship (Davey, Rossano, & van der Sijde, 2016; Siegel & Wright, 2015). Hence, this research commonly demonstrates rather extrinsic for-profit driven engagement of academics (Beyhan & Rickne, 2015; Jacob, 2003; Lam, 2011), since the findings are specific to the cooperation in research and valorisation. Thus, their direct applicability to education is rather unlikely, given that education-driven UBC is not commonly associated with the same reward system. With specific evidence to research on education related cooperation limited to date, this dissertation seeks to explore what motivates and facilitates academic engagement with business; with a particular focus placed on education-driven UBC.

To advance our understanding of such cooperation and its motivators, it is, furthermore, important to examine the perspective of the second involved party, namely business. Hence, the research should seek to establish what motivates business engagement with universities in education-driven cooperation, which to date remains underexplored. Indeed, with the prolific research into UBC being considered as relatively fragmented (Perkmann et al., 2013; Skute et al., 2017), its distinct directions have a primary focus remaining on university or the interface, less so on business. The UBC research exploring the business engagement in UBC has been rather limited (Davey et al., 2018; Pavlin, 2016), notwithstanding the growing importance of business involvement in UBC, and in particular in education-driven cooperation (Baaken et al., 2015; Plewa et al., 2015) – leading to the subject of this dissertation.

1.6 Research objectives

In an attempt to understand the drivers of cooperation between universities and businesses in education, this doctoral research aims to investigate the facilitators and motivations for education-driven UBC from the perspectives of both academics and businesses.

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With this background the overall research question of the dissertation is:

Why universities and businesses engage in education-driven university-business cooperation?

To answer this research questions, the following research objectives were addressed in four studies:

A. To examine the effect of academics’ perception of their UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness on the extent of their engagement in education-driven UBC activities.

B. To explore the individual motivations underlying academic engagement with business in education-driven UBC activities, and to examine the effect of these motivations on the extent of cooperation.

C. To explore the individual motivations driving business engagement with universities in education-driven UBC activities, and to examine the effect of these motivations on the extent of cooperation.

D. To investigate different configurations of motivations that underpin academic engagement across multiple UBC activities.

1.7 Theoretical approach

To advance our understanding of the engagement of academics and businesses in education-driven UBC, the cooperation between two parties has to be examined at a deeper level. This is especially important given the importance of academics and businesses as actors in initiating and executing cooperation (Loi & Di Guardo, 2015; Pavlin, 2016), and the essential role of personal relationships between them (Darabi & Clark, 2012; Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016; Lee, 2011). Thus, this research approaches UBC as a social interaction, whereby academics and businesses cooperate with each other willingly and freely, and have their own motivations to do so. Or in other words, they have certain expectations of receiving diverse tangible and intangible, pecuniary and non-pecuniary rewards and benefits as a result of such cooperation.

Self-determination theory

To address the research objectives A, B and D, this dissertation explores education-driven UBC from a social-psychological perspective and focuses specifically on individual academics by drawing on self-determination theory (SDT). SDT is a meta-

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theory of human motivation that is applied in this research as theoretical lens for investigating the motivations of academics and their behaviour in the context of UBC (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné & Deci, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Adopting the perspective that individuals are motivated to undertake specific activities when they expect to receive desired benefits, SDT distinguishes the nature of these benefits and the external regulatory processes through which they are strived for (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Thus, SDT acknowledges the multifaceted nature of individual-level motivations underlying engagement of individuals towards specific aims or actions. SDT places motivation in a continuum of self-determination that includes intrinsic and extrinsic aspects (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste, Sierens, Soenens, Luyckx, & Lens, 2009). Furthermore, fundamental to SDT is the idea that the motivation is affected by the interaction between varied environmental factors and individuals’ internal psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Ryan, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2017).

In line with SDT’s perspective on an individual ‘as a proactive organism whose natural or intrinsic functioning can be either facilitated or impeded by the social context’ (Deci, Eghrari, Patrick, & Leone, 1994, p. 120), this research considers an academic as an active actor who is able to successfully and willingly cooperate with businesses when supported by the university environment. Through this perspective, Study A employs SDT’s elaboration of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. It investigates whether academics’ perception of their autonomy of decision making with respect to business collaboration, UBC competence, as well as relatedness to their university peers regarding UBC has a direct influence on the extent of their cooperation with businesses in education-driven activities.

Studies B and D focus on motivations of academics and adopt the perspective that individuals are motivated to engage in specific activities for different reasons. Thus, the engagement of academics in cooperation with businesses is considered to be motivated by their willingness to gain diverse benefits and rewards. To capture such diversity, these two studies draw on a SDT to explore individual motivations of academics to engage in education-driven UBC in Study B; and to investigate different configurations of motivations that underpin academic engagement across multiple UBC activities in Study D, since SDT also posits that different types of motivations can co-exist and thus are not contradictory to each other (Lemos & Veríssimo, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

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Resource-based view

To address the motivation-based perspective of businesses on education-driven UBC, in Study C this research employs the resource-based view (RBV) as a lens to explain business intentions to engage with universities in a cooperation specific to education. Traditionally, business engage in cooperation with each driven by their own individual as well as mutual goals that they could not achieve easily alone (Hunt et al., 2002). Thus, this study considers businesses as actors that are motivated by a number of different reasons to engage in cooperation with universities.

According to RBV, external engagement of businesses is focused on the attainment of tangible and intangible resources such as material assets as well as human and intellectual capital and capabilities, with an aim to attain sustainable competitive advantage (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001). Hence, they do cooperate with universities because they recognise them as the essential repository of such resources (Al-Tabbaa & Ankrah, 2016; Skute et al., 2017). To explore the individual motivations driving business engagement with universities in education-driven UBC activities, this research explains the overall logic for UBC as a resource attainment and capability building with an ultimate aim to generate sustained competitive advantage through cooperation with universities, and in particular, in education-driven UBC activities.

2. Research design

2.1 Research approach

This dissertation uses quantitative type of data and employs quantitative methodology. It is assumed by the researcher that the motivations and psychological facilitators influence the engagement of academics and businesses in education-driven UBC. To investigate this, a causal research design is employed to determine the effect of these factors influencing the extent of education-driven UBC activities undertaken by academics with businesses and business with universities.

The quantitative research is applied to offer numerical descriptions of the relationships between the variables (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). In this dissertation, it enables the ‘quantification’ of the relationships between motivations and psychological facilitators, such as autonomy, competence and relatedness, with the extent of education-driven UBC activities. Hence, it seeks to predict the academic and business ‘behaviour’ in the context of UBC.

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Quantitative research often finds its roots in the positivist paradigm (Hughes & Sharrock, 2016; Smith, 1983). Positivism holds a deterministic viewpoint in which causes determine the effects or outcomes (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). It requires the application of empirical tests to verify hypotheses and propositions through careful control to avoid confounding conditions.

It implies that scientific attention should be restricted to observable facts, which reflects research as being objective (van de Ven, 2007). Hence, it holds an objective ontological position, which perceives the reality as an empirical world and implies that social phenomena confronting us is beyond our reach or influence. This means that the researcher has a neutral role in the process of data collection, analysis and interpretation (Bryman, 2016; Creswell & Creswell, 2017).

All this affirms the suitability of positivist approach for studying a relationship between motivations and psychological facilitators as independent variables, and the extent of different UBC activities as dependent variables.

2.2 Methodology

This research considers UBC as a ‘people’s game’ (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a) and approaches this phenomenon as a social interaction, whereby its participants willingly cooperate with each other because they are motivated to do so and, thus, expect to get certain tangible and intangible outcomes as results of the interaction. To address the overall research question, this dissertation explores UBC from a motivation-based perspective and focuses on individual academics and business people representing the voice of their organisations (see Figure 1). Hence, this research is carried out at two different levels of analysis. The individual level of analysis is applied in the studies that focus on individual academics from social-psychological perspective by drawing on SDT (studies A, B and D). Study C employs the organisational level analysis and places the emphasis on businesses by using RBV as a lens to explain the business logic for cooperation with universities.

Study A: Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

The first study examines the effect of academics’ perception of their UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness on the extent of their engagement in education-driven UBC activities. To understand the factors driving the engagement of those

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individual academics who already undertake UBC, it explores psychological facilitators underlying their engagement in three education-driven activities such as student mobility, curriculum design and curriculum delivery. Drawing on SDT, it specifically investigates whether academics’ perception of their (a) autonomy of decision making with respect to business collaboration, (b) UBC competence, as well as (c) relatedness to their university peers regarding UBC has a direct influence on the extent of their cooperation with businesses in three activities.

To examine the causal relationships between autonomy, competence and relatedness, as independent variables, and extent of UBC in three activities, as dependent variables, this study analyses a total of 3,773 responses from academics that already undertake UBC by applying general linear models (GLMs). The data was collected as part of the project ‘The State of University-Business Cooperation in Europe’ conducted from 2016 to 2018 by a consortium led by the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre, Germany for the DG Education and Culture, European Commission (EAC/10/2015). This survey was translated into 24 languages and sent via email to managers of over 3,500 registered HEIs in 33 countries in the European Economic Area asking for further distribution within the universities. The data collection took place in 2016 from the 28th of September till the 27th of November.

Study B: Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

After examining the facilitators of academic engagement, the second study focuses on motivations. Thus, it explores the motivations underlying academic engagement with business in education-driven UBC activities, and investigates their effect on the extent of cooperation. Specifically, by drawing on SDT, it empirically examines individual motivational orientations underpinning academic engagement in student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning.

A generalised linear models (GLZMs) were applied to test the association of the academic motivations for cooperation, as independent variables, and the extent of education-driven UBC activities, as dependent variables. It draws on before mentioned large international dataset and analyses the final sample of 9,385 responses from academics across 33 European countries.

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Study C: What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education? Motivation-based perspective

To develop an understanding of business engagement in education-driven UBC, the third study focuses on the motivations of businesses to cooperate with universities. It explores the individual motivations driving engagement of businesses with universities in education-driven UBC activities, and examines the effect of these motivations on the extent of their cooperation in student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning.

To quantitatively measure the perception of businesses on the development of UBC activities and their motivations to undertake such cooperation, this study uses the dataset of responses of businesspeople representing the voice and position of their organisations. It analyses the total of 3,091 responses from business representatives by means of ordinal logistic regressions. This data was also collected as part of the project ‘The State of University-Business Cooperation in Europe’. This survey was translated into 24 languages and forwarded to a database of business contacts represented by CEOs, managers responsible for UBC, innovation, recruitment and human resources across 33 countries in the European Economic Area. The data collection took place in 2016 from the 28th of September till the 27th of November.

Study D: Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis

With the research on individual motivations addressed by Study B and Study C, the last study of this dissertation explores the inherent complexity of motivations by exploring the constellations of a multitude of relevant motivations for academics’ engagement in UBC. Specifically, drawing on SDT, it investigates different combinations of motivations including Lam's (2011) elaboration of ribbon, gold and puzzle as well as motivations of a prosocial character that underpin academic engagement across multiple UBC activities, in order to understand the joint impact of various motivations on academic behaviour.

This study analyses a survey sample of 852 academics from Australian universities. The data was collected in 2015, with an invitation to participate forwarded to academics of three Australian universities by a senior university staff member. This research employs a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to explain how different ‘recipes’ of motivations lead to academic engagement. FsQCA aims to reveal the minimal conditions or combinations of the conditions that lead to particular outcome. In the context of this study, this means that the engagement in

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UBC activities, as the outcome, can equally be explained by alternative sets of causal antecedents or, in this study, constellations of motivations.

2.3 Overview of the dissertation

This dissertation has six chapters. This chapter outlines the introduction into the research, describes the research background, clarifies the main concepts and definitions, and addresses the research objectives. It also presents the research design and methodological considerations.

Chapters two to five contain four empirical studies resulting from this research, also conceptually illustrated in the Figure 1:

- Study A: Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

Focusing on individual academics who already undertake UBC, the Study A explores psychological facilitators underlying their engagement in education-driven UBC.

- Study B: Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

After examining the facilitators of academic engagement, the Study B focuses on motivations and explores what motivates individual academics to cooperate with business in education-driven activities.

- Study C: What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education? Motivation-based perspective

Focusing on business perspective, the study C explores the individual motivations driving engagement of businesses with universities in education-driven UBC activities.

- Study D: Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis

Exploring motivations from a different angle, the study D focuses on the inherent complexity of this phenomena and examines the constellations of a multitude of relevant motivations for academics’ engagement in UBC.

Chapter six summarises and discusses the results. It also outlines the thesis’ contributions to theory as well as managerial and policy implications. The dissertation concludes with an outline of study limitations as well as future research directions.

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Table 2 presents the thesis overview. Figure 1 depicts the conceptual model of this dissertation displaying the aforementioned relationships between four research objectives and their four accompanying studies.

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Ch. Study Research objectives UBC activities Method Sample Journal & authors

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DISSERTATION

2 Study A:

Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

Examining the effect of academics’ perception of their UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness on the extent of their engagement in education-driven UBC activities

Education-driven UBC:

(a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery

Empirical

general linear models

After data cleansing, a total of 3,773 responses from academics in 33 European countries

Published in Studies in Higher Education

(impact factor 2.854)

Balzhan Orazbayeva, Peter van der Sijde, Thomas Baaken

3 Study B:

Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

Exploring the individual motivations underlying academic engagement with business in education-driven UBC activities, and examining the effect of these motivations on the extent of cooperation

Education-driven UBC:

(a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) lifelong learning

Empirical

generalised linear models

After data cleansing, a total of 9,385 responses from academics in 33 European countries

Published in Studies in Higher Education

(impact factor 2.854)

Balzhan Orazbayeva, Todd Davey, Carolin Plewa, Victoria Galán-Muros

4 Study C:

What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education? Motivation-based perspective

Exploring the individual motivations driving business engagement with universities in education-driven UBC activities, and examining the effect of these motivations on the extent of cooperation

Education-driven UBC:

(a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) lifelong learning

Empirical

ordinal logistic regressions

After data cleansing, a total of 3,091 responses from business representatives in 33 European countries

To be submitted to The Journal of Technology Transfer

(impact factor 4.037)

Balzhan Orazbayeva

5 Study D:

Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis

Investigating different configurations of motivations that underpin academic engagement across multiple UBC activities

Range of UBC activities:

13 activities drawing on (a) Boardman and Ponomariov (2009), (b) Bozeman and Gaughan (2007)

Empirical

fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis

After data cleansing, a total of 852 responses from academics in Australia

Under review in Studies in Higher Education

(impact factor 2.854)

Balzhan Orazbayeva, Carolin Plewa

6 CONCLUSION

Table 2: Dissertation overview

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Figure 1. Conceptual model

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Study A Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

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Chapter 2

Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation

Status Published

Journal Studies in Higher Education

Authors Balzhan Orazbayeva, Peter van der Sijde and Thomas Baaken

Reference Orazbayeva, B., van der Sijde, P., & Baaken, T. (2019). Autonomy, competence and relatedness – the facilitators of academic engagement in education-driven university-business cooperation. Studies in Higher Education, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1679764

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Abstract

Notwithstanding the growing importance of university-business cooperation (UBC), our understanding of education-driven UBC remains nebulous, so does our knowledge of facilitators of academic engagement in such cooperation. This research explores psychological facilitators underlying academic engagement with business in education-driven activities such as student mobility, curriculum design and delivery. Drawing on a self-determination theory (SDT), it investigates the factors facilitating academic engagement in these activities with a specific focus given on their UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness. Based on an extensive and wide-reaching European survey, this research shows that academic autonomy does not only play an important role in teaching and research, but also in facilitating academic engagement in education driven UBC, with UBC competence and relatedness being highly relevant too. This research contributes to the literature by shedding light on education-driven UBC and by applying SDT framework of need satisfaction in this context.

Keywords

University-business cooperation, self-determination theory, student mobility, curriculum design and delivery, autonomy, competence and relatedness.

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1. Introduction

The transformation of higher education institutions (HEIs) into a recognised source of technology, innovation and human capital through inclusion of the ‘third mission’ (Laredo, 2007), has created further capabilities for formal transmission of knowledge and interaction with external stakeholders (Sam & van der Sijde, 2014). Businesses in turn, trying to find a new sustainable competitive advantage, engage today in a constant adaptation and are open to external collaboration (Berbegal-Mirabent et al., 2015). Thus, being forced by the rapid technological change and speed of innovation, universities and companies actively interact with each other to foster knowledge and technology transfer and contribute to societal development in a more meaningful way through building together a powerful engine of economic growth and sustainability.

Being a complex phenomenon, university-business cooperation (UBC) is influenced by a number of different factors including strategic orientation of the university management and its academic staff as well as attitudes and behaviours of the businesses undertaking any kind of cooperation with HEIs (Bstieler, Hemmert, & Barczak, 2017; Skute et al., 2017). To understand academics’ individual behaviour in the context of UBC, it is necessary to have an insight into the factors that determine their engagement with industry (Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016). While there is a substantial body of literature devoted to individual motivations of academics to participate in the collaborative research, commercialisation (Lam, 2011; Perkmann et al., 2013) and patent creation (Fulop & Couchman, 2006; Meagher & Copeland, 2006), little is known about the factors enhancing their engagement in collaborative activities with business that are specific to the development and provision of education (Fulop & Couchman, 2006; Galán-Muros et al., 2017).

This paper addresses this shortcoming by exploring psychological facilitators underlying academic engagement with business in formal education-driven activities, namely (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design and (c) delivery. Drawing on a self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan, 1995), it specifically investigates the factors facilitating academic engagement in each of these three activities with a specific focus given on academics’ satisfaction of their basic psychological needs for UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness. This study sheds light on the education-driven UBC by examining whether academics’ perception of their (i) autonomy of decision making with respect to business collaboration, (ii) UBC competence, as well as (iii) relatedness to their university peers regarding UBC has a direct influence on the extent of their collaboration with

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businesses in education. We analyse survey data from 3773 academics at universities from 33 European countries.

This article makes contributes to the literature by shedding light on education-driven UBC from academic perspective in general and, in particular, by applying SDT framework of need satisfaction in the context of education-driven UBC. The analysis, thus, shows that also in education-driven UBC academic autonomy does play an important role in facilitating academic engagement. Academics must be able to make their own decisions not only with respect to teaching and research, but also when it comes to their cooperation with businesses, and particularly, in education-driven activities. Also UBC competence and relatedness are found to be highly relevant in the context of academics’ UBC engagement in education.

2. Academics and university-business cooperation

HEIs are increasingly expected to undertake more proactive role in the synergetic relationships with governments and external organisations (Sam & van der Sijde, 2014), and are considered to have a significant impact on their local economy and act as important drivers of knowledge-based economies (Etzkowitz, 2008). To allow cooperation and co-creation with diverse stakeholders, universities that embrace their ‘third mission’ increasingly engage in different kind of activities related to both research and teaching (Siegel & Wright, 2015). And as a result, the expectations regarding the role of academics in pursuing engagement in addition to their traditional functions of carrying out research and providing education have increased as well (Loi & Di Guardo, 2015). Academics are being now actively called upon to become more prominent players in the engagement with external organisations including private sector organisations and communities.

Understood as any sort of productive interactions between universities and businesses for mutual benefit (Davey et al., 2011), UBC is thus considered as an activity that academics can undertake as part of or beyond their normal duties to transfer or exchange knowledge across all three HEI missions, education, research and valorisation (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a).

The studies emphasising academics as being crucial actors in interaction with business, mostly focus on research and commercialisation related interaction (Carayannis et al., 2016; Perkmann et al., 2013), and academic entrepreneurship (Davey et al., 2016; Siegel & Wright, 2015). Few if any have specifically focused on academic engagement in education (Perkmann et al., 2013; Siegel & Wright, 2015) – leading to the subject of this paper – in particular addressing which personal

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psychological attributes facilitate engagement of academics in education-driven UBC.

3. Education-driven university-business cooperation

With teaching being the original mission of the university, to date education-driven UBC has nevertheless received very little academic attention (Siegel & Wright, 2015) despite its widespread practice (Davey et al., 2018) and its ability to enrich teaching and reduce the skills gap (Herrmann et al., 2008). Collaborative activities of academics with business in education are considered to be highly beneficial in improving students’ employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013; Plewa et al., 2015), contributing to the development of their entrepreneurial skills (Rossano et al., 2016) and introducing novelties to teaching (Hasanefendic et al., 2016).

Education-driven UBC is comprised by a number of different informal and formal activities that are undertaken in collaboration between universities and businesses to enhance teaching practices (Rossano et al., 2016) and provide students with skills and knowledge relevant for their prospective employment and labour market at large (Herrmann et al., 2008).

3.1 Informal interactions

Informal UBC is increasingly recognised as beneficial when initiating and developing relationships between HEIs and companies. While UBC often relies on formal interaction, the informal links play an important role too (Owen-Smith & Powell, 2004), and, thus, are found to create a foundation for more enhanced collaboration (Davey et al., 2011). Also in the context of education-driven UBC, these activities are seen as an important starting point of the inter-organisational relationships (Plewa et al., 2015). Thus, informal UBC includes informal talks and meetings (Bekkers & Freitas, 2008; Grimpe & Fier, 2010), ad-hoc advice and networking with practitioners (D’Este & Patel, 2007; Perkmann & Walsh, 2008), informal participation and presentation delivery at university events (Davey et al., 2011), career talks, interviews, and organisation of or participation at career fairs (Plewa et al., 2015), and supervision of students’ thesis work in cooperation with industry (Ministr & Pitner, 2015) among others.

All these informal activities are likely to increase both the likelihood and intensity of cooperation (Ponomariov & Boardman, 2008) and have a potential to drive and contribute, in particular, to the development of educational activities (Baaken et al., 2016), as education-driven UBC often relies on academics’ personal business

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contacts as well as alumni network available at the university to initiate activities specifically aiming at improving educational offerings of the university (Plewa et al., 2015). For this reason, informal interactions are often described as ‘awareness’ or ‘introduction’ to an initial stage of establishing UBC (Healy et al., 2014).

3.2 Formal activities

Formal education-driven UBC is comprised by a number of different collaborative activities that require certain level of commitment and generally more established relationships between university or academics on one side and businesses on the other. These activities can help to align education development and delivery with employers’ needs (Plewa et al., 2015), ensure that students are able to effectively apply gained knowledge in practice (Rossano et al., 2016) and that graduates are employable after leaving the university (Gault, Leach, & Duey, 2010).

To ensure these positive effects, education-driven UBC is undertaken to provide temporary movement of students between university and companies through placements or internships (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b) or recruitment through university’s business contacts or alumni network. By exposing students to real-life business environment, this mobility provides them with various benefits including the chance to get a realistic impression of salaries and working conditions in industry (Stephan, 2001) and more effective development of problem-solving transversal skills (Rampersad, 2015).

The more structured way of providing such movement between HEI and company is dual education, which is a hybrid form of education combining vocational training at university and apprenticeship in a company (Poortman et al., 2014). Similar model is often applied to PhD education, when companies employ PhD students who are enrolled at the universities and at the same time spend time in industry that furthermore guarantees the development of both advanced scientific and practical knowledge (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b; Thune, 2009).

To ensure the relevance of education for both students and their future employers, universities are also increasingly revisiting and redesigning existing curricula in cooperation with business (Plewa et al., 2015). Furthermore, academics often involve them in the actual delivery of the study programmes either as guest lecturers (Davey et al., 2018) or as ‘customers’ for problem-based or entrepreneurship projects being developed by students as part of their studies (Hasanefendic et al., 2016; Rossano et al., 2016). Hence, when it comes to the provision of education, companies can also be involved as ‘learners’ taking part in executive training

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(Harrison et al., 2007) or other lifelong learning offerings of universities (Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011).

4. Self-determination theory: needs for autonomy, competence, relatedness

This paper employs self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000) to investigate the effect of academics’ perceived autonomy, competence and relatedness on their engagement in education-driven UBC. SDT is a meta-theory of human motivation that evolved from research on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017) and is based on the core assumption that all individuals share an inherent striving for psychological wellbeing and personal growth (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Providing a theoretical lens for investigating the link between motivation, performance and wellness of an individual, SDT suggests that fostering social contexts and conditions where people feel supported and enacted will lead to an individual thriving and effectiveness.

Especially those social contexts that support satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness ultimately facilitate personal growth processes providing foundation for an intrinsically motivated behaviour and internalisation of extrinsic motivations (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). Contrary, those contexts that inhibit the fulfilment of these needs lead to lower performance and poorer motivation (van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, Witte, & Lens, 2008). Thus, these needs, often used as predictors of work outcomes, can determine the necessary conditions for individual psychological wellbeing and intrinsic motivation (Cerasoli, Nicklin, & Nassrelgrgawi, 2016). Their fulfilment is hypothesised to be directly associated with the effective functioning of a person (Deci et al., 2017). In other words, the needs satisfaction, namely experiences of autonomy, competence and relatedness, is necessary for the effective engagement and enjoyment of an activity.

Typically, researchers use the set of need satisfaction variables to test their mediation effect, both separately or as composite, on the relationship between either workplace context or individual differences as independent variables with the work performance and wellness of an individual as dependent variables (Baard, Deci, & Ryan, 2004). Often however the satisfaction of the psychological needs is also hypothesised to have a direct effect as independent variables to predict work behaviours (Deci et al., 2017). Also in this study we test the direct influence and investigate whether the perceived needs have a direct positive effect on the engagement of academics in cooperative activities with businesses specific to education.

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Thus with a focus on the basic psychological needs that according to SDT have a direct positive effect on individual performance and engagement, this paper employs the concept of the perceived autonomy, competence, relatedness and applied to the behaviour of academics engaging with businesses in education-driven UBC. Investigating the effect of academics’ perception of their own autonomy, competence and relatedness in relation to UBC is thus expected to predict their engagement in collaboration with business in education.

4.1 Need for autonomy and UBC autonomy

The need for autonomy refers to the experience of behaviour as self-endorsed rather than pressured. It means that an individual is able to make own choices and to regulate own actions (Ryan & Deci, 2017). When acting with autonomy or, in other words, when the need for autonomy is satisfied, the individual behaviour interacts with the activity willingly, with the full sense of volition and commitment, and is consistent with one’s intentions and values (Ryan, 1995). SDT suggests that the work environment that supports autonomy of the employees leads to more employee satisfaction as well as collateral benefits for organisational effectiveness (Deci et al., 2017). In the work context it is crucial that individuals not only understand the purpose of their jobs, but also have the certain level of autonomy and feel ownership when delivering the work (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Also in the context of higher education, the concept of autonomy is undoubtedly crucial, although defined differently from the one presented in SDT. Indeed, there is a substantial body of literature devoted to the topic of autonomy, which however conceptually relates rather to the Mertonian norms of science (Merton, 1973) and academic freedom in teaching and research (Hofstadter & Metzger, 1955; Anderson, Ronning, Devries, & Martinson, 2010). Academic freedom is understood as a right of the scholar to retain decision making over the research and teaching projects and the scientific and pedagogy methods one applies to tackle them (Berdahl, 1990; Tartari & Breschi, 2012). Even though there are certain expectations with regards to academics’ actions that are subject to specific rules, regulations and policies, academic freedom constitutes behaviour of academics that is shaped by the autonomy of each individual academic with respect to the decisions that one makes towards own research and teaching duties. In its classical understanding, academic freedom is a crucial defining element of the higher education system and shapes the way academic staff behaves and acts.

This study however examines the role of autonomy from a different angle. In this context, the concept of autonomy is employed as an ultimate freedom of decision

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making of an academic when choosing whether to collaborate with the company in education-related activity or not. The perceived UBC autonomy reflected in the academics’ sense of volition and volition towards education-driven business cooperation is hypothesised to have a direct positive effect on the level of their engagement (Figure 1).

Hypothesis 1: Perceived UBC autonomy has a direct positive effect on the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC.

4.2 Need for competence and UBC competence

The need for competence refers to the experience of behaviour as effectively enacted (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). It specifies that individuals are supposed to perceive that the work they do or activity they engage in provides optimal challenge (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and leads to desired outcomes (Manganelli, Thibault-Landry, Forest, & Carpentier, 2018). It furthermore reflects the desire to act and improve one’s abilities and skills (Cerasoli et al., 2016). Thus, competence satisfaction leads to the feeling of being effective and capable to achieve significant results as well as exercise and express one’s capabilities when engaging in a certain activity (Deci & Ryan, 2002).

Multiple theories of human motivation consider competence or efficacy needs to be key in underlying the human behaviour, including for example self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986), achievement goal orientation theory (Dweck, 1986), or goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) among others. Like all these theories, SDT also posits that individuals act effectively when they feel capable and enacted to attain the desired goal. Hence, there is a difference between possessing competence and being actually able to use it (Bandura, 1988, 1989). Using one’s competence and feeling enacted require a belief in one’s capabilities to exert control over activity in order to contribute to the accomplishment of a desired goal.

Competence is generally defined as comprising the integrated elements of knowledge, skills and attitudes (Sánchez, 2011). In the context of this study, competence refers to the academics’ perception of their own behaviour as effectively enacted when cooperating with business in education-driven UBC, including knowledge about UBC and business needs, skills and capabilities to transfer knowledge and collaborate, as well as positive attitude towards cooperation with business in education and training. It is hypothesised that academics’ perceptions of their ability to collaborate with business in education has a direct positive effect on the extent of their engagement, as these perceptions are

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expected to predict how determined academics are in undertaking the education-driven UBC (Figure 1).

Hypothesis 2: Perceived UBC competence has a direct positive effect on the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC.

4.3 Need for relatedness and UBC relatedness

The need for relatedness refers to the universal propensity to interact with and be connected to other people (Lee, Draper, & Lee, 2001), which is directed towards the feeling of belongingness (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004). Relatedness satisfaction thus concerns one’s experience of genuine connection with others in everyday interactions (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This feeling of belongingness has been found to facilitate internalisation of extrinsic motivation and positive work outcomes generally contributing to the overall effectiveness of an individual engaged in a certain activity (Gagné & Deci, 2005). For example, when individuals identify themselves with a group, this can foster internalisation of group values and lead to an enhancement of an individual as well as the overall performance (James & Greenberg, 1989).

Relatedness involves not only feeling of belonging but also contributing and being integral to organisation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sipe, 2018). Furthermore, perceived relatedness in a work context, or in other words collegiality, indicates that the social work environment is expected to be supportive of the endeavours of individuals (Janke & Dickhäuser, 2018), which ultimately results in their higher job satisfaction (Ott & Cisneros, 2015; Seipel & Larson, 2018). Peer support found to be another important aspect in this specific context can also be related to the need for relatedness (van den Broeck, Ferris, Chang, & Rosen, 2016). Thus, often support from colleagues is expected to contribute to the feeling of being part of a group and helps to sustain intrinsic motivation.

In the UBC context, the relatedness is explained as a connection to a group of peers within the university with a positive attitude and commitment towards UBC where individual academics feel optimistic about cooperating with business. As this attitude that can also be directly linked to the relatedness through the feeling of connectedness to a group of peers with positive outlooks and positive role models towards a certain activity, in this study it is hypothesised that UBC relatedness has a direct positive effect on academics’ engagement in education-driven UBC (Figure 1).

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Hypothesis 3: Perceived UBC relatedness has a direct positive effect on the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC.

Figure 1. Conceptual model 1: direct effect

4.4 Moderation effect of UBC autonomy

This study also investigates the moderating role of autonomy in the relationship between academics’ perception of connectedness and competence with the extent of their engagement in education-driven UBC. Notwithstanding the fact that in SDT-related research, autonomy, competence and relatedness were mostly used as mediators (Baard et al., 2004; Deci et al., 2017; Richer, Blanchard, & Vallerand, 2002; Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008), self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986, 1989) provides some evidence of the moderating role played by autonomy in the relation between individual characteristics with the job performance. Indeed, in a work context, literature indicates that autonomy can act as a moderator, for example, of the relationship between different personality dimensions and job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1993; Fuller Jr, Hester, & Cox, 2010), or relationship between goal pursuit and use of learning strategies (Cho, Weinstein, & Wicker, 2011), thus, finding justification also in the achievement goal theory. Hence, autonomy has been identified as a crucial factor that increases employee well-being and lead to a positive sense of identification with the peers as well as with the organisation (Demerouti & Bakker, 2011; Malik & Dhar, 2017). Thus in this research, it is hypothesised that the validity of relatedness and competence may be more strongly associated with the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC depending on whether academics collaborate with businesses willingly or because it is expected from them (Figure 2).

Hypothesis 4: Perceived UBC autonomy moderates the relationship between the perceived UBC competence with the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC.

autonomy

relatedness

competence

edu-driven UBC

H1

H2

H3

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Hypothesis 5: Perceived UBC autonomy moderates the relationship between the perceived UBC relatedness with the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC.

Figure 2. Conceptual model 2: moderation effect

5. Methodology

A comprehensive survey was built to quantitatively measure the facilitators of academic engagement and extent of collaboration in activities as related to UBC (refer to Acknowledgements). This survey was translated into 24 languages and sent via email to managers of over 3,500 registered HEIs in the European Economic Area asking for further distribution within the universities. After data cleansing, a total of 3,773 responses from academics in 33 countries that already undertake UBC was collected and weighted to adjust the responses to the number of academics per country to get a representative sample by country. The data collection took place in 2016 from the 28th of September till the 27th of November.

5.1 Dependent variables

To operationalise education-driven UBC this study uses three dependent variables including (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design and (c) curriculum delivery. The chosen three formal activities relate to the formal education-driven UBC whereby businesses are involved as partners participating in the execution of UBC rather than as beneficiaries acting as ‘customers’, as it is in lifelong learning or student projects. These three variables were integrated into the survey to measure the extent of education-driven UBC activities of academics. Respondents were

competence

relatedness

autonomy

edu-driven UBC

H4 H5

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asked to express the extent to which they cooperate with business measured on a 10-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 10 = to a very high extent).

Student mobility refers to the temporary movement of students from HEIs to businesses and includes placements or internships, doctoral studies or recruitment of students through the academics’ business contacts.

Curriculum design relates to the joint development of fixed programmes of courses, modules and related contents based on joint efforts of HEIs and cooperating companies to revisit and update the curricula.

Curriculum delivery refers to the actual delivery of programmes, courses and contents to students through different channels including guest lectures, placements and project-based learning with an involvement of business delegates.

5.2 Independent variables

To measure independent variables such as competence and relatedness, respondents were asked to express the extent to which they agree with distinct statements measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 5 = to a very high extent).

UBC autonomy was measured by a dichotomous nominal variable reflecting the decision latitude of an academic to cooperate with business either because (a) it is expected from one or because (b) it is one’s own preference to do so.

UBC competence was comprised by the four statements including (a) I have sufficient knowledge of what business need and want, (b) I have sufficient skills and knowledge of UBC generally, (c) I have a lot to offer to business in education and training, and (d) I have the capability to transfer/exchange knowledge with business.

UBC relatedness was comprised by the four statements such as (a) my university has a strong engagement profile, (b) my colleagues have a positive attitude towards UBC, (c) my university management has a positive attitude towards UBC, and (d) there are positive UBC role models at my university.

Under the assumption that academic engagement in UBC can be influenced by a set of external factors, beyond the academic’s UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness, a range of control variables were recorded and included in analysis, namely (a) gender (female or male), (b) country where the university is located (33 countries), (c) type of university (traditional university, university of applied sciences, polytechnic/technical university, school of arts, college of education) and

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(d) area of knowledge (social sciences, technology and engineering, medical sciences, humanities). The interpretation of the significant effect these variables have on the extent of education-driven UBC goes beyond the scope of this paper and is recommended for the future research (refer to Table 2).

The data analysis was carried out using the statistical software package IBM SPSS 24 and started by reducing the dimensions of the competence and relatedness items in a factor analysis with varimax rotation (see Table 1). This was made in order to empirically confirm the underlying groups for competence and relatedness. The Cronbach’s α values for both constructs lie well above 0,7. In a second step, a general linear regression (Kutner, Nachtsheim, Neter, & Li, 2005) was applied to analyse the main effects of autonomy as well as both factorised competence and relatedness on education-driven UBC activities and the interaction effect between autonomy as a moderator, and competence and relatedness. The data was confirmed to meet the assumptions of general linear models (GLMs) (Kiebel & Holmes, 2007). Results specifying the effect of each independent variable as well as the interaction effect of autonomy for each of three education-driven UBC activities are reported in Table 2.

Variables Factor 1 Factor 2

I have sufficient knowledge of what business need and want 0,048 0,809

CO

MP

ETE

NC

E

Cronb

ach's α = 0,739

I have sufficient skills and knowledge of UBC generally 0,131 0,758

I have a lot to offer to business in education and training -0,023 0,541

I have the capability to transfer / exchange knowledge with business 0,056 0,720

My university has a strong engagement profile 0,764 0,038

RE

LATE

DN

ES

S

Cronb

ach's α = 0,737

My colleagues have a positive attitude towards UBC 0,660 0,063

My university management has a positive attitude towards UBC 0,828 -0,028

There are positive UBC role models at my university 0,712 0,107

Table 1. Results of the factor analysis

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SS F p value SS F p value SS F p value SS F p value SS F p value SS F p value

Corrected

model4755,027

a 16,955 0,000 3997,184a 15,757 0,000 3562,466

a 15,137 0,000 2276,983a 10,378 0,000 4000,398

a 15,467 0,000 2730,347a 11,165 0,000

Gender 63,398 7,912 0,005 41,583 4,918 0,027 32,031 4,763 0,029 3,177 0,434 0,510 67,203 9,094 0,003 16,695 2,048 0,152

Country 1408,199 8,787 0,000 1510,835 8,934 0,000 981,135 7,295 0,000 1142,064 7,808 0,000 416,492 2,818 0,000 620,050 3,803 0,000

Type of

university791,733 19,761 0,000 1208,706 28,589 0,000 476,256 14,165 0,000 763,134 20,869 0,000 582,082 15,754 0,000 919,410 22,558 0,000

Area of

knowledge362,247 11,302 0,000 489,135 14,462 0,000 160,749 5,976 0,000 367,055 12,547 0,000 545,938 18,470 0,000 857,161 26,289 0,000

1 1 Autonomy 46,542 5,808 0 ,0 16 36,514 5,430 0 ,0 2 0 122,508 16,578 0 ,0 0 0

1 2 Compe te nc e 121,012 15,102 0 ,0 0 0 370,526 55,102 0 ,0 0 0 298,984 40,460 0 ,0 0 0

1 3 Re la te dne ss 340,717 42,520 0 ,0 0 0 513,997 76,438 0 ,0 0 0 503,558 68,144 0 ,0 0 0

2 4Autonomy*

c ompe te nc e111,697 13,940 0 ,0 0 0 0,010 0,001 0,969 2,442 0,330 0,565

2 5Autonomy*

re la te dne ss4,078 0,509 0,476 28,448 4,231 0 ,0 4 0 7,307 0,989 0,320

R² and Adj R² a. R² = 0,178 (Adj R² = 0,168) a. R² = 0,162 (Adj R² = 0,151) a. R² = 0,165 (Adj R² = 0,154)

Stude nt mobility Curric ulum de sign Curric ulum de live ry

a. R² = 0,131 (Adj R² = 0,123) a. R² = 0,091 (Adj R² = 0,082) a. R² = 0,097 (Adj R² = 0,088)

Co

nce

ptu

al m

od

el

Hyp

oth

esi

s

Table 2. Results of GLMs

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6. Results

The GLM results demonstrate the importance of examining the effect of the basic psychological needs on the extent of academic engagement in education-driven UBC in activities including student mobility, curriculum design and delivery. Specifically, academics’ perception of their own UBC autonomy, competence, relatedness shows strong positive associations with all three UBC activities (p<0,05). As hypothesised, the extent of cooperation with business in education increases, when academics collaborate willingly (autonomy), feel enacted and capable of doing UBC (competence), and feel comfortable in their university environment expressing positive attitude towards UBC (relatedness). Hence, hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 can be accepted for all three activities including student mobility, curriculum design and delivery.

As for interaction effect, autonomy positively moderates the relationship between competence with the extent of academic engagement only in student mobility (p=0,00), and the relationship between relatedness and the extent of academic engagement – in curriculum design (p=0,04). Hence, the validity of relatedness and competence is not associated with the extent of academic engagement in curriculum delivery depending on whether academics collaborate with businesses willingly or because it is expected from them. Hence, hypothesis 4 can only be accepted for student mobility, and hypothesis 5 – for curriculum design.

7. Discussion and conclusion

While academic engagement with businesses is being increasingly discussed in the UBC literature (Perkmann et al., 2013; Skute et al., 2017), the collaborative activities specific to education remain underexplored despite the recognised importance of such linkages. Thus, education-driven UBC has proven itself to be able to contribute to the delivery of more relevant education (Rossano et al., 2016), effective talent and future workforce development (Plewa et al., 2015) leading to the satisfaction of both students’ as well as employers’ needs (Herrmann et al., 2008). Notwithstanding the current literature indicating that there are also the benefits for academics in collaborating with businesses in education (Davey et al., 2018), the facilitators for this engagement remain understudied calling for research seeking to explain the factors that enhance individual engagement of academics in collaboration with business in the provision and development of education (Plewa et al., 2015). Based on an extensive and wide-reaching survey, this study demonstrates the importance of the basic need support as a concept to understand

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the conditions within social contexts such as HEI environment that influence the engagement of its academic staff in education-driven UBC.

7.1 Theoretical contribution

The role of UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004) is, as expected, highly relevant in the context of academic engagement with business in educational activities. Academics collaborate more actively with businesses in education, when they are able to decide for themselves (UBC autonomy), whether they wish to engage in relationships with external stakeholders or not. That also goes in line with the concept of academic freedom of research and teaching (Berdahl, 1990; Merton, 1973), emphasising academics’ need for autonomy also with regards to UBC. Thus, academics feel more comfortable deciding on their own, whether they are willing to invite externals such as business people to participate in the design and delivery of their teaching rather than getting a direct order from the HEI, just as they want to make autonomous decisions regarding their collaboration with companies in mobility of students.

Academics that feel enacted and have UBC know-how (UBC competence), just as the academics that feel connected to their institution and peers that have positive attitude towards UBC as well as university engagement in general (UBC relatedness) emerge to be strong collaborators in all three education-driven UBC activities. Knowledge of UBC and certain expectations about business needs on one hand and existence of UBC role models and in general positive attitude towards UBC among academic staff of the university on the other are likely to facilitate the education-driven UBC.

The moderation effect of autonomy has emerged for student mobility, ultimately emphasising the significance of the academics’ own decision making supported by their competence with regard to cooperating with business in the organisation of the temporary movement of students from HEIs to companies. Effectively, when independently choosing to engage in student mobility, academics would rely even more on their own UBC competence. Furthermore, when academics experience support for UBC autonomy they might feel more connected to the institution, when cooperating with business in curriculum design, often considered rather a group activity involving more than just one individual academic (Plewa et al., 2015).

Overall, this research highlights the usefulness of SDT as well as particular relevance of its basic psychological needs framework for investigation of academics’ education-driven engagement and UBC research, in general. Thus, this research contributes to UBC literature by shedding light on previously

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underexplored education-driven UBC and by applying SDT’s framework of academics’ needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness in this context. Specifically, this research shows that academic autonomy does not only play an important role in academics’ teaching and research, but also facilitates their engagement in education driven UBC, with UBC competence and relatedness emerging just as relevant. Hence, this research contributes to the SDT literature revealing that autonomy, competence and relatedness play an important role in facilitation of academic engagement in education-driven cooperation, confirming its significance reported in the previous SDT research (Deci et al., 2017; Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Ryan & Deci, 2017).

7.2 Managerial and policy implications

While already recognised need for development of the appropriate environment for UBC to flourish has been confirmed by this study (Galán-Muros et al., 2017), the results furthermore reveal the necessity of creating even more comprehensive culture that supports the satisfaction academics’ basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness in the UBC context. HEI management should address specific frameworks that are able to facilitate the psychological drivers in order to provide the conditions with the HEI context that as study shows influences the engagement of academics in UBC and specifically in education-driven collaboration.

The surrounding institutional context is vitally important for enhancing individual engagement of the academic staff in collaborative activities, therefore managerial efforts to facilitate cooperation should aim at formalising such interaction through creating the right institutional environment (Davey et al., 2018; Ponomariov & Boardman, 2008) and promoting the broader understanding of UBC with a specific emphasis put on education-driven activities. To facilitate both UBC competence and relatedness, UBC related accomplishments of individual academics should be recognised and disseminated to share good practice examples of education-driven activities among the academic staff, promote learning as well as call for more engagement in business collaboration specific to education. Furthermore, given that also UBC autonomy has been found to have significant associations with education-driven UBC and can as moderator in several activities, when there is a comprehensive incentive system, institutional support and recognition of academics’ cooperation with business specific to education, the other two needs for competence and relatedness can potentially be supported as well. This goes in line with the previous research on SDT emphasising the fact that

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when individuals have a sense of autonomy they are typically able to find the ways to get the other needs satisfied (Deci et al., 2017).

7.3 Limitations and further research

This study also acknowledges its limitations. Given the fact that the study utilised online survey, the self-selection of respondents in the sample can provide biased results. Furthermore, while the translations could have also led to potential biases, the researchers attempted to address this limitation by employing the services of the professional translators double-checked by invited topic experts. The survey utilised in this research should be geographically replicated outside European countries to explore academic engagement in education-driven UBC in universities across other countries.

Future research could benefit from employing qualitative research methodology for the investigation of the effect of basic psychological needs on academic engagement in education-driven UBC. It should also complement this study by focusing on other education-driven UBC activities including both informal and further formal interactions as well as by targeting the business perspective, given the entirely ‘academic’ focus of this research. Furthermore, as the basic SDT model applied in the research related to the workplace performance suggests (e.g. Baard et al., 2004; Deci et al., 2017; Richer et al., 2002), the future research in the context of UBC can include motivational variables and examine the mediation effect of psychological needs together with motivations on the relationship between HEI context or individual characteristics of academics with the engagement performance with respect to education-driven UBC. Finally, this study can also be carried out for a different UBC domain including the engagement of academics in research, valorisation and management related business collaboration.

Acknowledgements

The survey was carried out as part of the project ‘The State of University-Business Cooperation in Europe’ conducted from 2016 to 2018 by a consortium led by the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre, Germany for the DG Education and Culture, European Commission (EAC/10/2015).

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Study B Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

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Chapter 3

Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: a motivation-based perspective

Status Published

Journal Studies in Higher Education

Authors Balzhan Orazbayeva, Todd Davey, Carolin Plewa and Victoria Galán-Muros

Reference Orazbayeva, B., Davey, T., Plewa, C., & Galán-Muros, V. (2019). Engagement of academics in education-driven university-business cooperation: A motivation-based perspective. Studies in Higher Education, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1582013

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Abstract

The importance of university-business cooperation (UBC) continues to grow. To date, however, our understanding of UBC in education is lacking, as is our knowledge of the motivations of academics. This research explores a comprehensive mix of motivations underlying education-driven UBC in the form of student mobility, curriculum design and delivery, and lifelong learning. Specifically, drawing on self-determination theory, motivations across five orientations are examined, namely monetary, career, research, educational and social. Based on an extensive and wide-reaching European survey, this research demonstrates the context-specific nature of academic motivations for UBC in education. Not only do the motivations differ from those commonly noted in relation to commercialisation, the set of motivations varies across different education-driven activities. This research offers important contributions to theory and practice, revealing that academics are motivated more strongly by intrinsic than extrinsic reasons, with only social and educational orientations emerging as significant motivations across all four activities.

Keywords

University-business cooperation, motivation, self-determination theory, student mobility, curriculum design and delivery, lifelong learning.

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1. Introduction

Cooperation between universities and business has grown considerably in the last decades as a means to improve student employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013), increase company innovation and competitiveness (Kaufmann & Tödtling, 2001), and advance knowledge economies (Gibb & Hannon, 2006). There is an increased recognition of HEIs as a source of technology, innovation and human capital, aligned with the HEI’s ‘third mission’ (Etzkowitz, 2008). However, research to date has focussed primarily on the cooperation between HEIs and business that is specific to research, such as joint R&D and commercialisation (Perkmann et al., 2013), and particularly IP rights, licensing and patenting (Fulop & Couchman, 2006; Meagher & Copeland, 2006). Even though several studies have already established that links to industry are able to add value to the HEI’s first mission (Baaken et al., 2015; Forsyth, Laxton, Moran, Banks, & Taylor, 2009; Hasanefendic et al., 2016), university-business cooperation (UBC) in education still remains uncaptured and underexplored (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a).

While some authors have noted that academics are often driven by for-profit motivations and the ethos of ‘commercialisation’ when engaging in UBC (Jacob, 2003; Lam, 2011), these motivations may not be relevant for UBC activities not related to research cooperation and commercialisation. Extant research already recognises that a variety of motivations can stimulate academics to pursue cooperation with industry (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Lam, 2011, 2015). However, few if any have specifically considered the motivations of academics to cooperate in education (Perkmann et al., 2013), leading to calls for research to advance our understanding in this area.

This paper addresses this shortcoming by exploring the motivations underlying academic engagement with business in education-driven activities, namely (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design and (c) delivery, and (d) lifelong learning (LLL). Specifically, it empirically examines individual motivations underpinning cooperation in each of these four UBC activities. This study applies a social-psychological perspective, drawing on self-determination theory (SDT), which emphasises the diverse nature of individual-level motivations, including intrinsic and extrinsic aspects. Using SDT, the paper discusses five motivational orientations facilitating education-driven UBC undertaken by academics.

Building on SDT, this paper offers an important contribution to our understanding of antecedents to education-driven UBC activities. Specifically, it outlines a range of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for academics to engage with business, drawing on a large international dataset of 9385 responses from academics across 33

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countries. The focus on individual academics is critical as it is the front line staff who not only facilitates but also activates cooperation with business in education. This paper also contributes to the emerging body of literature on cooperation in the context of education, thus going beyond the focus of previous UBC research focused on valorisation and research. In doing so, it provides a vital new perspective and comprehensive approach to academic engagement with business.

2. University-business cooperation

UBC in education is ever increasing, founded in an enhanced recognition that such cooperation is important for reducing the skills gap (Herrmann et al., 2008) and improving students’ employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013). For academics, UBC can uncover knowledge gaps (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011), create and open new research and teaching opportunities, inspire teaching practice, help develop new skills and competencies (van der Sijde, 2012) as well as provide access to resources and presenters (Shahabudin, 2006).

However, as third mission activities are not commonly recognised in academic career progression (Perkmann et al., 2013), UBC is often initiated and undertaken by individual academics sporadically and informally (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Rampersad, 2015). Resultantly, UBC often occurs voluntarily, via personal relationships and informal channels not institutionalised or centrally managed (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a). As cooperation with business thus commonly remains a discretional activity for academics (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011), understanding and recognising what motivates academics to engage in UBC specific to the education becomes essential for advancing education-driven cooperation.

While extant literature suggests that academics are often driven by extrinsic for-profit motivations (Beyhan & Rickne, 2015; Jacob, 2003; Lam, 2011), these findings are specific to the context of research commercialisation, patenting and licensing. Indeed, their direct applicability to education is unlikely, given that education-driven cooperation is not commonly associated with the same financial rewards. With specific evidence to education missing, this paper seeks to explore the motivations of academics so as to facilitate their cooperation with businesses in the context of education.

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3. Education-driven UBC activities

Business cooperation in education can take a number of forms, ranging from student mobility to curriculum design, curriculum delivery or lifelong learning (Davey et al., 2018).

Mobility of students involves the temporary movement of students from universities to businesses through placements or internships as part of their undergraduate or postgraduate studies (Knight, 2012) and it is one the most common education-driven UBC activities (Davey et al., 2018). Benefits to students include access to cutting edge technologies, development of enhanced employability skills (Rampersad, 2015), as well as exposure to working conditions in industry (Stephan, 2001). In return, businesses benefit by engaging with students for future prospective employment (Rampersad, 2015) and by getting access to talent with problem-solving competences (Lee, 2011; van der Sijde, 2012).

Curriculum design. To better prepare a future workforce, universities increasingly review and modernise curricula together with businesses (Ishengoma & Vaaland, 2016; Lawson, Eveline, Theo, Tracy, & Michael, 2011; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015). Such design can range from the development of specific courses to entire undergraduate or post-graduate programmes, and can include training of employees or on-the-job training for students, as well as admission or course evaluation. This involvement is essential in tackling the skills mismatch and better aligning with the needs of the employer market to advance student learning (Healy et al., 2014).

Curriculum delivery refers to the participation of businesspeople in the delivery of programmes, courses and content to students (Hasanefendic et al., 2016), for example by means of guest lectures, placements, industry supervisors/mentors (Plewa et al., 2015) and work-based learning activities or projects (Rossano et al., 2016). Indeed, individual guest lectures by businesspeople are one of the most common approaches. However, as it requires only a low commitment from business, the potential impact of such involvement is expected to be limited (Plewa et al., 2015).

Lifelong learning (LLL). Originally defined as a learning throughout life (Dehmel, 2006), LLL in the UBC context refers to the different activities delivered by universities related to executive education, industry training and professional courses for people employed by external organisations (Davey et al., 2018). Examples of LLL include continuing education for businesspeople (Finne et al., 2009), distance or open learning (Dinevski & Dinevski, 2004) and training courses focused on particular business needs (Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011). Through LLL, universities can create a new income source for themselves (Jongbloed, 2002)

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and respond to the industrial demand for a highly skilled workforce, whilst businesses get an opportunity to acquire and improve the skills and competencies needed for their employees (Harrison et al., 2007).

4. Motivations of academics for UBC

4.1 Self-determination theory and motivations of academics

In their engagement with business in education, the motivations of academics may be founded in personal benefits or benefits received by other stakeholders, ranging from pecuniary to a variety of non-pecuniary gains. To capture such diversity, this research draws on a SDT, a theoretical lens for investigating individual motivations and their relation to social values and norms from a broader psychological view on individual behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gagné & Deci, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Adopting the perspective that individuals are motivated to engage in specific activities when they expect to obtain desired benefits, SDT distinguishes the nature of these benefits and the external regulatory processes through which they are strived for by placing an individual motivation on a continuum of self-determination that consists of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation and amotivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Intrinsic motivation represents a self-determined behaviour instigated by an individual’s personal willingness and genuine desire, which results in intangible outcomes (Antonioli, Nicolli, Ramaciotti, & Rizzo, 2016) such as learning or enjoyment. Contrarily, extrinsic motivation refers to a less self-determined behaviour geared towards a separate external reward or personal benefit from an external source (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Amotivation is understood as a state when an individual completely lacks motivation, or in other words an individual has no intention of engaging in an activity due to the lack of interest or perceived value in undertaking the activity (Pelletier, Tuson, & Haddad, 1997).

Extant literature suggests a range of academic motivations as relevant to UBC, which, as per SDT, can be classified along a spectrum of extrinsic and intrinsic types of motivation, as well as across five motivational orientations. These motivational orientations define ‘the source of motivation for an individual to perform a particular action’ (Linke et al., 2010, p. 2618) and comprise in the given context monetary, career, research, education and social orientations.

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Monetary orientation

Financial pressures caused by shortages in public funding often instigate cooperation with business (Bercovitz & Feldman, 2006; Franco & Haase, 2015), as such cooperation can help in obtaining competitive public or private funding (Ankrah, Burgess, Grimshaw, & Shaw, 2013; Dan, 2013). Business cooperation can thus ease the financial pressure, provide financial stability and security (Galib, Munny, & Khudaykulov, 2015), as well as build a financial foundation for research, education, equipment and facilities. UBC can also be driven by the academics’ motivation to increase their personal income (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Perkmann & Walsh, 2008) through monetary incentives or reward mechanisms for external collaboration and commercialisation.

Since UBC is often a voluntary action (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011), the willingness to obtain funding and financial resources for academics is primarily seen as an extrinsic motivation (Antonioli et al., 2016; Lam, 2011) as they seek a tangible external reward not related to their performance assessment or career progression (Figure 1). In academia, monetary rewards are predominately associated with academics’ scientific activities in the form of salary increase or research funds (Lam, 2011) granted according to the recognition achieved or a return on IP commercialisation (van Norman & Eisenkot, 2017). Yet, notwithstanding the rise of these ’entrepreneurial’ activities that offer possibilities for academics to financially capitalise on their interaction with businesses (Lam, 2011), the extent to which funding acts as a motivational driver remains debatable. This is especially so given the complexity of the link between financial compensation, motivation and actual performance (Lam, 2015; Sachau, 2007). With respect to education-driven UBC, while LLL is seen as a potential new source of financial income for universities (Jongbloed, 2002; Rinne, Kallo, & Hokka, 2004) that is potentially transferred to the individual academics involved, financial rewards are not common for other education-driven activities, such as student mobility or curriculum design and delivery. It is proposed here that motivations related to monetary rewards do not drive academics’ education-driven engagement.

Hypothesis 1: Obtaining funding and financial resources is a motivation that does not positively affect UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery nor (d) LLL.

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Career orientation

Academics can be motivated to engage in UBC to increase their image and status within the university (Dietz & Bozeman, 2005; Franco & Haase, 2015; Göktepe-Hulten & Mahagaonkar, 2010), as well as their reputation (Dan, 2013). Specifically, academic career advancement can be improved by reputational effects of UBC (Petersen et al., 2014), improving promotion possibilities and professional development outside academia (Lam, 2007). Hence, motivations related to improving reputation and increasing chances for promotion are rather less autonomous in nature, as both of them have a clear achievement orientation. Academics motivated by reputation and career interests are determined by the willingness of acquiring concrete rewards directly related to status improvement (Göktepe-Hulten & Mahagaonkar, 2010) and are extrinsic in nature (Antonioli et al., 2016) (Figure 1).

Lam (2007) argues that the general understanding of academic career development is particularly important when it comes to motivations of academics to collaborate with businesses. Indeed, UBC is expected to increasingly entail a direct effect on the career development of an academic within or outside the HE sector and ultimately contribute to the development of new career models for the academics actively engaging with business. This research suggests, therefore, that career-focused motivations positively influence academics’ engagement in UBC, including education-driven cooperation activities.

Hypothesis 2: Improving the reputation within the university is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

Hypothesis 3: Increasing the chances for promotion is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

Research orientation

From an academic perspective, UBC is often seen as an opportunity to not only fulfil the university’s second mission (Fan, Yang, & Chen, 2015) but also to stimulate and fulfil individual research agendas. Research orientation is thus intrinsic, as it refers to the willingness to advance knowledge, engage in a creative puzzle-solving (Lam, 2011) and contribute to theory through gaining new insights for future research and its practical application. However, because research is a central activity that is part of an academic career, research motivations, particularly ‘using research in

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practice’, are able to provide subsequent indirect outputs related to other orientations that are both extrinsic and intrinsic in nature (Ommering, van Blankenstein, Waaijer, & Dekker, 2018). For these reasons, research orientation has both extrinsic and intrinsic motivational elements and can be placed between the two poles (Figure 1).

Driven by the ability to advance scientific knowledge and address societal issues (Ankrah et al., 2013; Tijssen, Lamers, & Yegros, 2017), academics cooperate with businesses as an opportunity to obtain new insights for further research (Dan, 2013; Lee, 2000) and to apply their research in practice (Ginzburg & Houli, 2013). Indeed, learning opportunities for research can formulate new research directions (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011). Because of the genuine willingness to explore and create new knowledge and the scientific curiosity that underpins academics’ behaviour (Lam, 2015), academics are likely to express a greater self-determined commitment towards desired scientific goals when engaging with business. Similarly, using research in practice is an endeavour that can not only be a source of commercialisation and funding (Beyhan & Rickne, 2015), it can also contribute to society, to the academic’s career progression, and importantly for the context under study, it can contribute to the education of students. Hence, it is suggested that research-oriented motivations also have a positive contribution to an academics’ engagement in education-driven UBC activities.

Hypothesis 4: Using the research in practice is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

Hypothesis 5: Gaining new insight for research is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

Educational orientation

UBC is believed to add significant value to education (Herrmann et al., 2008). Through interaction with business, academics seek to provide more employer relevant education that considers their needs (Plewa et al., 2015). Indeed, interaction with companies is increasingly perceived by academics as beneficial given its positive impact on the development of students’ skills and competences relevant for the labour market (Hasanefendic et al., 2016). Further motivation relates to academics’ desire to improve student employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013) through problem-based learning (Rossano et al., 2016), work-integrated

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learning (Rampersad, 2015) as well as guest lectures and seminars by businesspeople (Plewa et al., 2015) amongst others.

This motivational orientation represents the academics’ autonomous and self-determined behaviour to undertake UBC for the primary benefit of students to obtain relevant skills and better prepare them for the labour market. The desire to improve teaching and to increase student employability is therefore conceptually seen as primarily an intrinsic motivation (Figure 1), as both are related to the pleasure of facilitating learning and the enjoyment of seeing students succeed (Bexley, Arkoudis, & James, 2013). As UBC allows academics to improve the quality of their teaching (Arza, 2010; Franco & Haase, 2015), inform curriculum design and delivery (Lamichhane & Sharma, 2010) and develop new skills and competencies (van der Sijde, 2012), a strong association between education-oriented motivations and education-driven UBC is expected.

Hypothesis 6: Improving teaching skills is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

Hypothesis 7: Increasing student employability is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility (b) curriculum design (c) curriculum delivery (d) LLL.

Social orientation

While HEIs were once held accountable only for their research and education missions, today they are also increasingly expected to drive regional innovation and economic growth (Breznitz & Feldman, 2012). This third mission (Etzkowitz, 2008; Laukkanen, 2003) generally relates to the interactions between universities and the rest of society (Molas-Gallart & Castro-Martínez, 2007). Some even suggest that the social functions of academia should include co-creation with society as a new mission with a focus on sustainability (Trencher, Yarime, McCormick, Doll, & Kraines, 2013), thus further extending the social role of HEIs. Consistent with SDT, the behavioural commitment of academics to the social mission has an intrinsic character (Andersen & Pallesen, 2008; Grant, 2008). Thus, acting in line with the social mission and related values that underpin academics’ feeling of responsibility forms the autonomous and self-determined behaviour in undertaking cooperation with external stakeholders including businesses (Figure 1).

Many academics recognise their third mission responsibilities and seek to increase their interactions with external stakeholders and society at large (Sam & van der

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Sijde, 2014). Thus, their engagement in third mission activities can ultimately lead to the introduction of novelties in teaching (Hasanefendic et al., 2016) and a subsequent improvement of education in general (Rossano et al., 2016). Contributing to the mission of the university and, in this way, addressing societal challenges, are seen as further motivations for academics, with UBC offering one pathway for HEIs, and individual HEI staff, to engage with society (Davey et al., 2011).

Hypothesis 8: Contributing to the third mission of the university is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

Hypothesis 9: Addressing societal challenges is a motivation that positively affects UBC in (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

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Figure 1. Theoretical framework: motivational orientations of academics

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5. Methodology

A comprehensive survey was designed to quantitatively measure the academic motivations and activities as related to UBC. This survey was translated into 24 languages and forwarded to managers of the over 3500 registered HEIs in the European Economic Area asking for further distribution within their institutions. A total of 9,385 responses from academics in 33 countries were collected and weighted to adjust the responses to the number of academics per country in order to get a representative sample by country. The survey measured the perception of academics on the development of UBC activities and their motivations to undertake such cooperation.

To measure education-driven activities of academics, four dependent variables were integrated in the survey, each representing one of the four UBC activities in education examined in this study, namely student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and LLL. Respondents were asked to express the extent to which they cooperate with business measured on a 10-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 10 = to a very high extent), utilising the following question: Please indicate to what extent you cooperate with business in respect to (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL. To measure motivations, respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which a series of factors motivates academics to cooperate with business, measured on a 10-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 10 = to a very high extent). Specifically, they were asked to indicate: How relevant are the following motivations for your cooperation with business?

Under the assumption that UBC can be influenced by a set of external factors, beyond the individual’s motivation, a range of control variables were recorded and included in all regression analyses, namely academics’ age, gender, university experience, business experience, UBC experience and faculty, as well as the country where the university is located and the type of university. The interpretation of the specific effects of these variables on the extent of UBC goes beyond the scope of this paper.

A confirmatory factor analysis with varimax rotation confirmed that the nine individual motivations for education-driven UBC can be statistically reduced to the five orientations (monetary, career, research, education, social) conceptualised based on theoretical foundations. The high Cronbach’s alpha values confirm the factors’ reliability (see Table 1).

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Motivation Career

orientation

Research orientation

Educational orientation

Social orientation

Monetary orientation

Obtaining funding / financial resources

0,177 0,148 -0,018 0,020 0,964

Increasing my chances of promotion

0,898 0,077 0,023 0,113 0,123

Improving my reputation within the university

0,886 0,168 0,117 0,064 0,083

Using my research in practice

0,173 0,840 0,119 0,204 0,141

Gaining new insights for research

0,092 0,877 0,198 0,136 0,055

Improving my teaching teaching 0,096 0,276 0,833 0,107 -0,117

Improving graduate employability

0,045 0,064 0,861 0,247 0,088

Contributing to the third mission of the university

0,148 0,065 0,351 0,771 0,071

Addressing societal challenges and issues

0,054 0,280 0,074 0,852 -0,031

Table 1. Results of the factor analysis

6. Results

Using IBM SPSS 24, generalised linear regression analysis was undertaken to test the association of the academic motivations for cooperation and the education-driven UBC activities. The data was confirmed to meet the assumptions of generalised linear models (GLZMs). In each of the GLZMs, an F test indicates that all independent variables significantly explain the dependent variables so all the models tested are relevant. Results specifying the relevance of each motivation for each of the four education-driven UBC activities are reported in Table 2.

The results demonstrate the importance of examining individual motivations and their relevance for specific types of education-driven cooperation, given differences in effects, not just amongst motivational orientations but also within those orientations (also see Table 2). Specifically, motivations deemed as intrinsic show strong associations with a large variety of education-driven UBC activities. As expected, both education-oriented motivations are positively associated with education-driven engagement. While improvement of teaching motivates

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academics to engage in all four activities, improvements in graduate employability relate to all activities except LLL. Finally, the results demonstrate a strong relevance of socially oriented motivations, with the motivation to contribute to the mission of the university emerging as significantly associated with all four education-driven UBC activities. Furthermore, addressing societal challenges and issues emerges as significantly related to curriculum design and delivery.

Orientation Motivation Student mobility

Curriculum design

Curriculum delivery

Lifelong learning

Monetary Obtaining funding / financial resources

0,021 0,021 0,044* 0,032

Career Increasing my chances of promotion -0,031 0,015 -0,026 0,010

Improving my reputation within the university

-0,040 -0,006 0,054* -0,004

Research Using my research in practice -0,026 0,012 0,013 0,020

Gaining new insights for research

-0,059* -0,102*** -0,131*** -0,028

Educational Improving my teaching 0,064** 0,106*** 0,123*** 0,072**

Improving graduate employability 0,242*** 0,100*** 0,127*** 0,017

Social Contributing to the third mission of the university

0,073*** 0,103*** 0,084*** 0,075***

Addressing societal challenges and issues 0,026 0,065** 0,059** 0,023

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (2-tailed)

Table 2. Results of GLZMs

On the other hand, motivations deemed more extrinsically oriented emerge as only significantly associated with a few education-driven activities. While the monetary oriented motivation of obtaining financial resources and the career-oriented motivation of improving one’s reputation within the university solely relate to curriculum delivery, the second career- oriented motivation of increasing one’s chance of promotion did not emerge as significant for any of the activities. Similarly,

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the results do not suggest any significant association between the research-oriented motivation of using one’s research in practice and education-driven UBC. However, the academics’ motivation to gain new insights for research significantly relates to three out of four activities (student mobility, as well as curriculum design and delivery), albeit negatively.

From the perspective of UBC activities, the results indicate that LLL is only affected significantly by motivations relating to teaching improvement and contribution to the university mission. In addition to these two motivations, student mobility is affected positively by improving graduate employability and negatively by gaining new insights for research. Curriculum design is also significantly affected by a motivation to address societal challenges and issues. Finally, curriculum delivery is significantly affected by the previous five motivations as well as by the motivation to obtain funding.

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Type Orien-tation

Hypotheses Student mobility

Curriculum design

Curriculum.delivery

Lifelong learning

Ext

rinsi

c

Mon

etar

y H1: Obtaining funding /

financial resources doesn’t positively affect

Accepted Accepted Rejected Accepted

Ext

rinsi

c

Car

eer

H2: Increasing my chances of promotion positively affects

Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

H3: Improving my reputation within the university positively affects

Rejected Rejected Accepted Rejected

Ext

rinsi

c/ In

trin

sic

Res

earc

h

H4: Using my research in practice positively affects

Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

H5: Gaining new insights for research positively affects

Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

Intr

insi

c

Ed

ucat

iona

l

H6: Improving my teaching positively affects

Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted

H7: Improving graduate employability positively affects

Accepted Accepted Accepted Rejected

Intr

insi

c

Soc

ial

H8: Contributing to the third mission of the university positively affects

Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted

H9: Addressing societal challenges and issues positively affects

Rejected Accepted Accepted Rejected

Table 3. Summary of the hypotheses

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7. Discussion and conclusion

7.1 Theoretical contributions

While the literature on academic motivations to engage in collaborative activities with business has continued to thrive (Skute et al., 2017), much of the focus to date has remained on motivations for research commercialisation, patenting and licensing. This is despite the recognised importance of education-driven UBC (Hasanefendic et al., 2016) and the resultant need for specific frameworks addressing related motivational drivers. Based on an extensive and wide-reaching survey, this research demonstrates the context-specific nature of academic motivations for UBC in education. Not only do the motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC differ from those previously noted in relation to commercialisation, the set of motivations also varies across different education-driven collaboration activities, namely student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and LLL.

The relevance of the educational orientation for education-driven UBC is not surprising. The improvement of teaching, with a direct influence on students, emerges as one of the strongest motivations across all activities, followed by the improvement of graduate employability. The lack of significant association between the latter and LLL is justified given that participants in LLL are already in employment.

Providing a unique contribution to the literature, this research identifies social orientation, in particular contributing to the university’s mission, as a highly important motivation shaping education-driven UBC. This finding offers an important theoretical contribution, as socially oriented motivations have received little attention in the literature to date. Their significance indicates an understanding amongst academics as to the HEI’s importance of collaborating with business (Ankrah et al., 2013; Dan, 2013) and acting on the ‘pro-social’ role of universities in general (Di Nauta et al., 2018).

While research orientation is not commonly associated with education-driven UBC, previous literature shows some positive associations; for instance, a ‘learning’ motivation as related to research consulting, joint and contract research (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011) and a ‘puzzle’ motivation experienced by scientists engaging commercially with industry (Lam, 2011). In contrast with prior literature, our results demonstrate that student mobility, as well as curriculum design and delivery, emerge as negatively associated with the motivation to gain new insights for research. The negative relationship between the motivation to gain new research

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insights and education-driven activities could be explained by the fact that academics have insufficient time for UBC that can play an important role as a driver of UBC, whereas its absence represents a barrier (Davey et al., 2018).

Interestingly, academics engage in education-driven UBC only partly due to a career orientation. The lack of significant association of UBC in education with promotion suggests a stronger weighting of research criteria for promotion, previously confirmed for higher academic ranks (Parker, 2008). Even if education-related criteria contribute to the promotion of academics in a specific context (Subbaye & Vithal, 2017), education in collaboration with business may not directly feature at this stage. The lack of association between UBC in education is potentially a barrier for the improved alignment of education with the world of work. Particularly, LLL and career motivations reflect the more ‘external’ character LLL has for universities (Jongbloed, 2002).

As compared to research and commercialisation oriented UBC (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011), monetary motivations did not emerge as significantly associated with education-driven UBC. Although previously associated with LLL (Jongbloed, 2002; Rinne et al., 2004), this relationship is not confirmed here. However, financial reasons emerge as a driver for curriculum delivery, suggesting that this activity either acts as a ‘gateway’ to financially beneficial activities, or that such activity is expected to bring monetary benefits later.

Reflecting on the results, the lens of the extrinsic and intrinsic scale for motivations proposed by SDT appears relevant in explaining motivations for education-driven UBC. The intrinsic social and educational orientations both emerged as significant motivations for all the activities. The two extrinsically-driven orientations, career and monetary, have only some associations, with three and one UBC activities respectively. As for the research orientation, defined as both extrinsic and intrinsic, only the more intrinsic and ‘puzzle-oriented’ (Lam, 2011), ‘gaining new insights for research’ is significant for three activities, albeit negatively. These results suggest that academics are more motivated by intrinsic than extrinsic reasons when engaging in education-driven UBC.

7.2 Managerial and policy implications

A number of important managerial and policy implications arise from this study. Importantly, the findings suggest that incentive systems offering primarily extrinsic rewards are likely to have little if any impact on academic engagement in education-driven UBC. Moreover, they can potentially undermine intrinsic motivations (Rigolizzo & Amabile, 2015), as concluded also by (Lam, 2011) in a study

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examining research engagement. As all UBC activities in this study are (at least) facilitated by intrinsic motivations, in particular education and social orientations, HEIs and policymakers should align their efforts accordingly. Specifically, given the strong alignment between the academics’ motivation to contribute to the HEI’s mission, clearly identifying business engagement in relation to education as central to the mission of the university seems a logical step. This would help facilitate an institutional culture in which academic engagement in education-driven UBC as a way to address societal challenges will flourish.

Furthermore, recruitment, recognition and support systems should be designed to ensure academics can be enabled to more easily act on their motivations. Examples include the provision by HEI managers or governments of dedicated support, access to resources and connections to other academics undertaking education-driven UBC through networking events or conferences. Furthermore, opportunities for enhancing related competences through programmes, courses and training (Osterloh, 2007) as well as initiatives recognising and communicating academics’ alignment with the HEI’s mission and their impact in addressing societal challenges, for example through teaching excellence awards, could potentially yield improved outcomes.

The lack of a significant association between academics’ education-driven UBC with their chances for promotion should be addressed by managers, policymakers and academics alike. Specifically, at this stage it remains unclear whether chances for promotion do not motivate academics due to the importance of intrinsic motivation or due to a mere lack of recognition of these activities in promotion frameworks, so further research is needed. For policy makers, a greater alignment of performance assessment and UBC education could provide increased cooperation in education. Given that the promotion and PR of UBC in education through university promotional material (magazines, website etc.), local press and awards are relatively straightforward, HEIs (or policymakers in some countries where this is established nationwide for public HEIs) may wish to trial offering such extrinsic rewards, with the aim of widening the number of academics involved in education-driven UBC. For policymakers, these actions should be connected with broader graduate employability strategies or policy frameworks.

While noting the important contributions made by this research, we recognise a number of limitations, in particular the self-selection of the sample through an online questionnaire. We note that while translations could have led to potential biases, researchers sought to minimise this limitation by utilising professional translators supported by specific topic experts. Furthermore, the dataset did not enable tests confirming causality. Notwithstanding the relevance of SDT for this study, the focus

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remained on the intrinsic versus extrinsic character of motivations of academics, and does not provide insights on the extent of autonomy of the individual behaviour. Concerning future research, the set of motivational variables could be broadened to include relationships, as recent research identifies interpersonal relationships between academics and businesspeople as well as social capital derived from these relationships as potential drivers for academics to undertake UBC (Al-Tabbaa & Ankrah, 2016). In addition, future research should replicate this study across other, non-European, contexts and focus more specifically on the effects of different external factors including faculty and type of university as well as individual attributes such as age, gender, university, business or UBC experience.

Acknowledgements

The survey was carried out as part of the project ‘The State of University-Business Cooperation in Europe’ conducted from 2016 to 2018 by a consortium led by the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre, Germany for the DG Education and Culture, European Commission (EAC/10/2015).

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Study C What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education? Motivation-based perspective

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Chapter 4

What drives businesses to cooperate with universities in education? Motivation-based perspective

Status To be submitted

Journal Journal of Technology Transfer

Authors Balzhan Orazbayeva

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Abstract

Our understanding of education-driven university-business cooperation (UBC) and its motivations is lacking, as is our knowledge of the business perspective. This research corrects this shortcoming by exploring a comprehensive mix of motivations underlying business engagement in education-driven UBC in the form of student mobility, curriculum design and delivery, and lifelong learning. This research contributes to UBC literature not only by outlining for the first time the motivations of businesses to engage in collaborative activities with universities specific to education, but also by demonstrating their context-specific nature, emphasising the difference between motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC and those captured for cooperation in commercialisation and R&D. This research reveals that businesses are driven more strongly by the motivations to develop their own internal capabilities by getting an access to the talent available at universities for the prospective employments as well as by developing the skills and competences of their current employees. Furthermore, the study demonstrates the ‘social’ nature of business engagement manifested in the motivation to positively impact society.

Keywords

University-business cooperation, business perspective, motivation, education-driven activities, resource-based view.

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1. Introduction

The constant pressure of rapid technological development and pace of innovation increasingly force companies not to rely exclusively on their internal capabilities but engage externally in cooperation with a wide range of stakeholders, including higher education institutions (HEIs) (Bellini, Piroli, & Pennacchio, 2019; Skute et al., 2017). Businesses seek collaborators across higher education sector for various reasons including gaining access to knowledge and skills, as well as innovation and technology among others (Ankrah & Al-Tabbaa, 2015; Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a) with an ultimate aim to improve their competitiveness in knowledge-intensive markets (Kaufmann & Tödtling, 2001). HEIs in turn increasingly open their boundaries and cooperate with business to contribute to both research and teaching (Plewa et al., 2015; Sam & van der Sijde, 2014). University-business cooperation (UBC) understood as any sort of productive interaction for mutual benefit (Davey et al., 2011) is increasingly recognised as an important topic among academic, practitioner and policy circles. While extant literature has predominantly focused on research and commercialisation related UBC activities (Lam, 2011; Perkmann et al., 2013), the understanding of UBC in education remains nebulous, notwithstanding its recognised importance for improving student employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013), reducing skills gaps (Herrmann et al., 2008) and preparing job-ready graduates by meeting the needs of the rapidly evolving labour market (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b).

Furthermore, while both universities and businesses are becoming increasingly aware of the benefits UBC can provide, their motivations are diverse (Davey et al., 2011; Davey et al., 2018). Previous research establishes that by recognising and targeting different individual motivations (Bloom & van Reenen, 2010; Bodas Freitas & Verspagen, 2017; Franco & Haase, 2015; Lee, 2000), organisations and institutions are able to stimulate certain types of cooperation through utilising different incentive mechanisms focusing on motivations that underpin engaged behaviour of the actors (Bodas Freitas & Verspagen, 2017; Lam, 2011). Indeed, the prolific research into UBC already points towards the existence of a wide range of different motivations that drive academic engagement with business (Ankrah et al., 2013; Dan, 2013; Franco & Haase, 2015; Lam, 2011). Yet, our understanding of education-driven UBC and its motivations is lacking (Perkmann et al., 2013). Limited research has been done in this area, and only few papers empirically explore the motivators for academics to cooperate with business in education-driven activities (e.g. Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016; Orazbayeva, Davey, Plewa, & Galán-Muros, 2019). To date, there is no empirical evidence of the business motivations to undertake such cooperation with universities.

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This research addresses this topic by exploring the motivations driving business engagement in education-driven activities with universities such as (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design and (c) delivery, and (d) lifelong learning (LLL). By applying motivation-based perspective, it empirically examines the motivations of business representatives underlying their engagement with universities in each of these four collaborative activities, drawing on a large dataset of 3091 responses from business representatives across 33 countries in Europe.

This research contributes to UBC literature by outlining the motivations of businesses to engage in collaborative activities with universities in education. Furthermore, it demonstrates their context-specific nature, emphasising the difference between motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC and those captured for cooperation in commercialisation and joint research. Thus, it offers important contributions to theory and practice, revealing that businesses are driven more strongly by the motivations to develop their own internal capabilities by getting an access to the talent available at universities for the prospective employments as well as by developing the skills and competences of their current employees. Furthermore, the study also demonstrates the ‘social’ nature of business engagement manifested in the motivation to positively impact society.

2. University-business cooperation from a business perspective

Businesses increasingly open their boundaries for cooperation with universities. On the one hand, they are being increasingly pressured by governments and called upon to contribute to social and economic development in more meaningful way and often in collaboration with HEIs (Lorentzen, 2009; Lubango & Pouris, 2007). On the other hand, the internal pressure forces them to engage in inter-organisational networks in form of inter-firm alliances or public-private partnerships (Bellucci & Pennacchio, 2016). Thus, businesses no longer depend on their internal capabilities to innovate. Instead, they are accessing external resources to attain sustained competitive advantage (Weber & Heidenreich, 2016) which ultimately leads to the widening integration of businesses into the triple helix (Steiber & Alänge, 2013) of government, industry and HEIs (Etzkowitz, 2008; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000) through open innovation (Chesbrough, 2006; Antikainen, Mäkipää, & Ahonen, 2010) and increased collaborative activities, to develop symbiotic relationships with external actors.

As Chesbrough (2006, p. xvii) clearly stated: ‘Most innovations fail. And companies that do not innovate die’, emphasising the ultimate challenge businesses face being under the constant pressure of the rapid technological change and growing need

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to address and react to social and economic problems. To remain competitive in a highly uncertain environment, businesses increasingly open their boundaries towards external collaboration to benefit from complementary knowledge and resources (Bellini et al., 2019; Bellucci & Pennacchio, 2016). Hence, the emphasis on innovation has shifted from knowledge production within the single entity to knowledge exchange and transactions between organisations (Chesbrough, 2006; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000). Business engagement with universities has proven itself as a promising approach to tackle internal and external pressures by directly accessing the problem solving capabilities available at universities through new knowledge and skills, technology and human capital (Davey, 2017; Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a).

Historically the prolific research into business engagement in UBC has rather been limited given the fact that the business perspective is less investigated and documented (Davey et al., 2018; Pavlin, 2016), often owing to the ease of collecting data from universities contrary to industry representatives. Furthermore, notwithstanding the wide variety of UBC activities, there is a substantial body of literature focusing exclusively on certain types of interaction including commercialisation through patents, licenses and spin-outs (Fulop & Couchman, 2006; Göktepe-Hulten & Mahagaonkar, 2010; Meagher & Copeland, 2006) as well as joint R&D (Bekkers & Freitas, 2008; Maietta, 2015; Perkmann et al., 2013), thus neglecting the growing importance of business involvement in collaborative activities with universities specific to education (Plewa et al., 2015).

3. Education-driven university-business cooperation

Despite its ability to enrich teaching and prepare more employment-ready graduates (Plewa et al., 2015; Rossano et al., 2016), education-driven UBC received to date little academic attention (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a). Nevertheless, such cooperation is increasingly recognised to be beneficial in improving graduate employability (Bozeman & Boardman, 2013), reducing the skills mismatch (Healy et al., 2014; Herrmann et al., 2008) and, in general, enhancing more relevant education as well as introducing novelties to teaching (Hasanefendic et al., 2016).

Education-driven UBC is comprised by a number of different formal and informal activities. While informal activities, which include, for example, networking, meetings, interviews, career talks etc., are increasingly recognised as beneficial especially when initiating and developing cooperation, formal education-driven UBC refers to collaborative activities that require certain level of commitment and

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generally more established relationships between university or academics on one side and businesses on the other.

Formal collaborative activities include mobility of students or temporary movement of students from HEIs to businesses (Davey et al., 2018; Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b). It can take a number of forms including placements or internships (Davey et al., 2018), doctoral studies (Bienkowska & Klofsten, 2012; Borrell-Damian, 2009; Thune, 2010) or recruitment of students through the academics’ business contacts. In the literature student mobility can also be referred to as work-integrated learning (WIL) (Rampersad, 2015). It has a potential of providing various benefits to students including an access to professional networks and a better development of the employability skills (Rampersad, 2015; Rossano et al., 2016), whereas companies can profit from direct interaction with students for future prospective employments (Rampersad, 2015) and for accessing the talent with problem-solving competences (Lee, 2011; van der Sijde, 2012).

Recognising the need for a better preparation of a future workforce, fully equipped with relevant skills and capable of meeting challenges in the professional environment, companies are often being invited by universities to collaboratively revisit and update the curricula (Ishengoma & Vaaland, 2016; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015). Thus, curriculum design relates to the joint review and development of a fixed programme of courses, modules and related contents at all levels (Plewa et al., 2015). The participation of business representatives in the process of designing education is considered essential in addressing the skills mismatch and better aligning study programmes with the business needs to improve and optimise talent development as well as teaching and learning in general (Healy et al., 2014; Rossano et al., 2016).

While curriculum design refers to a joint development of educational programmes, curriculum delivery is understood, as the actual delivery of programmes, courses and contents to students by or with a business representative. The joint delivery can be executed through a multitude of different channels including guest lectures, placements and project-based learning among others (Plewa et al., 2015; Rampersad, 2015).

Lifelong learning (LLL) in the context of UBC refers to adult educational offerings for businesspeople provided by HEIs, which include industry training, executive education as well as professional workshops (Davey et al., 2018; Finne et al., 2009). Originally documented as a learning throughout life (Dehmel, 2006), LLL can be delivered in form of face-to-face training courses focused on specifically defined business needs (Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011) or distance and open learning

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(Dinevski & Dinevski, 2004). Through LLL, HEIs have the possibility to create a new income source, whilst businesses get a chance for filling the skills gap of their employees and executive staff (Harrison et al., 2007; Orazbayeva et al., 2019).

4. Business engagement in university-business cooperation

4.1 Resource-based view (RBV)

Businesses are motivated by a number of different reasons to cooperate with universities. Traditionally the focus of their engagement, however, remained on the attainment of tangible and intangible resources (Wernerfelt, 1984) including material assets (Barney, 1991, 2001; Hagedoorn, 1993), and human capital and capabilities (Makadok, 2001; Markides & Williamson, 1996) with an ultimate aim to gain a competitive advantage, all resonating closely with the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm (Barney, 2001; Kraaijenbrink, Spender, & Groen, 2010). The applicability of the RBV on business-university interaction in cooperative alliances is acknowledged in the literature (Das & Teng, 2000; Ding, Akoorie, & Pavlovich, 2009; Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016).

When embedded in networks of alliances or partnerships, businesses can reap the benefit for themselves from the continuous interaction and cooperation (Owen-Smith & Powell, 2004; Scandura, 2016). Through such external engagement businesses get and exploit strategically important resources and new sources of knowledge to guarantee their growth and innovative performance (Ding et al., 2009; Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016). HEIs are indeed often seen as the essential repository of such knowledge, resources and capabilities (Al-Tabbaa & Ankrah, 2016; Skute et al., 2017).

In this context the overall rationale of UBC from business perspective can thus be labelled as a resource attainment (tangible or intangible) (Wernerfelt, 1984; Ding et al., 2009) and capability building (Makadok, 2001). Businesses may collaborate with universities if cooperation provides access to strategic resources in a shorter time and/or at lower costs compared to developing the resources alone (Alexy, West, Klapper, & Reitzig, 2018). Thus, when engaging in UBC, the ultimate aim for businesses is to generate sustained competitive advantage (Barney, 1991; Barney, 2001; Das & Teng, 2000) by means of attained resources from such cooperation or in combination with their own existing assets and capabilities.

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4.2 Business motivations for university-business cooperation

According to the extant UBC literature, which is substantially focussed on commercialisation and research related collaboration (Perkmann et al., 2013; Skute et al., 2017), UBC can be instigated by a variety of motivations that would mostly lead to the activities in joint R&D, patenting or licensing. Because of the direct economic efficiencies such cooperation is able to generate a competitive advantage and productivity increase (Sompong, Igel, & Lawton Smith, 2014), businesses engage in UBC to access unique opportunities created by resource pooling. Thus, business engagement is often motivated by financial gains (Ankrah et al., 2013; Siegel, Waldman, Atwater, & Link, 2003) resulting from the increased R&D productivity and patent activity (Motohashi, 2005).

Cost-sharing for R&D is a further motivation for entering UBC (Lundberg & Andresen, 2012; Veugelers & Cassiman, 2005) that in turn can result in an another monetary incentive for businesses attracted by the availability of the government funding for the research in cooperation with universities (Grimaldi & Tunzelmann, 2002; Perkmann et al., 2013). Being pressured to find new streams of financing, companies are increasingly becoming attracted by the possibility to access public sponsorship or government subsidised cost-sharing (Bodas Freitas & Verspagen, 2017; Veugelers & Cassiman, 2005). The business motivation to engage in UBC can furthermore be dictated by the willingness to attain non-financial resources including specific equipment, facilities or labs (Guimón, 2013; Seppo & Reino, 2012). As for cooperation in education, the dedication of both financial and non-financial resources for UBC by the universities isn’t likely to act as a motivation for businesses to engage in education-driven cooperation (Plewa et al., 2015), notwithstanding the existence of a range of resource-related policies at the HEIs for engagement with business (Ramos-Vielba & Fernández-Esquinas, 2012; Seppo & Reino, 2012).

Driven by the need to provide further avenues for business growth and shortening technological cycles (Pavlin, 2016), businesses commonly seek applicable knowledge from universities (Bruneel, D’Este, & Salter, 2010; Bodas Freitas & Verspagen, 2017). Collaborating with the universities enables their involvement in the scientific debate and provides insights into emerging technologies, both of which enhance their knowledge base and innovation capacities (Caloghirou, Tsakanikas, & Vonortas, 2001; Feller, 2005; Piva & Rossi-Lamastra, 2013). Thus, when engaging in UBC, businesses strive for the improvement of their innovative capacities by taking advantage of complementary strengths available at the universities (Ankrah et al., 2013; Siegel et al., 2003). The higher education sector is

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therefore considered a source of new instruments and knowledge that enable industry to develop innovation and new technologies (Muscio & Vallanti, 2014; Perkmann, Neely, & Walsh, 2011).

Cooperation with universities can also be instigated for businesses by the willingness to improve their reputation in the wider society (Santoro & Gopalakrishnan, 2000). Reputational effects, as intangible assets (Boyd, Bergh, & Ketchen, 2010), are expected especially when businesses engage in cooperation specific to education and training as it is likely to have a positive effect on their image in the labour market and among potential partners (Lai, 2011; Piva & Rossi-Lamastra, 2013). Furthermore, acting as a reputational mechanism, UBC is found to increase the attractiveness of businesses as employers (Perkmann et al., 2011) and resultantly improve their competitiveness in knowledge-intensive labour markets by raising their brand profile (Brown, Hesketh, & Wiliams, 2003; Healy et al., 2014).

By engaging with HEIs, businesses help ensure skills alignment by influencing the education of students as prospective employees. Thus, UBC can be instigated for businesses by motivation to exchange knowledge and build relationships with students and qualified graduates (Ginzburg & Houli, 2013; Muscio & Vallanti, 2014). That helps businesses to screen potentially valuable recruits from the ranks of graduate and undergraduate students that would meet their expectations and needs (Broström, 2012; Guimón, 2013) while also contributing to their subsequent integration in the workplace and at the same lowering company’s hiring and training costs (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b; Strunz, Yokoyama, & Behnke, 2003). Furthermore, in cooperation specific to education, businesses, motivated by the willingness to tap into a pool of skilled talents, are able to improve the educational experience for students in general and resultantly increase their own attractiveness as employers for skilled professionals (Broström, 2012; Guimón, 2013; Healy et al., 2014).

Businesses also recognise further benefits that they can rip from UBC including the upskilling and retention of existing staff (Healy et al., 2014) and accessing the key problem-solving capabilities available at the universities (Rossano et al., 2016; van der Sijde, 2012). Driven by the willingness to improve the skills and knowledge base of their employees, companies cooperate with universities to receive the training for their staff (Guimón, 2013) in form of different lifelong learning activities including executive education (Harrison et al., 2007), distance or blended learning (Dinevski & Dinevski, 2004) and professional workshops among others (Davey et al., 2018).

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Being urged to act in a more socially responsible manner, businesses nowadays are also motivated to collaborate with different stakeholders including HEIs to achieve a shared outcome (Murray, Haynes, & Hudson, 2010) and to make their own contribution to addressing social challenges (Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000; Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016). Thus being under societal pressures and acting on their pro-social motivation, businesses engage in UBC to contribute to economic and social development (Liefner & Schiller, 2008) through knowledge and technology transfer with universities (Ankrah et al., 2013).

5. Methodology

A comprehensive study was designed to quantitatively measure the perception of businesspeople on the development of UBC activities and their motivations to undertake such cooperation. This survey was translated into 24 languages and forwarded to a database of business contacts represented by CEOs, managers responsible for UBC, innovation, recruitment and human resources in the European Economic Area. A total of 3,091 responses from business representatives in 33 countries was collected and weighted based on the number of businesses per country as well as their size (micro, small, medium and large enterprises).

Four education-driven UBC activities were considered in the survey, namely (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery and (d) LLL. Respondents were asked to express the extent to which they cooperate with university measured on a 10-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 10 = to a very high extent), utilising the following question: Please indicate to what extent you cooperate with university in respect to (a) student mobility, (b) curriculum design, (c) curriculum delivery, (d) LLL.

The survey also includes six variables to measure business motivations (a) obtaining funding/financial resources, (b) improving the reputation of our business, (c) improving our innovation capacity, (d) accessing the better qualified graduates, (e) improving the skills of our current employees through training, and (f) positively impacting society. Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which these factors instigate business cooperation with universities, measured on a 10-point Likert scale (1 = not at all relevant, 10 = extremely relevant). Specifically, they were asked to indicate: How relevant are the following motivations for your business to cooperate with university?

This study furthermore controls a set of variables that could influence the research results: the business size, the industry where the business operates and the country where the business headquarters are located.

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Using the statistical software package IBM SPSS 24, the aim was to determine the specific influence each of the motivations (independent variables) has on the extent of business engagement in each of the education-driven UBC activities (dependent variables). For this, four ordinal logistic regressions were undertaken applying the PLUM procedure – based on the methodology of McCullagh (1980). The data was confirmed to meet the assumptions of the ordinal logistic regression (Agresti, 2010): (a) the dependent variables are measured at the ordinal level, (b) the independent variables are continuous and categorical, (c) there is no multicollinearity among independent variables and (d) there are no proportional odds. The overall goodness of fit tests confirmed that all four models fit the data well.

6. Results

The results demonstrate the importance of examining business motivations and their relevance for specifying diverse education-driven UBC activities given the difference in effects (see Table 1). From an activity perspective, mobility of students is motivated by business’ willingness to access better qualified graduates (p=.000) and improve skills of the employees (p=.031). Both curriculum design (both motivations p=.000) and delivery (both motivations p=.000) are instigated by the motivation to access better qualified graduates and positively impact society. Furthermore, curriculum design is driven by the motivation to improve skills of the employees (p=.038) and to obtain funding (p=.000). Businesses are motivated to engage in LLL by their willingness to improve skills of the employees (p=.000) and positively impact society (p=.000).

From the motivational perspective, while obtaining funding and financial resources appears as relevant motivation only for business engagement in curriculum design, there is no significant association with curriculum delivery, student mobility and LLL. Motivations related to increase in reputation and improvement of innovation capacity do not have any significant effect on business engagement in neither of the four education-driven UBC activities. Willingness to access better qualified graduates is a relevant motivation for all activities except LLL. Improving skills of employees has a significant motivational effect on business engagement in student mobility, curriculum design and LLL. Willingness to positively impact society acts as motivation for all activities except student mobility.

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Edu-driven UBC

activity M

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Ob

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fund

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an

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reso

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s

Imp

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Imp

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pac

ity

Acc

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ng t

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bet

ter

qua

lifie

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Imp

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ng th

e sk

ills

of o

ur

curr

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mp

loye

es

Pos

itive

ly

imp

actin

g s

ocie

ty

Student mobility

B 0,514 0,92 0,094 73,345 4,626 2,092

p-value 0,473 0,337 0,759 0,000 0,031 0,148

Curriculum design

B 14,925 0,109 2,877 42,567 4,292 30,190

p-value 0,000 0,741 0,090 0,000 0,038 0,000

Curriculum delivery

B 5,863 1,914 0,050 15,841 0,626 31,473

p-value 0,150 0,166 0,823 0,000 0,429 0,000

Lifelong learning

B 0,001 0,354 0,157 0,418 72,370 16,406

p-value 0,978 0,552 0,692 0,518 0,000 0,000

Table 1. Results of the ordinal logistic regressions

7. Discussion and conclusion

While prolific research into collaboration between universities and businesses continues to grow, UBC is still being considered as relatively fragmented (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a; Skute et al., 2017) with a primary focus remaining on university, and less so on business (Pavlin, 2016; Scandura, 2016). Notwithstanding the fact that to date not only universities, but also businesses are becoming increasingly aware of the benefits UBC can provide, their motivations to cooperate with universities remain underexplored, even though the previous research reports that by recognising and targeting different individual motivations (Bodas Freitas & Verspagen, 2017; Franco & Haase, 2015), organisations are able to stimulate cooperation.

Furthermore, despite its ability to enrich teaching and prepare more employment-ready graduates (Hasanefendic et al., 2016; Rossano et al., 2016), education-driven UBC received to date little academic attention (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a). Hence, extant literature to date focuses substantially on commercialisation

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and joint R&D (Orazbayeva et al., 2019; Perkmann et al., 2013), and this is notwithstanding the recognised importance of cooperation focused on education (Plewa et al., 2015; Rossano et al., 2016) and the resultant need for addressing behavioural drivers for business engagement in education-driven UBC, leading to the subject of this paper.

Based on an extensive and wide-reaching survey with a specific focus given on business engagement in UBC, this study addresses this shortcoming and demonstrates the relevance of specifying different motivations for cooperation of businesses with universities in education-driven UBC activities, namely student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and LLL. It is the first to capture different motivational drivers that underpin business engagement in UBC specific to education.

7.1 Theoretical contributions

Providing a unique contribution to the literature, this research shows that financial incentives as a motivation for business engagement in UBC specific to education do not appear as relevant across all four activities. Businesses might only expect the compensation for their time and resources invested when it comes to curriculum design, demonstrating that the willingness to obtain funding and financial resources emerges as relevant only in this particular type of education-driven cooperation. Often associated with commercialisation and R&D related UBC (Lam, 2011, 2015), this positive relationship is non-existent for cooperation specific to curriculum delivery and student mobility, thus pointing towards the insignificance of financial motivation in collaboration specific to provision of guest lectures and temporary movements of students from university to businesses. The irrelevance of monetary incentive for business engagement in LLL is not surprising and justified, given that this is the business that is expected to act as service receiver for education offerings provided by universities (Harrison et al., 2007) and thus most commonly is expected to ‘buy’ these services from them (Davey et al., 2018).

Surprisingly, businesses do not recognise UBC in education as a means to increase their reputation. These reputational effects are often expected to be associated with cooperation in research and commercialisation (Lai, 2011; Seppo & Reino, 2012) which is capable of generating direct tangible quantifiable outputs that can be applied for addressing different metrics measuring the business success and UBC success. Furthermore, even though previous research recognises the positive relationship between willingness to improve business innovation capacity and engagement of businesses in UBC (Ankrah et al., 2013; Piva & Rossi-Lamastra,

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2013), our results in contract demonstrate insignificant role that this motivation plays for business cooperation with universities in education-driven activities.

The significance of accessing better qualified graduates is not surprising. Interaction with students emerges as one of the relevant motivations across three out of four activities, namely student mobility, curriculum delivery and design, as all these cooperation types provide an opportunity for companies to directly interact with students and ‘screen’ candidates for prospective recruitments (Broström, 2012; Guimón, 2013). The lack of significant association with LLL can be explained by the fact that businesses would commonly interact with academic staff who provide training services (Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011; Harrison et al., 2007) and not with students in this activity.

The motivation to improve skills of the current employees appears as relevant for business engagement in student mobility, curriculum design and LLL. While positive association with LLL can be easily justified as LLL as activity is devoted to upskilling of employees or executive staff, the significance of this motivation for student mobility may be explained by the effect of direct interaction that businesspeople experience when hosting and supervising interns and trainees coming in from universities. This interaction is likely to contribute to further development of the employees who supervise the students spending time in company, and thus improve their training and job relevant skills. As for the positive effect this motivation has on business engagement in curriculum design, this relationship may be explained by the interaction that businesspeople have with academics they collaborate with and the reflection process for identifying their own needs that subsequently would be addressed in the (re-)designed curricula.

Furthermore, the study demonstrates the ‘social’ nature of the engagement that business undertake when cooperating with universities in education. Education-driven UBC is thus instigated by business motivation to positively impact society and contribute to societal development. This may be related to the ethical commitment that businesses have towards economic and environmentally sustainable functioning, closely resonating with the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Gawel, 2014; Tarí, 2011). Businesses that practice CSR indeed may show an interest in cooperating with universities, since UBC is capable of fulfilling one of the social dimensions of CSR manifested in educating society and creating new knowledge (LaFrance & Lehmann, 2005).

This study contributes to UBC literature by outlining for the first time the motivations of businesses to engage in collaborative activities with universities in education. Furthermore, it shows their context-specific nature, emphasising the difference

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between motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC and those captured for cooperation in commercialisation and joint research. Thus the significance of the capabilities attainment manifested in the motivation of companies to develop skills of their employees and to access students and graduates appears relevant and in line with RBV. Indeed, companies cooperate with universities to attain valuable human capital and develop important internal capabilities through the cooperation in education, whereas financial resources such as funding do not motivate business to cooperate at all except for their engagement in curriculum design. Importantly, the social orientation manifested in the willingness to positively impact society emerges as another important motivational driver for education-driven UBC (except student mobility).

7.2 Managerial and policy implications

This study provides several important managerial and policy implications. Importantly, the results suggest that because businesses are not motivated by monetary mechanisms to cooperate with HEIs in education, further benefits related to capability and skills development as well as access to better qualified graduates should be captured more profoundly by policies addressing cooperation between universities and business in education. These benefits should thus be promoted, for example, through establishment of cooperation programmes whereby universities and businesses will engage in co-learning activities and development of structured student mobility concepts and programmes. Both university and business management should also promote more prominently UBC for prospective employments and encourage their internal employability and human resources departments to embrace this type of cooperation. Furthermore, while universities should work on increasing their reputation and promote themselves as service providers for professional development and executive education, businesses in turn should embrace LLL and consider cooperation with universities as a cost-effective way to develop their own internal capabilities and knowledge base.

To make the involvement of businesses in education more comprehensive, universities need to develop specific supporting mechanisms and strategies. These may include, for example, business involvement in career advice, membership in the decision-making and quality assurance, strategic partnerships in research, consultancy as well as student and academic entrepreneurship among others.

Given that at least three UBC activities in this study (except student mobility) are facilitated by a motivation of a social character, HEIs and policymakers should align their efforts accordingly. Specifically, given the strong alignment between the

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business motivation to positively impact society, clearly identifying UBC in education as central to CSR seems relevant. Furthermore, the lack of significant association between reputational effects and UBC in education should be noted by managers and policymakers and specifically addressed in relation to companies’ social engagement and potentially linked to CSR too.

7.3 Limitations and future research directions

As with all research, the results of this study need to be viewed in light of the limitations. There might be a possible response bias given the self-selection through an online questionnaire, although the survey was translated by professional translators and supported by specific topic experts; and responses were weighted by country to mirror the population of European academics. Furthermore, this study didn’t specify the type or size of business although controlled it. Therefore, future research should focus more specifically on the effects of further factors including business size, the industry where the business operates and the country where the business headquarters are located and replicate this study across other, non-European, contexts. Furthermore, this research could include further UBC domains into its focus, specifying what motivates businesses to cooperate with universities in activities related to research, valorisation and management.

Acknowledgements

The survey was carried out as part of the project ‘The State of University-Business Cooperation in Europe’ conducted from 2016 to 2018 by a consortium led by the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre, Germany for the DG Education and Culture, European Commission (EAC/10/2015).

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Study D Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis

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Chapter 5

Academic motivations to engage: a fuzzy set analysis

Status Under review

Journal Studies in Higher Education

Authors Balzhan Orazbayeva and Carolin Plewa

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Abstract

For university–business cooperation (UBC) to prosper, a large cohort of academics must be sufficiently motivated to undertake different collaborative activities and engage with businesses in various ways. Understanding of the motivations that underpin academic engagement has improved, yet the inherent complexity and constellations of a multitude of relevant motivations remain unexplored. This research relies on a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, informed by self-determination theory, to identify and explain the constellations of motivations that encourage extensive academic engagement with business. The configurations of motivations reflect ribbon, gold, and puzzle forms, with the novel addition of prosocial motivations. Four different, equally effective constellations of motivations can explain academic engagement in UBC: impact, inspiration, promotion, and distinction. The resulting theoretical and managerial contributions provide foundations for further research, by clarifying how motivations jointly drive academic engagement with business and emphasising the intrinsic rather than extrinsic nature of these motivations.

Keywords

University-business cooperation, motivation, academic, engagement, self-determination theory, fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis.

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1. Introduction

University–business cooperation (UBC) attracts attention from academics, practitioners, and policy makers, due to its ability to facilitate innovation and encourage a knowledge society through knowledge and technology transfer (e.g. Berbegal-Mirabent et al., 2015; Bruneel et al., 2010; Hemmert, Bstieler, & Okamuro, 2014; Maietta, 2015; Malfroy, 2011; Sandberg, Holmström, Napier, & Levén, 2015; Skute et al., 2017). Generally understood as interactions between universities and businesses for their mutual benefit (Davey et al., 2011), UBC encompasses a wide range of collaborative activities related to research and teaching, valorisation and governance, and so forth. We use the term ‘business’ solely for simplicity, with the sense that it can encompass a variety of organisations and institutions that might benefit from engaging with universities and that are not themselves research organisations, including for-profit and non-profit firms, governments, and associations, to name a few.

For UBC to prosper, a large cohort of academics must be motivated to undertake related activities by liaising with business in a multitude of ways. Individual academics constitute both the promoters and the principal actors in such cooperation, thus warranting attention and research into their views (Franco & Haase, 2015; Lawson, Salter, Hughes, & Kitson, 2019; Skute et al., 2017). Notwithstanding the broad variety of collaborative activities in which academics might engage, extant literature on UBC motivations has remained relatively narrow in its focus, with a particular emphasis on R&D cooperation and the commercialisation of R&D results (Orazbayeva et al., 2019; Perkmann et al., 2013). Accordingly, UBC research at large tends to focus on intellectual property rights, licensing, and patenting (Fulop & Couchman, 2006; Meagher & Copeland, 2006) — that is, the means by which academics can reap direct financial benefits. A growing concern thus acknowledges that extant studies assume academics embrace mainly profit motivations when they cooperate with business actors (Jacob, 2003; Lam, 2011, 2015).

Instead, there is evidence that various pecuniary and nonpecuniary motivations and incentives stimulate scientists to pursue research cooperation. For example, Lam (2011, 2015) conceptualises and tests a metaphorical categorisation of motivations: gold (money), ribbon (career advancement), and puzzle (creative activity), as well as the potential influence of prosocial (benefiting others) motivations. The full complexity of these motivations for engaging in a range of UBC activities remains unexplored though. Extant studies that rely on regression analyses (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Fuentes & Dutrénit, 2012; Lam, 2011) cannot

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provide an overview of the net effects of motivations on outcomes. Because understanding of the variety and combinations of motivations that drive engagement in UBC remains nebulous, whereas insights into the different constellations of motivations are needed to understand the inherent complexity and joint impacts of various motivations on academic behaviour, we employ fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to explain how different combinations of motivations might lead to academic engagement.

With a social-psychological perspective, we also integrate self-determination theory (SDT) and emphasise the diversity of individual-level motivations, including their intrinsic and extrinsic aspects (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Therefore, we can investigate different configurations of motivations, including Lam's (2011) ribbon, gold, and puzzle elaboration, together with prosocial drivers of academic engagement, across multiple UBC activities. The empirical study comprises a survey sample of 852 academics from three Australian universities, who jointly reflect the notable breadth of institutional types in Australia. The findings reveal four different, equally effective combinations of motivations that can explain academic engagement in multiple UBC activities.

In turn, this study contributes to extant literature in three main ways. First, it offers the first consideration and empirical test of how a range of motivations jointly affect academic engagement with business, reflecting the fundamental premise of SDT that people are driven by sets of motivations, rather than separate motivations in isolation (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Saridakis, Baltas, Oghazi, & Hultman, 2016). Second, our focus extends beyond R&D cooperation and commercialisation as primary engagement activities, by accounting for the wide range of ways academics connect to business. Third, by demonstrating the importance of intrinsic rather than just extrinsic motivations for engagement, we offer unique insights into why gold is an insufficient motivation for engagement breadth and the prominent role of prosocial and puzzle motivations, which have received little prior elaboration in empirical research.

In the next section, we draw on existing work to outline the current discourse on UBC, which leads into our discussion of extant literature pertaining to motivations and SDT. Then we introduce the research method and analysis. After detailing the results, we conclude this article with a comprehensive discussion of the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings, as well as some research directions.

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2. University-business cooperation

2.1 Understanding the concept of UBC

When higher education institutions (HEIs) and private-sector organisations cooperate, it can be a critical push for the development of knowledge-based societies and effective regional innovation systems (Rajalo & Vadi, 2017). Thus, universities and businesses increasingly work together to support diffusions of knowledge and technology. Such cooperation also represents a promising tool to foster innovation and create societal value (Bercovitz & Feldman, 2006; Breznitz & Feldman, 2012; Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011; Skute et al., 2017). A broad definition of UBC refers to productive interactions between universities and businesses for mutual benefit (Davey et al., 2011), but we also can specify different collaborative activities involved in it, pertaining to all three university missions: research, teaching, and valorisation (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a; Galán‐Muros & Plewa, 2016).

The activities thus depend on the objectives of the partners when they choose to engage. For example, private-sector organisations realise that they cannot rely exclusively on their own internal capabilities and increasingly recognise the importance of cooperation with diverse stakeholders, including HEIs (Bellucci & Pennacchio, 2016; Janeiro, Proença, & da Conceição Gonçalves, 2013) because such cooperation can grant them access to new knowledge and scientific discoveries, which in turn might stimulate the business’s internal R&D (Clauss & Kesting, 2017; Ramli & Senin, 2015; Scandura, 2016). This stimulation likely has a positive effect on the organisation’s innovative performance (Ankrah et al., 2013; Muscio & Vallanti, 2014). Furthermore, UBC can offer businesses more direct access to qualified graduates (Healy et al., 2014; McNichols, 2010; Pavlin, 2016), while also improving their attractiveness as prospective employers (Brown et al., 2003; Perkmann et al., 2011).

For universities, cooperation with industry offers the promise to help them fulfil their missions (Loi & Di Guardo, 2015). Notably, many HEIs are driven by their third mission, valorisation, to transfer technology and knowledge from academic settings to society (Benneworth & Jongbloed, 2010; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011), but they still need to achieve research and teaching goals too. Through UBC, they can uncover knowledge gaps (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011) and create new research opportunities (Berbegal-Mirabent et al., 2015). For their education mission, cooperating with private-sector organisations can be beneficial for introducing and supporting novel teaching methods (Hasanefendic et al., 2016; Rossano et al., 2016) and developing

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a qualified future workforce, capable of satisfying the needs of the labour market (Guimón, 2013; Herrmann et al., 2008).

While most of the HEIs nowadays understand the need for building external relationships with businesses (Sam & van der Sijde, 2014), yet UBC tends to be initiated and organised by individual academics, sporadically and rather informally (Davey et al., 2016; Rampersad, 2015). The initiation or maintenance of these relationships does not appear in most academic contracts; that is, HEIs do not include such efforts in academics’ job descriptions (Calcagnini, Giombini, Liberati, & Travaglini, 2016; Hyde, Clarke, & Drennan, 2012). Because it is not institutionalised in this sense, UBC often results from personal relationships and informal channels, on a voluntary basis (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a), thereby raising the question of what motivates academics to undertake such effortful cooperation attempts with businesses.

Most discussions of these individual motivations to cooperate with industry cite extrinsic, profit-oriented factors (Beyhan & Rickne, 2015; Lam, 2015), especially in research contexts that focus on commercialisation, patenting, and licensing. However, we argue that various reasons push academics to cooperate with businesses, beyond unique engagement activities, and that combinations of motivations likely drive this engagement. Therefore, an explicit examination of the different constellations of motivations is needed to understand the inherent complexity and joint impacts of academic behaviour.

2.2 Motivations of academics to engage in UBC

Self-determination theory

To shed light on the motivations that drive individual academics to undertake a range of engagement activities with businesses, we draw on self-determination theory (SDT) and its broad psychological view on individual motivations. This theoretical lens for investigating human motivation aims explicitly to explain individual goal-directed behaviour (Deci et al., 2017; Ryan & Deci, 2017). In work contexts, SDT describes individual engagement in an activity as a result of this person’s autonomy (Sipe, 2018), so an autonomy-supportive work environment is an essential precondition of self-determined behaviour. Predicting that people are motivated when they expect to obtain specific benefits, SDT differentiates these benefits to establish elements that evoke activities, their relations to social values and norms, and external regulatory processes (Ryan & Deci, 2017; van den Broeck et al., 2016). In this view, motivation is ‘not exclusively restricted to cognitive

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rationales of instrumentally maximising individual material rewards’ (Wilkesmann & J. Schmid, 2014, p. 8).

Furthermore, SDT places individual motivation on a continuum of self-determination, with varying degrees of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation and amotivation (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation implies self-determined, autonomous behaviour initiated by the person’s own willingness and inherent interest, rather than instigated by external influences (Ryan & Deci, 2000), such that ‘the motivation lies in the behaviour itself’ (Deci et al., 2017, p. 21), and the activities provide enjoyment and personal satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2017). When an activity instead seeks separable outcomes, the motivation is extrinsic, and the behaviour yields specific benefits and external rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Finally, amotivation refers to a lack of impetus; the person has no interest or willingness to engage in an activity (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Academic motivations

When engaging with businesses, academics are likely motivated by a range of factors, including diverse pecuniary and nonpecuniary benefits that they expect to obtain as a result of their collaborative activities. Some studies assume academics are driven by extrinsic profit motivations (Beyhan & Rickne, 2015; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Jacob, 2003), but such findings tend to be specific to research-related cooperation, commercialisation, patenting, and licensing. Instead, some UBC may be instigated to improve the academics’ research (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Dan, 2013) and teaching capabilities (Hasanefendic et al., 2016; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015), enhance their reputation, or increase their chances for promotion (Franco & Haase, 2015). This variety of motivations coexists, reflecting both intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of cooperative behaviour by individual academics. We draw on Lam's (2011) metaphorical elaboration of ribbon, gold, and puzzle motivations, together with the prosocial feature, to describe academic engagement in multiple UBC activities.

These four types of motivation vary on the spectrum from extrinsic to intrinsic and thus across the self-determination continuum. In particular, academics may cooperate with businesses because they are extrinsically motivated by the potential for pecuniary rewards (gold; Lam, 2011). Particularly, if they need to overcome the financial constraints imposed by limited public funding (Franco & Haase, 2015), academics may pursue UBC to complement their research budgets or personal income (Nelson, 2004; Perkmann & Walsh, 2008), especially if such efforts are promoted by monetary incentives or reward systems offered by the university. Gold

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provides academics with financial opportunities for undertaking additional research and securing sophisticated lab equipment or facilities (Freitas & Verspagen, 2017; Lee, 2000). Private funding by industry also appears attractive because it tends to be less constrained by bureaucracy (Ankrah & Al-Tabbaa, 2015). Yet though academics clearly cite the UBC benefits of financial revenue and personal income, which ease financial pressures (Welsh, Glenna, Lacy, & Biscotti, 2008), these aspects are not necessarily their primary motivation for collaborative activities (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Lam, 2011). Extrinsic gains may be a key component of the academic reward system (Göktepe-Hulten & Mahagaonkar, 2010), but the gold often represents a consequence of the ribbon, in the form of tangible rewards for engagement that actually has been motivated by career and reputational benefits (Lam, 2011; Stephan, 1996; Stephan & Levin, 1996).

The ribbon motivation, comprising reputation and career benefits, refers to the primary extrinsic reward in academia (Lam, 2011). Involvement in UBC might not directly or radically alter the trajectory of academic careers, but it can increase individual prestige and reputation (Dan, 2013; Owen-Smith & Powell, 2004). In this sense, UBC can enhance reputational effects (Petersen et al. 2014) and help academics improve their image and status among their university colleagues (Franco & Haase, 2015; Göktepe-Hulten & Mahagaonkar, 2010). The benefits then manifest in increased promotion possibilities or greater chances for professional development outside academia (Franco & Haase, 2015; Lam, 2007); for example, collaborating with businesses might reveal alternative career paths to academics (Ankrah et al., 2013; Murray, 2004). As noted, the ribbon also can motivate academics due to the possibility of earning further extrinsic rewards, such as gold in form of additional funding and financial resources (Lam, 2011).

Moving toward the intrinsic side of the continuum, academics might be motivated to engage in UBC by their desire to perform creative puzzle solving, an inherent characteristic of most academics, who often see the puzzle as a reward in itself (Lam, 2011). Driven to fulfil their mission responsibilities, their careers are naturally associated with research, so they might engage in UBC to inspire new research projects (Fan et al., 2015; Freitas & Verspagen, 2017) or create novel knowledge exchange opportunities (Ankrah et al., 2013; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Franco & Haase, 2015). Through UBC, they might advance scientific knowledge and gain insights (Dan, 2013) that potentially help address societal issues (Ankrah et al., 2013; Davey et al., 2011). Due to their natural scientific curiosity, academics often express desires to search for and create new knowledge (Lam, 2015) and therefore willingly engage in UBC for the intrinsic puzzle-solving pleasure it provides.

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Finally, prosocial motivation has received less research attention, despite its influence as an important intrinsic motivation (Andersen & Pallesen, 2008; Grant, 2008), reflecting academics’ desire to benefit others and contribute to society by engaging in UBC (Lam, 2011). Being accountable for the university’s third mission (Etzkowitz, 2008; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000), academics are increasingly expected and seek to engage with external stakeholders and society at large (Molas-Gallart & Castro-Martínez, 2007). In this effort to fulfil their mission responsibilities (Brem & Radziwon, 2017), academics can cooperate to gain exposure to the practical problems that face businesses (Jong, 2008) and the challenges that confront society at large. Acting on this prosocial motivation, they may undertake external cooperation because of their passion for and willingness to solve end user problems (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011), with positive impacts on society (Davey, 2017).

Extant research on motivations for UBC has established the role of each of these individual motivations, but a growing stream of motivational research also emphasises motivational heterogeneity and the likely coexistence of qualitatively diverse motivations for any individual behaviour (Vansteenkiste et al., 2009; Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). Through an SDT lens, this heterogeneity would be manifest in differentiations of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Harter, 1981; Deci & Ryan, 1985) that coexist and are not contradictory (Lemos & Veríssimo, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore, we seek to identify and describe combinatorial complexities (Saridakis et al., 2016), given the coexistence and nonlinear relationships of gold, puzzle, ribbon, and prosocial motivations in the context of academic engagement in UBC.

3. Methodology

We designed a questionnaire to gather the perceptions of academics regarding their motivations for and engagement in various cooperation activities. The data were collected in Australia, using a self-administered online survey distributed to academics at three universities, which produced 852 responses, with a response rate of approximately 20%. The sample comprises 54.2% men and 61.5% staff members with ongoing employment. These informants represent a wide variety of research fields, and their business collaborators also reflect the vast diversity of opportunities, spanning businesses of various sizes and including non-profit organisations and government agencies, which are located nationally and overseas.

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3.1 Variables

The measures for this study came from extant literature. Drawing on Lam (2011), the academic motivations for cooperating with businesses reflected the gold (‘increase personal income’), ribbon (‘develop my reputation’, ‘increase my chances of promotion’), and puzzle (‘create opportunities for knowledge exchange’, ‘inspire and inform my research’) classification. Furthermore, following Lam’s suggestion for further research, we investigate prosocial motivations by including the item ‘solve end user problems’. Respondents indicated the extent to which these items motivated them to engage on a 5-point scale ranging from ‘not at all’ to ‘to a large extent’.

For the measure of cooperation activities, academics indicated the extent to which they had been involved in a range of UBC activities over the previous five years, according to a list of 13 activities drawn from Boardman and Ponomariov (2009), and Bozeman and Gaughan (2007): collaborative research projects, contract research projects, paid consultancy, co-authoring of papers with external staff, employment in business/government, service on boards, conduct of research that advised business/government policy, business-involved development or delivery or courses/programs, graduate or post-doc placements, development of patent with business, development of a patent now utilised by business, shareholder or business ownership, and involvement in starting a new company. We measure the extent of cooperation as the number of these UBC activities the respondent had engaged in during the previous five years, ranging from 0 to 13.

3.2 Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA)

Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) offers an analytical tool that uses fuzzy set theory and Boolean logic to identify relationships among different combinations of conditions and outcomes (Fiss, 2011). It specifies minimally necessary or sufficient conditions for the presence of an outcome (Plewa, Ho, Conduit, & Karpen, 2016; Vis, 2012), explicitly acknowledges that there often is more than one way to achieve an outcome (Fiss, 2011), and aims to reveal minimal conditions or combinations of conditions that produce a particular outcome (Vis, 2012). In this study context, it promises to reveal how engagement in various UBC activities, as the outcome of interest, can be explained by alternative sets of causal antecedents or constellations of motivations (Fiss, 2011). To calibrate the data for the fsQCA analysis, which requires transforming the raw variables into fuzzy sets, we specified three qualitative anchors (Fiss, 2011; Woodside, 2013): full non-membership threshold, which covers 15% of the data values; a full membership

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threshold at the point covering 80% of the data values; and a crossover point that represents maximum ambiguity in membership and appears at 50% of the data value. As is common, we used a direct calibration method in fsQCA (Fiss, 2011; Ragin, 2009) .

4. Results

We find four combinations or solutions, all of which underpin engagement in a range of UBC activities (see Table 1). To evaluate these solutions, we consider coverage and consistency scores first. Raw coverage, or ‘the proportion that a configuration covers the outcome’ (Poveda & Martínez, 2013, p. 1317), can be interpreted analogously to R-square values, such that a higher value indicates greater empirical importance (Ragin, 2009). In contrast, unique coverage requires values above a certain cut-off point, because it refers to ‘the proportion that uniquely covers the outcome’ (Poveda & Martínez, 2013, p. 1318) (i.e., not covered by any other paths). The unique coverage values in our results are greater than 0, as required (Ragin, 2009). Next, consistency scores indicate whether the conditions identified as part of the fsQCA analysis are sufficient to cause the outcome, namely, comprehensive engagement with businesses. All the consistency scores we identify exceed the required value of 0.75 (Ragin, 2009). Finally, the overall fit of the data configurations, according to the solution consistency and solution coverage values, match the recommended ranges, namely, greater than 0.74 for solution consistency and 0.25–0.65 for solution coverage (Woodside, 2013).

In addition to drawing on the categorisation of gold, ribbon, and puzzle motivations empirically established by Lam (2011), we measure prosocial motivations, as mentioned by that foundational paper but not yet examined empirically. The results confirm the relevance of this extension. In particular, Solutions 1a–1d indicate a fundamental role of the prosocial motivation to solve end-user problems for the first set of constellations, which we label ‘impact’. Two conditions are common to this set: the motivation to solve end-user problems (prosocial) and the absence of a motivation to increase chances of academic promotion (ribbon). In more detail, Solution 1a indicates that some academics engage in UBC activities purely on the basis of their prosocial motivation to solve end-user problems; their gold (increase personal income) and ribbon (develop my reputation, increase chance of promotion) motivations are absent. Solutions 1b–d include both prosocial and puzzle motivations, combining a desire to solve end-user problems with a pursuit of opportunities for knowledge exchange (1b, 1c) or a preference to inspire and inform research through engagement (1d). In addition to the absence of motivations related to promotional advances, we do not find any evidence of the second ribbon-

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related motivation (reputational development) for 1b, nor any gold motivation related to personal income increases for 1c.

A second solution, ‘inspiration’, emphasises the importance of the puzzle. Specifically, it implies reliance on UBC to stimulate research, and the primary motivation is to inspire and inform research. No other puzzle, ribbon, or gold motivations emerge in this motivation solution. Solution 3 is founded on ribbon motivations to increase chances of promotion; we refer to it as ‘promotion’. For this solution, the other motivations are either absent or indifferent. Finally, the fourth, ‘distinction’ solution involves academics who undertake UBC activities because of their puzzle and ribbon motivations. In addition to being the only solution for which reputation within the university is relevant, Solution 4 indicates that academics in this group are motivated by opportunities for knowledge exchange and new research insights.

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Concept Motivation 1a 1b 1c 1d 2 3 4

Prosocial Solve end user problems ● ● ● ● Ө

Gold Increase personal income ө ө Ө Ө ө

Ribbon Develop my reputation ө ө ө ●

Ribbon Increase my chance of promotion Ө Ө Ө Ө Ө ● ө

Puzzle Create opportunities for knowledge exchange ● ● ● Ө Ө ●

Puzzle Inspire and inform my research ● ● Ө ●

Consistency .77 .77 .77 .77 .81 .80 .82

Raw Coverage .34 .38 .34 .39 .19 .14 .22

Unique Coverage .02 .02 .004 .02 .01 .03 .01

Solution Consistency .74

Solution Coverage .55

●/● Presence of a condition ө/Ө Absence of a condition

●/Ө Core conditions ●/ө Peripheral conditions

Table 1. fsQCA results

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5. Discussion and conclusion

Notwithstanding increased research attention to academic motivations to engage in different UBC activities (Skute et al., 2017; Teixeira & Mota, 2012), existing studies tend to centre on specific motivations and unique connections with engagement, whether pertaining to research (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Dan, 2013; Franco & Haase, 2015) or, more recently, education-related engagement (Orazbayeva et al., 2019). Such studies commonly rely on regression analysis, a method that can demonstrate the net effects of individual motivations on outcomes (Vis, 2012; Woodside, 2013). However, this approach cannot provide detailed insights into the complexity of motivations that jointly shape academic engagement in UBC, despite the common recognition that people are driven by complex sets of motivations (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

By examining the configurations of motivations underpinning academic engagement, this research offers an important contribution to further theoretical development of UBC literature. It captures complex realities that motivate individual academics to engage in different activities with businesses, and with this novel contribution, this research extends extant findings focused on particular types of UBC (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Lam, 2011). As universities continue to extend their portfolio of UBC activities, academics need to engage with businesses in different ways. The study findings regarding motivators of engagement breadth offer a unique contribution and a strong foundation for further research in this area. In particular, with extensive survey data, this research establishes four constellations of motivations that can drive academics to undertake various UBC activities, which we label impact, inspiration, promotion, and distinction.

Particularly notable in this regard is our finding that monetary-focused motivation is irrelevant to UBC engagement breadth. The complete absence of gold as a motivation for extensive engagement offers important insights for both research and practice devoted to encouraging academic engagement across UBC activities. Although prior research identifies its link to commercialisation-oriented UBC (Ankrah et al., 2013; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Franco & Haase, 2015), gold does not emerge as relevant in any of the four solutions. That is, gold might encourage specific engagement activities with commercially relevant components, such as commercialisation, but financial rewards do not have an important role with regard to academic engagement in UBC from a broader perspective.

As another unique contribution, this research introduces prosocial motivations, which have received little prior attention, despite Lam's (2011) recommendation to

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examine them in relation to UBC. We show that the motivation to solve end-user problems and address societal issues (Ankrah et al., 2013; Davey et al., 2011) is very important for the impact solution constellations. This finding implies a growing understanding among academics about the importance of cooperation between academia and business (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a), as well as the prosocial role of universities in general (Di Nauta et al., 2018). Furthermore, it suggests an increasingly partner-centric view of academics as facilitators in their wide-ranging engagement behaviours. Three of the four subcategories of the impact solution combine prosocial drivers with at least one puzzle motivation. The results further demonstrate the importance of puzzle motivations in three out of four solutions (impact, inspiration, and distinction). Academics collaborate with businesses in diverse activities to inspire research and capture opportunities for knowledge exchange. This finding aligns with previous literature that cites academics’ curiosity and discovery focus and affirms the influence of puzzle motivations for academic engagement in UBC (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011).

Manifested in the willingness of academics to increase their chances of promotion and develop their reputation and image, ribbon motivations arise in two solutions; academics also collaborate with businesses to improve their career. This finding confirms previous research that identifies a positive role of ribbon motivations for academic engagement with businesses, particularly to increase chances for promotion (Franco & Haase, 2015; Lam, 2007). Furthermore, academics can be motivated by a combination of ribbon and puzzle, in line with Lam's (2011) findings regarding research commercialisation efforts.

By adopting the extrinsic and intrinsic scale of motivations, as described by SDT, this research reveals the stronger role of intrinsic over extrinsic motivations in relation to the breadth of collaborative engagement activities. The ribbon appears in two solutions (promotion and distinction), but we highlight the complete absence of gold, along with the prominent roles of prosocial and puzzle motivations. Thus, this research provides evidence that academic engagement with business is driven by a combination of motivations, comprising both intrinsic (prosocial, puzzle) and extrinsic (ribbon) factors that encourage involvement by individual academic staff.

With regard to managerial and policy implications, these contributions also are pertinent. Due to the long-standing focus on commercialisation opportunities of UBC, many policies and university incentive mechanisms have been designed according to the assumption that academics are motivated by profit and financial benefits (e.g., tax incentives for university spinoffs, R&D funds for joint research projects, cost-sharing mechanisms). With this study, we encourage a shift toward more comprehensive engagement portfolios and opportunities, including

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managerial reconsiderations, because existing policies, systems, and mechanisms likely have little impact on individual engagement in UBC activities. Noting the relevance of intrinsic motivations, policymakers and HEIs should align their efforts, emphasising the prosocial and puzzle character and benefits of such engagement. A clear identification of business cooperation as an important element of the university mission, with an emphasis on its potential to generate solutions for users and wider society, would be relevant. For example, highlighting the positive link between UBC and research outcomes might be effective for increasing cooperation with business. The role of promotion as a meaningful motivation also should be addressed; specific promotion mechanisms activated by HEIs also could address ribbon-related extrinsic rewards to widen the number of academics engaged in different collaborative activities with businesses.

Despite these important contributions, several study limitations remain. The self-selection of respondents into the sample, through an online survey, could produce biased results. The data also came from just one Australian state, so the generalisability of the findings to other contexts might be limited. Further research could replicate our study across global regions, which would support investigations of situational or context-related factors that may influence the results. For example, institutional mechanisms such as promotion guidelines, specific role models, or celebrations of engagement success may shift which motivations come to the fore or affect behaviour. Considering the relevance of SDT in this study, we also encourage research that tests an extension, beyond extrinsic versus intrinsic motivations, to include specific measures of the exact level of self-determination associated with academic motivations to engage with businesses. Additional research also might investigate the interplay of academics’ perceived satisfaction of their needs, such as needs for UBC autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and their intrinsic motivation to engage with businesses. Other studies might seek to identify constellations of motivations specific to various domains of UBC, such as cooperation in education, research, valorisation, and management. Finally, UBC require motivated actors on the university side but also in business, so further research should investigate business people’s motivations to engage.

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Conclusion

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1. Discussion

Notwithstanding the growing importance of UBC, the interaction between universities and businesses with a focus on education has remained underexplored. Thus, despite its recognised impact on innovative and more relevant teaching as well as its ability to reduce skills gap and meet industry needs, our understanding of UBC in educational domain remains nebulous, so does our knowledge of facilitators and motivators of such cooperation. Hence, this thesis aimed to advance our knowledge of motivational drivers of education-driven UBC from both academic and business perspective. It sheds light on education-driven UBC by focussing on individual engagement of academics, their motivations, and motivations of businesses to undertake such cooperation. By addressing the main research question ‘Why academics and businesses engage in education-driven university-business cooperation?’, this research examined:

- The effect of psychological facilitators, namely UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness, on the extent of academics’ engagement in education-driven activities with businesses including the cooperation in student mobility, curriculum design and curriculum delivery;

- The individual motivations of academics for education-driven UBC and their effect on the extent of academics’ engagement with businesses in activities including student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning;

- The individual motivations of businesses for education-driven UBC and their effect on the extent of business engagement with universities in activities including student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning;

- The constellations of motivations of academics to engage with businesses in a multitude of UBC activities.

To address the overall research question, this dissertation explored UBC from a motivation-based view, focusing on individual academics and businesspeople representing the voice of their organisations. By building upon the streams of literature on UBC, SDT and RBV, this thesis has approached UBC as a social interaction, beneficial for both academics and businesses. Both parties willingly cooperate with each other, because they are motivated to do so and, thus, expect to get certain benefits as a result of such interaction. Furthermore, given the essential role of academics and businesses as actors in initiating and executing

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UBC, this research emphasised the importance of both perceptions and viewpoints. Therefore, it built on perspectives of both academics and businesses to ultimately contribute to our knowledge on how their relationship in educational domain can be driven and encouraged.

The discussion of the results is presented in the following sections focusing on the academic engagement in education-driven UBC and its facilitators and motivations, individual motivations of academics and business to cooperate in education-driven UBC and constellations of academic motivations for UBC. Furthermore, the results are illustrated in the Figure 1, which summarises all factors empirically examined as part of this dissertation and that emerged as having an effect on the extent of engagement of both academics and businesses in cooperation with each other.

1.1 Engagement of individual academics in education-driven UBC

The extant research places emphasis on academics as crucial university players in interaction with business, emphasising their roles as both promoters and principal actors in such cooperation (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Skute et al., 2017). However, the third mission activities are not commonly recognised in academic career progression (Perkmann et al., 2013; Perkmann & Walsh, 2008), because UBC might not necessarily be centrally managed by HEI management (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017a). Hence, engagement of academics with businesses is often of a voluntary nature and thus individually driven.

While our understanding of academics’ engagement in research and valorisation focused UBC has seen important advancement in recent years (Dan, 2013; Skute et al., 2017), their engagement in education-driven cooperation received less attention in literature, despite the recognised importance of such linkages (Plewa et al., 2015; Rossano et al., 2016). Notwithstanding the existence of different benefits for academics in collaborating with businesses in education (Davey et al., 2018), the facilitators of this kind of UBC and motivations of academics to engage remain underexplored, and therefore have been addressed by this research in Study A. It sought to explain the psychological factors that facilitate individual engagement of academics in cooperation with business in education-driven activities.

Importance of UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness for the self-determined academic engagement

This research demonstrated that the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are important facilitators driving academics’

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involvement in education-driven UBC. Thus, they influence the extent of academic engagement in such cooperation that includes activities such as student mobility, curriculum design and curriculum delivery. In line with SDT’s view on an individual as a proactive organism whose functioning can be either fostered or hindered by the social context (Deci et al., 1994) and supported by the satisfaction of the individual’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Ryan, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2017), this research demonstrated the relevance of UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness for an academic as an individual player. Hence, academics cooperate willingly and effectively when their UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness are appropriately supported.

This research confirmed the importance of autonomy in the context of UBC. Autonomy has always been undoubtedly crucial for individuals working in the higher education system (Anderson et al., 2010; Henkel, 2007). Commonly understood as a right of the scholar to retain decision making over the research and teaching projects, academic freedom and autonomy mean the absence of outside interference, censure or obstacles in the pursuit and practice of academic work (Kori, 2016). Similarly, UBC autonomy also refers to a liberty of academics to exercise academic activities, and, particularly, in cooperation with business. Hence, with a focus on business engagement and from perspective of SDT, UBC autonomy as an ultimate freedom of decision making of an academic, when choosing whether to collaborate with a company in education related activity or not, plays an important role and facilitates academic engagement in education-driven UBC. Thus, academics feel more determined deciding on their own whether they are willing to involve businesspeople in the design and delivery of their teaching rather than getting a direct order from their university management, just like they prefer to make autonomous decisions regarding their engagement with business in mobility of students.

Furthermore, by drawing on SDT, this research confirmed the relevance of UBC competence as a facilitator of the engagement of individual academics in education-driven collaborative activities with business. In line with SDT, competence that means the experience of one’s behaviour as effectively enacted (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009; Ryan, 1995), in the context of UBC refers to academics’ skills and knowledge specific to cooperation with business. Academics that perceive themselves as ‘UBC competent’ feel more capable of engaging with business, since they have the knowledge of business needs and a cooperation know-how. Indeed, this research emphasises the necessity for UBC practitioners to develop relevant skills and knowledge base specific to cooperation, and reveals

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that UBC competence has a direct positive effect on the extent of academic engagement in undertaking the education-driven UBC.

Associated with the feeling of belongingness, relatedness refers to one’s experience of the connection to someone, and the support from others when engaging in a certain activity (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004; Gagné & Deci, 2005). In the UBC context, explained as a connection to a group of peers within university with a positive attitude towards UBC, competence emerged to be another important facilitator of academic engagement in education-driven UBC. This research has furthermore emphasised the importance of the supportive university environment and culture that encourage cooperation with business. Existence of UBC role models and, in general, positive attitude towards UBC among academic and professional staff of the university are likely to facilitate the education-driven UBC.

Furthermore, given there is some evidence in extant research on the autonomy’s moderation effect of the relation between individual characteristics and job performance (Bandura, 1986), this research has also explored the moderation effect of UBC autonomy. The results suggest that when academics independently choose to engage with businesses in student mobility, they are likely to rely more strongly on their own UBC competence – meaning that UBC autonomy moderates relationship between UBC competence and extent of cooperation in student mobility. Furthermore, in case of UBC in curriculum design, they are likely to feel more connected to their university, if their UBC autonomy supported by the HEI management – suggesting the moderation effect of UBC autonomy on relationship between UBC relatedness and extent of cooperation in curriculum design.

Overall, by emphasising the relevance and significance of SDT for UBC research, the Study A contributes to UBC literature and, thus, reveals that UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness play an important role in the facilitation of academic engagement in education-driven UBC (also refer to Figure 1). As for the moderation effect, the extent of academics’ cooperation with business in education increases when academics collaborate willingly (autonomy), feel enacted and capable of undertaking UBC (competence), and feel comfortable in their university environment expressing positive attitude towards UBC (relatedness).

Importance of motivations for the self-determined academic engagement

The positive effect of UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness on the extent of engagement in education-driven UBC suggests the importance of providing academics with the right institutional environment and culture for external

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engagement. In order for UBC to flourish, academics should be supported by their universities in their cooperative activities with business, and their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness should be satisfied. However, to facilitate the fully determined and autonomous engagement behaviour, academics should also be motivated to do so.

Therefore, as SDT suggests (Deci et al., 2017; Deci & Ryan, 2002), to further examine what drives individuals to engage in certain activities apart from the satisfaction of their needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, a special emphasis should be placed on the motivations of these individuals. Thus, in Study B, this research further explored academic engagement in education-driven UBC from a motivational perspective. It examined the individual motivations of academics for UBC in student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning, to establish an understanding on how education-driven UBC can be incentivised.

The understanding of academic motivations to engage in UBC has seen important advancements in recent years. Generally, the extent of UBC is indeed influenced by the personal motivations of individual academics to engage in UBC (Ankrah et al., 2013; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Dan, 2013). Given the importance of such motivations for cooperation, UBC literature has explored a range of motivations for cooperating with businesses in commercialisation and joint research (e.g. Fan et al., 2015; Lam, 2015; Siegel et al., 2003) and less so in education. The prevailing discussion around academic motivations to engage in UBC is therefore commonly led by the belief that academics are driven mainly by extrinsic for-profit motives (Lam, 2011).

This research demonstrated that the motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC differ from those previously noted in relation to commercialisation and research, thus suggesting the context-specific nature of academic motivations for UBC. Hence, academics are more driven by intrinsic than extrinsic motivations when engaging with business in education, confirming the relevance of SDT’s extrinsic and intrinsic scale for motivations (refer to the subsection below). Furthermore, the research also revealed that the set of motivations also varies across different education-driven collaboration activities, namely student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and LLL (also refer to Figure 1).

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1.2 Individual motivations of academics and businesses to cooperate with each other in education-driven UBC

The extent of UBC is affected by the individual motivations to engage in UBC, whether it is academics (Ankrah et al., 2013; Ankrah & Al-Tabbaa, 2015; D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Fan et al., 2015) or businesses (Bayona, Garcia-Marco, & Huerta, 2001; Scandura, 2016). To develop a comprehensive understanding of actors’ engagement in education-driven UBC, it is important to explore what motivates both academics and businesses to cooperate with each other. Therefore, to further develop and improve the productive relationships between universities and business, it is important to establish an understanding of the motivational drivers and the expected benefits from both perspectives, and thus bring two views together.

While the Study B explored the motivations of academics for education-driven UBC, the Study C focused on business perspective and investigated what motivates businesses to engage in education-driven cooperation with universities (also refer to Figure 5). Providing a unique contribution to the literature, the results of both studies show that motivations of academics and businesses are likely to match each other, and demonstrate how to incentivise and strengthen cooperation.

Motivations-based discussion

As compared to research and commercialisation oriented UBC (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Lam, 2011), monetary motivations did not emerge as significantly associated with education-driven UBC, either for academics, or for businesses. Although previously associated with LLL (Jongbloed, 2002; Rinne et al., 2004), this relationship is not confirmed by this research. However, while for academics, financial reasons emerge only as a driver for curriculum delivery, businesses expect the financial compensation for their time and resources invested, when it comes to curriculum design. Overall, often associated with commercialisation and R&D related UBC (Lai, 2011; Lam, 2011, 2015), funding’s positive relationship with the extent of UBC is non-existent for almost all education-driven activities, thus pointing towards the insignificance of financial motivation as incentive for increasing or optimising academics’ and business cooperation specific to education.

Furthermore, the study demonstrates the ‘social’ nature of the engagement of both academics and businesses when cooperating in education. While, education-driven UBC is instigated for businesses by motivation to positively impact society and contribute to societal development, academics are motivated to contribute to

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the university’s mission and to address societal challenges. This finding offers an important theoretical contribution, as socially oriented motivations have received little attention in the UBC literature to date (Lam, 2011). Their significance indicates an understanding amongst academics as to the importance of universities’ cooperation with business (Ankrah et al., 2013; Perkmann et al., 2013; Skute et al., 2017) and acting on their ‘pro-social’ role in general (Di Nauta et al., 2018). In case of business, this may be related to the ethical considerations and commitment that businesses have (or have to have) towards environmental and economic sustainability, closely resonating with the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Gawel, 2014; Tarí, 2011).

The relevance of capabilities and skills development for education-driven UBC is not surprising – while academics are motivated to improve their teaching through all four education-driven UBC activities, businesses engage with universities in these activities to further develop skills of their employees. In particular, the positive association with LLL can be easily justified, thus showing that businesses consider universities as relevant service providers when it comes to professional training and executive education (Caniëls & van den Bosch, 2011; Harrison et al., 2007). Academics in turn acknowledge the potential of cooperation for their own personal professional development as teachers, lecturers and trainers. Thus, the significance of the capabilities development and attainment manifested in the motivation to develop skills is important for further advancement of education-driven UBC.

Furthermore, both businesses and academics share a motivation focused on graduates. While academics wish to improve graduate employability through education-driven UBC and thus interaction with employers, businesses in turn are motivated to get a direct access to the talent and future graduates for prospective employments. The significance of employability improvement and access to graduates is not surprising. Employable graduates (for academics) and the interaction with them (for business) emerge as relevant motivations across three out of four activities, namely student mobility, curriculum delivery and design, as these cooperation types provide an opportunity for businesses to directly interact with students and ‘screen’ candidates for prospective recruitments (Broström, 2012; Guimón, 2013).

Notably, both academics and businesses do not associate education-driven UBC with any reputational effects as a result of such cooperation. For academics the lack of association between reputation and education-driven UBC is potentially a barrier for the improved alignment of education with the world of work. Furthermore, given the ‘social’ orientation of businesses in their cooperation with universities possibly connected to their CSR (LaFrance & Lehmann, 2005; Tarí, 2011), it is surprising that

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businesses also do not recognise reputation as a motivation that potentially can contribute to their social engagement with external stakeholders.

This research further revealed that academics engage in education-driven UBC only partly due to a career motivation. The lack of significant association of UBC in education with promotion suggests a stronger weighting of research criteria for promotion, previously confirmed for higher academic ranks (Parker, 2008). Even if education-related criteria contribute to the promotion of academics in a specific context (Subbaye & Vithal, 2017), education in collaboration with business may not directly feature at this stage. Furthermore, while the previous literature shows some positive relationships between research-focused motivation and extent of UBC (Fan et al., 2015; Lam, 2011), such associations didn’t emerge for cooperation specific to education. Hence, the results reveal that education-driven UBC emerges as negatively associated with the academic motivation to gain new insights for research. This negative relationship could be explained by the fact that academics have insufficient time for UBC and its absence represents a barrier (Davey et al., 2018).

To conclude, both studies demonstrated the context-specific nature of motivations for education-driven UBC. While the motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC differ from those previously noted in relation to commercialisation, the motivations of academics and business are to some extent likely to match each other. This insight demonstrates that academics and businesses recognise the potential rewards for themselves as a result of education-driven UBC that conceptually match each other.

UBC activities-based discussion

As discussed in the subsection ‘Motivations-based discussion’, this research demonstrates the context-specific nature of motivations for UBC in education. However, not only do the motivations of academics and businesses differ from those commonly noted in relation to commercialisation or joint research, the motivations also vary across different education-driven UBC activities.

The results of this research indicate that student mobility is instigated by motivations related to skills and graduates. While academics are driven to engage with business in student mobility by the willingness to improve their teaching quality and skills, business seek to improve the skills of their current employees. While the relevance of the skills related motivation for academics’ education-driven UBC is not surprising as it is directly connected to teaching, the significance of this motivation from business perspective may be explained by the effect of the direct interaction

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that businesspeople experience when hosting and supervising interns and trainees in their businesses (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b). This interaction is likely to contribute to further development of the employees who supervise the students spending time in the company, and thus improve their training and job relevant skills. Student mobility is further driven by academics’ motivation to improve employability of the graduates (Healy et al., 2014), whereas businesses want to gain direct access to these graduates as a direct opportunity to ‘screen’ candidates for prospective recruitments (Broström, 2012; McNichols, 2010). While academics and business share these two motivations, only academics perceive the temporary movement of students as a way to create a social impact by contributing to the third mission of the university.

Aligned with the results on student mobility, curriculum design also emerged as instigated by the motivations related to skills and graduates. Since in university setting curriculum design is commonly undertaken to improve the educational programmes and offerings, it is justifiable that academics wish to advance their teaching and increase employability of their students through such cooperation (Plewa et al., 2015). For businesses, curriculum design is another channel for getting closer to talent as well as an opportunity for upskilling their staff. Furthermore, curriculum design emerged as significantly affected by ‘social’ motivations. Thus, both academics and businesses perceive cooperation in curriculum design as an opportunity to make a social contribution through the third mission in case of academics or by addressing societal challenges and thus positively impacting society. Notably, businesses are also motivated by the willingness to get additional funding and financial resources, as they might expect compensation for their time and resources invested into the curriculum design.

When cooperating in curriculum delivery, academics’ and businesses’ motivations fit only with respect to the motivations related to graduates and to social contribution. While academics are driven by almost all motivations tested in this research to engage in curriculum delivery cooperation, even including the motivation to obtain funding and increase reputation, businesses only emerged as motivated by the willingness to access graduates and positively impact society. Academics thus expect curriculum delivery to provide them with diverse benefits, including positive reputational effects and financial opportunities. Curriculum delivery is thus the only education-driven UBC activity that is driven by the academics’ motivation to increase their reputation within the university and is seen as a ‘gateway’ for potential financially attractive activities.

To engage in lifelong learning, both academics and business are driven by the motivations related to skills and social contribution. Hence, the results indicate that

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LLL from the perspective of businesses is motivated by their willingness to positively impact society and improve the skills of their employees, which is justifiable since LLL is the only education-driven activity that is specifically targeting education and training of businesspeople. Therefore, given the ‘service’ nature of this activity, it is surprising that the monetary motivation previously associated with LLL (Jongbloed, 2002; Rinne et al., 2004) is not confirmed here for academics. Academics do not recognise the financial rewards they can get from delivering LLL to businesses as educational service providers. The results suggest that LLL is only affected by motivations relating to teaching improvement and contribution to the university mission, whereas businesses are motivated by the willingness to improve the skills of their employees and positively impact society.

1.3 Constellations of motivations for academic engagement in UBC

While this research has demonstrated the important role of individual motivations for UBC, there is a growing stream of motivational research that increasingly emphasises the motivational heterogeneity and points towards the coexistence of qualitatively diverse motivations underpinning the behaviour of an individual (Vansteenkiste et al., 2006; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). From the SDT lens, this heterogeneity is manifested in the coexistence of not contradictory to each other (Lemos & Veríssimo, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2000) intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Harter, 1981). Following this notion, study D described combinatorial complexities of academic motivations to engage in a multitude of UBC activities, drawing on Lam’s elaboration of motivations related to gold (money), ribbon (career advancement) and puzzle (creative activity) as well as prosocial (benefiting others) motivations.

The study demonstrated four combinations or solutions of motivations, all of which underpin academic engagement in a range of UBC activities (also refer to Figure 1) labelled impact (prosocial and puzzle), inspiration (puzzle), promotion (ribbon) and distinction (puzzle and ribbon).

Confirming previous results (see Study B), monetary-focused motivations or gold do not emerge as driving academics to engage in cooperation with business, as measured comprehensively within this research. The complete absence of gold in all constellations offers important insight for UBC research and practice. Often associated with research and commercialisation oriented UBC (Perkmann et al., 2013; Skute et al., 2017), gold might be only relevant for the specific engagement activities that are of commercial nature, but may not play a larger motivational role for academics in a broader UBC context.

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Notably, and in line with the previous results (see Study B), prosocial motivation of solving end-user problems emerges as very important for the impact solution constellations. This finding demonstrates not only a growing understanding amongst academics as to the importance of cooperation between university and business (Galan-Muros & Davey, 2017b), but also the recognition by academics of the prosocial role of universities in general (Di Nauta et al., 2018; Loi & Di Guardo, 2015).

Three of the four impact solutions combine the prosocial with at least one puzzle motivation. Indeed, the results demonstrate the important nature of puzzle motivations across three out of four solutions – impact, inspiration and distinction – emphasising that academics collaborate with businesses in diverse collaborative activities to inspire research and/or to exchange knowledge. This finding from Study D aligns with the previous literature building on the curiosity and research focus of academics (D’Este & Perkmann, 2011; Dan, 2013), which however hasn’t been confirmed by Study B that explored motivations of academics for education-driven UBC, specifically, and revealed no association between academic engagement in such cooperation and research-focused motivation.

Ribbon, expressed in the motivation of academics to increase their chances of promotion and develop their reputation, featured in two solutions, demonstrating that academics may also engage in UBC for career related purposes. This finding confirms previous results in the literature reporting ribbon as a motivation for academic engagement in UBC, in particular as a willingness to increase one’s chances for promotion (Franco & Haase, 2015; Lam, 2007). Furthermore, the results reveal that academics are motivated by a combination of both ribbon and puzzle that goes in line with (Lam, 2011) findings on scientists’ motivations for research commercialisation. However, neither of these two ribbon motivations has been found to be relevant in the context of education-driven UBC, again confirming the context specific nature of academic motivations.

Overall, this research confirms the fundamental premise of SDT by testing and providing different constellations of motivations that are able to jointly affect academic engagement in UBC. It also demonstrates the importance of intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivations for UBC emphasising the complete absence of gold and prominence of prosocial. Also, as study B, it confirms the context-specific nature of academic motivations and demonstrates that the motivations for a broader range of activities might differ from the motivations captured for commercialisation-driven and education-driven UBC.

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Figure 1 below summarises all factors included in this dissertation that have been theoretically and empirically analysed as having an effect on the extent of engagement of both academics and businesses in education-driven UBC and UBC in general.

113 Figure 1. Summary of the results

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2. Contributions to theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) and literature on UBC aided in understanding and delivering theory applicable for the academic engagement in cooperation with business. To develop an understanding of business engagement in education-driven cooperation with universities, this research built on UBC literature and employed a resource-based view (RBV).

This research contributes to the literature by shedding light on education-driven UBC both from academic and business perspectives. It contributes to the emerging body of literature on cooperation in the context of education, going beyond the focus of previous UBC research focused on valorisation and research. In doing so, it provides a vital new perspective and comprehensive approach to the engagement of academics and businesses in UBC specific to education that previously gained little academic attention. In particular, this dissertation focused on activities such as student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning.

Further, it applies for the first time SDT framework of need satisfaction in the context of education-driven UBC. Thus, this research contributes to the SDT literature by confirming its significance reported in the previous research (Deci et al., 2017) and revealing that autonomy, competence and relatedness play an important role in facilitation of academic engagement in education-driven UBC. Previously evident in self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986) and achievement goal theory (Barrick & Mount, 1993; Cho et al., 2011), the moderation effect of autonomy emerged for student mobility and curriculum design. This means that academics are able to apply their UBC competence more effectively, when they can choose whether to collaborate with business or not. Furthermore, when academics experience support for UBC autonomy they might experience their UBC connectedness even more when cooperating with business in curriculum design.

This dissertation also offers an important contribution to our understanding of antecedents to education-driven UBC activities. Also drawing on SDT, it, specifically, outlines a range of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for academics across five orientations, namely monetary, career, research, educational and social. This research demonstrates the context-specific nature of academic motivations for UBC in education. Thus, these motivations do not differ only from those commonly noted in relation to commercialisation and research, they also vary across different education-driven activities. Furthermore, this research contributes to SDT by revealing that academics are motivated more strongly by intrinsic than extrinsic

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reasons, with only social and educational orientations emerging as significant motivations across all four activities, namely student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning.

Furthermore, this research is the first to empirically test how a range of motivations jointly affect academic engagement with business by applying fsQCA and capturing the fundamental premise of SDT that individuals are motivated by a set of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations complementary and thus not contradictory to each other (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Saridakis et al., 2016). It also extends extant UBC literature by going beyond R&D cooperation and commercialisation, taking into account a wide range of activities in which academics engage in a cooperation with business. Furthermore, in the context of a wider range of UBC activities, it demonstrates the importance of intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivations for academics, emphasising the lack of gold as a motivation for engagement breadth, and a prominent role of motivations of a prosocial character as well as puzzle and ribbon, which however are not significant as motivations for education-driven UBC.

An important contribution of this research to UBC literature lies in outlining for the first time the motivations of businesses to engage in education-driven UBC, namely in student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning. Just as the examination of academic perspective, it also demonstrates their context-specific nature of business motivations, emphasising the difference between motivations identified as central to education-driven UBC and those investigated in the context of cooperation in commercialisation and research. Thus, it offers an important contribution to RBV, demonstrating that when cooperating with universities businesses are strongly driven by the motivations to develop their own internal capabilities. Thus, they strive to get an access to the talent available at universities for the prospective recruitment purposes and to develop the skills and competences of their staff, with an ultimate aim to sustain their companies’ competitive advantage. Furthermore, this dissertation reveals the ‘social’ nature of business engagement manifested in the motivation to positively impact society, closely resonating with CSR (LaFrance & Lehmann, 2005).

To summarise, this dissertation contributes to UBC literature by shedding light on education-driven UBC. It offers important contributions by demonstrating the relevance of SDT for UBC research and, thus, revealing the importance UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness for the engagement of academics and emphasising more essential role of intrinsic motivations for their cooperation with business. Also by drawing on SDT, it advances UBC literature by revealing the necessity to consider and test motivations as a set rather than in isolation. As for the business perspective, this research is the first one to comprehensively capture

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motivations of business for education-driven UBC and to confirm their RBV orientation manifested in the willingness to develop their internal capabilities through cooperation with universities. Both from academic and business perspectives, it reveals the context-specific nature of motivations for UBC.

3. Managerial and policy implications

In addition to the theoretical contributions, this dissertation holds implications for HEI managers, UBC practitioners as well as policymakers designing institutional, national and international policies.

Recognition of education-driven UBC

The surrounding institutional context is essential for enhancing individual engagement of the academic staff in collaborative activities with business specific to education. Therefore, managerial efforts to facilitate UBC should aim at formalising such interaction through creating the right institutional environment (Davey et al., 2018; Ponomariov & Boardman, 2008) and promoting the broader understanding of UBC with a specific emphasis placed on education-driven interaction. In order to broaden the understanding of UBC beyond research and commercialisation, and widen its development, governments, universities and businesses need to find ways of identifying, explaining and measuring education-driven activities in improved ways to ensure that they are recognised, understood and communicated. In particular, the benefits for students, academics, universities, businesses, regions, nations etc. resulting from such cooperation should be comprehensively captured and strategically promoted. Furthermore, universities and policymakers should raise awareness among academics about the existence of a wide range of education-driven UBC activities such as, for example, student mobility, curriculum design, curriculum delivery and lifelong learning, among others.

Developing culture supporting UBC autonomy, competence and relatedness

An individual’s perception of UBC and the surrounding environment (supportive or otherwise) along with the culture in which they operate (Plewa, Quester, & Baaken, 2006) become important. Thus, not only the appropriate environment has to be developed at universities in order for UBC to flourish, it is also necessary to create a cooperation-friendly culture that enables the satisfaction of academics’ needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness in the UBC context. HEI management

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should address specific frameworks that are able to facilitate the psychological drivers in order to provide the conditions with the university context that, as this research shows, influences the engagement of academics in education-driven UBC.

To facilitate both UBC competence and relatedness, UBC related successes and accomplishments of individual academics should be recognised and communicated to the university staff. Specific emphasis should be placed on the dissemination of good practice examples of education-driven activities among academics, as well as on the promotion of the role models from and outside the university. Furthermore, governments and HEI management should provide opportunities for enhancing related competences (Osterloh, 2007) and thus provide frameworks for UBC-focused training for academics and, particularly, in educational domain, for example, through programmes, courses, e-learning etc.

Furthermore, since UBC autonomy has been found to have significant effects on education-driven UBC, it has to be supported at all levels, just as academic freedom for teaching and research. To encourage education-driven UBC for academics, they should not be forced but incentivised, encouraged and supported to do so. Examples of the relevant interventions may include the provision by HEI managers or governments of dedicated support, additional time for cooperation, access to resources and networks of other academics undertaking education-driven UBC through networking events, workshops or conferences.

When providing support for UBC, HEI managers should also take into account that UBC autonomy can act as a moderator in several activities. This means that when there is a comprehensive institutional support and recognition of academics’ cooperation with business specific to education, the other two needs for competence and relatedness can get satisfied as well. This finding aligns with the previous research on SDT emphasising the fact that when individuals have a sense of autonomy they are typically able to find the ways to get the other needs satisfied (Deci et al., 2017).

Providing appropriate incentive systems for UBC

Not only should academics be able to choose whether they want to collaborate or not, they should also be provided with the proper incentive system that supports their motivations. Due to the long-standing focus on commercialisation opportunities of UBC, many policies and university incentive mechanisms have been designed according to the assumption that academics are motivated by

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extrinsic for-profit benefits (e.g., tax incentives for university spinoffs, R&D funds for joint research projects, cost-sharing mechanisms).

Importantly, this research suggests that incentive systems offering primarily extrinsic rewards are likely to have little if any impact on academic engagement in education-driven UBC. Moreover, they can potentially undermine intrinsic motivations (Rigolizzo & Amabile, 2015), as concluded also by (Lam, 2011) in a study examining research engagement. Given the relevance of intrinsic motivations for education-driven UBC, policymakers and universities should align their efforts, emphasising the educational and social motivational orientations of academics and benefits of such nature that can result from education-driven activities.

The incentives for a broader range of UBC activities, which according to the findings of this study are also driven by intrinsic motivations, should, in addition to social motivations, address the research or puzzle focused benefits, such as, for example, insights for the future research or opportunities for the knowledge exchange. Thus, recognition by universities of the positive relationship between UBC and research outcomes might be relevant for increasing cooperation with business. Further, the ribbon-related extrinsic rewards should be emphasised by the specific promotion mechanisms, since career focused motivations are likely to affect the broader range of UBC activities.

Social mission to become HEI mission

Given the importance of the academics’ motivation to contribute to the university mission, university management should clearly identify their engagement with business in education-driven activities as central to the mission of the universities. Thus, initiatives acknowledging and communicating academics’ alignment with the university’s mission and their contribution to addressing societal challenges should be introduced. These initiatives can be manifested, for example, in teaching excellence awards or novel teaching competitions and challenges in the context of education-driven UBC. Further, a clear identification of the engagement with business as an important element of the university mission, with an emphasis on its potential to generate solutions for wider society, seems to be a logical step. Such initiatives would help enhance an institutional culture in which academic engagement in UBC and, in particular, in education-driven cooperation is encouraged, supported and thus acknowledged as central to the university’s mission.

Given that at least three UBC activities from business perspective are facilitated by socially oriented motivations, policymakers should align their efforts accordingly.

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Specifically, as businesses’ motivation to positively impact society emerged strongly from the data, clearly identifying UBC in education as central to companies’ CSR and highlighting its potential reputational effects seem relevant. Since, according to this dissertation, both businesses and universities are prosocial (or socially oriented) in their collaborative efforts in education, their social motivations should be aligned. Furthermore, their efforts should be strategically focused on cooperation for social impact in form of community projects, social innovation competitions, student challenges etc.

Rethinking academic career reward system

Currently, in most universities, academics are primarily rewarded in their career progression for their research outcomes (Davey et al., 2018). While UBC in research has indeed been found to have positive promotional effects on academic careers (Lam, 2007; Petersen et al., 2014), the relevance of the career motivational orientation for education-driven UBC has not been confirmed by this dissertation. Notwithstanding this finding, the lack of the significant relationship between academics’ education-driven UBC with their chances for promotion should nevertheless be addressed by HEI managers and policymakers as well as included into the future research agenda. In particular, at this stage the research should clarify first, whether academics are not motivated by the willingness to increase their chances for promotion because of the more prominent role of intrinsic motivation or because of the lack of recognition of these activities in academic career promotion frameworks. Generally, policymakers should align the academic performance assessment with education-driven UBC activities and include indicators such as, for example, number of theses co-supervised with business, number of guest lecturers from business per semester, number of courses co-developed with business etc., to encourage greater extent of such cooperation and to widen the number of academics involved in education-driven UBC.

Encouraging and strategically approaching engagement with business

To activate more intensive and productive education-driven UBC, universities should consider that businesses are not motivated by monetary mechanisms to cooperate with them in education. Their main motivations, such as internal capability development and access to highly qualified graduates should be captured by policies addressing UBC specific to education. Thus, the awareness about existence of such benefits from education-driven cooperation should be raised by promoting them through specific cooperation programs, events and

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conferences. Introduction of the specific cooperation programmes and co-creation frameworks for universities and businesses to develop and design new educational formats and mobility concepts could help encourage greater involvement.

Furthermore, while businesses should embrace LLL and consider cooperation with universities as a cost-effective way to develop their own internal capabilities and skills of their employees, universities should invest more time and resources on promoting themselves as service providers for professional development and executive education and develop more comprehensive LLL programmes tailored to specific business needs.

Furthermore, to assure more active business engagement in education-driven UBC, universities need to develop specific supporting mechanisms and strategies. These may include, for example, business involvement in career advice, membership in the governance structures and quality assurance, strategic partnerships for joint research, consultancy as well as student and academic entrepreneurship among others.

4. Limitations and future research directions

While noting the important contributions made by this research, it is also important to recognise a number of limitations, in particular the self-selection of the sample through online questionnaires that might provide biased results. To minimise this limitation, the responses from academics in the European survey (Studies A, B, C) were weighted using Eurostat data of 2014 based on the number of European academic staff per country (refer to Studies A and B); and the responses from business were weighted using Eurostat data of 2014 based on the number of business entities per country as well as the representation of large, medium, small and micro enterprises (refer to Study C). Furthermore, while the translations into 24 languages (refer to Studies A, B, C) could have also led to potential biases, this research sought to minimise this limitation by utilising professional translators supported by specific topic experts.

The survey used in this research should be geographically replicated outside European countries (refer to Studies A, B, C) to explore academic and business engagement in education-driven UBC in universities across other countries. The same applies to the Australian data (refer to Study D), which was collected in one Australian state only, so the challenges relating to generalisability of the findings to other contexts can be overcome. In addition, future research taking the perspective of academics should focus more specifically on the effects of different external factors including faculty and type of university as well as individual attributes such

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as age, gender, university, business or UBC experience. As for the business perspective, the future research directions could be also developed further, by outlining the effects of further external factors including business size, the industry where the business, to investigate the differences in engagement with universities of different types of businesses.

Another limitation lies in the lack of reported causal effects, since the dataset did not enable tests confirming causality. Instead only significant relations between independent and dependent variables were revealed. As it cannot be assumed that the dependent variables are the (only) cause of the independent ones, future longitudinal research should be conducted.

Considering the relevance of SDT as a central foundation for the research reported here, this dissertation encourages research that extends beyond the distinction between extrinsic versus intrinsic motivations. Thus, future research should include specific measures of the exact level of self-determination associated with academic motivations to engage with businesses. Future research should thus provide insights on the extent of autonomy of the individual behaviour of academics undertaking UBC. Furthermore, it might investigate the interplay of academics’ perceived satisfaction of their needs, such as UBC autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and their intrinsic motivation to engage with businesses. In particular, as the basic SDT model related to workplace performance suggests (Deci et al., 2017; Ryan & Deci, 2017), future research in the context of UBC can examine the mediation effect of psychological needs together with motivations on the relationship between HEI context or individual characteristics of academics with the extent of their engagement in education-driven UBC.

In addition to complementing this dissertation by focusing on other education-driven UBC activities, this study can also be carried out for a different UBC domain, including the engagement of academics in research-, valorisation- and management-driven UBC, specifying what motivates both academics and businesses to engage in such cooperation. In addition to individual motivations, future studies should also identify the constellations of motivations specific to various domains of UBC, from both academic and business perspectives. Indeed, UBC requires motivated actors on both sides, so further research should investigate more specifically the business perspective on UBC, which in this research has been covered in the context of education-driven UBC.

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cknowledgements and about the author

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Acknowledgements

Looking back, I realise that I have spent almost eleven consecutive years at the universities of different kinds; first as a bachelor student at the Kazak German University in my most favourite city on Earth, Almaty, Kazakhstan; then as a Master student in Zittau at the Dresden University of Technology in Germany – the cosiest university bubble that so kindly welcomed me during my first years abroad, after which I have finally landed at my German home base Münster.

I have arrived in the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre (S2BMRC) a young and curious 23 years old looking for meaningful and challenging opportunities. And PhD has never been a plan. But after I have met Prof. Dr. Thomas Baaken, a visionary, the most energetic catalyst and a humble leader, all of sudden the trajectory of my life has completely changed. I will forever be grateful to Thomas for his trust, encouragement and endless support, and of course for inviting me to become a part of our big and loud S2BMRC family. Little did I know back then in 2015, that I will stay in Münster for 5 years instead of 6 months, that I will find my passion in higher education and university-business cooperation (UBC), that I will become a researcher and an educator, and that so many exciting opportunities will open up to me. Including PhD! And for that I will always be grateful.

My sincere heartfelt thanks must also go to my two other PhD supervisors, Prof. Dr. Peter van der Sijde and Prof. Dr. Carolin Plewa, who have been excellent mentors and supporters along this journey. I thank Peter for his scientific advice and many insightful discussions. He is my primary resource for getting my science questions answered and was instrumental in helping me crank out this thesis. Without his guidance and constant feedback this PhD would not have been achievable.

I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor than Carolin in my PhD journey. I am truly thankful for her integrity and dedication to both my personal and academic development. She is not only a tremendous mentor and an inspiring role model, but also a very loyal friend, who has encouraged me to go further with my own thinking and challenged me to follow things I am truly passionate about. I am so excited to see where our journey will bring us next.

I would also like to thank the members of my PhD reading committee for the valuable roles they have played. Sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Bart Bossink (VU Amsterdam), Prof. Dr. Peter Groenewegen (VU Amsterdam), Prof. Dr. Gideon Maas (Coventry University), Prof. Dr. Colette Henry (Dundalk Institute of Technology) and Prof. Dr. Andrzej Jasinski (University of Warsaw).

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A good support system is important to surviving and staying sane during PhD. This is one of many reasons for thanking the team at the S2BMRC. I feel very lucky to have worked with such creative individuals and researchers, who were always willing to generate and exchange ideas about PhD and beyond.

I am especially grateful to Sue Rossano, who is a wonderful friend and colleague who has supported me in numerous ways during various stages of my PhD. For the inspiring conversations, beers together and talks about our research, I thank my PhD buddies Neele Petzold, Carina Alfert and Alexander Schmidt. For kick-starting my PhD journey with me and for making it fun and enjoyable experience, I would like to thank my former colleagues David Serbin and Mihai Melonari. Special thanks also goes to Maria Paula Troutt (our Mapis) for the project assistance and enormous help with the scientific work.

A very special thank you I want to devote to Arno Meerman and Todd Davey, my close friends and colleagues. They have been patiently teaching me and trusting me with the challenging activities and projects and helped me grow into the UBC professional who I am today. Todd Davey has always been there for me and supported me through this incredible ride. Embracing the best in me, Todd always knows how to gently push to go past what one may think is the mental limit. Arno is a wonderful and generous human being and his enthusiasm and love for a good challenge are truly contagious. With Arno I’ve learned to never back down and to be critical and self-reflective. I am so excited to be part of UIIN and to continue working with Arno pushing boundaries and expanding horizons. Not only I admire both Arno and Todd as colleagues, but I am truly grateful for having them in my life as loyal friends (you are the craziest, wittiest and the most entrepreneurial people that I’ve ever known!).

I also want to thank my friend Victoria Galan Muros. For sharing her knowledge and experience on statistics and quantitative methods, I thank Victoria, who is above all a great example of a successful professional and a scientist. I thank Vicky for all conversations and projects together, and I am looking forward to many more interesting opportunities that we can take on together.

One person who I also want to extend my appreciation to is my old friend and my almost sister, Malika Rozybakiyeva, who is as crazy as I am in many ways, and who has always selflessly and patiently listened to all my stories and supported me with good laughs, virtual hugs and always needed weekend calls. And of course I thank all my friends in Kazakhstan and Germany (too many to list here but you know who you are!) for providing support and friendship that I needed.

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I would have never been there where I am now if it wasn’t for my family. I especially thank my mom, Elmira Abdykassymova, my dad, Adilkhan Orazbayev, and my sister, Dariya Orazbayeva. My hardworking parents have sacrificed their lives for my sister and myself and provided unconditional love and care. I love them so much, and I would not have made it this far without them. Mama and papa thank you for always embracing my crazy ideas and for encouraging my love for science and for what I do professionally. My sister Dariya has been my best friend all my life and I love her dearly and thank her for all her advice, support and witty sense of humour. You have always been there for me without me noticing that we are separated by thousands of kilometres. Thank you for helping me find my own space in this world and for encouraging me to follow my dreams. I miss you all very much and wish you were here (“thank you” coronavirus!).

And lastly, to all hard-working and curious PhD students out there I’d like to say:

Enjoy the ride!

Balzhan Orazbayeva

Amsterdam, The Netherlands

April 13th, 2020

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About the author

Balzhan Orazbayeva is a strategic initiatives manager at The University Industry Innovation Network (UIIN), a leading organisation on university-industry engagement. In this role, she designs and delivers innovative training, consultancy concepts and models to develop more engaged and entrepreneurial universities.

Affiliated with the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre (S2BMRC) at Münster University of Applied Sciences (MUAS) in Germany, she researches university-business collaboration and social innovation. In her role of educator, Balzhan is a lecturer and learning designer in social innovation and social entrepreneurship. She also coordinates industry consulting projects executed by Bachelor and Master students as part of the International Marketing and Strategic Marketing modules at MUAS.

Since her arrival to the Science-to-Business Marketing Research Centre in 2015, she has carried out several research projects, which were funded by European Commission. Her contribution to these projects varied from applying for funding, managing the international (researcher) teams, collecting and analysing the data, organising and delivering workshops to writing project reports.

She was a senior analyst in the consulting project for the European Commission (DG Education and Culture), implementing the largest European study in the area of university-business collaboration. Currently she leads the creative research processes as part of the Erasmus+ projects in the field of social innovation. She is a co-creator of The Future of Universities Thoughtbook FUT_ initiative and has co-edited the Global, Australian and North American editions.

Her research interests include university-business cooperation, entrepreneurial and engaged universities, innovation in higher education and social innovation. She holds a Bachelor degree on International Relations in a field of political and social sciences from German-Kazakh University (DKU) in Almaty, Kazakhstan, and a Master degree on Integrative Project Management from the Dresden University of Technology (TUD) in Germany.

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