t .PIAPTER II

NATURAL ENVIRONMENI' AID RESOURCE BASE

II.1 The natural environment of mountain regions is

"ecologically among the most fragile of terrestrial - 1 systems "• The delicate ecological balance in mountain

lands as elsewhere is maintained by the inflow and out­

flow of energy and matter. Ecologically oriented studies

require indepth groundwork in unravelling the complex . ' system of linkages within the ecosystem that make up the

natural environment. This complex matrix of support

systems involves investigations not only into the processes

involved in sculpting the environment, but also the type

of resources available for human use from the environment.

The resource base of any region depends on, and

is an integral part of the environment. The analysis of

resource utilization and potentials are, therefore, in­

dispensable for a comprehensive understanding of

ecological principles. To say that regions are unequally

endowed, diverse and disparate in terms of their resource

base~' is a well known axiom arrl cannot be overstressed,

1. Tejvir Singh,~. al. (ed.), Studies in Himalafian Ecology and Development Strategies (The Englis Book Store, New Delhi, 1980), p.194.

46

yet no region is by itsE?lf t:ich or poor, for the type

of resources clearly indicate the direction that human

activity should follow to fully utilize these along with

the positive aspects of that environment.

socio-economic development of any region is largely

dependent on the development of its resources, for the

resource base has in the historical pa~rt reflected

decisions regarding economic activities. In large parts

of the underdeveloped world which are characterised by '

low per capita production and a predominance of primary

activities, the resource base is "• •• still largely in the

potential stage, awaiting capital, skilled labour and

management, or larger markets for their development".!

In these regions, the natural resources are essentially

passive and remain dormant till changes in the socio-

economic structure reveal their use value. Once these

changes take place; land, water, minerals, vegetation

and energy resources acquire a dynamic character arrl use

potential.

-------------------------1. Joseph L. Fisher, "Economic Development, Principles

a~ Patterns" in ~Role of Natural Resourxes, edJ.ted by Williamson and Butterick lPrentice Hall, New Jersey, 1969), p.22. The quote was in context of regions in Antartica and the deserts of Asia and Africa.

47

In ~ime, better technology, transport and communication

systems have increased human demand for basic resources

from ever widening geographical areas. "As new resources

are created or new sources of existing resources are found

and developed, a parallel refinement in marketing, manage-

ment, technology, communications and the science may be

observed ••• This has created an interwoven linkage

between economic activity, political ideology, social

norms and security and the exercise of territorial

l imperative".

Within the analysis of human-environment interactions,

the basic fact underlying the linkages is that human

activities and the exploitation of natural resources are

two faces of the same process. Analysis of the natural

environment thus becomes necessary from the point of

understanding the relative constraints imposed on human

activities on the one hand and the relative advantages

offered to development through the available resources on

the other hand.

Zanskar tehsil is an underdeveloped region where

the existing use of natural resources is limited due to

_. _________ _ 1 .• J.S. Becht, et. al., World Resource Management

(Prentice Hail, Niw Jersey, 19755, p.8.

48

the low level of technology. Within the framework of a

largely negative environment in terms of high altitude,

rugged topography, arid highland type climate and sparse

vegetation, the role of natural resources in sustaining

human activity become vital in analysing the man-environment

interaction process. This analysis becomes important in

order to arrive at a mutually acceptable solution to the

problems of economic development through resource

exploitation and environmental adaptation versus the \

problems related to environmental conservation.

Analysis of the processes involved in sculpting

the landscape and forming the natural environment with

the associated availability and use of resources, is thus

of great significance. Once these have been understood,

the interlinking processes between the environment and

human activity can then also be understood from the

ecological perspective.

The framework within which the environment and

resource base can be analysed, is based on the following

premises. The underlying geo.logical structure and

subsequent geomorphic processes form the basic configuration

of the topography on which climatic parameters operate.

This natural environment provides the basic resources of

land, water, vegetation, minerals and energy available

49

for human activities.

In this perspective an attempt has been made to

analyse the natural environment and resource base through

the following:

i) The profile of land in terms of its broad

geological structure, the geomorphic

processes, the physiographic characteristics

and soil cover that provide land resources

available for human activities.

ii) The natural drainage and water resources.

iii) Climatic conditions.

iv) Natural vegetation.

v) Mineral and energy resources available.

II.2 Profile of Land

In dealing with land as a resource, it would be

first relevant to analyse the characteristics of the

geology and physiography of Zanskar. As is the case of

most mountain lands the terrain of Zanskar poses major

constraints due to steep slope,· ruggedi ty, and high '

altitude that restrict the available area to selected

zones that can sustain economic activities. The surface

configuration is closely linked with underlying geological

' formations on which geomorphic processes have acted to

produce the present topography.

50

II.2.1 Geological Structure t'

zanskar tehsil lies within the area traversed by

the Zanskar range in a north-west south-east direction,

flanked to the north by the Ladakh range and to the south

by the Great Himalayan range. The zanskar region has an

intrinsic genetic relationship with the evolution of the

complex mountain systems of the North-west Himalayas,

that resulted from major phases of tectonic activity

which raised the sediments of the great geosynclinal

Tethys Sea to Himalayan heights, building in the process

the lofty mountain ranges which describe the structural

linaments of the regions. The Zanskar range strati-

graphically consists of the most fully developed Paleozoic

system in India. 1 The core of the Zanskar range with the

Great Himalayan range to the south and Ladakh range to

the north, has " ••• been found to be of pre-Carribrian

metamorphic sedimentary origin forming the basement on

which all the subsequent geological formations rest. " 2

In the Zanskar range, ..... the ~edimentary unit is well

defined along the Zanskar thrust with rocks from the

Paleozoic and Mesozoic age with the sediments resting

1.

2.

D.N. Wadia, Geolo~ of !ndia (Tata McGraw Hill, Delhi, reprint 1§ ) , p. ~

lE.M·, p. 86.

51

on an old sialic crust.~-

The pre-cambrian rocks are widely distributed in

this region, ~1i th

••• the crystalline and metamorphic rocks exposed to the northern and southern borders of Zanskar basin... The crystalline rocks in the region south of zanskar basin are intruded by basic dykes and ·sills, dolerites, and amphibolites. The amphibolites are of paratype and show zonal development in the form of veins and augens, which have resulted from the high grade metamorphism (amphibolite facies) of marly impurities present in the metasediments at the time of regional metamorphism.2

Cambrian rocks in the Zanskar area consist of

shales, slates and quartzites and

1.

2.

••• have yielded trilobites and primitive brachio­pods. Ordovician rocks are represented by dirty grey quartzites, earthy shales and sandstones ••• The Silurian system rocks are generally unfossili­ferous ••• The snow white Muth Quartzite forms the most important stratigraphic marker for the Devoni ans in parts of Ladakh. • • The Lower Carboniferous succession in parts of Ladakh is represented by the grey limestone and quartzites which at places are intercalated with brownish calcareous and arenaceous shales... permian

F. wolfgang, et. al., Geolo;tcal Observations in the Ladakh R~on-: A ~II nary Report (Schweiz Mineral, Petrog. Mitt 57, 1977), pp.81-il3.

V.J. Gupta, et; al., Geology of Ladakh Lahul and SEiti RegionSio~imaJaYas with sijc!a1 Reference to the Strati~raphlc Position of ~ysch Deposits (Ferdlnaild En e verlag, Stuttgart, 1975), p.'S'i3.

52

rocks consist essentially of pale brown lime­stone, grey shales and sandstones. The boundary bet~een the Permian and Triassic systems has been subject to much discussion. The Triassic succession in the Zanskar part of Ladakh is poorly developed. The rocks exposed at the top of Lachungla consist of pale brown ooli.!l.£ limestones, calcareous shales and sandstones containing poorly preserved brachipods, pelecypods and ammonites fauna.1

It is, therefore, evident that the Ladakh, Zanskar

and Great Himalayan ranges have been sUbject to considerable

tectonic movements and that past geological evolution and \

stratigraphy of this region have been responsible for the

broad physiographic alignments of the are~

II.2.2 Geomorphic Processes an~Physiography

The Zanskar region is an excellent example of an

area formed''predominantly by glacio-fluvial geomorphic

processes, wind action and weathering. Analysis of ~he

resulting physiographic conditions in terms of "• •• distinc-

tive geometric configurations of the land surface are of

primary concern ••• because they exert far reaching and

fundamental influences on human. activity". 2

1.

2.

~., pp.544-51.

A.N. Stralher, Elements of Physical GeogGaphy (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1969) 1 p. 3 1.

53

The physiographictstructure of any environment is

in a constant state of change through geological time.

These modifications of surface configurations are a result

of natural agents that operated in an "• •• orderly

progressive cyclical sequence". 1 The agents that bring

about change include " ••• all those physical and chemical

changes that effect a-modification of the earth's surficial

2 form". These geomorphic agents include those medi urns

that are capable of eroding, transporting and depositing '

earth material over space. The processes essentially

embody the concept of aggradation and degradation that

lead towards a state of dynamic equilibrium.

The physical environment of Zanskar is essentially

one formed by glacio-fluvial geomorphic processes. The

massive ice-sheets that covered the Ladakh region during '

3 the Pliestocene era, had the effect of smoothening the

topography, scrapping and removing the soil cover and

finally depositing the loose debris elsewhere. Subsequent

1.

2.

3.

F.J. Monkhouse, Principles of Physical Geography (University of liondon Press, 1954), p.92.

W.D. Thornbury, Principles of Geomorphology (John ~vi~ey and sons, New York, 1969), p.34.

D. N. Wadia, .2E• _ill., p.17-~

54

mountain glaciers deeply eroded the original valley, t'

depositing debris along the lower parts of the valley •

"Glacial erosion is generally attributed to two

separate processes, plucking and abrasion. The former

refers to the quarrying effect when moving ice freezes

. /

on to bedrock and pulls out a block which it carries away.

Abrasion is due to the grinding effect of the debris

being transported in the sole of the ice-mass and has

been likened to the action of sandpaper 11 •1 Glacial

deposition can be broadly classified into two groups

i.e. "• •• direct glacial deposits notably till • • • commonly

identified morphologically as moraine; and indirect

aqueous deposits ••• resulting in clearly bedded and 2

sometimes label~ed washed drift. 11

Landforms resulting from glacial erosion and

deposition can be seen in a number of features ranging

from aretes, cirques, cols, truncated spurs and glacial

troughs, to a range of moranic deposits in Zanskar.

This landscape carved by glacial action was subsequently

exposed to a number of other geomorphic agents including

1.

2.

R.J. Rice, Fundamentals of 9eomorphology (Longmans, London, 1977}, p.244.

R.P. Goldthwait, Glacial Deposits (Halsted Press, Pe nnsy 1 v ani a, 197 5 5, p. 3 •

55

fluvial and wind action that considerably modified the ,.

original topography. (Photographs 2. 1 & 2. 2)

In the post glacial period, " ••• fluvial action

dominated in shaping of the landscape. In the floors

of many valleys, streams resort the moraines, fill in

rock basins, and level the surface of all depositional

material". 1 Fluvial action is often the most significant

geomorphic processes in changing landform patterns.

Factors influencing fluvial action depend on the effects

of snowmelt, precipitation, and resultant surface runoff.

These determine the water input to a basin system and

the driving force to fluvial processes. The erosional

properties of water moving through a channel result in

an immense range of features, as a result of wearing

away the bedrock, chemical activity and the mechanical

work of water. The depositional features of fluvial

action result from the transport and deposition of

sediment that has been eroded. Fluvial processes cannot

be clearly separated from the geomorphic processes of

weathering and of mass wasting, as both operate

simultaneously to erode slopes. Among the most important

features produced by fluvial action in mountain lands

1. M.J. selby, The Surface of the Earth {Casnell, L<?ndon, 197i}, p.l71. ---

'l.

2.1 Glaciation

2. 2 Gl aci at ion

56

like zanskar are the river terraces and alluvial fans. t'

(Photographs 2.3 & 2.4)

The high altitude mountainous Zanskar region can

be considered to have undergone glacial and subsequently

-glacio-fluvial and fluvial action, whic'h- with weathering

and mass wasting have been the dominant processes involved

in sculpting the present topography •)

zanskar with its glacio-fluvial landscape presents

among the most surrealist ~opography found in most

mountain lands. The main valleys are characterised by

their post-glacial u-shape troughs, though in the higher

altitudes glacial processes are still active. Large (l '\

deposits of moraaic debris scattered throughout the region

bear testimony to past glaciation. Subsequent weathering,

especially frost action, mass wasting and fluvial

processes· have further formed a number of distinct

landforms within the valleys.

Glacial action in Zanskar can still be seen by the

system of glaciers such as the Drang Drung near the

Pensi la Pass, (Photograph 2. 5) which is joined by smaller

tributary glaciers based on the channeling action of pre­

glacial drainage networks. This proximity to the snow

line, combined by below freezing temperatures for over

half the year, has formed periglacial conditions in the

57

higher altitudes of Zans~ar. The geomorphic processes

in the mountain zone1 that affect the surface morphology

include:

1) The development of permanently frozen ground ----- ....

combine1with thermal contraction of the ground

under freeze and thaw conditions.

2) Frost weathering causing frost heaving, soil

churning,soil creep, upfreezing and particle

size sorting.

3) Rapid mass movement of solifluction. slopewash,

rockfalls, slumping etc., that lead to the active

development of slopes.

4) Fluvial regimes characterised by marked seasonal

discharge patterns and by a high level of suspended

and bedload sediment.

5) Strong wind action including processes of nivation

and snowpatch effects accentuated by lack of

vegetation and glacial derived accumulated debris. 2

Glacial action has resulted in the formation of

aretes and cirques as seen near the Pensila Pass, truncated

1. The first order mountain zone lies above 4,500 metres while the second first valley zone lies below 4, 500 metres as discussed in the previous chapter.

2. H.M. French, The Periglacial Environment (Longman, London, 1976), p.4.

58

spurs, hanging valleys a,Irl trough like U shaped valleys

in the stot and Zanskar valley. Kame terraces can be

seen near Karsha and a drumlin near Pipiting, while

moranic material is deposited throughout the valley

region. Glacio-fluvial and fluvial action has been

responsible for the formation of alluvial fans and river

terraces found in the Stot and Lunak valleys. Weathering

by freeze thaw action and gravitational pull has also

formed large talus cones and scree slopes especially

in areas where there are no water channels. (Photograph 2.6)

The generalised contour Map II$1 reveals the

highly rugged mountainous character of the region, as

well as the north-west south-east trend of the zanskar

and Great Himalayan ranges. The entire western and

southern boundary of the tehsil lies elevated over 5,300

metres above sea level, 1 along the crest of the Great

Himalayan range and the watershed dividing the drainage

basin of the Zanskar river from the Chenab river basin

in Lahul and Kishtwar tehsils. Most of this area above

5,300 metres lies under snow in the form of glaciers

which provide meltwater to 'fingertip' streams in the

drainage network.

1. source: 1:250,000 topographical sheets published by the .Survey of India.

lr- - ~~\'-

1

i 1lf;

/

-{

\ . ':

1T'·

ll

I I i

II I I

, .. ! ~.;-

J

-·-- STATE BOUNDARY -· -·-·-·- DISTRICT BOUNDARY

- ----- TEHSIL BOUNDARY ---RIVER

ZANSKAR

GENERALISED CONTOUR MAP

700

/

Map . 2-1

) ,,

rf Jl

"

59

The eastern port~on of the tehsil situated on the

right bank of the south-east north•west flowing Lunak

and the left bank of the Stot that flows from the opposite

north-west south-east direction, reveals a highly dissected

and complex structure. This southern part of the zanskar

range that falls within Zanskar tehsil, though not as

highly elevated as the Great Himalayan range is neverthe­

less extremely rugged in character.

This extreme rugged1ty of the mountains with very

steep slopes as shown by the generalised contour map,

was further examined by calculating and mapping the

ruggedity index, 1 and broad trend of slope zones. 2 The

1. The ruggedity index 'R' was calculate:l by super­imposing an inch grid over the topographic sheet and calculating the product of the number of average contour crossings per mile by the number of drainage eros sings per mile, for each grid. (After Dr. K. P. Dhurandher, A more rational approach to the deter­mination of slopes of land surfaces, The Indian GeograEhical Journal, vol.SS {1980), pp:37-48.

2. C.K. Wentworth's formula was used to calculate the average slope of the land surface. Average number of contour crossing per mile into the contour interval divided by 3,361 (constant). The constant 3,361 is the mean of all possible values of sine which is the angle bet\'teen the grid lines and contours. In Map II.3, the average slope of each grid was calculated and isopleths deonting various slopes zones were drawn. Thus 5 zones were identi­fied with slopes ranging from 0-5°, 10-15° and 20° to 25°. C.K. Wentworth, "A Simplified Method of Determining the Average Slope of Land Surfaces", American Journal of Sciences, Series 5 (1930),

60

ruggedity index brings o_y.t the relationship bet\<1een the

slope and number of drainage lines per unit area. Thus

a· high index value will denote steeper slopes and more

erosion as compared to areas with a low value. The

isopleths based on the calculated ruggedity index values

seen from Map II.2, range from below 0.09 in the west to

over 1.0 in the east. The highest values of 1.03 were

found along the eastern part of the tehsil in the highly

glaciated and eroded Zanskar range, while the western

part in the great Himalayan range had relatively loN

ruggedity index values~ due to the high sumrrdt elevations

that are still covered by snowfields and glaciers.

Slope zones shown by Map II.3 follow the trend

outlined by the ruggedity index. 1 In the analysis of

land surfaces, the calculation of slopes are important

for practical applications. To a large extent for

example, slopes influence the availability of cultivated

land and land for other human activities. Along the

Zanskar range in the eastern part of the tehsil, slopes

are inclinOO. betv1een 15° to 25°. In the lower parts

of the Great Himalayan Range, slopes range from 10° to

1. Due to the non-availability of detailed maps and the extreme ruggedity of the region, the slope zones presented only show a highly generalised trend.

-r t~.-v:-·.)t, ,... . I. : : : : ),-"? . r:-r- • ,.,r.::r-:-.. :"":,

/::: ) ~~~\r.L /.::::::( 1,12]Ji·

r.~.:;;;;. " , ~~ ]'brnr_r-/ ....

/· ..... :::: y-: ·. : : : : : : .. : : : ':-..'--~. . . . ... ---... ) .......... · ... : :::::.. . . :::)

, ...... ·t- . . . . . . . . . . J "'·. . "·· .... ·. '\,· ........ : J

1

ZANSKAR RUGGEDITY INDEX

5 0 5 10 15

Kms.

:"\..

~ -~ ........ " ~

1\ ~

'·t._f ""' ........ \. . r \"""":: : . ,., ·~.\"':· ~ .:. ~ .:. ::: qr:: ..

~~\ .,...., 1 ....... '\

_h ·::: ~ ~ '\" ........

RUGGEDITV INDEX

- 1-09-0-90

~ 0·"89- 0-70

IIIII t I 0·69 - o.so § 0-49-0-30

j: : ::: :1 0-29- 0-10

D BELOW 0-09

\ ........ . . . ..... ':-y::: .... ::: ::>"\

/:. ·.·/"\· :<\~ '-'"' ....... ,.. .

""'·-t \:< ' .. : : : .,::--:. l(""

·" . . ':"-:-~- ..... . \ . . . . . . \ ··~ : : : : : : : .· : ·\1~

·~· ...... \ \.~: :-: : : . ; >'\::Jr-..~,.,

••• 0

•• 0 0 •• \1 'f:T:: '-·,. . . . . . ~ . • ,:~ . ::: \ ·ii ....

'• 0. 0 0 ·'

··~-~ ., '· .... ,_ •

Map. 2-2

~ 1\·.:::) l .. "-· . .......

IK (,

1'.

·~.1~

61

15°, though the high s~ts under snow fields and

glaciers have comparatively gentle slopes ranging from

0° to 5°. Slopes in the Stot valley in the northern

part of the tehsil, are comparatively gentler than those

in the Lunak valley to the south.

Variations in the topography within the zanskar

tehsil were seen at a more detailed level along the

main river valleys. Map II.4 shows selected valley

profiles along the major settlements in the valleys

of the Stot, Lunak and Zanskar ri v.ers. 1 From the profiles

it becomes apparent that the Stot and Zanskar river

valleys are considerably wider than the Lunak valleyG

Villages along the Stot valley are also comparatively

less widely spaced than villages along the Lunak valley.

One of the most important facts that emerge from

the analysis of the generalised contour map, the ruggedity

index, slope zones and valley profiles, is the almost

total absence of flat land except in the triangular

confluence zone where the Stot and Lunak join to form

the Zanskar river. This relatively flat areas is central

to the entire region and can be clearly distinguished

from the stot and Lunak valleys.

1. Profiles of these valleys were constructed at right angles to the main river channel~ next to each settlement.

f

SLOPE IN DE6REES

-ABOVE 20

~ 15-20

[][[1IJ 10 - 15 a 5-10

Oo-5

Map. 2.3

ZANSKAR SLOPE ZONES

Kms.

~I

~~.

62

The Stot valley begins from the Pensila1 pass - ~

opening the Zanskar region towards Kargil in the north.

Two cirques immediately after the pass are surrounded

by glacial mounds and frost weathered angular boulders

and stones which clearly reveal the periglacial environ-

ment at this altitude. The largest glacier in Zanskar -

the orang Drung also originates from the ranges near

the Nun Kun massif and can be clearly seen from the

pensila pass. Terminal, lateral and medial moraines

are also visible around the glacier. The meltwater

from this and other small glaciers flow as the Stot

river till it reaches the central confluence zone.

The descent into the main Stot valley opens out

into a wide U-shaped valley. Frost action and masswasting

have formed large talus cones and scree slopes approximately

100 to 200 metres in height. Glacio-fluvial action has

formed a series of alluvial fans along the valley floor.

Fluvial action has resulted in the downcutting of the

original glacial moranic deposits, and in a few places,

aggradation and subsequent degradation has resulted in

the formation of river terraces overlain with rounded

.. --------~~--------

1. 'La' in Tibetan means pass, and is added as a suffix to the name of the pass. Refer, Map I.3 for the names of village mentioned in this section.

I

J

/ /

I I

I I

/

/ /

/

I

I

--(/ ,.-. \ i

\... .r--· I / ........ __..-. .,.,·

I

I I

I

..,--·-·-·-...., ,

S CAI.E OF PROFILES

VER"OCAL lc:m,l200m

HCRZOH1o\l 2cm 1 2-5 km.

·-·-.-.. ,.--..., -·-· ,, ..... ,

' \ ,.-.......

Map. :!4

ZANSKAR

SELECTED VALLEY PROFILES 5~~~0--~5~~1§0--~15

Kms

63

boulders. Tributaries in hanging valleys entering the

main stot bring considerable amounts of sediments \'lith

their torrential flow. A number of springs are also

found along the valley floor. These springs can best

be seen around the fresh water lake in the valley near

Sani villag~ at the beginning of the central triangular

zone.

The entire length of the Stot valley presents a

series of talus cones and glacio-alluvial fans along the

slopes, that have been deposited over the moranic deposits

formed earlier.

The second major headstream of the Zanskar, the

Lunak river, originates from a number of glaciers in the

higher reaches of the Zanskar range in both Zanskar and

Lahul tehsils. The main source, however, lies in the

stream originating from the Shingo glacier near the

Shingola pass connecting Zanskar with Lahul. AS found

near the Pensila Pass, angular blocks weathered by frost

action lie strewn along the slopes near the Shingola

pass as well. The route from this pass along the Lunak

river abruptly opens into a wide u-shaped valley covered

with moranic debris and large erratics. Unlike the stot

valley which throughout has smooth polished slopes, this

section of the Lunak valley is, hmvever, comparatively

more rugged. Like the Stot valley, a series of alluvial

64

fans, talus cones and scree slopes line the valley floor

till the village of Testa which is situated on a large

recessional moranic mound.

Beyond this village, fluvial action has been

much more dominant in the recent past, for the predominant

. landscape features of this valley are river terraces cut

out of the earlier glacial moranic deposits. The Lunak

meets another large tributary the Niri Chu just below

the village Chah. The Niri Chu has deeply cut its channel

forming a steep gorje. Rapid subaerial denudation in

these arid conditions have formed earth pillers from

glacial debris along the river bank.

Along the sides of tributary valleys, rounded

stones embedded into the side clearly indicate the level

of the river prior to the downcutting action of fluvial

erosion.

Frorn Chah village, the Lunak river carries on

northward in a much narrower valley with extremely irregular

and rugged slopes, quite unlike the Stot valley and upper

reaches of the Lunak valley. Fluvial action, weathering

and masswasting typify the geomorphic processes in this

section of the valley, with river terraces and scree slopes

being the predominant landscape features, besides the

erratics and debris of earlier glaciation. The Lunak

65

valley from Chah om1ards ,.upto the central confluence

zone, is narrower and in sections forms a steep walled

gorge.

Both the Stot and Lunak rivers encompass the

central plain z9ne to meet at the foot of Karsha village.

The stot river enters the plain as a slugrJish braided

stream, while the Lunak flows in a deep well defined

channel. Pad«rn the tehsil headquarters, is situated

on a rocky outcrop at the point where the Lunak enters

the Central plain zone.

The triangular shaped central confluence zone

probably contained a massive snov1field excen::ling from

the Stot valley glacier during the geological period

of glaciation. There are three clearly defined Kame

terraces on the Stot river side where Karsha is situated,

and two Kame terraces go onto the slopes on the side

between the stot and Lunak valley at the base of the

triangle. The third side along the Lunak river has

been polished smooth and covered with scree slopes

through the process of mas s\-vasting and frost action.

As mentioned earlier, fluvial action has been

the most important agent in the recent past. Four river

terraces occupy the area between the Stot and Lunak

streams before their confluence, " ••• indicating periods

66

of equilibrium or alternating periods of aggredation t'

and incision". 1 Pipiting village is situated. on a conical

hill on the first terrace on the otherwise flat triangular

valley. The entire terraced part of this valley is covered

by rounded stones, gravel and very fine grey silt deposited

by occasional flooding of water laden with glacial silt.

Beyond the point of confluence, the valley remains

wide and u-shaped with the sides covered by a series of

alluvial fans and talus cones. At the apex of the

triangular zone is a large morainic ridge just below

the village of Tongde which has subsequently been partly

covered by an alluvial fan. From Tongde the main Zanskar

river turns northwards and flows in a wide u-shape valley

for a distance of approximately three kilometres beyond

Zangla the last village in the tehsil. Beyond Zangla,

the valley abruptly changes into a steep walled gorge

which continues upto the point where the Zanskar river

meets the Indus near Nimmo village in Leh District.

All the areas of human activity are situated in

the three main valleys of the tehsil. The pockets that

contain settlements and cultivated land are generally _______ , 1. H. Osmaston, ~e Geology« -GeomorRhology a~

Quaternary History of~anskar fBristol University, unpublished paper, 1981), p.7.

67

situated in those areas where the land surface is flat

enough, has an adequate soil cover and available water.

These conditions necessary for cultivation are generally

satisfied by alluvial fans and river terraces. These

two units, thus, become the most important landforms that

are directly suited to human needs.

In the natural environment, therefore, the largely

negative mountain physiography in terms of high altitude,

rugged and steep slopes of Zanskar, have limited the

availability of land resources to selected favourable

sites in the valley region especially on alluvial fans

and river terraces. The quality of land as seen by the

soil cover thus becomes very important.

II.2.3 Soils

A major aspect of land resources is the quality

of land available for utilization. The soil is a dynamic

layer in the sense that many complex physical, chemical

and organic processes operate simultaneously within the

soil and these in turn undergo important changes with

the passage of time. 1 Soils are composed of inorganic

substances derived from the parent mineral bedrock and

1. A.N. strather, et. al., Elements of Ph~sical Geography ('v'liley& Sons,New York, 1~1 ), p.191.

68

of organic matter including a synthesis of organic

compounds. The type of soil is of prime concern in

regarding land as a resource especially in agricultural

societies, since the soil is the life layer in which

plant nutrients are produced.

In the rugged, arid, cold, mountainous conditions

of Zanskar, the depth, texture and composition of soil

becomes a prime determinant in relegating land for

agricultural uses especially since steep slopes and

ruggedity greatly limit toe availability of the total

land area. The soil profile as seen from a building

construction site near Padam, reveals a weakly developed

profile, with a thin 2-3 inch 'A' horizon, the near

absence of a •s• horizon and a predominant •c• horizon

composed of glacial morainic detritus. This moranic

depositional composition in Zanskar has largely determined

the soil texture. The texture is important in soils

because it determines the ability of the soil to retain

moisture and transmit water to the layers below. By

and large the soil texture in Zanskar is sandy-loam.

A percentage break-up of soils constituents1 reveals

that on an average 3.77 per cent comprises of coarse

1. Based on a survey undertaken by the Agricultural Department, at Padam (1981).

69

sand, 54.82 per cent of fine sand, 15 per cent of silt ;•

and 25.5 per cent of clay. The proportion of silt varies

between 3.3 per cent to 28.5 per cent, while clay varies

from 12 per cent to 25.5 per cent within the valley. The

amount of organic carbon found in the soil ranges from

0.3 per cent to 0.87 per cent and is much lesser than

the proportion found in the adjoining northern Kargil

tehsil. A chemical analysis 1 of the soil composition shows

that 84.63 per cent of the soil contains acid in soil

residues, oxides account for 15.54 per cent (others =

7.5 per cent, Ferric = 4.3 per cent, Calcium = 3.7 per

cent, and Magnesium = 0. 04 per cent), Phosphorus for

0.25 per cent, Potash for 0.03 per cent, Nitrogen for

0.07 per cent, Carbon for 0.67 per cent and Organic

matter for 1.56 per cent. With the p.h. value at 7.3,

the soil is alkaline, as usually found in dry areas where

soluble salts have been washed or leached away.

This low organic or humus content reveals that

the soils of Zanskar are poor in terms of agricultural

fertility. The organic composition has been greatly

increased by the use of manure on cultivated land, but

the rugged environment, aridity and cold climate have

9reatly limited the depth and fertility of the soil

1. ~·

70

layer. Though the quality o£ land is renewable and I'

can be improved_through chemical fertilization, it would

be a feasible proposition only after very large capital

inputs in the case of Zanskar.

!!.2.4 ~Resources

It is clear from the proceeding discussion that

Zanskar typifies a mountainous topography formed largely

by glacio-fluvial geomorphic processes. As stated earlier,

due to the inherent environmental contraints imposed by

the high altitude, extreme ruggedity, steep slopes,

underdeveloped and poor soils, human activity is limited

to a few select favourable sites that can sustain

cultivation, the main economic activity and hence the

human population. Cultivation is possible primarily

where land is flat or relatively gently sloping, and

most importantly has an adequate soil cover.

Land resources available 1 for human use in Zanskar,

are limited due to strong environmental constraints on

the one hand and the low level of technology on the

other. Table II.l and Figure II.l clearly reveal that

approximately 11 per cent of the total tehsil area

accommodates all .. the settlements of the region. On the

1. Land use has been subsequently analysed in Chapter v.

ZANSKAR

ALTIMETRIC FREQUENCY CURVE

7000

6500

6000

t.fl LLJ 0::

5500 I-LLJ ~

z 5000

I-I 15 4500 uJ I

4000

3500

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

---------- PERCENTAGE AREA

Fig 2·1

71

Table II.l: ~titudina~~

--Altitude zone Area Cummu- (% Area Cummu-

(sq. km.) lati ve . lative area % Area (sq. km.)

---Below3500 I 123.13 123.13' 2.14 2.14

3500-3650 173.50 296.6 3 3.02 5.16

3650-4000 34 2. 94 6 39.57 5. 96 11.12

4000-4500 II 1648.64 2288.21 28.64 39.76

4500-5100 III 2173.86 446 2. 07 37.78 77.54

Over 5100 1292.47 5754.54 22.46 100.00

I Valley zone with settlements anj agriculture.

II Slopes with natural pastureland.

III Upper slopes and summits.

No. of Villages in alti-tudinal belt

5

12

8

72

basis of altitudinal variation three broad zones can t'

be identified as shown in Map II.5. These are the valley

zone containing all the area below 4,000 metres, identified

as the zone that can sustain agriculture; Zone B lying

between 4,000 metres to 4,500 metres that contains

sheltered valleys with natural pasture land. which are

, used for grazing purposes during summer months and Zone c

comprising all the land surface above 4,500 metres, being

the source of glacial fed streams that provide water to

the other two zones. For all practical purposes with

the exception of routes and mountaineering expeditions,

zone c is more or less beyond the realm of human activities

when considered in realistic terms. It is thus the valley

zone that provides land resources which can be and are

being exploited.

The paucity of water greatly restricts the land

area available for human use. The water availability

influences the location of settlements and hence of human

activities. Land as a resource can thus be better

analysed when considered along with the water resources

available, as the two are equally important in influencing

the man-environment interaction proces.s in areas like

zanskar.

/

v·..,-·-·-._.. 1 . ·--- ..... _.J .,_

INDEX ALTITUDE IN METRE

B ABOVE4500

D 4000-4500

[illill]illJ BELOW 4000

Map. 2.5

ZANSKAR

ALTITUDINAL ZONES 5 0 5 10 15

Kms.

"'-·-·""\ \. ·-. \

73

II.3 Drainage and Water Resources ;'

water is perhaps the most vital link between the

biotic community and the abiotic components of the

environment. Generally speaking human activities initially

tend to establish themselves in the vicinity of water

bodies. The drainage pattern and basin characteristics

of a region, thus indirectly reveal the water resource

potential for human use. Analysis of the man environment

interaction process w~thin a basin has been a well established

principle of water resource management and the basis of

development plans. In mountain lands especially, the

drainage network greatly influences the location of human

activity. The arid mountainous environment in Zanskar has

multiplied. the importance of water in the man-environment

interaction process, and the analysis of the drainage basin

characteristics are of great significance in order to

estimate potential water resources. The following section,

therefore, includes an analysis of:

(a) Drainage characteristics

~) Water resources.

II.3;1 Drain~e Characteristics

Zanskar tehsil lies to the north-east of a clearly

defined watershed boundary between the Great Himalayan

Range and the Zanskar range, within the basin of the

74

Zanskar river. The dominant drainage pattern in the ,.

region is of the trellis type, in which the actual arrange­

ment of the main river and its tributaries lie in a

rectilinear pattern as shown in Map II.6. The principle

elements of this pattern are long parallel subsequent

streams occupying the narrow valleys of weak rock strata

that tend to be at right angles to the consequent streams.

This pattern is especially accentuated in the Lunak basin

that lies in the highly dissected Zanskar range.

The tehsil can be further subdivided as shown by

Table II.2 into the catchment area of the Lunak basin

draining 54 per cent of the total land area, the Stot

basin covering 34 per cent and the remaining 12 per cent

falling into the catchment area of the main Zanskar river. 1

Figure II.2 showing the longitudinal profile of the

main streams highlights that along the entire length of

the stot river which is 68.87 kilometre, the altitudinal

decent is from 4,400 metres at the Pensila to 3,505 metres

at the confluence with the Lunak river. The Stot river,

therefore, has an average fall of 14.57 metres per kilometre

{77 feet in one mile). The Lunak is 90.12 kilometre in

1. This includes the area occupied by those streams that enter the Zanskar river after the confluence of the Stot and Lunak, till the point where the Zanskar river leaves the tehsil.

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE

STOT R1VER

1.000

CONFLUENCE 3000

80

5000 LUNAK RIVER Vl

w

a:: 4500

~

w

:l: L.OOO CONFLUENCE

3000 0 10 20 30 1.0 50 60 70 80 90

KILOMETRE

ZANSKAR RIVER 3000

TEHSIL BOUNDARY

2000 0 10 20 30 1.0 5) 60 70 80 90

KILOMETRE

Fig 2·2

75

length from its origin in the Shigo glacier at 5,096 t'

metres and drops to 3,505 metres where it meets the Stot.

The average fall in the main Lunak valley is thus 10.79

metres per kilometre (57 feet per mile). The length of

that part of the Zanskar river that falls within the

tehsil boundary is 20.59 kilometre from the point of

confluence, and 97.84 kilometre upto Nimmo where the

Zanskar joins the Indus. Within the tehsil, from the

point of confluence onwards the river dips from 3,505

metres to 3, 268 metres and has an average slope of 16.47

metres per kilometre (87 feet per mile). This brings out

the relatively steep gradient of all the three main valleys.

The dynamics of the entire drainage network can be

further analysed through a network analysis that will

bring out the intrinsic relationship between the catchment

area, its component streams, and· the discharge of the

trunk stream. The defining of the drainage basin in terms

of a hierarchy of stream order segments as shown in

Map II. 6 is important in assessing the spat.ial aspects

of hydrological processes. In this hierarchical order,

all fingertip channels become first order streams, two

first order stre~~s meet to form a second order stream

and so on. Table II. 2 gives the _stream order for the

three basins in Zanskar. From the table it becomes

obvious that first order streams predominate in all three

I I

I

----.

STATE BOUNDARY

DISTRICT BOUNDARY

TEHSIL BOUNDARY

GLACIERS FIRST OROER STREAMS

SECOND ORDER STREAMS

THIRD ORDER STREAMS

FOURTH ORDER STREAMS

FIFTH ORDER STREAMS

1-,\ ,, '

I\ .,, " I ' I \ '-~

!<lap. 2-6

ZANSKAR

STREAM ORQERN;

0 1)

Kms

\.

76

Table II.2: ~~Orders and Bifuca!l2E Ratio

Subregion Stream'order I II III IV v

Total Stream Segments

---·---Lunak (Rb)

Number of stream segments

%

3.13 6. 30

335 107

{72. 35) (23. 12

5.66

17

(3. 67)

Length(km) 837.5 170.0 92.5

% (68.36 {13. 87) ·.. (7. 55)

~ {~) 5.83 12.00 2.00

Nurnl'>er of stream segments

'Yo

140 24

(83.83) {14.37)

2

{1.20)

Length(km) 245 119.5 60

% (54.44) {26.55) (13.44)

Central _Elain {Rb) 5.56 3.00

Number of stream segments 85 17

% (80. 19) ( 16. 04)

Length{km) 187.5 72.5

'Yo (65. 22) (25. 22)

3

(2.83)

15.00

(5. 21)

Total {~) 3.78 6.72 s.so

Nwnber of streams

Length of

560 148

(76.09) (20.11)

22

·(2. 99)

stream 1270 36 2 168

(64.71) (18.45) --------

-----------------3.00

3

{0. 06)

60.0

(4. 89)

1

{0.60)

25.5

(0. OS)

1

(0. 09)

12.5

(4. 35)

1

• •

463

-{!OO.OO)

6~ .. 0 1225

{5.30) (100.00)

••

•• • •

• •

. . • •

•• ••

167

(100.00)

450.0

(100.00)

106

(100.00)

287.5

5.00

5

{0. 06)

1 736

(0.00) (100.00)

196 2. 5

{100.00)

contd ••• p. 76 a ••

76a

table II.2 •• contd •••

Drainage denSity ---Subregion Total Basin Recent Drainage

stream Area Basin Density length (sq. km.) %Area ---

Lunak 1225.00 3017.56 52.44 0.41

Stot 450.00 1978.18 34.38 0.23

Central plain 287.50 758.80 13.18 0.38

Total 1962.50 5754.54 100.00 o. 34 ---- --

77

valleys constituting 68.36 per cent of the total stream

length in the Lunak basin, 54.44 per cent in the stat

basin and 65. 21 per cent in the Zanskar basin.

The shape or morphology of basins largely controls

the ordering of streams which can be stu1ied by the

bifurcation ratio between successive orders of streams.

In regions of homogenous bedrock, this ratio 'R' generally

-ranges between 3 to 5. Thus if the value of 'R' is below

3 or above 5; it shows variations in the bedrock of

different strea.111 orders. In Zanskar, as shO\-Jn in

Table II. 2, the bifurcation ratio for all three basins,

ranges from 3.78 first order to every second order streams,

6.72 second order to every third order, 5.5 third order

streams to every fourth order stream and 5o0 fourth order

streams to the main Zanskar river. Within the three sub­

basins, the lithography of bedrock is mostly markedly

different in the Stot river, with 5.8 first to every

second order stream, 12 second order streams to every

third order stream, and 2 third order streams to the

main Stot river. The rocks are, however, comparatively

more homogenous in the Lunak especially between the first

and second order streams as the value of 'R' is 3.13, and

between the fourth and fifth order where 'R' is 3.0.

78

The total stream length of all orders to basin I

area is among the most sensitive of morphometric parametres

controlling the texture of landscape dissection and the

spacing of streams. This ratio defined as the drainage

density 'D' or total stream length per unit area of basin,

reveals the operation of surface run off in dissecting

the landscape through fluvial processes. Table II.2

shows that there is a total length of 0.34 kilometres

of stream length to every square kilometre of area. Within

the valleys, the Stot has the lowest drainage density

where D=O. 23 per square kilometre follo\ved by the Lunak

with D=0.41 and Zanskar river with D=0.38. These low

values of drainage density can be mainly attributed to

aridity.

The low drainage density and the predominance of

the smaller number of first order and second order streams

highlight the chronic water problem especially in the

Stot valley. Many of the first and second order streams

are mere trickles during swwner, and all the streams

including the main rivers are frozen during winter, thus,

further accentuating the scarcity of water in Zanskar. 1

1. A more realistic practical analysis of water poten-tials through the analysis of discharge data, surface runoff, erosion estimates, evapotranspiration etc. is required before the actual resource potential can be assessed. These aspects could not be analysed due to the lack of data, and the difficult field conditions that made primary surveys of this sort beyond the scope of this research work.

79

II. 3. 2 Water Resources ,.

From the analysis of drainage basin characteristics

in the stot, Lunak and Zanskar valleys, it becomes apparent

that there is an acute water scarcity in the region in

terms of total land area. This total land area, however,

is not available for human use, and the availability of

water resources is especially important in approximately

only 11 per cent of the total land area that flanks the

main river channels where all the settlements of zanskar

are situated. This clearly shows the great influence

drainage has on the location of human activities in keeping

with the pattern observed in most mountain lands.

The land area that flanks the major streams can

be amply supplied with more water by the use of modern

technology. At the present level of non-mechanization,

hO\-lever, very little of this available water is used, as

the present needs for water are limited to agricultural

land and for domestic purposes. All the set:tlernents lie

on the valley slopes at a higher altitude than the level

of water in the main river. Thus, small tributary streams

that flow into the main river are the primary source of

water.

Water is d±verted through/Kuls or irrigation

channel·s from the side valleys streams to the village

headworks. The amount of water available in these small

so

streams depends on fluctupting climatic conditions in

terms of temperature variations affecting sno\vmelt, amount

of precipitation and other related factors. This uncertainty

and seasonal variations have greatly enhanced the chronic

water shortages in some villages like Tongde, whereas it

causes floods in some low lying fields in Upti and Pipiting

villages.

A special note should be made of the scarse though

extremely important source of water from springs. Springs

provide clean water all year round and become vital during

winter when streams get frozen. Spring water wherever

available is primarily used for drinking and domestic

purposes, as it is much cleaner than water that flows

through the Kuls. A few isolated homesteads as an exception

to the general rule, use spring water to irrigate a few

fields that lie away from the main kul network, thus

augmenting the water shortage.

The non-availability of adequate quantities of water

at the right season, is among the most important problems

faced by the zanskar population. At the present level of

technology, water sources are limited to the flow from

side tributaries which in turn depend on climatic parameters.

These two factors {low technology and low precipitation)

with the general water scarcity, constitute the major

81.

environment constraints that further accentuate the

effects of aridity. There is thus great potential for

improving the quantity of water resources through lift

irrigation, dam and canal construction.

There are at present a number of schemes undertaken

by the State Government for improving the water resources

in Zanskar. 1 Of these the most important is the Haftal

Canal command scheme which began in 1979-80. This canal

on completion is geared to. meet the water requirements of

the villages Padum, Pipiting, Rugruk, Nyuruk, Selapi and

Gyapak, with a minimum discharge of 70 cusecs approximately

in winter ani 3,409 cusecs during the flood season in

summer. The total financial cost outlay of this scheme

with the Kumik Kul scheme is an estimated ~.56.60 lacs,

of which ~.1.6 lacs was spent in 1979-80, ~.0.9 lacs in

1980-81 and ~.3.5 lacs in 1982-83.

Among other efforts are two ongoing and six new

schemes which will bring 4,841 hectares under irrigation

at an estimated cost of ~.395.58 lacs. Within the flood

control and anti-erosion schemes, the physical targets

aim to cover 23.2 kilometre of embankments and spurs

and protect about 400 hectares against floods in 16

1. SUb-divisional Magistrate, Padam.

8:~

villages. These flood prevention schemes are located

at Sani, Abran, Rugruk, Yulang, at Haftal (near Sani)

and Pipiting along the Haftal canal com~and region, with

spot treatment along the Lunak, Stot and their tributaries.

Though there is an apparent lack of adequate water

resources in Zanskar at the moment, this can be overcome

by improving the methods of irrigation and introducing

small and medium projects like the Haftal canal scheme1

and by introducing mechan~sed lift irrigation in selected

favourable sites. Alternatively the existing system of

Kuls can be improved (as in the case of Kumik kul scheme)

by increasing their size, and lining them to:prevent

seepage from the point of origin to the village head' . .,orks.

II.4 Climate

Harsh climatic conditions pose another very

important environmental constraint in shaping the pattern

of life in Zans 1<ar. The seasonal rythm of the sun has

clearly defined the short summer from June to September

when all economic activities are at a peak and the long

1. Enough ecological considerations have not been given in the construction of the Haftal canal, due to the closeness of the Stot nallah near Pipiting. This may lead to waterlogging due to increased irrigation in the corrunand area, which in turn could lead to floods in the future. Recommendations given by Haq Consultants, ~ techno-economic analysis .,2f Karstil District-1981, A consortium of Techno­Economic Consultants, Baitul Fazal, Jaipur.

8·3

intense cold winter, when most activities come to a

standstill. In his climatic classification, Trewartha

identified the climate of Tibet an:i similar regions to

be of the 'Highland type', and he cautions that 11 •••

representative temperature and rainfall curves for high-

land climates as a class do not exist and only the most

flexible generalisations are broadly applicable". 1

No metereological obse~atory exists in Zanskar,

and in many ways local conditions are dissimilar to

conditions in Leh, Kargil or Dras, the three stations

in Ladakh for which metereological data is available.

The following analysis based on climatic data of the

areas adjoining zanskar thus indicates the broad trend

in Zanskar rather than the specificities. The factors

analysed thus include the following:

{a) Temperature; (b) Precipitation; (c) The impact of climate on human activities in

zanskar.

II.4.1 Tem2erature

Of all the climatic parametres in Zanskar,

variations in temperature conditions are perhaps the

----------------1. G.N. Trewartha, An Introduction to Climate (Mo3raw

Hill, New York, 1968r. As quoted by H."Singh, Ladakh - Problems of Regional develo2ment in the Context of a GrowthPOle strateg:y," unpublisheaPh.D. thesis, J.N.U., 1978, p.51.

84

Table II. 3: ~y M<3;Ximum and Minimum Temperature oc {Padum)

MOnth Apri.!_ May/ July Janua;n: ,!'ebrua!:Y March Auszus!_ gptember Day Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max June Min Max Min Max Min Max .

1 -13 -5 -3 22 -2 15 8 24 11 30 3 24 2 -13 5 -3 15 -2 12 7 25 11 30 5 24 3 -10 _10 -10 5 3 18 10 25 11 26 5 24 4 -11 -3 -10 10 0 15 7 26 10 26 6 23 5 -18 -5 -5 18 0 20 9 24 12 26 6 22 6 -21 -8 -3 21 ·0 25 8 25 12 31 8 23 7 -18 -8 -12 14 -5 10 8 26 11 30 6 21 8 -18 -6 -16 10 -10 10 8 25 11 30 6 22 9 -20 -5 -5 20 -7 15 7 25 10 29 8 24

10 -10 0 -12 0 -4 15 -6 12 7 26 10 28 8 21 11 -12 -10 -10 16 -12 4 -5 10 6 25 9 29 6 23 12 -23 -3 -14 12 -18 10 -4 10 6 28 9 29 5 21 13 -26 -6 -20 -5 -18 4 -6 12 8 27 9 28 6 20 14 -23 -8 -22 -10 -12 20 -5 15 8 27 8 29 7 1'9 15 -25 -11 -18 8 -14 8 0 18 8 29 8 30 5 18 16 -25 -12 -10 6 -12 20 0 15 8 24 9 28 7 20 17 -25 -10 -12 10 -13 10 0 12 8 28 9 29 18 ' -21 -10 -15 5 -8 15 0 10 8 29 8 28 19 -21 - 5 -12 8 -10 10 0 10 9 29 7 26 20 -16 -5 0 12 -8 14 0 10 9 30 7 26 21 ;..21 -5 -8 8 -4 12 0 12 10 29 6 26 22 -18 3 -8 15 -2 23 0 10 10 29 6 28 23 -10 5 -12 6 -3 20 0 12 11 32 6 30 Source: Sub-Divi-24 -15 7 -14 8 -4 20 0 10 10 32 6 26 sional Magistrate, 25 -5 10 -5 8 -3 15 0 10 11 28 5 24 Pad am, 1981-82. 26 -8 8 -5 10 -15 12 2 18 11 28 5 24 27 -21 10 -5 10 -12 10 3 18 11 29 5 23 28 -12 9 0 20 -8 11 2 12 10 26 5 22 29 -10 0 -6 15 2 17 10 30 4 22 30 -12 8 0 20 1 15 10 28 4 21 31 -3 12

Average x -16.08 0.68 -1S.64 4.9 -8.32 13.7 -1.3 13.1 8.7 27.27 8.13 27.13

Mean -8.38 -5.37 2.69 5.9 17.98 17.6 3

85

most important in affecting human activities. t'

The high altitude Zanskar environment is essentially

an environment of progressively thinning atmosphere. There

is a fall in the partial pressure of component gases like

nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and the

density of aerosal. This results in a chain of events -

it decreases the density of air thus increasing the

transparancy of the air and altering conditions of

insolation, absorption, radiation and evaporation. Only

a small part of the solar radiation is directly absorbed

in the air and almost all terrestrial radiation escapes

and there is no green house effect. 1 Solar radiation is

stronger in this high altitude region because of the lO\v

air density and strong infra-red and ultra-violet radiation

emitted by the sun. This considerably increases temperatures

in the sun.

Th d . 1 i d . . t t . d 2 e a.1 y max mum an m~n~ml.im empera ure ~n Pa am

for selected months given in Table II.3 shows that January

is the coldest month, with a minimum temperature of-26°C,

1.

2.

M.s. Mani, !.£glom and Phytogeog:r:aphy of High altitude plants n the N.W. Himalayas {OXford ani 'fBH:" 'New belnl,1978), p.11.

These figures are provisional and based on records kept by the sub Divisional Magistrate at Padam (1982).

86

arrl August is the warme9.t month with a maximum temperature

of 31°C.

Table II.4: Monthly Distribution of Tem;ee_r~t __ ure ~~ - -

Month Dr as --------~M~ Min. Mean Max.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

-9.0

-6.7

-2.0

5.4

15.1

20.5

23.7

23.6

19.6

12.8

4.3

-4.0

-22.2 -15.6 -2.8

-21.4 -14.05 o. 8

-15.0 8.5 6.4

-5.2 0.1 12.4

1.5 8.3 17.1

5.6 13.5 21.1

10.6 17. 1 24. 7

10.5 17.05 24.2

5.9

-1. 1

-8.6

12.7 20.9

5.8 14.2

-2.1 7.8

-16.9 -10.4 1.6

Leh Kargil Min. Mean Max. Min. M~

-14.0 -8.4

-11.8 -5.5

-6.3 0.05

-1.2 5.7

2.8 9.9

6. 7 13. 9

10 .. 2 17.4

9.6 16. 9

5.4 13.1

-0.9 6.6

-6.6 0.6

-11.1 -4.6

-4.2

-1.6

4.7

14.0

21.6

25.7

29.7

23.9

24.9

18.5

10.4

1. 2

-13.3 -8.7

-12. 1 -6

-5.3 -3

3.4 8.7

9.4 15.5

13.4 19.5

17. 7 23. 7

17.2 23.05

12.5 18.7

5.4 11.9

-1.3 ;,8.5

-7.9 ..;.3.3

--------------------------source: Climatological Tables of Observations

in India (1931-1960).

More accurate and reliable data pertaining to

temperatures are available for the three meteorological

stations at Leh, Kargil and Dras in other parts of the

Ladakh region. Table II .4 gives the monthly distribution

of temperat.ure for these stations. In Dr as the maximum

0 0 temperature ranges from-9 C in January to 23.7 C in July,

while the minimum temperature ranges from-22.2°C in January

0 to 10.6 C in July. The monthly mean temperature ranges

87

from-15.6°C in January to 17.1°C in July. In Leh, the

maximum temperature ranges from~2.8°C in January to

24. 7°c in July, vlhile the minimum ranges from -14 °c to

10.2°c and mean temperature from-8.4°C to 17.4°C for the

same months. Kargil shows a range of maximum temperature

from-4.2°C in January to 29.7°C in July and a minimum of

-13.3°C in January and 17.7°C in July, with the mean

temperature ranging from-8.7°C in January to 23.7° in

July~ .~eng the Ladakhis it is acknowledged that Zcnskar

is colder than Dras.

Climatographs 1, shown in Figure II.3 for these

three stations, reveal that Dras is the coldest place

with below freezing temperature for over five months from

the last quarter of October to the first quarter of May.

Leh remains frozen from December to March and Kargil from

mid-November to March. From the data available for Padam

(Table II. 3) and from local sources (dated by the freezing

of streams) it can be seen that Padam experiences below

freezing conditions from the last quarter of October to

the end of Apri 1.

There is, however, a high ~f diurnal range of

temperature and a vast difference between temperature

in the sun and in the shade. The latter is due to the

--------------------1. H. Singh, .521?• ill·, pp. 51-53.

DRAS

A

Source H. s ingh

CL IMATOGRAPH

KARGIL

INDEX -­'·

COLD -

COOL ~

:-~WARM

ITIIIIIJ H 0 T •

Fiq. 2 .. 3

LEH

88

increased air transperancy because of which most objects t'

heat up much faster in the sun at high altitudes than

they do at sea level.

II.4.2 Precipitation

The Ladakh region of which zanskar forms a subset,

has aptly been called a. cold desert. The region lies in

the rain shadow zone of the Great Himalayan Range which

acts as an effective barrier to the moisture laden Monsoon

winds. By the time these winds cross the Great Himalayan

Range and blow over Ladakh, they are dry and do not

provide much moisture. As in the rest of the He stern

Himalayas, the Western disturbances are the main source

of precipitation. Precipitation in the form of rain is

minimal and is received mostly in the form of snow during

the winter months. The annual rainfall in Dras is

64.8 em, in Kargil it is 23.88 em and in Leh the

rainfall' is only 9.14 em. Most of the precipitation is in

the form of snow and some light rain during July and

August.

In Padam1, there is an a~proximate annual

rainf.all of 10 to 20 em. Most of this rainfall occurs

in 16 rainy days during the months July and August.

1. Data based on field observations and provisional figures obtained from the sub-Divisional 11agistrate Pad am (1982).

89

Precipitation in the fo~m of snow during the winter is

more important as a source of water. Most of this snowfall

ultimately augments the water supply of glacial meltwater

streams. There is, however, no recorded data on the

amount of snO\-Ifall in Padam.

II.4.3 Impact of Climate on Human Activities

From the preceding discussion it becomes apparent

that Zanskar has a harsh climate that contributes to cold

and arid conditions, which affect agriculture - the prime

occupation. Below freezing temperatures for nearly half

the year greatly limit the length of the agricultural

season and hence the pattern of the agricultural economy.

Corresponding to the thaw in April and the below freezing

minimum temperatures in October, the cultivating season

is limited from Hay to September.

The high air transparancy increases solar radiation

which in turn increases soil temperatures. This becomes

important as it hastens the ground thavl and minimises

freezing of soil moisture. This in turn leads to hastening

the g.ermination of seeds and the groHth of plants. The

thin air density and cold water vapour make evaporation

much faster than expected at this temperature and enhance

the arid conditions.

Precipitated in the form of both rain and snow

partly flows through the glacial meltwater rivers which

90

provide water for irrigation. The lack of rain during

the required agricultural season necessitates the use of

water tapped through irrigation chanals from these melt­

water streams. In general, rain is considered detrimental

to crop growth if it falls after the ears of grain have

begun to ripen. It does not form an important source of

water directly, and in fact tends to cause frost at night

which sometimes damages the crops.

Besides the influence on agriculture, the harsh

climate further adversely affects other human activities

'in a number of ways. The intense cold during winter

greatly restricts mobility to within the village and

surrounding hamlets, as passes leading into Zanskar get

snow 't!"ound and are uncros sable during winters. Most

activities in winter are confined to the houses itself.

The impact of the harsh climate can also be seen

on the community in terms of affecting their general

,living conditions. The extreme cold in winter has

influenced the design of ho~ses which have small doors

and windows to keep the cold out and thick walls to

provide insulation. The cold has also affected the

pattern of their clothes which has necessarily to be

warm. These aspects have been- subsequently analysed.

91.

II. 5 Natural Vegetati.£!1 1•

The major environmental factors affecting plant

cover in Zanskar mainly include atmospheric cold, intense

insolation, snow cover, aridity, steep slopes and absence

of soil cover. High altitude mountain plants are

essentially found exclusively above the critical height

of 2,500-3,000 metres or above the timberline which is

the altitudinal belt with a mean temperature of 10°c in

the warmest month. High altitude plants mainly inclu1e

cryophytes, partly mesophytes and xerophytes.

The high altitude and cold climatic conditions

have confined natural vegetation to wild grasses and

small thorny bushes along mountain slopes, with occasional

grassy patches near water courses.

The most important natural vegetation, however,

is found on the higher reaches in sheltered pockets in

the form of grassy pastures where water is provided by

snowmelt. These natural pastures shelter livestock

during summer, where the animals are nurtured on grass

which is reportedly 'greener and more nutritious• than

that found in the lov1er altitudes. Unlike most other

mountain lands, zanskar does not have any forest resources

due to the lack of tree vegetation. This has greatly

limited the possibilities for the development of activities

Year

--1970-71

1971-72

1972-73

1973-74

1974-75

1975-76

1976-77

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

92

Table II.5: Number of Trees ,. Planted -

WilloH arrl Poplar

39, 230

58,600

54, 200

43,700

7, 600

2, 000

19,834

20,500

18,700

12, 100

Hyponphar=

7,500

19, 000

50,000

93

geared to forest products. ,··

Trees are limited to favourable sites near water

courses and generally found near the vicinity of a Gompa

or near a mosque as in the case of Padam. Trees carefully

tended in the villages are treated as valuable assets.

The predominant varieties are poplar, willow and hyponphae.

Unlike the rest of the Himalayan forested belt, wood is

almost non-existent, and does not constitute an important

1 source of fuel. Almost all the requirements for wood

used in house construction and for other uses comes from

beyond Zanskar.

Efforts undertaken by the Government Forest

Department for afforestation and land reclamation, are

still in their infancy. Prior to their efforts, the only

land under some tree cover was limited to Shila a hamlet

of Padam, and to Thungri and Ichar villages in the Stot

Valley. Table II.5 gives the nwnber of trees planted by

the Forest Department in Zanskar during the last decade.

Under the Sixth Annual Plan, schemes undertaken

by the Forest Department included demarcation, consolidation

and protection of 128 hectares at a financial outlay of

-----/

1. Twigs and bushes are however very important as fuel and juniper is especially important for use in monasteries. •

94

Rs. 26, ooo. Reimbursement and restoration of natural . t'

vegetation was undertaken for a physical target of 56

hectares at the cost of Rs.68,000, while the physical

target for afforestation programmes was 124 hectares at

a cost of Rs.10. 06 lacs, and development of pastures and

fodder was taken up in 170 hectares at a cost of

1 Rs. 2. 03 lacs.

A second programme under the Desert Development

scheme has further set a physical target of planting

45,000 saplings under their social Forestry Scheme at a

cost of Rs.45,000, and a further 20,000 saplings under

their canal bank protection scheme at a cost of Rs.5o,ooo.

II.6 Mineral and Energy Resour~

One of the interpretations given to the coinage

of the name Zanskar, is the origin from Zangs-kar or

the land of copper. 2

In historical records, Zanskar was

known throughout Ladakh for its whitish copper extracted

in small quantities from river sediments near the villages

Zangla and Testa, and used primarily for making vessels

for religious purposes. Beside the use of this small

amount of copper, mineral resources are limited to the

----------------------1. Sub-Divisional Magistrate's Office, Padam.

2. A. Cunningham, ~· ~·, p. 234.

95

extraction of some lim~ used for white-washing houses,

1 ggm2as and Ehorten~. Some borax and sulpher is also

found near the hot spring near Karsha village, but this

has found use only in the medicines prepared by the

2 2.!]~·

Mining and metal work has never been an important

occupation in Zanskar due to the paucity of known mineral

deposits and the prevailing religious norms of Buddhism

where mining is considered to be plundering the soil, and ·,

a task relegated to the lower class Gara3 (blacksmith)

families. There is at present no mining of minerals

throughout Zans kar and according to the 1971 census only

3 persons were occupied in mining and quarrying activities

which mainly included the excavation of soil and stones

for building purposes. A detailed geological survey is

needed before an assessment of mineral resources can be

made, as it may reveal hitherto hidden deposits and

present some potential for further development.

The traditional uses of energy, are reflected by

the low technological level used in their exploitation.

---------------------1. Gompas are monateries and chortens are reli]ious

structures shaped like t9e stupa.

2. Am-chi is the name-for local doctors in Ladakh.

3. ASpects of social class are taken up subsequently.

96

Fuel is limited to that provided by bushes, twigs and ,.

dung used for household purposes, 1 and to the primitive

use of hyde! power in the form of watermills that make

use of the natural gradient. These watermills are

indispensable for grinding roasted food-grains into

!~~~ the basic ingredient of the Zanskari diet. An

ing~nuous use of solar radiation energy is effected by

spreading a mud 'and manure mixture over the fields during

the pre-sowing period in Apri 1. The dark brown colour

of this mixture absorbs heat and aids ground thaw, thus

increasing the crop cultivating season. With the exception

of these traditional uses, energy inputs into the system

are limited to hwnan labour and livestock power.

Vast amounts of capital, skills and technolO<:Jical

know-how would be required to construct means of obtaining

other conventional sources of energy such as thermal or

more important hydel power. More non-conventional

sources of solar and w i~ energy, hO\vever, exist in

abundance. Of these solar energy, is the obvious choice,

since its use is ideally suited to these high altitude

-----------1. In the past few years, kerosene brought into the

region from Kargil and sold at the Government Food Stores, has become an important fuel in some villages.

97

arid conditions, where the radiation per unit area is

more intense than at lower altitudes. Solar energy

potentials for .use are very high, and will probably

become more viable in the long run compared to conventional

energy sources. Other parts of Ladakh notably in and

around Leh city, have already begun to use solar energy

which has proved to be a great success. 1

It is difficult to define with any appreciable

degree of realism, the pr~spects of the economic potential

of resources in semi-isolated underdeveloped regions like

Zanskar which " ••• may or may not ultimately follow a

course of economic growth of population, industry and

income. The development of resources in these backward

reg ions awaits further discovery and technological change.•.2

As the preceding discussion brings out, Zanskar is a high

altitude, rugged, mountainous region with a harsh climate.

This has resulted in a finite resource base, where cultivable

land is limited to the zone below 4,000 metres, water is

scarce and there are no forest, mineral or fuel resources.

In this context, the economic exploitation of available

resources from the natural environment can be understood

only in relation to reasonably defined traditional potentials.

1. Ap~ndix IV presents de~ails of solar energy heating projects undertaken by the Tata Energy Research Ins~itute at Leh city. Choglamsar a village close to Leh town, has the distinction of being the first village in India to be provided with solar energy used for street and domestic lighting purposes.

2. J.L. Fisher, ..QI2• cit., p.22.