Economic Development in the Americas since 1500 -...

Economic Development in the Americas since 1500

Endowments and Institutions

This book brings together a number of previously published articlesby Stanley L. Engerman and Kenneth L. Sokoloff. Its essays exam-ine differences in the rates of economic growth in Latin America andmainland North America, specifically the United States and Canada. Itdemonstrates how relative differences in growth over time are relatedto differences in the institutions that developed in different economies.This variation is driven by differences in major institutions – suffrage,education, tax policy, land and immigration policy, and banking andfinancial organizations. These factors, in turn, are all related to dif-ferences in endowments, climate, and natural resources. Providing acomprehensive treatment of its topic, the essays have been revised toreflect new developments and research.

Stanley L. Engerman is John H. Munro Professor of Economics andProfessor of History at the University of Rochester and visiting pro-fessor of Economics at Harvard University. He is the author of Slav-ery, Emancipation, and Freedom: Comparative Perspectives (2007);co-author of Time on the Cross (with Robert W. Fogel, 1974); co-author of Naval Blockades in Peace and War (with Lance Davis, 2007);and co-editor of Finance, Intermediaries, and Economic Development(with Philip T. Hoffman, Kenneth L. Sokoloff, and Jean-Laurent Rosen-thal, Cambridge, 2003). He is a co-editor of the three-volume Cam-bridge Economic History of the United States (with Robert E. Gallman)and of the multi-volume Cambridge World History of Slavery (withKeith Bradley, Paul Cartledge, and David Eltis).

Kenneth L. Sokoloff (1952–2007) was a Professor in the Departmentof Economics at the University of California, Los Angeles. Amonghis many publications, he co-edited Slavery in the Development ofthe Americas and Human Capital and Institutions: A Long-Run View(both with David Eltis and Frank D. Lewis, Cambridge, 2004, 2009)and Finance, Intermediaries, and Economic Development (with StanleyL. Engerman, Philip T. Hoffman, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, Cam-bridge, 2003).

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National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Series on Long-termFactors in Economic Development

Edited by Claudia Goldin

Claudia Goldin, Understanding the Gender Gap: An Economic History of AmericanWomen (Oxford University Press, 1990)

Roderick Floud, Kenneth Wachter, and Annabel Gregory, Height, Health and History:Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750–1980 (Cambridge University Press,1990)

Robert A. Margo, Race and Schooling in the South, 1880–1950: An Economic History(University of Chicago Press, 1990)

Samuel H. Preston and Michael R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in LateNineteenth-Century America (Princeton University Press, 1991)

Barry Eichengreen, Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression,1919–1939 (Oxford University Press, 1992)

Ronald N. Johnson and Gary D. Libecap, The Federal Civil Service System and theProblem of Bureaucracy: The Economics and Politics of Institutional Change (Uni-versity of Chicago Press, 1994)

Naomi R. Lamoreaux, Insider Lending: Banks, Personal Connections, and EconomicDevelopment in Industrial New England, 1784–1912 (Cambridge University Press,1994)

Lance E. Davis, Robert E. Gallman, and Karin Gleiter, In Pursuit of Leviathan: Tech-nology, Institutions, Productivity, and Profits in American Whaling, 1816–1906(University of Chicago Press, 1997)

Dora L. Costa, The Evolution of Retirement: An American Economic History, 1880–1990 (University of Chicago Press, 1998)

Joseph P. Ferrie, Yankeys Now: Immigrants in the Antebellum U.S., 1840–1860(Oxford University Press, 1999)

Robert A. Margo, Wages and Labor Markets in the United States, 1820–1860 (Uni-versity of Chicago Press, 2000)

Price V. Fishback and Shawn Everett Kantor, A Prelude to the Welfare State: TheOrigins of Workers’ Compensation (University of Chicago Press, 2000)

Gerardo della Paolera and Alan M. Taylor, Straining at the Anchor: The ArgentineCurrency Board and the Search for Macroeconomic Stability, 1880–1935 (Univer-sity of Chicago Press, 2001)

Werner Troesken, Water, Race, and Disease (MIT Press, 2004)B. Zorina Khan, The Democratization of Invention: Patents and Copyrights in Amer-

ican Economic Development, 1790–1920 (Cambridge University Press, 2005)Dora L. Costa and Matthew E. Kahn, Heroes and Cowards: The Social Face of War

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Economic Development in the Americassince 1500

Endowments and Institutions

STANLEY L. ENGERMANDepartments of Economics and History, University of Rochester

KENNETH L. SOKOLOFFUniversity of California, Los Angeles

with contributionsby Stephen HaberElisa V. Mariscal

Eric M. Zolt






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C© Stanley L. Engerman and Kenneth L. Sokoloff 2012

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First published 2012Printed in the United States of America

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data

Engerman, Stanley L.Economic development in the Americas since 1500 : endowments and institutions /

Stanley L. Engerman, Kenneth L. Sokoloff.p. cm. – (NBER series on long-term factors in economic development)

Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 978-1-107-00955-4 (hardback) – isbn 978-0-521-25137-2 (paperback)

1. America – Economic conditions. 2. Social institutions – America.3. Political institutions – America. I. Sokoloff, Kenneth Lee. II. Title.

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To Dr. Louis Sokoloff and to Judy Engerman






Contents

Figures page xi

Tables xiii

Beginnings: Memoirs by Claudia Goldin and Stanley Engerman,Two of Ken Sokoloff’s Friends and Teachers xvii

Preface xxi

Acknowledgments xxiii

Seminar Presentations xxv

Introduction 1

1 Paths of Development: An Overview 9

2 Factor Endowments and Institutions (with Stephen Haber) 31

3 The Role of Institutions in Shaping Factor Endowments 57

4 The Evolution of Suffrage Institutions 94

5 The Evolution of Schooling: 1800–1925 (with Elisa V.Mariscal) 121

6 Inequality and the Evolution of Taxation (by Sokoloff withEric M. Zolt) 168

7 Land and Immigration Policies 212

8 Politics and Banking Systems (by Stephen Haber) 245

9 Five Hundred Years of European Colonization 295

10 Institutional and Non-Institutional Explanations ofEconomic Development 315

11 Epilogue: Institutions in Political and Economic Development 341

ix






x Contents

Bibliography 361

Prior Publications 401

Index 403






Figures

1.1 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita: Selected New WorldEconomies, 1700–1997 page 11

5.1 Ratio of Federal Expenditures on Education to TotalOrdinary Expenses, Costa Rica 1869–1930 149

6.1 Income Inequality and the Importance of Property TaxRevenue: A Plot of the Gini Coefficients by the Share ofProperty Taxes in Total State and Local GovernmentRevenue Across all States, 1980 199

xi






Tables

1.1 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita in Selected New WorldEconomies, 1700–1997 page 10

1.2 European-Directed Transatlantic Migration by EuropeanNation and Continent of Origin, 1492–1880 17

1.3 Laws Governing the Franchise and the Extent of Voting inSelected American Countries, 1840–1940 24

1.4 Literacy Rates in the Americas, 1850–1950 282.1 Populations of European Countries during the Era of

Colonization 422.2 Patterns of Net Migration to and Wealthholding in

Categories of British Colonies 432.3 Distribution and Composition of Population in New World

Economies 453.1 Landholding in Rural Regions of Mexico, the United

States, Canada, and Argentina, c. 1900 663.2 Characteristics of Inventors in the United States,

1790–1846 (Distribution of Urban Patents by PatenteeOccupation) 80

3.3 Annual Growth Rates of Labor and Total FactorProductivity for Selected Manufacturing Industries in theAmerican Northeast, 1820–1860 87

4.1 Summary of Economic-based Qualifications for Suffrage 1024.2 Percentages of Adult White Males Voting in Elections 1115.1 Students as a Percentage of the Population in Selected Latin

American Countries 1345.2 Literacy Rates in Selected Cities 1355.3 Provincial Government Expenditures on Primary Education

in Argentina, on a Per Capita Basis 138

xiii






xiv Tables

5.4 Literacy Rates for Argentina by Province and Country ofBirth for the Years 1895, 1909, and 1914 139

5.5 Combined State and Municipal Revenue and PrimarySchool Expenditures (in Pesos Per Capita) in Mexico duringthe Porfiriato 151

5.6 International Comparisons of Laws Relating to Suffrageand the Extent of Voting 159

5.7 Ratio of Students in School to Total Population, and theProportion of the Population Voting for Selected Countries,1895–1945 161

5.8 Schooling and Suffrage, 1895–1945 1656.1 The Shares of National Government Revenue Accounted

for by Tariffs, Excise Taxes, and Taxes on Income andWealth 178

6.2 Distribution of Tax Revenues Across Levels of Governmentduring the Nineteenth Century: Brazil, Colombia, Mexico,Canada, and the United States 179

6.3 Sources and Percentages of Tax Revenue for U.S. LocalGovernments, 1890–1950 181

6.4 Sources and Percentages of Revenue for Canada’sMunicipal Governments, 1913–1950 182

6.5 Sources and Percentages of Tax Revenue for U.S. StateGovernments, 1890–1950 184

6.6 Sources and Percentages of Tax Revenue in the UnitedStates for All Levels of Government, 1902–1950 184

6.7 Sources of and Percentages of Revenue in Canada for AllLevels of Government, 1933–1950 185

6.8 Sources and Percentages of Revenue to Chile’s MunicipalGovernments 186

6.9 Sources and Percenatges of Revenue to Colombia’sMunicipal Governments in the Department ofCundinamarca, 1918 186

6.10 Local and State Taxes as Shares of Income by Region in theUnited States, 1860 and 1880 187

6.11 Sources and Percentages of Revenue to State and ProvincialGovernments in Argentina and Colombia, c. 1870 188

6.12 Sources and Percentages of Revenue to Selected State andProvincial Governments in Brazil and Mexico, c.1870–1910 189

6.13 National Government Tax Revenue Per Capita, c. 1870 1926.14 Shares and Percentages of Tax Revenue for the Aggregate

Government Sector in the United States, 1902–2000 1976.15 National Government Tax Revenue as a Share of GDP 202






Tables xv

6.16 Sources and Percentages of Tax Revenue for CurrentNational Governments in the Americas 205

6.17 Percentage Relative Use of Different Tax Instruments byNational Governments, by Per Capita Income Level: WorldAverages (1990–1995, GDP Estimates) 206

6.18 Shares of Total Government Tax Revenues and ofExpenditures by Level of Government in Selected LatinAmerican Countries: Before and After Programs toDecentralize 208

7.1 The Composition of Populations in European ColonialDomains 214

7.2 The Estimated Distribution of the Aboriginal AmericanPopulation, c. 1492 221

7.3 Significant Public Land Laws in the United States,1785–1916 231

8.1 State-chartered Banks in the United States, 1790–1835 2538.2 Number of U.S. Commercial Banks, 1860–1932 2608.3 The Mexican Banking Industry, 1897–1913 2728.4 Industrial Concentration in Cotton Textiles in Mexico,

Brazil, India, and the United States 2738.5 The Mexican Banking Industry: Assets as a Percent of

GDP, 1897–1929 2758.6 Mexico, Sources of Credit, 1940–1978 2788.7 Mexico, Deposits, Loans, and Reserve Ratios, 1948–1982 2818.8 Accounts of the First Banco do Brazil, 1809–1829 2868.9 Size Estimates of the Brazilian Banking System, 1875–1935 2889.1 Regional Distribution of Britain’s Colonial Domain over

the Nineteenth Century 3009.2 Colonial Domains of Britain, c. 1899 3019.3 Regional Distribution of France’s Colonial Domain over

the Nineteenth Century 3029.4 Colonial Domains of France, c. 1899 3039.5 Colonial Domains of Selected Other European Powers,

c. 1890 30510.1 Levels of Per Capita GDP and Interregional Differences,

1500–1998 31610.2 Per Capita GDP in Western Europe, 1500–1998 31710.3 Land/Labor Ratios and Changes in Sugar Production in the

British Slave Colonies Prior to and After Emancipation, andContract Labor Immigration 336






Beginnings

Memoirs by Claudia Goldin and Stanley Engerman,Two of Ken Sokoloff’s Friends and Teachers

Kenneth Sokoloff’s academic career ended much too early. Ken did notlike endings. He disliked them so much that it was difficult for him tofinish papers and projects, end conversations, or leave a dinner table. Itwas impossible for him to say good-bye. He would welcome guests to hishome but he would never say farewell. It was difficult for each of us tosay good-bye to our friend. This volume honors his memory by finishingsome of what he did not in his lifetime.

Memoir by Claudia Goldin

I first met Ken in 1975 when he was a second year graduate studentat Harvard and I was an assistant professor teaching at Princeton. I hadearned a semester of leave at Princeton after teaching a heavy load my firsttwo years. Just as I was planning my research leave, the phone rang. It wasBob Fogel. “Claudia,” he said, “I have a once-in-a-lifetime opportunityfor you. You can teach my graduate course at Harvard.” The rest of theconversation is a blur. I had learned, long before, that one does not say“no” to Bob Fogel.

I taught Bob’s graduate economic history courses at Harvard in the Fall1975 and Spring 1976, both required for the Ph.D. In some ways teachingat Harvard 1975 through 1976 was the dumbest thing I could have donewith my leave; in many other ways it was one of the very smartest thingsI ever did. I got to know David Landes; I met many superb graduatestudents interested in economic history, all of whom thought Bob Fogelwould be their teacher; and I met Ken Sokoloff.

xvii






xviii Beginnings

Ken entered graduate school with deep interests in economic history,probably nurtured by his undergraduate institution, the University ofPennsylvania. He wrote his research paper for my course on early twen-tieth century immigration. When Bob Fogel returned, Ken turned hisattention to other aspects of economic history, including productivityand manufacturing. Ken and I kept in close contact during the remainderof his graduate years. My work on women in the labor force was greatlyinformed by the manufacturing data Ken had compiled.

Ken wrote his dissertation on productivity change in manufacturingduring the Early Republic. Although Ken never finished his planned vol-ume, In Pursuit of Private Comfort: Early American Industrialization,1790 to 1860, he did leave a large legacy on aspects of early industrial-ization that are contained in several papers. Among these papers is thelong piece in the NBER-CRIW volume number 51, edited by StanleyEngerman and Robert Gallman, Long-term Factors in American Eco-nomic Growth. There is also a paper in Explorations in Economic His-tory on the transition to the factory system from the artisanal shop. Andthere are two papers with me, one in the Journal of Economic History on“Women, Children, and Industrialization,” and “The Relative Produc-tivity Hypothesis,” in the Quarterly Journal of Economics.

The work on early industrialization was primarily based on themanuscripts from three censuses of manufacturers (1820, 1850, and1860) and the McLane Report of 1832, an incomparable document onmanufacturing compiled from surveys by the Treasury Secretary. Kenalso used primary documents given to him by Jeremy Atack as well aspublished census volumes.

The findings were novel, exciting, debate-provoking, and deeply his-torical. Ken’s questions were several. How rapid was productivity change(labor and total factor) in manufacturing in the period of the Early Repub-lic (1820 to 1860)? To what degree was manufacturing the “Engine ofGrowth”? How did productivity change vary across different industries?What accounted for productivity change?

The main findings of his work were that the pace of productivitygrowth was high, particularly relative to agriculture. The manufacturing“Engine of Growth,” moreover, was ubiquitous and was not found onlyin the much-celebrated textile industry. Furthermore, productivity growthwas not just associated with capital deepening, the increase in capital perunit of labor. And it was not just associated with increased sources ofmotive power. The striking finding was that productivity change was onlyslightly greater for the mechanized and capital intensive industries.






Beginnings xix

Productivity change of some magnitude could be uncovered in virtuallyevery part of manufacturing, even industries that operated with smallworkshops. The increase in labor productivity was mainly accounted forby an increase in technological change, as measured by the residual, andan increase in the raw materials used per unit of labor. Very little wasdue to an increase in capital per worker.

These findings came as a shock to many economic historians andhistorians, such as David Landes, who had believed that productivityadvance was mainly due to mechanization and an increase in capitalintensity. But Ken’s results would not have surprised Adam Smith, whoknew that organizational change could have profound effects, even in thelowly pin factory.

Ken also demonstrated that small factories without capital were farmore productive than artisanal shops. Size mattered, a la Smith. Anothersurprise was the predominance of women and young workers in Amer-ica’s early factories and that this type of labor composition was notisolated to textiles. Females, moreover, increased as a fraction of theworkforce as firm size increased. The higher fraction of females as firmsincreased in size meant that there was an increased division of labor withlarger firms. Smith would have noted, as did Ken, that greater division oflabor was another productivity enhancing innovation.

Ken’s work on early industrialization, manufacturing, and productivitymorphed into a wide-ranging project on patents. The two lines of researchare clearly related, but his work on patents took on a life of its own. Itwas yet another project that Ken could not bear to end by writing thedefinitive book. Thankfully, Naomi Lamoreaux, one of his co-authors onthe patent project, will finish the volume.

Memoir by Stanley Engerman

I first met Ken when he was still a graduate student at Harvard. Wehad many discussions about his and my work, discussions that continuedafter he went to UCLA. I had read most of what he had written, and hiswork remained, as always, interesting and stimulating, but little thoughtwas given to finding a project upon which to work as co-authors. Myinterests continued to be on the economics of slavery in the U.S. south, theCaribbean, and elsewhere, and Ken’s remained the study of productivityand the economic growth of rich and poor countries.

Our initial attempt at joint authorship came when Steve Haberasked Ken to write a concluding essay to a conference volume on the






xx Beginnings

backwardness of Latin America. After discussing the problem, it wasdecided that given our overlapping interests in economic growth, factorendowments, and income distribution there would be benefits from acooperative effect. Our attention to the role of climate and factor endow-ments in shaping income distribution and institutions in colonial settle-ment served as a complement (or alternative) to arguments based exclu-sively on the European institutions that persisted in the settlements.

Although this argument attracted some favorable reactions, we feltthat to solidify our points we needed to study, on a comparative basis,certain characteristics of the political economy such as suffrage, educa-tion, taxation, land policy, and, although it was left to Steve Haber todo, banking and finance. These new essays were published in a variety ofplaces including journals, conference volumes, and book chapters. Ken’sinvolvement with the World Bank led to publications of some of thesepieces in World Bank outlets and related places. These publications didnot always reach a large scholarly audience, but they did get more publicattention than we had anticipated. The present volume includes all of thearticles (or excerpts) written as part of this project, edited to avoid toomuch repetition and overlap.

Working with Ken was always an exhilarating experience, intellectu-ally exciting and very pleasant personally. Ken knew a lot about manythings, enjoyed the process of learning more, and was willing to discussand debate all issues. Disagreements existed, of course, but with the give-and-take over time they were resolved to mutual agreement. Of course,not everything was perfect in our joint work, but it was always enjoyable.

This memoir began with the description of Ken’s disinclination toend projects. My file drawers are filled with copies of many papers thatKen marked “Final Draft.” The difference between successive drafts isoften no more than four or five words. If I were better organized thismight not have been as big a problem. Alas, no matter how much I tried,I often found in working on this volume that I was initially using anearlier version of a “Final Draft,” and not the appropriate “Final Draft.”Hopefully Ken’s final “Final Draft” has made it into this volume.






Preface

This volume is based on a number of published essays dealing with a setof issues in economic history – the explanation for the dramatic changein the relative rankings of countries by income in different parts of theAmericas. Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America,the first areas to be settled by the European colonizers in the WesternHemisphere down to the eighteenth century, had greater income andwealth than the two leading countries in mainland North America, theUnited States and Canada. The Latin American colonies were initiallywealthier than those of North America, both at the time of the NativeAmerican settlement and in the first two centuries of European expan-sion, but they then fell dramatically behind the North American coloniesafter the eighteenth century. In explaining this transition, we focus onthe role of important economic institutions, what determined them, andwhat impact they had on economic behavior and structures. Understand-ing institutions is essential to understanding the process of economicdevelopment, and it is important to see how they developed in differentsocieties. The institutions that developed were no doubt influenced bothby those present in the European metropolis as well as the natural andother conditions in the New World. Natural conditions in the Americasdetermined the crops that could be profitably grown and the means oftheir production, as well as political circumstances. The climates and soilsof North and South America differed dramatically, leading to marked dif-ferences in crops produced, and these, we argue, had long-term impactson the institutions of societies throughout the Americas.

In addition to the chapters presenting the general arguments, there areseparate chapters on key institutions influencing economics and politics.

xxi






xxii Preface

These chapters discuss suffrage, education, taxation, land and immigra-tion policy, and banking and financial systems. In each case we arguethat the institutions that emerged in North America were more favorableto economic growth and to political equality than those elsewhere in theAmericas. We are concerned both with demonstrating the differences andexplaining them. We have both worked in economic history, economics,and history long enough to know that not all scholars will be convincedby all or even some of our arguments; nevertheless, we believe that theevidence presented is sufficient to argue for the important contributionsof endowments, resources, and climate in helping to explain economicand political differentials in the Americas, as well as elsewhere.

All of the basic essays in this volume (except for Chapter 8) werecompleted before the most untimely death of Kenneth Sokoloff. Stan-ley Engerman completed all the subsequent editing for consistency and toavoid duplication. With the exception of Chapters 6 and 8, all essays werejointly written, and we both accepted full responsibility for their contents.Working with Ken for all the years was a most exciting and enjoyablepersonal and intellectual experience, and I hope this book provides anappropriate remembrance of both his scholarship and his personal con-tributions.






Acknowledgments

Multiple Thanks to

Daron AcemogluDavid DollarDavid EltisJeff FriedenClaudia GoldinStephen HaberKarla HoffZorina Khan

Naomi LamoreauxPeter LindertDouglass NorthJames RobinsonJean-Laurent RosenthalWilliam Summerhill andJohn Wallis.

Additional Thanks to

Alberto AlesinaGeorge AlterJeremy AtackTim BegleyRichard BirdFrancois BourguignonSam BowlesRobin BurgessCharles CalomarisAnn CaseGregory ClarkRoberto Cortes CondeJanet Currie

Lance DavisAngus DeatonSeymour DrescherWilliam EasterlyMichael EdelsteinSebastian EdwardsYael EladPrice FishbackGerald FriedmanDavid GalensonRobert GallmanBarbara GeddesAurora Gomez

xxiii






xxiv Acknowledgments

Avner GreifJames IrwinEstelle JamesLawrence KatzDaniel KaufmannSukkoo KimElhart KingMargaret LevensteinMargaret LeviRoss LevineFrank LewisNora LustigJohn MajewskiNoel MaurerDeirdre McCloskeyCynthia MorrisGerardo della PaoleraMario Pastore

Rose RazaghianArmando RazoElyce RotellaMary ShirleyJohn SkinnerJoel SlemrodKirk StarkPam StarrFrederico SturzeneggerAlan TaylorPeter TeminMariano TommasiDan TreismanMiguel UrquiolaJeffrey WilliamsonGavin Wright andEric Zolt.

We also wish to thank Frank Smith for encouragement and editorialassistance and Ken Karpinski, of Aptara, for project management.

Research Assistants

Jason BreenLeah BrooksPatricia Juarez

Ana Maria LoboguerreroElisa MariscalLuis Zegarra

Sources of Support

All Souls College, OxfordRussell Sage FoundationNational Science FoundationAcademic Senate, UCLAInternational Studies and

Overseas Programs, UCLAUniversity of Rochester

University of Rochester,Department of Economics

National Bureau of EconomicResearch

Harvard University, Departmentof Economics

UCLA, Departmentof Economics






Seminar Presentations

Harvard UniversityUniversity of TorontoOxford UniversityRoyal HollowayUniversity of LondonUniversity of TexasNational Bureau of Economic

ResearchAll UC GroupUC Berkeley

UCLAUC DavisPrinceton UniversityYale UniversityWashington UniversityCliometrics SocietyDuke UniversityEconomic History AssociationStanford UniversityUniversity of Rochester

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