Economics325:(Public(Economics( Sections(A01,A02...

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1 Economics 325: Public Economics Sections A01, A02 University of Victoria Midterm Examination #2 VERSION 2 SOLUTIONS Fall 2014 Instructor: Martin Farnham Midterm Exam #2 Assume competitive markets and “regular” preferences (indifference curves exhibit diminishing marginal rate of substitution) unless otherwise stated. Section 1: Multiple Choice (3 points each) Select the most appropriate answer, and fill in the matching letter on your bubble form. Assume that, unless otherwise indicated, markets are competitive. 1) Which of the following statements about the role of different levels of government in policymaking is/are true? I. Local government is likely to be more responsive to local needs than higher levels of government. II. Higher levels of government (provincial or federal government) are better able to redistribute income than is local government. III. Higher levels of government (provincial or federal government) are better able to manage externalities than is local government. A) I and II only. B) I and III only. C) I, II, and III D) I only. E) II only. 2) Which of the following statements about public pensions is/are true? I. Public pensions can solve a missing market problem in the market for annuities. II. The Canada Pension Plan is likely to pay a high return per dollar contributed for people of your generation (twentysomethings). III. The retirement of Baby Boomers is causing financial stress for many public pension systems in developed countries. A) I only.

Transcript of Economics325:(Public(Economics( Sections(A01,A02...

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Economics  325:  Public  Economics  Sections  A01,  A02  

University  of  Victoria  Midterm  Examination  #2  

VERSION  2  SOLUTIONS  

 Fall  2014  Instructor:  Martin  Farnham    Midterm  Exam  #2    Assume  competitive  markets  and  “regular”  preferences  (indifference  curves  exhibit  diminishing  marginal  rate  of  substitution)  unless  otherwise  stated.    Section  1:  Multiple  Choice  (3  points  each)    Select  the  most  appropriate  answer,  and  fill  in  the  matching  letter  on  your  bubble  form.    Assume  that,  unless  otherwise  indicated,  markets  are  competitive.    1)  Which  of  the  following  statements  about  the  role  of  different  levels  of  government  in  policymaking  is/are  true?    I.  Local  government  is  likely  to  be  more  responsive  to  local  needs  than  higher  levels  of  government.  II.  Higher  levels  of  government  (provincial  or  federal  government)  are  better  able  to  redistribute  income  than  is  local  government.  III.  Higher  levels  of  government  (provincial  or  federal  government)  are  better  able  to  manage  externalities  than  is  local  government.    A)  I  and  II  only.  B)  I  and  III  only.  C)  I,  II,  and  III  D)  I  only.  E)  II  only.      2)  Which  of  the  following  statements  about  public  pensions  is/are  true?    I.  Public  pensions  can  solve  a  missing  market  problem  in  the  market  for  annuities.  II.  The  Canada  Pension  Plan  is  likely  to  pay  a  high  return  per  dollar  contributed  for  people  of  your  generation  (twenty-­‐somethings).  III.  The  retirement  of  Baby  Boomers  is  causing  financial  stress  for  many  public  pension  systems  in  developed  countries.    A)  I  only.  

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B)  II  only.  C)  III  only.  D)  I  and  III  only.  E)  I  and  II  only.    3)  Which  of  the  following  statements  about  health  insurance  markets  is/are  true?    I.  Asymmetric  information  is  likely  to  have  important  effects  on  health  insurance  markets.  II.  Health  insurance  markets  are  subject  to  adverse  selection.  III.  The  market  for  health  insurance  for  unhealthy  people  is  likely  to  be  missing.    A)  I  and  II  only.  B)  I  and  III  only.  C)  I,  II,  and  III  D)  I  only.  E)  II  only.      4)  Which  of  the  following  statements  about  public  spending  on  K-­‐12  (primary  and  secondary)  education  is/are  true?    I.  Public  spending  on  K-­‐12  education  can  be  justified  by  the  presence  of  positive  externalities.  II.  Public  spending  on  K-­‐12  education  can  be  justified  on  the  basis  of  its  usefulness  in  redistribution.  III.  Government  spending  on  K-­‐12  education  tends  to  have  the  overall  effect  of  redistributing  from  the  poor  to  the  middle  class.    A)  I  and  II  only.  B)  I  and  III  only.  C)  I,  II,  and  III  D)  I  only.  E)  II  only.      5)  Health  expenditures  in  Canada  have  risen  as  a  share  of  GDP  over  the  past  few  decades.    Which  of  the  following  is  NOT  a  likely  contributor  to  this  trend?    A)  Development  of  new,  expensive  drugs.  B)  The  fact  that  healthcare  is  an  inferior  good.  C)  Development  of  new,  expensive  treatment  technologies.  D)  The  aging  of  the  Baby  Boom  generation.  E)  The  expansion  of  universal  public  healthcare.      

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6)  Public  spending  on  early  childhood  (pre-­‐school)  education  is  thought  to  yield  a  high  return  per  dollar  spent  for  all  of  the  following  reasons,  EXCEPT:    A)  pre-­‐school  education  develops  non-­‐cognitive  skills.  B)  pre-­‐school  education  leads  to  better  learning  in  later  school  years.  C)  pre-­‐school  education  leads  to  lower  rates  of  incarceration  (going  to  prison).  D)pre-­‐school  education  leads  to  lower  rates  of  welfare  takeup  (participation  in  welfare  programs).  E)  Actually,  all  of  the  above  are  reasons  why  returns  to  early  childhood  education  are  thought  to  be  high.      For  questions  7  and  8,  consider  a  market  in  which  the  supply  curve  slopes  up,  and  the  demand  curve  slopes  down.        7)  Which  of  the  following  statements  is/are  true?    I.  A  per  unit  tax  on  the  good  will  raise  the  price  paid  by  consumers.  II.  A  per  unit  tax  on  the  good  will  lower  the  price  received  by  producers.  III.  A  tax  paid  to  the  government  by  producers  will  lead  to  a  lower  producer  price  than  a  tax  paid  to  the  government  by  consumers.    A)  II  and  III  only.  B)  I,  II,  and  III.  C)  I  only.  D)  II  only.  E)  I  and  II  only.      8)  Which  of  the  following  statements  is/are  true?    I.  The  incidence  of  a  per  unit  tax  paid  to  the  government  by  consumers  will  fall  entirely  on  consumers.  II.  The  incidence  of  a  per  unit  tax  paid  to  the  government  by  producers  will  fall  entirely  on  producers.  III.  The  incidence  of  a  per  unit  tax  paid  to  the  government  by  producers  will  fall  on  both  producers  and  consumers.    A)  III  only.  B)  II  and  III  only.  C)  I,  and  II  only.  D)  I  only.  E)  II  only.      END  SECTION  1.  

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Answer  each  question  as  clearly  and  concisely  as  possible  on  the  exam  paper.    Use  of  carefully  labeled  diagrams,  where  appropriate,  is  strongly  encouraged.        Section  2:  Short  Answers    Some  general  comments  on  drawing  indifference  curves  (ICs).    ICs  have  clear  meaning,  and  so  you  need  to  be  careful  that  when  you  draw  them,  the  meaning  you  convey  makes  sense.    Here’s  an  example  of  a  problem  drawing  a  budget  constraint.    Imagine  a  consumer  gets  utility  from  two  goods  that  they  consume:  beer  and  pizza.    If  you  draw  an  indifference  curve  that  slopes  upward  that  tells  us  something  very  specific  (and  unusual)  about  the  person’s  preferences.    

 Here’s  an  example  of  an  upward  sloping  IC.    Suppose  you  are  on  U2,  to  the  right  of  b.    You’re  indifferent  between  bundles  A  and  B,  even  though  you’ve  got  more  pizza  and  more  beer  in  bundle  B  than  you  have  in  bundle  A?    What  does  that  tell  you  about  these  goods.    If  you  compare  bundles  B  and  C,  you’ll  notice  that  both  have  the  same  amount  of  beer  but  B  has  more  pizza,  and  B  is  preferred  to  A.    That  tells  you  that  pizza  is  a  good  for  this  person  at  this  level  of  consumption.    But  if  you  compare  points  A  and  C,  you’ll  see  that  both  bundles  have  the  same  amount  of  pizza,  and  C  has  more  beer  than  A.    But  A  is  preferred  to  C!    That  tells  you  that  at  this  level  of  consumption,  beer  is  a  bad!    More  of  it  makes  this  person  worse  off.  

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 Could  it  be  true  that  more  beer  makes  you  worse  off?    It  depends  on  what  exactly  we  mean  by  more  beer.    Having  more  beer  shouldn’t  make  you  worse  off  as  long  as  you’re  not  forced  to  drink  it.    You  can  always  pour  out  a  beer,  so  it  shouldn’t  really  harm  you  to  have  more.    It  might  not  make  you  any  better  off,  but  a  flat  indifference  curve  can  reflect  that  more  realistic  relationship  between  well-­being  and  quantity  of  a  good  you  have.    Why  do  I  bring  this  up?    Because  lots  of  people  drew  upward  sloping  ICs  on  the  exam.    If  you  draw  ICs  that  slope  up,  it  indicates  a  certain  lack  of  understanding  of  what  ICs  are  and  what  information  they  convey.    It’s  not  to  say  we  can’t  have  bads  as  well  as  goods,  but  there’d  better  be  a  good  reason  for  you  to  treat  something  as  a  bad.    There  was  no  reason  to  treat  anything  as  a  bad  on  this  exam.    Here’s  another  problem  that  I  saw  WAY  too  much  of  on  the  exam:    

 Crossing  indifference  curves  create  an  automatic  logical  contradiction.    Consider  that  D,  B,  and  E  all  give  the  same  utility  as  each  other  (U2)  and  that  A,  B,  and  C  all  give  the  same  utility  as  each  other  (U1).    Because  B  is  on  both  curves  that  means  that  all  bundles  should  give  the  same  utility  as  each  other.    And  yet  E  lies  on  a  higher  curve  than  C  and  A  lies  on  a  higher  curve  than  D,  which  implies  that  all  bundles  DON’T  give  the  same  utility.    Crossing  ICs  make  no  sense.    They  are  a  logical  contradiction.    And  yet  

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many  many  people  drew  crossing  indifference  curves,  or  indifference  curves  that  clearly  were  going  to  cross  (if  only  the  line  had  been  extended  a  bit  further).    Note  that  at  the  top  of  the  exam  I  said  to  assume  “regular”  preferences.    I  therefore  took  off  points  for  both  of  these  errors  in  drawing  indifference  curves.    I  will  do  the  same  on  the  final.    I  figure  anyone  who  makes  that  mistake  on  the  final  will  demonstrate  that  they  didn’t  read  this  answer  key!    ;)    1)  14  points  total    The  Earned  Income  Tax  Credit  (EITC)  is  a  policy  in  the  US  meant  to  provide  income  support  to  working  poor  people  with  children.    Canada  has  a  similar  policy  called  the  National  Child  Benefit.    EITC  provides  a  wage  subsidy  at  low  levels  of  earnings,  offers  no  subsidy  and  no  clawback  for  a  range  of  higher  earnings,  and  eventually  phases  out  by  clawing  back—at  a  rate  less  than  100%—the  full  benefit  amount.        a)  (4  points)    Using  the  leisure-­‐consumption  model  framework,  draw  a  budget  constraint  that  reflects  the  incentives  of  EITC.        

 It’s  worth  noting  some  things  people  got  wrong  here.    Some  people  drew  a  BC  that  was  vertical  at  the  point  where  it  hits  the  leisure  axis.    That’s  appropriate  for  a  negative  income  tax,  which  comes  with  a  cash  grant  for  people  who  earn  nothing  in  the  labour  force.    The  EITC  doesn’t  do  that,  and  so  it  should  be  a  downward  sloping  line  (but  one  

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steeper  than  the  original  budget  constraint)  where  it  hits  the  leisure  axis.    That  implies  a  wage  subsidy,  whereas  a  vertical  line  implies  a  grant.    Also,  I  said  that  the  clawback  was  less  than  100%.    Several  people  drew  a  flat  section  of  the  EITC  budget  constraint  to  represent  clawback.    But  flat  indicates  100%  clawback  which  is  specifically  not  what  I  asked  for.    Those  were  the  most  common  errors.    A  lot  of  people  drew  a  budget  constraint  representing  a  negative  income  tax.    That’s  a  different  policy  with  different  incentives.    You  want  to  understand  the  differences  between  these  policies  because  they  have  different  implications  for  effects  on  the  labour  market,  which  can  be  nicely  illustrated  with  this  model.      b)  (3  points)    Using  the  leisure-­‐consumption  model,  illustrate  how  the  EITC  could  cause  some  people  to  increase  their  hours  worked  (compared  to  a  world  with  no  welfare  policy).    

 Consider  first  the  move  from  A  to  B  as  the  policy  is  introduced  (ignore  A’  and  B’  for  now).    This  is  someone  who  values  leisure  a  lot  and  chooses  not  to  work  at  all,  in  the  absence  of  EITC.    The  wage  subsidy  part  of  EITC  induces  (through  a  substitution  effect)  the  worker  to  join  the  labour  force.    They’re  better  off  at  point  B  than  at  A,  so  when  

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EITC  is  introduced,  they  increase  their  hours  worked.    I  like  this  answer  because  it  relies  on  the  wage  subsidy  to  generate  the  move  into  the  labour  force.        Many  people  answered  by  drawing  a  picture  where  the  person  started  at  a  point  like  A’  and  then  moved  to  B’  when  EITC  was  introduced.    This  is  theoretically  possible,  but  only  if  leisure  is  an  inferior  good.    Notice  that  the  effective  wage  doesn’t  change  for  this  person  after  EITC  is  implemented.    They  just  get  a  pure  income  effect.      As  I  noted  in  lecture  it’s  unrealistic  to  think  that  leisure  is  an  inferior  good  (for  example,  most  people  who  win  the  lottery  don’t  start  working  more).    I  also  said  that  when  in  doubt  you  should  assume  that  leisure  is  normal  (basically.    Hence,  if  you  gave  an  answer  that  relied  on  leisure  being  inferior,  I  took  off  1  point  and  wrote  something  like  “l  inf”  on  your  answer.        c)  (3  points)    In  a  separate  leisure-­‐consumption  diagram,  illustrate  how  the  EITC  could  cause  some  people  to  decrease  their  hours  worked  (compared  to  a  world  with  no  welfare  policy).    

Here  we  see  someone  who,  in  the  absence  of  EITC,  is  inclined  to  work  a  fair  bit  and  earn  a  fair  bit  of  income  (consumption).    Introducing  EITC  presents  them  with  an  opportunity  to  increase  their  consumption  of  leisure  by  a  lot,  while  only  lowering  their  income  (consumption)  a  bit.    For  this  worker,  they  are  better  off  at  B  than  at  A.    So  they  will  respond  to  the  policy  by  shifting  to  B,  and  therefore  reducing  their  labour  supply.    

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Can  you  draw  a  case  where  the  person  starts  off  at  A  without  EITC  and  remains  at  A  when  EITC  is  introduced?    That  sort  of  person  is  probably  out  there  as  well.      d)  (4  points)    Consider  the  two  effects  you  addressed  in  parts  (b)  and  (c)  above.    What  does  the  Chetty,  Friedman,  and  Saez  (2012)  paper  discussed  in  lecture  suggest  about  the  overall  effect  of  EITC  on  labour  supply?    CF&S  (2012)  provide  evidence  that  the  overall  effect  of  EITC  on  labour  supply  is  to  increase  labour  supply.    (That  statement  was  sufficient  for  4  points,  so  long  as  nothing  wrong  was  said  along  with  it)    The  examples  above  show  that—theoretically—the  effect  of  EITC  on  labour  supply  is  ambiguous.    Given  heterogeneous  preferences,  we  can  expect  that  some  people  will  respond  by  increasing  labour  supply,  while  others  will  respond  by  decreasing  labour  supply.    This  is  why  we  need  empirical  economists—they  test  our  theories  and  can  resolve  such  ambiguities  in  such  cases.        By  the  way,  if  you  think  I  was  ungenerous  in  my  grading,  I’ll  note  that  I  gave  full  points  to  people  who  drew  a  negative  income  tax  for  (b)  and  (c)  so  long  as  they  were  correctly  illustrating  some  aspect  of  the  negative  income  tax  that  also  exists  under  EITC.    For  instance,  clawback,  or  income  effects  of  the  policy.        

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2)  12  points  total    Consider  a  government  that  is  trying  to  provide  financial  assistance  to  a  poor  individual.  Use  the  consumer  choice  model  to  illustrate  your  answers  below.    Assume  that  consumers  allocate  their  income  between  two  goods:  1)  Food  (on  the  horizontal  axis),  and  2)  Other  Consumption  (on  the  vertical  axis).    a)  3  points    Illustrate  a  case  where  a  cash  transfer  is  as  good  for  the  poor  individual  as  a  non-­‐transferrable  food  voucher  (of  equal  cost  to  the  government  as  the  cash  transfer).    

 I  did  this  at  the  board  in  lecture,  but  you  could  figure  this  out  if  you  practiced  looking  at  the  effects  of  policies  on  people  with  different  preferences,  as  I  suggested  several  times.    Here  someone  chooses  B  if  they’re  offered  a  cash  transfer.    Since  the  budget  constraint  for  the  voucher  perfectly  overlaps  the  budget  constraint  for  an  equivalent-­cost  cash  transfer  in  this  region  of  the  graph,  the  consumer  also  chooses  B  if  they’re  offered  the  voucher.    The  intuition  is  as  follows.    If  someone  is  inclined  to  spend  a  fair  bit  of  money  on  food,  then  as  long  as  the  voucher  is  smaller  than  the  amount  they  intend  to  spend  on  food,  the  voucher  is  as  good  as  cash.    It’s  like  my  friend  I  gave  a  Shell  gift  certificate  to  (as  a  thankyou  gift).    I  thought  it  was  crass  to  give  him  cash,  and  I  knew  he  drove  a  big  

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pickup,  so  I  figured  giving  him  a  voucher  for  gas  at  a  Shell  station  was  as  good  as  giving  him  cash.          b)  3  points    Illustrate  a  case  where  a  cash  transfer  is  better  for  the  poor  individual  than  a  non-­‐transferrable  food  voucher  (of  equal  cost  to  the  government  as  the  cash  transfer).    

This  is  straight  from  the  lecture  notes.    Note  which  budget  constraint  is  which,  and  why  they’re  shaped  the  way  they  are.    Note  that  the  person  chooses  to  consume  at  A  when  there’s  no  policy.    They  choose  to  consume  at  B’  if  they’re  offered  the  voucher.    And  they  choose  to  consume  at  B  if  offered  the  cash  transfer.    B  clearly  puts  them  on  a  higher  indifference  curve  than  B’  so  they  are  better  off  with  a  cash  transfer.    Here  the  voucher  basically  forces  the  person  to  spend  money  on  food  that  they’d  rather  spend  on  other  consumption.    That’s  why  the  person  is  better  off  with  the  cash  transfer  of  equivalent  cost  to  the  voucher.                  

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c)  3  points    Show  how  the  poor  individual  would  prefer  a  cash  transfer  to  a  food  subsidy  that  costs  the  government  the  same  amount  as  the  cash  transfer.    

 In  my  view  this  was  the  hardest  question  on  the  exam.    You  have  to  have  pretty  good  command  of  this  model  to  make  this  argument  cleanly  (though  it  was  in  the  notes  and  discussed  in  lecture).    Only  a  few  people  got  it  completely  right.    Let  me  walk  you  through  it:    The  person  starts  at  A  (no  subsidy)  and  ends  up  at  C  (with  subsidy).    Note  that  they  start  on  indifference  curve  (IC)  U1,  and  end  up  on  U2.        

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In  order  to  argue  that  a  cash  transfer  is  better  than  a  subsidy  (where  the  cash  transfer  is  of  same  cost  as  the  subsidy)  we  first  need  to  assess  the  cost  of  the  subsidy.    To  do  this  move  to  point  C,  where  the  consumer  would  be  if  the  subsidy  were  offered.    Note  that  the  cost  of  the  subsidy  (the  expenditure  on  the  subsidy)  is  distance  CD.    How  do  we  know  this?    Well,  at  point  C  the  person  is  consuming  f  units  of  food.    At  point  D  they’re  consuming  the  same  amount  of  food,  but  they  have  (y-­y’)  less  income  in  their  pocket.    So  when  the  person  chooses  to  consume  f  units  of  food  with  the  subsidy,  the  government  must  be  handing  them  y-­y’  in  extra  money  to  allow  them  to  afford  point  C.    The  distance  y-­y’  is  the  same  as  distance  CD.    So  the  subsidy  that  puts  this  person  at  C  costs  the  government  distance  CD.    Now  we  just  need  to  offer  this  person  a  cash  transfer  equal  to  distance  CD  and  compare  the  consumer’s  utility  under  that  cash  transfer  and  under  the  subsidy.        Notice  that  the  cash  transfer  gives  us  a  budget  constraint  that  is  parallel  to  the  original  BC.    This  is  because  cash  transfers  (lump  sum  transfers)  don’t  distort  prices.    Notice  also  (this  is  critical)  that  the  cash  transfer  budget  constraint  passes  through  point  C,  and  in  doing  so  it  cuts  through  indifference  curve  U2.    This  means  that  it  spends  some  time  above  U2.    It  therefore  allows  the  consumer  to  reach  an  even  higher  level  of  utility  at  C’,  where  the  consumer  receives  utility  U3.    This  graphically  proves  that  utility  is  higher  under  an  equivalent-­cost  cash  transfer  than  it  is  under  the  subsidy.    This  is  clearly  a  higher  level  of  reasoning  than  you  are  asked  to  do  in  (a)  and  (b).    That’s  why  I  only  made  it  worth  3  points.    But  notice  that  it’s  a  nice,  clean,  logical  argument.    This  is  the  sort  of  skill  that  is  very  useful  to  hone  if  you  want  to  be  persuasive  in  work  and  other  situations.    And  to  get  full  credit,  all  you  needed  was  the  picture.    Still,  learn  the  written  argument  because  that’s  how  you’ll  understand  the  picture.      d)  3  points    Explain  briefly  why—in  spite  of  your  answers  to  parts  (a)  through  (c),  the  government  might  often  prefer  not  to  assist  poor  people  with  cash  transfers.    More  (good)  reasons  given  will  earn  more  points.    There  are  good  reasons  and  bad  reasons  for  the  government  to  choose  in  kind  transfers.        Some  good  reasons:     Because  the  government  may  be  trying  to  correct  an  externality  by  directing  consumption  towards  a  particular  good.    Examples  of  this  would  be  if  the  government  fears  poor  people  will  spend  the  transfer  on  drugs  or  alcohol  instead  of  food.  

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    Because  the  government  wishes  to  target  the  transfer  just  to  poor  people.    If  the  food  voucher  buys  inferior  food  (that  the  rich  don’t  like)  or  if  using  the  voucher  carries  some  stigma  so  that  the  rich  don’t  want  to  be  seen  using  it,  then  this  may  allow  for  better  targeting  (making  sure  those  who  should  be  getting  the  transfer  are  getting  it,  and  making  sure  that  those  who  shouldn’t  be  getting  the  transfer  aren’t  getting  it).    Some  people  mentioned  LS  distortions  but  the  question  was  really  about  cash  transfers  vs.  other  types  of  transfers,  so  LS  distortions  are  less  of  an  issue  than  they  would  be  in  a  case  of  comparing  some  transfer  to  no  transfer.    Though  it’s  fair  to  say  that  if  cash  transfers  are  “better”  for  the  individual  it  might  tempt  them  to  quit  work  more  than  some  less  desirable  transfer  would.      Some  bad  reasons:     The  government  is  paternalistic.    Several  people  said,  “Well  maybe  the  government  thinks  people  would  be  better  off  consuming  more  food  and  less  other  stuff”.    Well,  that’s  the  government  telling  people  what’s  best  for  them,  which  isn’t  arguably  desirable  policy  in  many  circumstances  (some  would  say  that  paternalism  is  bad  under  any  circumstances).                        END  SECTION  2.      END  OF  EXAM