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Transcript of Earthmoving Materials Operations
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1Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 1
AUGUST 26, 2015
CHANG-SEON SHON, PH.D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
NAZARBAYEV UNIVERSITY
LECTURE 2EARTHMOVING MATERIALS &
OPERATIONS
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 2
EARTHMOVING IS THE PROCESS OF MOVING SOIL OR ROCKFROM ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER AND PROCESSING IT SO
THAT IT MEETS CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS OF LOCATION, ELEVATION, DENSITY, MOISTURE CONTENT, AND SO ON
EARTHMOVING ACTIVITIES
Excavating / loading / hauling / placing (dumping and spreading) / compacting / grading / finishing
FOR EFFICIENT EARTHMOVING PROCESS,
Accurate estimating of work quantities and job conditions
Proper selection of equipment
Competent job management
EARTHMOVING PROCESS
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2Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 3
CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT INFLUENCES ON THE EFFICIENCY & PROFITABILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OPERATION
FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTINGEQUIPMENT FOR A PROJECT
The ability of the equipment to perform the required work
Maximize the profit produced by the equipment
Achieve the lowest cost per unit of production
Possible future use of the equipment
Availability of parts and service
Effect of equipment downtime on other construction equipment and operations
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 4
BASIC RELATIONSHIP FOR ESTIMATING THE PRODUCTION OF ALLEARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT
=
=
Where,Vol. percycle averagevol. ofmaterialmovedperequipmentCyclesperhour thenumberofcyclesactuallyachieved expected perhour
PRODUCTION OF EARTHMOVINGEQUIPMENT
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3Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 5
(From TM 5-331B, U.S. Department of the Army)
JOB EFFICIENCY FACTORS FOR EARTHMOVING OPERATIONS
PRODUCTION OF EARTHMOVINGEQUIPMENT (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 6
TRAFFICABILITY
Ability of a soil to support the weight of vehicles under repeated traffic
Function of soil type and moisture conditions
Factors impacting soil trafficability
Soil strength / Slipperiness / Stickiness / Slope / Stoniness
Drainage, stabilization of haul routes, or the use of low-ground pressure construction equipment may be required when poor trafficability conditions exist
EARTHMOVING MATERIALS: GENERAL SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
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4Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 7
LOADABILITY
Measure of the difficulty in excavating and loading a soil
E.g. Loose granular soils vs. compacted cohesive soils and rock
UNIT SOIL WEIGHT (LBS/YD3 OR KG/M3)
Used as measure of compaction
Factor in determining the capacity of a haul
Depend on soil type, moisture content, and degree of compaction
MOISTURE CONTENT
GENERAL SOIL CHARACTERISTICS(CONTD)
=
100
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 8
SOIL IDENTIFICATION ANDCLASSIFICATION
SOIL
Consist of gravel, sand, silt, clay, and organic materials
2m
m
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5Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 9
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Two principal soil classification systems are used for design and construction in the United States
Unified System
AASHTO System (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials)
In both systems, soil particles 3 in. or larger in diameter are removed before performing classification tests.
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 10
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USCS)
STEP 1. DETERMINE ATTERBERG LIMITS
Plasticity index (PL) = Liquid limit (LL) - Plastic limit (PL)
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6Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 11
STEP 2. CONDUCT SIEVE ANALYSIS AND DETERMINE SOIL GROUPON THE BASIS OF PI AND R200
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USCS (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 12
STEPS 3-6. DETERMINE R4 CONTENT AND GET RATIO OFR4/R200. THEN, DETERMINE SOIL TYPE USING THE FOLLOWINGTABLES.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USCS (CONTD)
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7Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 13
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: AASHTO SYSTEM
AASHTO SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Courtesy of BOMAC Americas
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 14
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: GRADATION CURVE
Typical gradation curves for coarse-grained soils. (U.S. Army Engineer School)
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8Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 15
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: FIELD IDENTIFICATION
UNIFIED SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION : FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Weight passing
in. (6mm) passing materials : < 50% : gravel
50% : sand
No.200 (75m) passing materials
< 10% : well or poorly graded
10% : High or low plasticity
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 16
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: FIELD IDENTIFICATION (CONTD)
DRY STRENGTH TEST AND PLASTICITY
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9Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 17
SOIL SHAKING TEST
Place soil in palm of hand
Add water gradually and knead the soil until it begins to get sticky
Form a ball about in. (19mm) in diameter
Hold the ball in one hand and tap the back of the hand with the other
If the ball becomes wet and shiny, it is mostly fine sand or silt
No reaction suggests clay
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: FIELD IDENTIFICATION (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 18
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICSOF SOILS
-
10
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 19
BASIC RULE OF EARTHWORKS OPERATION
Cut for the high
Fill for the low
EARTHWORK OPERATION
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 20
EARTHWORK OPERATION : FILL & CUT
-
11
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 21
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS
TYPICAL SOIL VOLUME CHANGE DURING EARTHMOVING
Most excavated materials are found to increase in volume after excavation (bulking or loosing)
When compacted in the in-situ volume, soils occupy less volume (shrinkage)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 22
SOIL CONDITIONS
Bank: Material in its natural state before disturbance. Often referred to as in-place or in-situ. A unit volume is identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank cubic meter (BCM).
Loose: Material that has been excavated or loaded. A unit volume is identified as a loose cubic yard (LCY) or loose cubic meter (LCM).
Compacted: Material after compaction. A unit volume is identified as a compacted cubic yard (CCY) or compacted cubic meter (CCM).
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
-
12
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 23
SWELL
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
% =()
() 1 100
EXAMPLE
Find the swell of a soil that weight 1661 kg/m3 in its natural state and 1186 kg/m3 after excavation.
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 24
SHRINKAGE
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
% = 1 ()
() 100
EXAMPLE
Find the shrinkage of a soil that weight 1661 kg/m3 in its natural state and 2077 kg/m3 after compaction
-
13
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 25
LOAD FACTORS
SHRINKAGE FACTOR (COMPACTION FACTOR)
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
=()
()or
=1
1 +
=()
()or
= 1
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 26
LOAD AND SHRINKAGE FACTORS
EXAMPLE
A soil weighs 1163 kg/LCM, 1661 kg/BCM, and 2077 kg/CCM
Find the load factor and shrinkage factor for the soil
How many bank cubic meters (BCM) and compacted cubic meters (CCM) are contained in 593330 loose cubic meters of this soil?
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
-
14
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 27
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGECHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
TYPICAL SOIL WEIGHT AND VOLUME CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS*
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 28
WHEN PLANNING AND ESTIMATING EARTHWORK, IT ISFREQUENTLY NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE SIZE OF THE PILE OF
MATERIAL THAT WILL BE CREATED BY THE MATERIAL REMOVED
FROM THE EXCAVATION
If the pile of material is long in relation to its width, it is referred to as a spoil bank.
SPOIL BANKS OR PILES
-
15
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 29
DETERMINE THE DIMENSIONS OF SPOIL BANKS OR PILES
Convert the volume of excavation from in-place condition (BCY or BCM) to loose conditions (LCY or LCM)
TRIANGULAR SPOIL BANK
SPOIL BANKS OR PILES (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 30
CONICAL SPOIL PILE
SPOIL BANKS OR PILES (CONTD)
-
16
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 31
TYPICAL VALUES OF ANGLE OF REPOSE OF EXCAVATED SOIL
SPOIL BANKS OR PILES (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 32
EXAMPLE 1
Find the base width and height of a triangular spoil bank containing 76.5 BCM if the pile length is 9.14 m, the soil's angle of repose is 37, and its swell is 25%.
SPOIL BANKS OR PILES (CONTD)
-
17
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 33
EXAMPLE 2
Find the base diameter and height of a conical spoil pile that will contain 76.5 BCM of excavation if the soil's angle of repose is 32and its swell is 12%.
SPOIL BANKS OR PILES (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 34
WHEN PLANNING OR ESTIMATING AN EARTHMOVING PROJECT, IT IS OFTEN NECESSARY TO ESTIMATE THE VOLUME OF MATERIAL
TO BE EXCAVATED OR PLACED AS FILL
THE PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED CAN BE DIVIDED INTOTHREE PRINCIPAL CATEGORIES:
Pit excavations (small, relatively deep excavations such as those required for basements and foundations)
Trench excavation for utility lines
Excavating or grading relatively large areas
PROCEDURES SUGGESTED FOR EACH OF THESE THREE CASES AREDESCRIBED IN THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS.
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME
-
18
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 35
SMALL, RELATIVELY DEEP EXCAVATIONS SUCH AS THOSEREQUIRE FOR BASEMENTS AND FOUNDATION
Divide the horizontal area into a convenient set of rectangles, triangles, or circular segments
Calculate total area (the sum of the segment areas)
Calculate the average depth
Calculate volume
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: PIT EXCAVATIONS
=
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 36
EXAMPLE
Estimate the volume of excavation required (bank measure) for the basement shown. Values shown at each corner are depths of excavation. All values are in meter.
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: PIT EXCAVATIONS (CONTD)
-
19
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 37
TRENCH EXCAVATION FOR UTILITY LINES
Calculate the trench cross-section area
Measure the linear distance along the trench line
Calculate volume
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: TRENCH EXCAVATIONS
=
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 38
CROSS-SECTIONAL AVERAGE METHOD
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: TRENCH EXCAVATIONS (CONTD)
= +
2
=1
2
+ 2
+
2
=1
6 + 4 +
: ,
-
20
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 39
EXAMPLE
Find the volume (bank measure) of excavation required for a trench 0.92 m wide, 1.83 m deep, and 152 m long. Assume that the trench sides will be approximately vertical.
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: TRENCH EXCAVATIONS (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 40
EXCAVATING OR GRADING RELATIVELY LARGE & COMPLEX AREAS
Divide the area into a grid indicating the depth of excavation or fill at each grid intersection
Assign the depth at each comer or segment intersection a weight according to its location (number of segment lines intersecting at the point)
Interior points : a weight of four
Exterior points : a weight of two
Corner points : a weight of one
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: LARGE AREAS
=
-
21
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 41
EXAMPLE
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 42
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
1 4 3 4
1 1 2 2 4
2 2 2 3 4
5 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
4
4
4
4
2 3 44
abV y y y y
abV h h h h
abV h h h h
abV h h h h
abV h h h h
SQUARE PILLAR
-
22
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 43
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
1 4 3
1 1 4 4
2 3 4 4
6 1 2 4
1 2 3 8
6
6
6
6
2 3 86
abV y y y
abV h h h
abV h h h
abV h h h
abV h h h h
PRISM
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 44
EXAMPLE
Find the volume of excavation required for the area shown in Figure. The figure at each grid intersection represents the depth of cut at that location.
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME: LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
-
23
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 45
EARTHWORK CALCULATION SHEET(TABLE)
Area (m2)
*Average
Area
(m2)
**Vol. of
soil
(m3)
Area
(m2)
Average
Area
(m2)
Vol. of
soil
(m3)
Compaction
factor
(C)
1Revised
Vol.
(m3)
11 21.6 8.3 963.3
12 20 29.4 25.5 510.0 1.3 4.8 96.0 0.9 106.7 403.3 1366.6 106.7
13 12.5
14 7.5
15 20
16 20
Total
* Average area is the average of previously and currently measured areas
**Volume of soil = Average area x distance1Revised vol. of soil = vol. of soil / compaction factor2"+" means cutting of soil while "-" imply filling of soil3Cumulative vol. of soil4At the same station no, select small vol. of soil betwwen cutting and filling of soil
Cutting of soil (Used in fiiling) Filling of soil 2Calculated
Soil (m3)
Excess (+)
Short (-)
3Cumulative
Vol.
(m3)
4Vol. (m3)
horizontal
direction
Station No. Distance
EARTHWORK CALCULATE SHEET (TABLE) IS REQUIRED TO DRAWMASS DIAGRAM
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 46
EARTHWORK CALCULATION TABLE: HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
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24
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 47
IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE MATERIAL WASTE OR BORROW, IT ISNECESSARY TO PRODUCE WHAT IS CALLED A MASS HAULDIAGRAM
A PLOT OF CUMULATIVE VOLUME OF SOIL AGAINST DISTANCEALONG THE ROAD
CUT VOLUMES ARE TAKEN TO BE POSITIVE AND FILL VOLUMESTO BE NEGATIVE
COMMON IN ROADWAY OR AIRFIELD
PREPARED BY HIGHWAY AND AIRFIELD DESIGNERS TO ASSIST INSELECTING AN ALIGNMENT
MASS (HAUL) DIAGRAM
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 48
MASS (HAUL) DIAGRAM (CONTD)
-
25
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 49
THE VERTICAL COORDINATE OF THE MASS DIAGRAM CORRESPONDING TOANY LOCATION ON THE ROADWAY PROFILE REPRESENTS THE CUMULATIVE
EARTHWORK VOLUME FROM THE ORIGIN TO THAT POINT
WITHIN A CUT, THE CURVE RISES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT
WITHIN A FILL, THE CURVE FALLS FROM LEFT TO RIGHT
A PEAK ON THE CURVE REPRESENTS A POINT WHERE THE EARTHWORKCHANGES FROM CUT TO FILL
A VALLEY (LOW POINT) ON THE CURVE REPRESENTS A POINT WHERE THEEARTHWORK CHANGES FROM FILL TO CUT
WHEN A HORIZONTAL LINE INTERSECTS THE CURVE AT TWO OR MOREPOINTS, THE ACCUMULATED VOLUMES AT THESE POINTS ARE EQUAL. THUS, SUCH A LINE REPRESENTS A BALANCE LINE ON THE DIAGRAM.
MASS (HAUL) DIAGRAM (CONTD)
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 50
CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE MASSDIAGRAM (CONTD)
USING THE MASS DIAGRAM
The length and direction of haul within a balanced section
The average length of haul for a balanced section
The location and amount of borrow (material hauled in from a borrow pit) and waste (material hauled away to a waste area) for the project
Selection of type of equipment for accomplishing the work
Selection of construction method
-
26
Lecture 02ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes 51
CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE MASSDIAGRAM (CONTD)
EXAMPLE
Figure 1 shows the mass diagram of earthwork.
(1) What is the total amount of soil (m3) between A and B?
(2) What is the average distance (m) between A and B? Figure 1. Mass diagram