15 The Americas 1500 BC.–AD - granbystudents / FrontPage · · 2009-04-16Chapter 15 The...

The Aztec establish city of Tenochtitlán.

A.D. 1325 Hohokam develop civilization in present-day southwestern United States.

300 B.C.

Mayan civilization reaches its height.

A.D. 500

Olmec civilization begins in Mexico.

1500 B.C.

1500 B.C. A.D. 1 A.D. 1500

15C h a p t e r

1500 B.C.–A.D. 1500

The Americas

> Relation to Environment NativeAmericans in North America adaptto a variety of environments.Section 1

> Innovation The Mesoamericancivilizations develop an under-standing of astronomy and mathe-matics. Section 2

> Change The Aztec and the Incaconquer neighboring territories and establish powerful empires in Mexico and South America.Section 3

SThetoryteller

In the Andes Mountains of South America, an Inca boy

begs to hear how the Inca came to be. “The sun was unhappy

with the world,” the storyteller begins, “for he saw people living

like wild beasts among the mountains and cliffs. He decided to

send his son and daughter to teach them to adore the sun as

their god. He gave special instructions: ‘Each day that passes I

go around all the world … to satisfy [men’s] needs. Follow my

example: Do unto all of them as a merciful father would do unto

his well-beloved children; for I have sent you on earth for the

good of men, that they might cease to live like wild animals.’”

This legend describes what the Inca people believed about

the beginnings of their empire. Close to nature and deeply reli-

gious, the Inca were only one of a number of Native American

groups who built powerful civilizations in the Americas.

What were the achievements of Native Americans?How did Native American traditions shape the developmentof the Americas?

Historical Significance

372

Chapter Themes

Chapter 15 The Americas 373

Aztec turquoise mosaic of double-headed serpent, MexicoArt&

History

Using dates from section time linesand each section narrative, build a timeline of important dates in NativeAmerican civilizations between 1500B.C. and A.D. 1500.

Your History JournalChapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 15—Chapter Overviewto preview the chapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whthetea2003/content.php4/606/1

When did the earliest humans come tothe Americas? Until recently, archae-ologists believed that humans

arrived in the Western Hemisphere about 12,000years ago. The theory was that tribes migrated fromAsia to North America, following herds of bisonand other game across the then-exposed landbridge that today is the Bering Strait.

New evidence, however, challenges this oldtheory. Archaeologists working in North Americaand South America have found sites that indicatethe presence of humans as early as 40,000 years ago.New theories argue that humans arrived in morethan one migratory wave. Some early humans mayalso have traveled by boat along the Pacific coastfrom Siberia to Alaska, then to South America.

Once in the Western Hemisphere, the peoplesdispersed throughout North America and SouthAmerica. As they adapted to particular environ-ments, they developed distinct ways of life. Someremained nomadic, while others settled and devel-oped complex civilizations.

The First AmericansHunter-gatherers in the Americas used the

resources of their environments for food, clothing,and shelter. People living along seacoasts collectedmussels and snails. Those inland hunted game orfished in rivers and streams. Archaeologists haveunearthed evidence of these ways of life in artifacts, such as rounded stones for grindingseeds, bone hooks for fishing, and heaps of shells atcampsites.

By about 5000 B.C., a group of hunter-gatherersin a highland area of present-day Mexico had dis-covered that the seeds of maize, or corn, and othernative plants could be planted and harvested, pro-viding a reliable source of food. As this discovery

374 Chapter 15 The Americas

Hunter-gatherersfirst plant maize in the highlandsof Mexico.

c. 5000 B.C. Native Americansmake use of stone axes and digging sticks for farming.

c. 3000 B.C. Eastern Woodland peoples form the Iroquois League.

c. A.D. 1500

5000 B.C. 2500 B.C. A.D. 2500 A.D. 1

A Navajo tale describes the origin of the twelvemonths of the year: First Man and First Womanbuilt a hogan in which to live. Turquoise Boy andWhite Shell Girl came from the underworld to livewith them. “It is not unwise that we plan for thetime to come, how we shall live,” said First Man.First Woman and First Man whispered togetherduring many nights. They planned that there shouldbe a sun, and day and night. Whenever Coyote,called First Angry, came to make trouble and askedthem what they were doing, they told him:“Nothing whatsoever.” He said, “So I see,” and

went away. After he hadgone, they planned thetwelve months of the year.

—adapted from ThePortable North AmericanIndian Reader, edited byFrederick W. Turner III,1974

S e c t i o n 1

The Early Americas

SThetoryteller

Navajo rug

> Terms to Definemaize, weir, potlatch, confederation

> People to Meetthe Kwakiutl, the Hohokam, the Pueblo, the Apache, the Navajo, the Plains peoples, Mound Builders

> Places to LocateMexico, Great Plains

Read to Find Out Main Idea Early Native Americans mademany uses of their environment.

spread from Mexico intothe southwestern UnitedStates, groups of earlypeople began to settle inpermanent villages. About3000 B.C. farmers madeuse of stone axes to cleartheir fields and pointeddigging sticks to plantimproved varieties ofmaize, beans, and squash.

As the food supplyimproved, the populationof the Americas grew. By the time Europeansarrived in North Americaaround A.D. 1500, about 30million to 100 millionNative Americans belong-ing to more than 2,000 dif-ferent groups were inhab-iting the two continents.About 15 to 20 million ofthese early inhabitantslived in the present-dayUnited States and variousparts of Canada.

NorthAmericans

Much of what weknow about the early peo-ple of northern North America comes from thework of archaeologists. Archaeological digs haveuncovered homes, burial mounds, pottery, baskets,stone tools, and the bones of people and animals inthe Arctic and Northwest, California and the GreatBasin, the Southwest, the Great Plains, and theEastern Woodlands. By studying these artifacts,archaeologists discovered that there were distinctregional differences. People who settled in a partic-ular region developed a common culture.Gradually the arts and crafts and religious customsof each region grew to be distinct from those ofother regions, a pattern historians call cultural dif-ferentiation. In each region, culture reflected thelocal geography and natural resources.

The Arctic and NorthwestThe early people of the Arctic lived in the cold

northern regions of present-day Canada andAlaska. The severe climate of this region prohibited

farming. Thus, small bands of extended familiesmoved about, hunting and fishing. By 6500 B.C.some Arctic people were living in small villages ofpit houses, covered with dome-shaped roofs ofwhalebone and driftwood. Villagers huntedwhales, sea lions, seals, and water birds. They atethe meat and used the skins to make warm, protec-tive clothing.

In contrast to the cold and snow of the Arctic,the thickly forested seacoast of the Pacific Northwesthad a milder climate. Rainfall was plentiful, andmild winters and warm ocean currents kept riversand bays free of ice. Like the people of the Arctic,those who settled along the Pacific Coast—theKwakiutl, for example—hunted whales, fish, andother sea animals as their main source of food.Forests of the Northwest provided additionalsources of food—small forest animals and acorns.After about A.D. 500 the people of the Northwestused other resources from the surrounding forests


PACIFICOCEAN Hudson

Bay

ARCTICOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

Gulf ofMexico

60°N

40°N

Mississippi

River

OhioRiver

150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W

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Albers Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection

0 500

500

1,000 mi.

0 1,000 km

Arctic

Subarctic

Northwest Coast

California-Great Basin

Southwest

Great Plains

EasternWoodlands

North AmericanPeoples

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MapStudy

Native American Cultures of North America

Many of the first people to inhabit North America lived nearthe seacoast or made their homes in river valleys. Place Why did Native Americans choose to settle in those locations?

and rivers. With stone and copper woodworkingtools they split cedar, fir, and redwood trees intoplanks to make houses and canoes. They also har-vested salmon with fiber nets, stone-tipped spears,and elaborate wooden traps called weirs.

Society among the Kwakiutl and otherNorthwest peoples was organized into lineages,each of which claimed to be descended from amythical ancestor. A lineage group lived together ina single large house and owned the right to use ordisplay special designs, songs, ceremonies, orprized possessions, such as patterned sheets of cop-per. A lineage maintained exclusive use of its ownfishing area and berry-picking grounds. The wealthof each lineage was displayed and given away asgifts at festive gatherings called potlatches. At apotlatch a chief might give away canoes, blankets,and other goods. In turn, guests might bring thechief deerskins and food.

To obtain items they themselves could notmake, some people of the Northwest developedtrading networks with people living farther south.

Traders paddled redwood canoes along the coast,stopping at villages along the shore to exchangegoods. Trade networks stretched from southernAlaska to northern California.

California–Great BasinNative Americans living along the California

coast enjoyed a warm climate and abundant foodresources. Many communities ate only abalone andmussels. Near San Francisco Bay, archaeologistshave found evidence of this diet in heaps of discard-ed shells that date from 2000 B.C. The firstCalifornians also fished for sea bass, hunted seals,and gathered berries and nuts. The abundantresources made food gathering easier in this region.

Like other Native Americans, they developedelaborate religious ceremonies designed to worshipnature spirits, especially those spirits related to ani-mals or plants used for food. The Chumash, wholived in the area of present-day southern California,would gather together at harvest festivals to cele-brate the goodness of the earth.

of theof the

Native AmericansA variety of peoples have inhabited North

America for thousands of years. Some mysteries ofthe earliest cultures have yet to be revealed.

Georgia’s Etowa Mounds shelteredthese two-foot highmarble images of aman and awoman morethan 500 yearsago.

376

People living farther inland scratched their liv-ing from a harsh desert and mountain environ-ment. Great Basin people moved about in smallbands, living in windbreak shelters and eatingseeds, grasshoppers, and small animals.

SouthwestPeople who settled in the high desert regions of

present-day Arizona, New Mexico, southernColorado and Utah, and northern Mexico had fewerresources than those who settled along the PacificCoast. Nevertheless, they adapted to their harshenvironment by inventing techniques of irrigationto farm the land. For example, around 300 B.C., theHohokam living in present-day Arizona dug an irri-gation canal 3 miles (4.8 km) long to draw thewaters of the Gila and Salt Rivers onto fields plant-ed with maize, kidney beans, and squash.

Farther north the Anasazi and their descen-dants, the Pueblo, grew maize on flat-topped hillsor on the plains. They built two- or three-storydwellings of adobe, a sun-dried brick. Some vil-

lages were constructed under ledges on the sides ofcliffs to shade residents from the desert sun and tomake the villages easier to defend.

Religious leaders governed these villages. Inunderground chambers called kivas, they held cer-emonies to ensure harmony with the spiritualworld. They believed that, if harmony existed, thespirits would provide rain for crops.

A group known as the Apache lived in areasthat were unsuitable for farming. They huntedbirds and rabbits and gathered plants. Sometimesthey raided Pueblo fields; other times they tradedmeat and hides with Pueblo villagers for maize andother food supplies. A neighboring people, theNavajo, did manage to raise a breed of sheep thatcould live on the sparse desert vegetation.

Great PlainsIn contrast to the sparse Southwestern environ-

ment, vast grasslands covered the Great Plains,stretching from the Rocky Mountains to theMississippi River. This environment provided a dif-

377

An Iroquois condolencecane was carved to recordthe attendance of chiefs at amemorial ceremony for adeceased Iroquois chief.

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. How do researchers today try to discover infor-mation about early Native American cultures?

2. Why was the lifestyle of the Pawnee much dif-ferent from that of the Iroquois?

A Pawnee village painted by anunknown artist reflects the unhurriedeveryday life of a people who hadadapted well to their environment.

The Great SerpentMound of the Adenaculture (about 1000B.C.), unlike othermounds, contains nograves or artifacts. Theenormous serpent isabout to swallow a hugeoval. What does thismean? The build-ers left no clue.

ferent challenge for its early inhabitants. NativeAmericans adapting to life on the plains needed areliable source of food. Farming in the region wasdifficult, as the thick sod was hard to plow.Moreover, maize needs more water than is natural-ly available on most parts of the Great Plains.

Although some farming was done alongstreams, most of the Plains peoples depended onthe great herds of bison, or buffalo, that roamed theplains. The Kiowa, Crow, Blackfoot, and other peo-ples of the plains used every part of the bison fortheir food, clothing, shelter, and tools.

Eastern WoodlandsUnlike the Plains peoples who depended on

the bison, Native Americans of the woodlands east

of the Mississippi River hunted deer, turkey, andother small game for food and clothing. Like thePlains peoples, Eastern Woodlands peoples usedevery part of the animals they killed. They ate deermeat, wore deerskin clothing, and made tools outof animal bones and antlers. Because of the warmsummers, abundant rainfall, and fertile soil, theWoodlands peoples lived in farming villages andgrew corn, squash, beans, and tobacco.

In the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, groups ofNative Americans known as Mound Builderserected large earthen mounds. Archaeologiststoday believe the mounds were ceremonial centersor tombs for leaders. A number of mounds weremade in the shape of animals. The largest ceremo-nial center was Cahokia, in present-day Illinois. It had about 40,000 people and was probably also apolitical and commercial settlement.

Native Americans living in the northeasternforests cleared the land and built fenced-in villagesof long houses, made of poles covered with treebark. While the women farmed, the men hunted,warred, and governed. During the A.D. 1500s, fivegroups allied to form the Iroquois League—a confederation, or loose union. A council of malerepresentatives from each group discussed andresolved disputes, but every clan had an elderlyfemale known as a “clan mother,” who named anddeposed chiefs and council members.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to identify ways in which earlyNative Americans made use oftheir environment for food,clothing, and shelter.

Recall2. Define maize, weir, potlatch,

confederation. 3. Identify the Kwakiutl, the

Hohokam, the Pueblo, theApache, the Navajo, the Plainspeoples, Mound Builders, Iroquois League.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

Compare the structure of theIroquois League with that ofthe United States government.

Understanding Themes5. Environment Give examples of

artifacts archaeologists might findthat reveal how Native Americansused natural resources.

In the Northwest a totem was thesymbol and protector of the group.

What does this totem reveal about its group?

HistoryVisualizing

Student Web Activity 15

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 15—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to the Mound Builders.

Food Clothing Shelter

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=606&pt=2&bk=18


Between 1500 B.C. and A.D. 1200, aseries of sophisticated civilizationsemerged in the areas of present-day

Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, andBelize. Amid volcanic mountains, cool valleys,dense rain forests, and dry forested plains, earlyfarmers developed methods that produced plenti-ful harvests and supported large populations.Maize was their basic crop.

Ruins of ancient cities reveal an astonishingway of life. Ideas from earlier civilizations wereadopted and modified by later ones. Although eachculture had unique features, they shared commonelements. Archaeologists have labeled them togeth-er as Mesoamerican civilizations. The prefix meso-means “middle” and refers to the fact that thesepeople lived in the middle land area that joinsNorth America and South America. Descendants ofthe early Mesoamericans continue to live in thisregion and maintain many of their early traditions.

The OlmecAbout 150 years before Tutankhamen ruled

Egypt, the Olmec emerged as one of the earliestMesoamerican civilizations. Between 1500 B.C. and400 B.C., the Olmec flourished in the swampy, low-land river valleys near the Gulf of Mexico. Ourknowledge of the Olmec way of life and Olmecbeliefs has come primarily from excavations of twoprincipal Olmec sites, San Lorenzo and La Venta,discovered in the late 1930s. Until then, Olmec cul-ture had been buried by centuries of accumulatedlayers of earth and rain forest.

Among the objects unearthed at San Lorenzoand La Venta were enormous stone heads carvedfrom basalt, a volcanic rock. Some were more than9 feet (2.7 m) tall and weighed as much as 40 tons.

Olmeccivilization declines.

c. 400 B.C. The Maya begin to expand their territory.

c. A.D. 300 Mayan

civilization begins to decline.

c. A.D. 800

500 B.C. A.D. 1500A.D. 500

> Terms to Defineslash-and-burn farming, obsidian

> People to Meetthe Olmec, the Maya, the Teotihuacános, the Toltec

> Places to LocateSan Lorenzo, La Venta, Yucatán Peninsula, Teotihuacán, Tula

How did the world begin? According to Mayanmyth, “All was in suspense, all calm, in silence;all motionless, still.… There was nothing stand-ing; only the calm water, the placid sea, alone andtranquil. Nothing existed. There was only silence inthe darkness, in the night. Only the Creator[s]were there. By nature they were great thinkers.They decided: when day dawned for the first time,

the human being mustappear. Thus they spoke.“Let there be light, letthere be dawn in the skyand on the earth.”

—adapted from Sourcesof World History, edited by Mark A.Kishlansky, 1995

S e c t i o n 2

Early MesoamericanCultures

SThetoryteller

Chichén Itzá temple figure

Read to Find Out Main Idea Trade, agriculture, and religionhelped shape early Mesoamerican cultures.

These heads are believed to be portraits of rulers,and may have been part of larger monuments.Without the aid of wheels or beasts of burden, butperhaps using river rafts, the Olmec had moved theheads some 60 miles (97 km) from the mountains tothe sites where they were discovered.

Evidence suggests that San Lorenzo and LaVenta each had populations of only about 1,000 attheir peak. Yet there was clearly organization, plan-ning, and a division of labor. A hilltop at SanLorenzo was sheared off to create a central plaza formarket and ceremonial purposes. Stone drainswere built to direct water during the rainy season.Early forms of hieroglyphic writings were devel-oped as well as an early calendar.

From jade carvings, figurines, and carved stonemurals, archaeologists infer that religion played animportant role in the lives of the Olmec. Forinstance, many carvings show an Olmec god with ahuman body and the face of a jaguar, the large spot-

ted wild cat that roamed the region. The Olmecbelieved the jaguar-god controlled their harvests.

Early Olmec farmers practiced what is knownas slash-and-burn farming. To clear land, farmerscut down trees, let them dry, and then burned them.They planted maize among the fertile ashes. Sincethe soil became exhausted after a few years, farmersshifted fields and repeated the cycle on other lands.

Trade with other parts of Mesoamerica wascommon. Olmec artifacts have been found through-out the region, and Olmec ideas were echoed inlater Mesoamerican civilizations.

The MayaAs early as 900 B.C., the Maya began to settle

the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico.Mayan civilization reached its peak between A.D.300 and A.D. 900. Mayan ruins can be foundthroughout the region in diverse terrains: high-lands, lowlands, and coastal plains. The Mayaadapted to their various environments, developingdifferent farming practices, languages, and govern-ments. The Maya were not unified in one empire.Instead, the patchwork of city-states and kingdomswere linked by culture, political ties, and trade.

Religion Religion was at the center of Mayan life. The

Maya believed in two levels of existence. One levelwas the daily physical life they lived. The secondlevel was the Otherworld, a spiritual world peo-pled with gods, the souls of ancestors, and othersupernatural creatures. The two levels were closelyintertwined. Actions on each level could influencethe other. Mayan myths explained the workings ofthis world and the Otherworld.

Mayan kings were spiritual leaders as well aspolitical leaders. They were responsible for theirpeople’s understanding of the Otherworld and fortheir behaving in ways that would keep the godspleased. Rulers performed rituals and ceremoniesto satisfy the gods. In their great cities, the Mayaconstructed plazas, temples, and huge pyramids—symbolically sacred mountains—where thousandsof people could gather for special religious cere-monies and festivals.

Images on Mayan temples, sacred objects, andpottery provide clues about Mayan beliefs andpractices. The rain god, Chac, appears frequently.Images depict other gods in the form of trees,jaguars, birds, monkeys, serpents, reptiles, fish, andshells. Mythical creatures that combine parts of sev-eral animals are also shown.


This jade ceremonial ax in the formof a feline monster is from the

pre-Columbian Olmec culture. Why do archaeologistsbelieve that religion played an important role in Olmec life?

HistoryVisualizing

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNECTIONS

What purpose did the Mayan temple-pyramids serve? How mightyou compare Mayan temple-pyramidswith public buildings today?

Blood symbols also appear. Human sacrificesand bloodletting rituals were part of Mayan prac-tice. These ceremonies were considered importantto appease the gods and to maintain and renew life.

Some festivals also included a ceremonial ballgame called pok-a-tok. For this game, the Mayainvented the use of solid rubber balls about the sizeof basketballs. Players wearing protective paddingbatted the balls back and forth across a walledcourt. These games recalled games played by myth-ical Mayan heroes.

SciencesLike the ancient Greeks, the Maya believed that

the movements of the sun, moon, and planets werejourneys of gods across the sky. Since the gods con-trolled nature—including harvests—charting themovements of the celestial bodies was essential.

To do this charting, Mayan priests becameexcellent mathematicians and astronomers. TheMaya built on the earlier work of the Olmec. TheMaya developed a system of mathematics using thebase 20. They used three symbols to represent num-bers. A dot stood for the number one; a bar was five;and a shell figure symbolized zero. Rather thanexpressing place value with the highest place to the

left, the Maya expressed their numbers verticallywith the largest place at the top. The Maya alsodeveloped accurate calendars, a 260-day sacred cal-endar and another 365-day calendar. The calendarswere used to predict eclipses, schedule religious cer-emonies, and determine times to plant and harvest.

Economy The Mayan economy was based on agriculture

and trade. In addition to maize, farmers grewbeans, squash, pumpkins, chili peppers, and toma-toes. Slash-and-burn farming continued in someareas. Elsewhere the Maya produced larger har-vests by intensively farming raised plots surround-ed by canals.

Perhaps as often as every five days, farmersbrought surplus crops to the open-air markets ofthe major cities. Maize and other produce weretraded for cotton cloth, jade ornaments, pottery,fish, deer meat, and salt.

Mayan merchants participated in long-distancetrade throughout Mexico and Central America.Traders transported their cargoes by canoes onrivers and coastal waterways. Overland, goodswere carried by humans, for wheeled vehicles andbeasts of burden to haul them were unknown.


Mayan Architecture

Mayan temple-pyramids were the reli-gious and political centers of Mayan cities.

Built of stone, these vast steppedstructures were mainly platformsfor religious ceremonies. Stonetemples at the summit of thepyramids were erected to memo-rialize dead rulers by associatingthem with the gods. Religioussacrifices conducted by prieststook place outside the temple ontop of the pyramid platform.

Archaeologists believe thestepped levels of the pyramids may haverepresented the harmonious layers of theuniverse. Mayan astronomers and priestsheld high administrative positions. Much of

a priest’s power was in his ability to predictthe movements of stars and planets. Thus, apriest would consult with astronomersbefore projects were undertaken to seewhen the heavens would favor such actions.

Since the mid-1900s, Mexican architectshave combined Mayan and other NativeAmerican designs with modern constructionmethods. Their work includes the buildingsof the University of Mexico and the Nation-al Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City,as well as many resorts along Mexico’sCaribbean and Pacific coasts.

Temple-pyramidat Chichén Itzá


In this illustration of an ancient Mayan game arubber ball bounces off the leather pad on theplayer’s chest. The object was to drive the ballthrough a stone ring, but players could not throw

or bat the ball. They had to hit it off a leather pad ontheir elbow, wrist, torso, or hip. Making a goal was sorare that when a player scored, crowds rewarded thehero with all their clothing and jewelry—unless theycould first flee.

Scholars believe that these games were played notonly for sport but also on special holidays as ritualreenactments of Mayan raids. Large cities containednumerous walled courts lined with images of warfareand sacrificial victims. According to Mayan religiousbeliefs, ordinary humans could never outwit death,and so the Mayan ball court became a symbolic meet-ing ground—a kind of threshold between earth andthe underworld. �

Serious Sport�

PICTURING HISTORY

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Writings The Maya were one of the first Native

American peoples to develop a writing system.They wrote in accordion-folded books made of flat-tened bark covered with a thin layer of plaster. Fourof these books have survived. They also carvedinscriptions in clay, and on jade, bone, shells, andlarge stone monuments. Linguists have made majorbreakthroughs in translating Mayan writing. Theyhave discovered that some inscriptions are phonet-ic syllables, while others are full words. The Mayarecorded royal genealogies, mythology, history, rit-ual practices, and trade.

Collapse By A.D. 900 the Maya in the lowlands showed

signs of collapse. They stopped building and movedelsewhere. Why this happened is unclear. There isevidence of increasing conflict and warfare amongMayan families and with outsiders. Agriculturalbreakdown, perhaps caused by warfare or by ero-sion and over-farming, may have produced risingmalnutrition, sickness, and death rates.

Other MesoamericansIn a high fertile valley 30 miles (48 km) north-

east of present-day Mexico City, the Teotihuacános(TAY•oh•TEE•wuh•KAHN•ohs) flourished forabout 750 years. By A.D. 100, they dominated thecentrally located Mexican Plateau. At its heighttheir main city, Teotihuacán, had an estimated120,000 to 200,000 inhabitants.

Teotihuacán was laid out on a grid. The mostimportant buildings were built along the north-south axis. Excavations of the ruins have revealed600 pyramids, 2,000 apartment compounds, 500workshop areas, and a huge marketplace. A valu-able source of obsidian was found near Teotihuacán.Obsidian, a volcanic glass, was used for sharp-edged tools, arrow points, and other objects. It was

easily traded, because Teotihuacán lay on the traderoutes east to the Gulf of Mexico.

Teotihuacán declined about A.D. 750. His-torians still are uncertain about the reasons for itsdecline. Drought may have been the cause, or inva-sion by the Toltec, a people from the north.

With a powerful army, the Toltec conquered landas far south as the Yucatán Peninsula. The Toltec capital of Tula was the center of a powerful mining and trading empire. Their gods Quetzalcoatl(ket•suhl•KWAH•tuhl), the “plumed serpent” god ofthe air, and Tezcatlipoca (tehz•KAHT•lee•POH•kuh),the god of war, would be adopted by the Aztec, a laterMesoamerican group. When invaders destroyed Tulain A.D. 1170, the Toltec Empire collapsed.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify the elementsof trade and agriculture in theMayan culture.

Recall2. Define slash-and-burn farming,

obsidian.3. Identify the Olmec, the Maya,

the Teotihuacános, the Toltec,Quetzalcoatl.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

What did the Mesoamericancivilizations have in common?

Understanding Themes5. Innovation What were some

of the major achievements ofthe Mesoamerican civilizations?

The Teotihuacáno rain god Tlaloc isshown in an incensario (container for

burning incense) from A.D. 400–700. Where was theTeotihuacáno civilization located?

HistoryVisualizing


Mayan Culture

Trade Agriculture

Th

eMaya

Special Report


astronomy and mathematics. Thensuddenly, in the A.D. 800S, therecord of life in the region fellsilent: The people stopped erectingmonuments, carving hieroglyphictexts, and making pottery. Theircities lay in ruins, their fields andvillages were abandoned to the jun-gle, and the great civilization of theMaya vanished.

What happened to end the

Some 2,000 yearsago, the lowlandMayan civilizationof what is nowCentral Americaflourished. A soci-ety dating to 1200

B.C., the Maya developed the mostcomplex writing system in theAmericas, built majestic temple-pyramids and palaces, and mastered

golden age of the Maya more than athousand years ago? To answer thatquestion, in 1989 an internationalteam of archaeologists, sponsored inpart by the National GeographicSociety and Vanderbilt University,went to the Petexbatún rain forest ofnorthern Guatemala. Amid the ruinsof the ancient city of Dos Pilas, theteam set to work on one of archae-ology’s greatest mysteries.

After setting up a fully function-ing camp complete with a computerlab and drafting workstations, scien-tists began their task. They studiedthousands of potsherds, scores ofmonuments, bone fragments, spear-heads, trash heaps, and miles of for-tifications of Dos Pilas—built byrenegades from the great Mayancenter of Tikal—and nearby cities.

One spectacular find that told thefate of the Maya was a hieroglyphicstairway. Five limestone steps, about20 feet wide, each with two rows of

glyphs carved on the risers, climb tothe base of the royal palace near themain plaza at Dos Pilas. Experts atdeciphering glyphs were on hand totranslate each glyph as it was un-covered. The story on the stepsgives an account of the battles ofthe first ruler of the Petexbatún(referred to as Ruler 1) against hisbrother at Tikal, some 65 milesnortheast of Dos Pilas.

One of the epigraphists summedup the inscription: “It begins by talking about the 60th birthday of

� A Mayan warrior-king is por-trayed on a stela carved in A.D. 731.Discoveries at Dos Pilas have led tonew theories on the collapse of theMayan civilization along the borderof Guatemala and Mexico.

� A stairway of five long steps(top) came to light during excava-tions at the Dos Pilas site.

NGS Cartographic Division


Enrico Ferorelli

Enrico Ferorelli

Ruler 1, that he danced a ritualdance. As you read down the steps,the glyphs give a historical sequenceto his reign. We think Ruler 1 leftTikal and started a splinter kingdomat Dos Pilas. There’s an emblemglyph-—which is like a political title—for Tikal, and both brothersclaimed it. Ruler 1 was defeated, butthen there was another war. Thistime Dos Pilas won.”

Although the glyphs told archae-ologists about the origin of adynasty, what was even moreintriguing was a stone wall built ontop of the stairs during the king-dom’s fall. Less than a hundred yearsafter memorializing their founder, thepeople of Dos Pilas threw a wall upover his monument in what musthave been a desperate attempt to

protect themselves. Why did thepeople of Dos Pilas build defensivewalls, which are rarely found atMayan sites?

The second and third rulers ofDos Pilas changed traditional warfarewhen they set forth on campaigns ofexpansion. Digging a 30-foot shaftinto the burial temple of Ruler 2,archaeologists discovered hiero-glyphs on fine pottery that offeredmore clues. These glyphs suggestthat Ruler 2, who reigned from A.D.698 to A.D. 726, expanded the influ-ence of Dos Pilas and gained controlof other cities through marriage andpolitical alliances.

Ruler 3 went on to wed a royallady from the city of Cancuén and todominate the entire region. He trav-eled to the cities of Tamarindito,Aguateca, Seibal, and others to per-form ceremonies and quell unrest.After Ruler 3 died in A.D. 741, Ruler4 took control, living mostly atAguateca—by then a twin capital—which rests on a limestone bluffhigh above Lake Petexbatún.

In A.D. 761 something wentwrong. According to hieroglyphs, thekings of the Petexbatún had overex-tended their domain. There hadbeen hints of trouble for more thana decade: Ruler 4 had spent much ofhis 20-year reign racing from oneend of the realm to the other, per-forming bloodletting rituals, leadingbattles, and contracting alliances. Heused every technique to sustain thekingdom, but to no avail.

Then the city of Tamarinditothrew off the yoke of Dos Pilas.Hieroglyphs at Tamarindito tell usthat its warriors attacked the capitaland killed Ruler 4.

About that time the citizens ofDos Pilas made a valiant last stand.In desperation they ripped stonesfrom temples and monuments,including the tomb of Ruler 2 andthe hieroglyphic stairway. They tore

down much of the royal palace tobuild two walls around the centralpalaces and temples.

The surviving nobles desertedtheir citizens and fled to Aguateca,proclaiming themselves the newrulers of the kingdom. They choseAguateca as its final capital becauseof its defensive location. The peopleof Aguateca held out for about 50years, but disappeared in the earlyA.D. 800s

�

IN A SPAN of only a few hundredyears the kingdom rose, expanded,and collapsed as a succession of kingsmoved from limited conflict to wide-spread warfare. Scholars have arguedthat the Mayan civilization simply out-grew its environment, exhausting thesoil and creating environmental andeconomic stress. But another possibili-ty is that intensive warfare forced theMaya, at least in the Petexbatún area,to move close to fortresses such asAguateca, where they would havesoon run out of fertile land. Perhapsfarmers were limited to fortified areasnear cities that could provide protec-tion, forcing them to forsake tradition-al agricultural practices that had sus-tained them for hundreds of years.The wars must have disrupted trade,upset population distribution,destroyed crops, and killed youngfarmer-warriors, exacting a huge price.

Scholars have added greatly toour view of Mayan society. Onceregarded as a network of ceremoni-al centers ruled by peaceful priest-kings, Mayan civilization is nolonger seen that way. Battle andhuman sacrifice were aspects of life.Perhaps siege warfare was ultimate-ly too costly for the Maya. For yearsto come, scientists will study theruins in the Petexbatún rain forestresearching changes that may havecontributed to the collapse of thelowland Mayan civilization.

� As Vanderbilt graduate studentStacy Symonds excavated a defen-sive wall, she discovered the hiero-glyphic stairway beneath it. Hereshe records information about the glyphs.


Special ReportE

nric

o Fe

rore

lli

� In proper Mayan style Dos Pilas’sceremonial precinct (above, top)featured palaces for rulers andtemples to the gods. But an appar-ent golden age came to an abruptend in A.D. 761 (above, bottom).After the killing of Ruler 4, warfareconsumed the region. Residentstore down facades of temples andpalaces to raise two walls. Acleared area between the wallslikely served as a killing alley.Seeking refuge, farmers movedinto the plaza and erected huts.Soon the city was abandoned.

� A peninsula became an island(left, top and bottom) as defendersof the Lake Petexbatún port dugthree moats across the neck ofland. At the tip of the island, awalled wharf protected a canoelanding. Perhaps the enemy provedtoo strong or conditions too harsh,for the outpost was abandoned.

Before A.D. 761

A.D. 761


Enrico Ferorelli

Enrico Ferorelli

Like other Native American groups, theAztec of Mexico and Central Americaand the Inca of South America lacked

metal tools, large work animals, and a practical useof the wheel. Yet they were able to develop central-ized governments, raise armies and conquerempires. Both civilizations, however, came to sud-den ends in the early A.D. 1500s, when they wereoverwhelmed and destroyed by Spanish invadersfrom Europe.

The Aztec EmpireThe early Aztec were hunters and warriors

who moved from the north into central Mexico during the A.D. 1200s. In A.D. 1325 they founded acity in central Mexico named Tenochtitlán(tay•NAWCH•teet•LAHN), today the site ofMexico City. According to Aztec legend, Aztecpriests told their people to settle in the area wherethey would find an eagle sitting on a cactus andholding a snake in its beak. After much wandering,the Aztecs finally saw on an island in Lake Texcocowhat the priests had described. There, they estab-lished Tenochtitlán.

TenochtitlánThe Aztec turned Tenochtitlán into an agricul-

tural center and marketplace. Since land for farm-ing was scarce on the island, they built chinampas,or artificial islands, by piling mud from the bottomof the lake onto rafts secured by stakes. Thesebecame floating gardens where farmers grew avariety of crops, including corn and beans. With aplentiful food supply, the population grew andpeople moved outside the city to the mainland. Anetwork of canals, bridges, and causeways wasbuilt to connect the mainland with the capital city.


> Terms to Definechinampas, hierarchy, quinoa

> People to Meetthe Aztec, the Inca, the Moche, Pachacuti

> Places to LocateTenochtitlán, Cuzco

The Aztecfound their capital, Tenochtitlán.

A.D. 1325 The Inca emperor Pachacuti comes to power.

A.D. 1438

The Aztec control all of central and southern Mexico.

c. A.D. 1500

A.D. 1300 A.D. 1500A.D. 1400

Cortés captured many Aztec cities. ThisAztec song remembers how it was:

“Broken spears lie in the roads; we have torn our hair in our grief.

The houses are roofless now, and their walls are red with blood.…

We have pounded our hands in despair againstthe adobe walls, for our inheritance, ourcity, is lost and dead.

The shields of our warriorswere its defense, but theycould not save it.

We have chewed dry twigs and salt grasses;

We have filled our mouthswith dust and bits ofadobe; we have eatenlizards, rats andworms.…”

—from Sources of World History,edited by Mark A. Kishlansky, 1995

S e c t i o n 3

The Aztec andInca Empires

SThetoryteller

Aztec Stone of theSun calendar

Read to Find Out Main Idea Multiple factors led to therise and decline of the Aztec and the IncaEmpires.

EmpireStrengthened by early alliances with neighboring

city-states, the Aztec then conquered more distantrivals. By A.D. 1500 their empire stretched from north-central Mexico to the border of Guatemala, and fromthe Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Conqueredpeoples had to pay heavy tribute in the form of food,clothing, raw materials, and prisoners for sacrifice.

As the Aztec Empire expanded, Tenochtitlánprospered. Estimates of the city’s population by A.D.1500 range from 120,000 to 200,000. Goods and tributecame to the city from all parts of the empire.

Government and Society The Aztec civilization was organized as a hier-

archy—divided into levels of authority, each levelmore powerful than the level below it. At the topwas the emperor. His power came from his controlof the army and was reinforced by religious beliefs.

The Aztec social order had four classes: nobili-ty, commoners, serfs, and slaves. Land could beowned by noble families and commoners.Commoners included priests, merchants, artisans,and farmers. Serfs were farmworkers tied to noblelands. The lowest class included criminals anddebtors, as well as female and children prisoners ofwar. Male prisoners of war were sacrificed to theAztec gods.

Religion and the ArtsReligion motivated the Aztecs to engage in

war and sacrifice. Borrowing ideas from the Mayaand the Toltec, the Aztecs believed that livehuman sacrifices were needed to keep the godspleased and to prevent drought, floods and othernatural disasters. The chief deity was the sun god Huitzilopochtli (wee•tsee•loh•POHKT•lee),whose giant pyramid-temple arose in the center ofTenochtitlán.

Priests used a 360-day religious calendar todetermine appropriate days for activities, such asplanting crops or going to war. The Aztec also hada 365-day solar calendar that consisted of 18months of 20 days plus 5 extra days. One of themost famous surviving pieces of Aztec sculpture isa large, circular calendar stone that represents theAztec universe, with carvings that stand for thedays of the Aztec month.

Aztec artists decorated temple-pyramids withscenes of deities or battles. Writers glorified Aztecvictories in their works. The empire, however,proved to be fragile. Revolts in outlying areasweakened Aztec control. In A.D. 1521 the rebelsjoined the Spaniards in destroying the Aztec heritage.

The Inca EmpireOther Native American civilizations arose in

western South America. One of the earliest was theMoche, who lived on the north coast of present-dayPeru between A.D. 100 and A.D. 600. In A.D. 1987archaeologists discovered a noble’s tomb thatrevealed the Moche had a social order based onranks, skilled artisans who made metal ornaments,and rituals that included sacrifices.

Rise of the Inca The Inca began as one of many small tribes

competing for scarce fertile land in the valleys ofthe Andes mountain ranges. Around A.D. 1200 theInca settled in Cuzco (KOOS•koh), which becametheir capital. They raided other tribes and slowlyestablished a powerful empire.

The decisive period of Inca expansion began inA.D. 1438, when Pachacuti, the ninth Inca ruler,came to power. He and his son, Topa IncaYupanqui, have been compared to Philip andAlexander the Great of Macedonia. By persuasion,threats, and force, they extended Inca boundariesfar to the north and south.

The Inca Empire eventually included all of present-day Peru, much of Chile, and parts ofEcuador, Bolivia, and Argentina. It stretched morethan 2,500 miles (4,020 km) through coastal deserts,dry highlands, fertile river valleys, and rain forests.Most of the Inca lived in the Andes highlands andadjusted to high altitudes. Cuzco was 11,600 feet(3,560 m) above sea level.


Spain

Chocolate Is Chocolate Is Introduced to Introduced to EuropeEurope

Spain, A.D. 1528According to legend, the Aztec ruler Montezuma had served Hernán Cortés a beverage called chocolatl. When Cortés returned to Spain in A.D. 1528, he brought with him the beans of the cacao tree. Spaniards added sugar, vanilla, and cinnamon to sweeten the bitter drink. Chocolate became a favorite with the aristocracy and spread to Italy, France, Austria, and England.

AROUND THE

Government and SocietyPachacuti created a strong central government

to control the vast realm. He permitted local rulersto continue governing conquered territories as longas they were loyal. Rebellious peoples were reset-tled elsewhere where they could pose less of athreat. Pachacuti instituted a complex system oftribute collections, courts, military posts, tradeinspections, and local work regulations to bind out-lying territories to the center. To further unite thediverse peoples, the Inca established a commonimperial language—Quechua (KEH•chuh•wuh).

The Inca emperor and his officials closely regu-lated the lives of the common people. As a divineruler, the emperor owned all land and carefully regulated the growing and distribution of foods,such as potatoes and quinoa (keen•wah), a protein-rich grain. To make good use of the limited arableland, Inca farmers cut step terraces into hillsidesand built irrigation systems in the dry coastal plain.After harvest, part of their crops went to the gov-ernment as taxes. Under the emperor’s direction,work crews built roads and woven fiber suspensionbridges that linked the regions of the empire.

The Inca believed in many deities, includingthe creator god Viracocha and the sun god Inti.Priests offered food, animals, and sometimeshumans as sacrifices to please the deities. In A.D.1995 archaeologists discovered in the Andes thefrozen, preserved body of a teenage Inca girl. Foodand pottery remains seemed to indicate that shewas a sacrificial victim. Priests also served as doc-tors, using herbs to treat illnesses and performingan early form of brain surgery.

The Inca kept records by using quipu, a ropewith knotted cords of different lengths and colors.Each knot represented an item or number. Theyalso observed the heavens to predict seasonalchanges. They were able to perform certain mathe-matical calculations that they used to design theirbuildings and roads.

Inca DeclineThe Inca would prove to be no match for the

Spanish conquerors who arrived in South Americain the A.D. 1530s. In spite of fierce resistance, theInca Empire eventually disappeared. Spanish forcesslew those Inca who threatened their authority—anaction that would be repeated in many parts of theAmericas. Aspects of Inca culture, however, havesurvived among the Inca descendants living todayin western areas of South America.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify the factors inthe rise and fall of the AztecEmpire.

Recall2. Define chinampas, hierarchy,

quinoa.3. Identify the Aztec, the Inca,

the Moche, Pachacuti.Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

What do modern nations takeas tribute after a war? How is

this the same as or differentfrom the tribute paid by con-quered peoples to the AztecEmpire?

Understanding Themes5. Change Contrast the methods

used by the Aztec and the Incato expand and administer theirvast empires.

CuzcoMachu Picchu

Tenochtitlán

NORTH AMERICA

MEXICO

Mesoamerica

SOUTHAMERICA

N

E

S

W

AN

DES

Chichén Itzá

Purumacu

Quito

YUCATÁNPENINSULA

Capital city

Major city

Aztec

Inca

Maya Goode's InterruptedHomolosine Projection

0 500

500

1,000 mi.

0 1,000 km

0°

20°S

20°N

60°W110°W 85°W

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Gulfof Mexico

CaribbeanSea

MapMapStudyStudy

Aztec, Inca, and Maya Empires

The Aztec, Inca, and Maya built powerful empires in the Americas. Human/Environment Interaction

How did the Inca adapt to their environment in order to build their civilization?


Aztec Empire

FallRise

You see a television interview with aneyewitness to a tornado. Later you reada newspaper account. Is one account

more accurate than the other?

Learning the SkillTo determine the accuracy of an account, you

must analyze its source. There are two main kindsof sources—primary and secondary. Primarysources are produced by eyewitnesses to events.Diaries, letters, autobiographies, interviews, arti-facts, and paintings are primary sources.Secondary sources use information gathered fromothers. Textbooks and biographies are secondarysources. Because primary sources convey person-al experiences, they often give emotions andopinions of participants in an event. Secondarysources, written at a later time, often help us tounderstand events in a larger context.

Determine the reliability of the source. For a primary source, find out who wrote it andwhen. An account written during or immedi-ately after an event is more reliable than onewritten years later. For a secondary source, lookfor good documentation. Researchers should citetheir sources in footnotes and bibliographies.

For both types of sources evaluate theauthor. Is this author biased? What backgroundand authority does he or she have? Finally, com-pare two accounts of the same event. If they dis-agree, you should question their reliability.

Practicing the SkillRead the sources and answer the questions.

Finally the two groups met...When allwas ready Moctezuma placed his feet,shod in gold-soled, gem-studded san-dals, on the carpeted pavement and...advanced to an encounter that wouldshape both his own destiny and that ofhis nation....Moctezuma had servantsbring forward two necklaces of red

Analyzing Primary and Secondary Sources

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking


shells hung with life-size shrimpsmade of gold. These he placed aroundCortés’s neck.

—from Cortés by William Weber Johnson, 1975

When we had arrived at a place not farfrom the town, where several small tow-ers rose together, the monarch raisedhimself in his sedan...Montezuma him-self, according to his custom, was sump-tuously attired, had on a species of halfboot, richly set with jewels, and whosesoles were made of solid gold....Montezuma came up to Cortés, and tak-ing him by the hand, conducted himhimself into the apartments where hewas to lodge, which had been beautiful-ly decorated...He then hung about hisneck a chaste necklace of gold, mostcuriously worked with figures all repre-senting crabs.

—from an account by Conquistador BernalDíaz del Castillo, 1519

1. What is the general topic of the two sources?2. Which is a primary source and which is a

secondary source? How can you tell?3. What different technique does each quote

use to approach the same topic?

Applying the SkillFind two accounts of a recent event or a

historical event. Analyze the reliability of each.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 393.

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Reviewing Facts1. Culture Use a chart like the one below to iden-

tify key events in the development of the Mayancivilization.

2. Geography Explain how the food resources ofNative Americans along the California coast differed from those of Native Americans livingin the Great Basin.

3. Geography Discuss how the people of south-western North America adapted to the desert.

4. Culture Identify the purposes of the moundsleft by the Mound Builders.

5. History Name the two principal sites whereexcavations have revealed an ancient Olmec culture.

6. Culture Describe the four books that have sur-vived from the Mayan civilization.

7. History Identify the events in the early A.D.1500s that were responsible for the sudden endto the Inca and the Aztec civilizations.

8. Science/Technology Explain how mathemati-cal, technical, and scientific innovations affect-ed Native Americans.

9. Geography State what was unique about thelocation of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán.

10. Citizenship Discuss the ways in which the Incaserved their emperor and the empire.

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Thenwrite a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. chinampas f. obsidianb. weirs g. potlatchesc. quinoa h. hierarchyd. confederation i. slash-and-burn farminge. maize

1. Around A.D. 1500 the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida,Onondaga, and Seneca formed a ___________, orloose union.

2. Because of the scarcity of land to farm, the Aztecdevised a way of making ___________, or artifi-cial islands.

3. Among Native Americans of the PacificNorthwest, the wealth of each lineage groupwas displayed and given away as gifts at__________.

4. The early Olmec practiced a form of agricultureknown as ______________.

5. By about 5000 B.C., hunter-gatherers in the high-land area of present-day Mexico had discoveredthat the seeds of _______ could be planted.


Parallel to your time line of impor-tant dates in Native American civiliza-tions, add a time line of significant civi-lizations and achievements in Africa,Asia, and Europe. Use dates from theUnit 3 Digest on pages 395–397.

Using Your History JournalSelf-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 15—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Key Developments

CHAPTER 15 ASSESSMENT

Using the Internet Accessthe Internet to locate aWeb site that has informationabout the ancient Inca Empire. Use a searchengine to help focus your search by usingphrases such as inca empire, mesoamerican civiliza-tions, or native americans. Create a bulletin boardusing the information found, and incorporateillustrations of Inca culture and artifacts. Includecaptions with your photos and illustrations.

Technology Activity

1.

2.

3.

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=606&pt=3&bk=18

Understanding Themes1. Relation to the Environment How did Native

Americans in the Eastern Woodlands differ fromthe Native Americans of the Great Plains? Howwere they similar?

2. Innovation What were some of the culturalachievements of the Mayan civilization?

3. Change How did Spaniards affect the Aztecand Inca civilizations?

1. What impact do Native American traditionshave on life in the Americas today? In whatways has modern civilization been affectedby the early Native Americans?

2. Religion played an important role in earlyAmerican and other ancient civilizations.What role does religion have in modernsocieties?

Skill PracticeRead the following excerpt and answer the questions.

The things the Incas built were copiedfrom the older civilizations that they con-quered. In their cities, fortresses, roads,


France

20°N

0°

40°N

60°N

80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W 0°

England

NORTHAMERICA

ATLANTICOCEAN

AFRICA

SOUTHAMERICA

TheAmericanColonies

EUROPE

Enslaved persons, gold

Rum, iron

Suga

r,m

ola

sses

Manufactured goods

Tobacco, fur, indigo

meat, lum

berFlour, fish,

Sugar, molasses

Mercator Projection

0 1,000 mi.

0 1,000 km

N

E

S

W

The Triangular Trade Route

Critical Thinking1. Analyze How did the rise and decline of the

Aztec and Inca Empires differ?2. Analyze High in the Andes mountain ranges,

the city of Machu Picchu was the last refuge ofthe Inca. Why did Inca rulers retreat to a city insuch a remote location?

Ruins ofMachuPicchu

terraces, temples, they did only what hadbeen done before by the people aroundthem, but a great deal more of it. Theornamentation, the woven fabrics, thework in gold they pursued so avidly as asymbol of the Sun, all were adopted bytheir predecessors.

— from The Last Americans: The Indian inAmerican Culture by the American historian,

William Brandon, 1974

1. What is the topic of the source?2. Is this a primary or a secondary source?

Explain your answer.3. What authority does the author have?

Geography in History1. Movement Refer to the map below. In the

A.D. 1500s and A.D. 1600s Native American civ-ilizations declined as the whole region cameunder the rule of powerful European nation-states. The triangular trade linked four conti-nents between A.D. 1600 and A.D. 1760. Howdid trade change the population of theCaribbean Islands?

2. Human/Environment Interaction How didfarming change when crops such as sugarcanebegan to be raised for trade?

3. Movement What positive and negative changesresulted from the cultural contact of peoplesfrom four different continents?

CHAPTER 15 ASSESSMENT

394 Unit 3 Regional Civilizations

Unit 3

Chapter 11

The Quran

Muslims believe that the angel Gabriel carried aseries of revelations from God (Allah) to Muhammad,which were collected in a book called the Quran, thesacred text of Islam. The following excerpts are fromthe Quran.

Section 981. Behold! Allah tookThe Covenant of the Prophets,Saying: “I give youA Book and Wisdom;Then comes to youA Messenger,confirmingWhat is with you;Do you believe inhimAnd render himhelp.”Allah said: “Do yeagree,And take this myCovenantAs binding on you?”They said: “We agree.”He said: “Then bear witness,and I am with youAmong the witnesses. . . .”

84. Say: “We believeIn Allah, and in whatHas been revealed to usAnd what was revealedTo Abraham Ism[ae]l; Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, And in (the Books)Given to Moses, Jesus,And the Prophets,From their Lord:We make no distinctionBetween one and anotherAmong them, and to Allah do weBow our will (in Islam). . . .”

In many parts of the world, the

period between A.D. 500 and

A.D. 1500 was a time of turmoil

and change. It was also a time of

growth and exploration.

Merchants and missionaries

brought different areas into

contact with one another and

helped spread religious and

scientific ideas.

VOCABULARY PREVIEWcovenant: promise; agreement

belligerents: groups at war with each other

abject: low in spirit; hopeless

✦

For more primary sources to accompany this unit, use the World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM.

✦

✦

Muslims circlingthe Ka’aba

Unit 3 Regional Civilizations 395

Chapter 13

Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas was a thinker of the MiddleAges. His Summa Theologica (1273) applies logic to Christian beliefs. Here he discusses war.

Whether It Is Always Sinful to Wage War?Objection 1. It would seem that it is always

sinful to wage war. Because punishment isnot inflicted except for sin. Now those whowage war are threatened by Our Lord withpunishment, according to Matth. xxvi. 52: Allthat take the sword shall perish with thesword. Therefore all wars are unlawful. . . .

Obj. 3. Further, nothing, except sin, is con-trary to an act of virtue. But war is contraryto peace. Therefore war is always a sin. . . .

On the contrary, Augustine says . . . : If theChristian Religion forbade war altogether,those who sought . . . advice in the Gospelwould rather have been counselled . . . to giveup soldiering altogether. On the contrary, theywere told: “. . . be content with your pay.” Ifhe commanded them to be content with theirpay, he did not forbid soldiering.

I answer that, In order for a war to be just,three things are necessary. First, the authorityof the sovereign by whose command the waris to be waged. . . .

Secondly, a just cause is required, . . .Thirdly, it is necessary that the belligerents

should have a rightful intention, so that theyintend the advancement of good, or theavoidance of evil. . . .

Reply Obj. 3. Thosewho wage war justly aimat peace, and so they arenot opposed to peace. . . .Hence Augustine says . . . :We do not seek peace inorder to be at war, butwe go to war that wemay have peace. . . .

11.. What does the Quran say about the revelations to Moses and Jesus?22.. According to Aquinas, what is necessary for a “just” war? 33.. Why does Genji disagree with To no Chujo?44.. CRITICAL THINKING: Why do you think a woman would write this passage

from The Tale of Genji? Do you think the author believed what she wrote?

Applications ActivitySuppose you had to debate Thomas Aquinas over the issue of the morality of war. Write a speech rebutting Aquinas’s arguments.

Interpreting Primary Sources

Chapter 14

The Tale of Genji

Around A.D. 1010 Lady Shikibu Murasaki wroteThe Tale of Genji, a novel that is considered the great-est work of Japanese fiction. The tale follows the life andloves of a fictional prince named Genji. In this excerpt,Genji discusses the subject of women with his friend.

“. . . I divide women into three classes.Those of high rank and birth are made sucha fuss of and their weak points are so com-pletely concealed that we are certain tobe told that they are paragons [models ofperfection]. About those of the middle classeveryone is allowed to express his own opinion, and we shall have much conflictingevidence to sift. As forthe lower classes, theydo not concern us.”

The completenesswith which To noChujo disposed of thequestion amusedGenji, who said “Itwill not always be soeasy to know into which of the three classes awoman ought to be put. For sometimes people of high rank sink tothe most abject [low] positions; while othersof common birth rise to . . . think themselvesas good as anyone. How are we to deal withsuch cases? . . .”

Illustration fromThe Tale of Genji

396 Unit 3 Regional Civilizations

Standardized Test Practice

Use the map below to answer question 1.

1. According to the map above, which of the following was true about theByzantine Empire in 1143?

A Manzikert was still a part of theempire.

B The empire had no lands along theBlack Sea.

C Italy was no longer part of the empire. D Crusaders left Rome for Asia Minor.

2. Islamic contributions include

F the invention of algebra.G the accurate description of solar

eclipses.H the study of light and its effect on

sight.J all of the above.

3. The medieval Church introduced reformsto strengthen its influence. Which hadthe greatest impact on these reforms?

A The Church’s desire to free itself fromfeudal lords

B The Church’s desire to establish moremonasteries on the manors of nobles

C The need to make Roman Catholicismmore accessible to serfs and to women

D The fear of foreign invasion

Rome

Carthage

ManzikertKosovo

Venice

ConstantinopleITALY

EUROPE

AFRICA

GREECE

SYRIA

PALESTINE

ASIA MINOR

EGYPT

Territory lost by A.D. 1143

Territory lost by A.D. 1350

Empire in A.D. 1350

Route of Fourth Crusade

Battle site

N

E

S

W

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km

Mediterranean Sea

Red

Sea

35°N

30°N

45°N

50°N

40°N

10°E 15°E 20°E 25°E 30°E 35°E 40°E

Black Sea

Adriatic Sea

Decline of the Byzantine Empire

Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the followingmultiple choice questions. If you have trouble answering aquestion, eliminate answers you know are incorrect. Write youranswers on a separate piece of paper.

Test-Taking Tip: The map’s legend, orkey, explains how the map is organized. Makesure that you double check all answer choicesagainst the information on the map to makesure that you have chosen the best answer.

Test-Taking Tip: Always read the ques-tion and all the answer choices. Do not simplychoose the first answer that “makes sense”—especially when one of the choices is all ofthe above or none of the above.

Test-Taking Tip: The word reformmeans “an improvement to correct faults.”What faults existed in the Church? Notice alsothat the question asks you which answer hadthe greatest impact. When a question useswords like greatest or least, it means thatmore than one answer may seem correct—make sure you choose the most important.

Unit 3 Regional Civilizations 397

Standardized Test Practice

4. During the Tang dynasty, the Chineseexpanded trade and established a strongcentral government. To govern a large land area and many people, the Tangclaimed to have developed a meritocracy. In a meritocracy, the government

F gives people government offices based onfamily ties.

G awards land ownership based on militaryservice.

H gives people jobs based on talent andqualifications.

J gives people jobs based on religiousaffiliation.

5. Which of the following demonstrates howthe Native Americans of the Southwestadapted to their environment?

A Many of their legends told the story ofthe creation of mountains and sand dunes.

B They constructed elaborately decoratedtotem poles to honor their dead leaders.

C They held their religious ceremonies inunderground chambers known as kivas.

D They invented techniques of irrigation tofarm the land.

Use the map below and your knowledge of history to answer question 6.

6. What physical feature characterizes theeastern coast of Korea?F PlainsG DesertsH IslandsJ Mountains

Kungnae

Pyongyang

Kaesong

Kwangju

Kongju

Puyo Kyongju

YellowSea

Sea of

Japan

KAYA STATES(MIMANA)

CHINA

PAEK

CH

E

Yalu

Naktong

Taed

ong

KOGURYO

SILLA

Polyconic Projection

0 50

50

100 mi.

0 100 km

N

E

S

W

Han

Han

tan

40°N

125°E 130°E

35°N

Korea in the Three Kingdoms Period

Test-Taking Tip: At the root of the wordmeritocracy is the word merit. If you are notsure what merit means, think about otherplaces you may have heard it—for example,merit scholarship or merit badge. People whoreceive these types of awards have earnedthem through outstanding performance andhard work. Becoming a government officialbased on family ties is not an example of merit,so you can eliminate answer A.

Test-Taking Tip: At the root of the wordmeritocracy is the word merit. If you are notsure what merit means, think about otherplaces you may have heard it—for example,merit scholarship or merit badge. People whoreceive these types of awards have earnedthem through outstanding performance andhard work. Becoming a government officialbased on family ties is not an example ofmerit, so you can eliminate answer F.

Test-Taking Tip: Make sure that youranswer is directly related to adapting to theenvironment. Since answers B and C are notstrongly related to the environment, you caneliminate them. Of the remaining choices,which answer shows an adaptation that wouldhelp people survive in this type of region?

Test-Taking Tip: Not all map featuresare identified by a legend or key. Rivers areshown by wavy lines (blue if the map is incolor) that are labeled, so they can be dis-tinguished from political borders. Mountainsare shaded to show relief—they will look“bumpy.” Different typefaces are used forcities, nations (kingdoms), and bodies ofwater. Familiarity with these standard mapfeatures will make map reading easier.

15 The Americas 1500 BC.–AD - granbystudents / FrontPage · · 2009-04-16Chapter 15 The...

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