8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 1/12

7, 8 and 9-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

Ene-Silvia Sarv

Key words: compulsory education, 6-, 7-, 8-year schools, curriculum, pedagogy,education policy and ideology, teacher 

The system of education from 1940 to 1980 had to go through several changes fromquite liberal and innovative state in 1939 via WorldWar II and political-ideologicalchanges to highly prescribed and ideologically controlled system in 1980. This 40years long manysided process is in following explaned firstly through some generalaspects and then by maine more detailin mine ation includes some general

The organisation and network of schools

By the beginning of the WW II Estonian education was in the process of changes /fastdevelopment. Since mid-30-ies the compulsory and secondary school together were extendedfrom 11 up to 12 years, compulsory school had 6 grades with class-teacher and school-obligation was up to age 15. The contemporary, child-centered methods were introduced via

teachers preparation in pedagogical seminars and wide professional development movement,led by Johannes Käis and Union of Teachers.

By 1960s Estonia had mainly schools working in Estonian or Russian and someschools what had departments working in Estonian and Russian. Those could be as

 primary so secondary schools. School had one headmaster/principal but usually twodeputy headmasters – one for each department.

Content of education

1928 national curriculum represented many advanced, innovative ideas, includingintegrated learning , individualisation and everyday-life related content. The 1938curriculum offered even more holistic approach covering all school-levels but was notreally introduced before 1940. (Andresen 2007)

Youth organizations

Up to 1940 the following, sanctioned by the Ministry of Education, organisations

Young Eagles, Home Daughters, Scouts ang Guides for younger students.

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 2/12

With Soviet Regime pioneers (10-14 years) and Communist Youth organisations became the only sanctionered youth organisations, both strictly under the governmentof local and central organs of Communist Party. Alongside with ideological

 brainwashing both, but especially pioneer organisation developed students’ initiative,leader abilities, gave opportunities for organised, state-supported trips, excursions,

camps, work (forest planting) etc, many of those dedicated to festive days or anniversaries of Soviet Union, Communist Party, WW II, Stalin or Lenin. Mostlythese celebrations included competitions and rituals dedicated to “honour of labour”,Soviet patriotism, faithfulness to Communist Party, “readiness ror work and defence”.The organisation was fully and activly atheistic. (CCCP. Narodnoje ... 1967,Konstantinov ...)

Pedagogy

The philosophies of Komensky, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, reform educators as well asideas and practices cultivated by Carl Heinrich Niggol (1851-1927), Peeter Põld(1878 – 1930), Johannes Käis (1885 – 1950), Jüri Parijõgi (1892 – 1941), Juhan Tork (1889 – 1980), Aleksander Elango (1902 – 2004) formed the foundation of educational reality in 1940. This meant work-school, wide use of integrated andindependent learning according to students’ individual abilities, textbooks andworkbooks supporting this kind of learning. (Eisen 1996) The 1930s was the decadein wich lot of teachers activities – conferences, professional development days,exhibitions took place, educational literature was published and teacher organisationswere active innovators. (Eisen 1996)

In the very beginning of Soviet occupation educational publications were renamed(the journal Education to Soviet School, the weekly Teacher Paper to Soviet Teacher)and became the tool of robustious re-ideologisation. For example the ideology of capitalist enemy, need for socialist vigilance and hatred towards class-enemy wasstressed (Gontšarov 1940). At the same time socialist competition was introduced inschools for individual students and for schools and classes as powerful mean of communist education (Dovgalevskaja 1940). Throughout these years the content of education changed. The analyses of textbooks, especially ABC-books (Laherand2000) show how traditional nature-home-farm-related content changed to city,industry, party and authorities (esp Lenin). Accordingly changed values.(Kalmus

1999) Even names of children changed often to Russian names and Russianwas seen as “older brother”. In many cases “two histories” were present in

Estonia during the Soviet rule. While the official version was taught systematically atschool, the unofficial one was discovered individually by each child with the help of 

 parents or other adults, family photo albums, surviving books from the 1920'ies and1930'ies, and other sources. (Tulviste) The same can be said about literature.

So often two sets of values were cultivated in parallel and formed the identity of students in Estonian-working schools. For schools working in Russian this parallelismwas not present or so obvious.

Further the timeline of 6, 7, 8 year schools in Estonia is explained.

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 3/12

1940-1941

One of the first steps of Soviet government was to introduce Soviet centralised system

of education. The private schools, incl schols for national minorities (Nodel) were

closed or state-owned/nationalized, separate teaching for boys and girls in lower 

classes was stopped and mixed schools introduced. School-obligation was prolonged

(to age of 16) and seventh class/grade (pro-gymnasium grade) was attached to six-

grade schools. So students were forced to change the school. Religion was excluded

from curricula.

Unification of education started, but due to short time the curricular developments,change of content of education and methodology were superficial. Teachers used

mainly traditional textbooks, practices of Johannes Käis and traditional methods as

they had done so far. At 1941 the ABC-book of H. Rajamaa was published that had

traditional texts, pictures about daily life in countryside and in nature and nearly

without Soviet atributes. Even the image of church was still in the textbook.

(Rajamaa) But from school-libraries the Estonian patriotic literature and other 

“bourgeous” teaching materials were abolished and inventory were destroyed. Some private schoolhouses were given to newcomers - russian children, at the beginning of 

war – some were used as hospitals.

Teachers were informed about obligational changes at the Teachers congress (1940,

August), some were forced for cooperation with repressive organs. Ca 10% of 

teachers were sent to Siberia, executed or mobilised. At the 1941 war 79 schools were

destroyed or damaged.

In schools the ideological pioneer and komsomol organisations were founded toreplace scauts’ movement. The main scautmaster informed about termination of 

organisation ang recommended to all to join pioneer or communist youth

organisations. (Hunt)

For students the changes appeared in different ways. So those who were students in

 pro-gymnasium had to change to other school to 6th grade, as pro-gymnasiums did

not fit into soviet school-system. And teachers had to be called Comrade, as mister 

and missis (härra, proua) were forbidden to use. Traditional boys’ schools became

mixed. The fear and untrust were developed in silence because people were

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 4/12

disappearing. (Hunt)

1941-44

These years education has to be explained in two separate parts: education in

homeland (Estonia) occupied by Nazis, and education in the Soviet rear (far behind

the front line). The first one was in general following and re-establishing educational

approaches of pre-Soviet period, the second one copied the Soviet educational

 paradigm and organisation and influenced the after-war education in Estonia.

During the pre-war summer thousands of Estonians were forced to leave Estonia,

 partly evacauated, partly deported to central Russia, Siberia, Ural etc. At 1941/42.

classes (in Tcheljabinsk, Sverdlovsk, Orenburg, Tatar, Tchuvas, Mari etc regions)

working in Estonian were opened. From 1942 in Verhneuralsk 7-year school started

to work in Estonian. At 1943 the high school starts in Jegorjevsk – near Moscosw.

(Prokofiev, Estonskaya SSR; Nagel 2004, Sarv 2010) Some textbooks were issued in

Estonian. For example the first Estonian textbook/lugemik for high school at Soviet

time (Moscow, publication of Foreign Literature Publications, 1943, ed by Andresen

and Seilenthal) includes Stalin’s and Estonia’s leading communists speeches,contemporary Soviet literature (Fadejev, Gorki, Ostrovski, A.Tolstoi), Estonian

classical (national epic Kalevipoeg, Bornhöhe, Koidula, Luts, Suits, Tammsaare,

Tuglas, Under, Vilde, etc), some of them do not appear afterwords in Estonian for 

decades. Some stories, anyway had aready strong ideological accent.

In nazi-occupied Estonia school life was politicised/ideologisised, german language

and nazi-symbolics were obligational in school. The educational literature, mostly re-

  prints of old textbooks were issued periodically. Schools worked according to

 possibilities - rooms, teachers up to the spring 1944, when war reached Estonia. In

Soviet literature it is underlined, that teachers, who had co-operated with Soviet

government in 1940/41 were eliminated from school-work and sent to agricultural or 

other work, many of them to concentration camps. (Prokofiev, Estonskaya SSR).

1944 - 1948 and further

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 5/12

It was possible to continue with compulsory education nearly everywhere in Estonia

in 1944/45. 198 elementary, 790 7-grade schools and 38 secondary schools worked.

The 1944 -1948 were the years to establish Soviet educational system, pedagogy,

unitarian school, numerical grading/mark system (1 – the worse, 5 – exellent),

subjects and their content, time-prescriptions. In towns the boy’s and girl’s school

still may exist separately. The class-teacher period shortenes from 6 to 3 years (often

with subject teachers for music, arts and gymnastics) and from 4th grade subject-

teaching and subject–teachers start. Types of schools, educational inventary and

textbooks are unified (translated from Russian), compulsory school is prolonged to 7

grades and free, while high schools charge tuition. General 7- grade compulsory

education was established in the Soviet Union in 1949.

The number of Russian-speaking children was quickly growing due to intensive

immigration and a growing number of troops and military officials. Some areas

 became closed militay zones with schools working only in Russian.

So first decade after the war (and in some ways up to ninties) Estonia has two parallel

school-systems. There were schools working in Russian, according to established

Soviet textbooks, traditional Soviet Pedagogy and principles of Communist education.

The teachers and principals came mainly from Russia, were educated in very different

universities, pedagogical seminars all over the SU and did not speak Estonian. In

these schools all children belonged to pioneer organisation as a rule. The schools

working in Estonian had very quickly to re-orientate their educational principles and

methods accordin to ideological and pedagogical rules and learning plans of SU.

 Nethertheless – as most teachers had pre-Soviet pedagogical preparation/education,

the methods and classroom-climate often was child-centered and the ideas of the

 pedagogy of J Käis worked silently in classrooms. Estonian was learning-teaching

language, number of lessons for foreign languages was cut, German became highlyunpopular, Russian was introduced fron the 2nd grade, new subjects like history and

geography of SU were introduced and mostly replaced history and geography of 

Estonia for many years.

Children were forced to become pioneers. The communist, marxist-leninist ideology

and education had to be part of every subject. The obligatory school-uniform was

introduced in 1955 (at first – exactly the Russian brown dress with black or white

apron, in 60ies – dark blue dress with white collar). (Photos 1, 2) New ABC-book (Aabits) for Estonian schools (1948) has already pioners as actors

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 6/12

and stories about Stalin. The same tendency is seen in song-books etc. In further 

years the illustrations changed using city as environment (instead of Farm, nature as it

was used in traditional Estonian ABC and other textbooks), Russian names for 

children, motifs from Russian literature. But the Estonian ABC-book from 1958 re-

introduces some traditional values and motifs of work-school/töökool/Arbeitschule by

J Käis.

As H Kurm (1954, 1955) so Soviet literature on education (Prokofjev, ……) bringforward several positive changes. The 7-year school and school-obligation meant,that all children at age 7-15 had to go to school. As the subject content was for manyof them too difficult this brought the situation when nearly in every class someone hasto stay backwards to repeat the studies. Up to middle of 1950s from 4th grade onwardsstudents had to pass exams every year, late the exams had to be passed at the end of 7th grade. The number of schools working in Russian grow rapidly. In 1956/57 77% of 

the general schools of Estonia were Estonian, 23% were Russian. The programs of theRussian Federation were in use in the Russian schools. As rule, these schools hadweak binds with the country and culture of Estonia, the teaching of the Estonianlanguage was ineffective or non-existent. But as part of friendship-programme of Soviet Republics and nations festivals and parties were organised (for exampletraditional festivals of Tartu Karlova School together with Peterburi 104. sch,Baldone, Kretinga ja Pärnu schools of Tartu in 1960s). (Karlova kooli ajalugu)

The life of USSR and the school-life were directed according to 5- or 7-year plans,

announced by Central Committee of Communist Party. From building of socialismand recovering from WWII in 1960s the Mature socialism was stated and theintensive process of building communism was programmed.

At the XX congress of the Communist Party of the USSR (1956) the confirmation of the connections between the education and production work was enforced. OnDecember 24, 1958, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR passed the law “Strengtheningof the Connections between School and Life and the Development of the EducationalSystem in the Soviet Union”. The general 8- grade compulsory education wasestablished from the 1959/60. The reform was considered to be fulfilled in 1962/63,when the first certificates of the 8-grade schools were given. From the middle of the

1970ies, the system of cabinets was supported, there was a special classroom for every subject, in 8-y schools - for main subjects. In 60ies first full-day or prolongedday schools were developed. In 1970 elementary education was changed into 3-gradeand the subject learning was started from the 4th class. From 1972 the classes for the6-year children were opened, in 1986, 65% of children went to school at the age of 6.

When from the end of the 1950s up to the middle of the 1960s all the Soviet republics wereallowed to decide more independently, the Central Committee of the ECP also followed it.Among the other things the writing of original textbooks was favoured. (Raudsepp, 178) Butin general curricula used during the Soviet period, the educational requirements and the

subject syllabi were centralized and prescribed in details. (Krull, Mikser, 40, 41 Table 2)

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 7/12

In some schools of Estonia it was allowed to teach some more specific subjects, inmid-60ies the so-called biased classes and schools of exact sciences, foreignlanguages, history, art, music etc. were formed. Arts, languages and music as specificcurricular activity started from the 1st class. Voluntarily chosen subjects were added tothe curricula (facultative subjects, mainly in high schools). Estonia was allowed to

make up its own curricula and programs according to the directions of the SovietUnion. (Eisen, Nagel 2006) Estonia was the first of Soviet Republics to introducesome elements of programmed teaching in the beginning of 60ies and workbooks atthe end of 60ies. The active teaching method, diferenciation and individualisation

 became into use by some advanced teachers, espacially those who workwed incooperation with scientists from Tartu University or Tallinn Pedagogical Institute or Teacher In-Service Institute. But in general the edcational process was teacher centered, directed by subject programme, memorisation and fact-orientated.

On teacher

In 1940/41 a great number of teachers were transferred or discharged, many wereexecuted or deported, the Estonian Teachers Union was liquidated. After the WWIIrepressions went on. Everyone suspected in co-operation with nazis or havingnonaccepted past from the Estonian Republic had to leave school. Almost 1000teachers, a quarter of total in 1944, had to leave school already before the greatrepreessions of 1948. During 1948–1949 about 800, part of them clearly because of 

 political reasons. (Raudsepp 22-23) So teachers appeared to be one of most repressed part of nation. The schools were in need of teachers, so many class- and subject

teachers had no sufficcient preparation.

Teachers were educated in Seminars, Tartu University and Tallinn PedagogicalInstitute. The teacher training programmes included a big amount of ideologicalsubjects and marxism-leninism. In 1945 Estonian teachers in-service teacher trainingInstitute was established, what directed all methodical work and teacher professionallifelong-education up to 1989. The teacher life-long education was the systematic onewith obligatory courses every 5 years answering needs of beginners or matureteachers ( 3-5, 7-10, ... 27- 30 years of pedagogical experience) and short courses dueto actual needs (new textbook, laboratory equipment etc). (Sarv 1996)

History of 7-, 8- and 9-year schools, as well as secondary (11-year) schools inEstonia at 1940-1980 leads to conclusion that at least four parallel processeswere present: 1) lengthening of schoolobligation and widening of involvmentinto compulsory education, 2) change of the content of education – enforceableideologisation, scientification of all subjects, proportional growth of time for scieces and Russian, unification of contents (incl use of over-USSR textbooks),

3) change of teaching-learning methodology from integrated and student-centered to subject-centered, 4) inculcation of over-USSR standards (incl

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 8/12

school-dress) into educational process and teaching materials, equipment inschools together with demands for for after-classroom and outside-schoolactivities, and participation in agricultural seasonal work etc.

As stated U Läänemets - the soviet theory of curricula was closer to germanLehrplan and stressed didactics (Läänemets 2006). T

References

Andresen, L. (2007). Eesti rahvakooli ja pedagoogika ajalugu, IV: Iseseisvusaeg1918-1940. Tallinn: Avita, 51-58

Dovgalevskaja A.J. (1940). Võimas vahend kommunistlikus kasvatustöös.„Nõukogude Õpetaja”, nr.3

Eesti NSV haridusasutuste ajalooteatmik. I osa. Üldharidus aastail 1940-1960.Tallinn, 1987

Eesti hariduse ajalugu 20sj. -http://wiki.zzz.ee/index.php/Eesti_hariduse_ajalugu_20sj

Eisen, F. (1991). Kakskümmend aastat Tõnismäel. Looming, 7, 958 - 977.

Eisen, F. (1996). Pedagoogilise mõtte areng aastail 1918-1940. Kooliuuenduslane nr 3, 10-14.

Gontšarov, N. (1940). Nõukogude pedagoogika põhijooni. Nõukogude Kool, nr. 1.

Hariduse ja kooli ajaloost Eestis. Koost. ja toim. Endel Laul. Tallinn,1979.

Hunt, P. (2010).Kool, mida nagu polekski olnud. Minu kooliaastad

Viljandishttp://muuseum.viljandimaa.ee/aastaraamat/2010_toim_1/hunt_kooliaastad_viljandis.

 pdf 

СССР. Народное образование (1967). Большая советская энциклопедия;"Народное образование в СССР". Под ред. М. А. Прокофьева и др. Москва"Просвещение". http://www.detskiysad.ru/ped

Эстонская ССP. (1967). Народное образование в СССР. Под ред. М. А.Прокофьева и др. Москва: Просвещение.

http://www.detskiysad.ru/ped/narod51.html

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 9/12

Kalmus, Veronika (1999). Väärtused 20. sajandi Eesti aabitsates. Haridus, 2, 31 - 34.

Karlova kooli ajalugu. https://www.karlova.tartu.ee/index.php?linkid=11&lang=est

Kits, A. (1973). Üldisele 7-klassilisele koolikohustusele üleminek sõjajärgseltaastamise ja sotsialismi ülesehitamise ajajärgul (1944-1950). Nõukogude Kool, 10,875-879. Константинов, Н.А., Медынский, Е.Н., Шабаева, М.Ф. (1882). Историяпедагогики. Москва: Просвещение. http://www.detskiysad.ru/ped/ped140.html

Krull, E., Mikser, R. (2010). Reflection of cross-curricular ideas in the Estonian

curricula of general education: an historical study. TRAMES: Journal of theHumanities and Social Sciencies, 14(64/59), (1), 34–53

Kurm, H. (1954) Eesti üldharidusliku kooli areng. Dissertatsioon. Tartu: TRÜ.

Kurm, H. (1955). Nõukogude Eesti üldhariduslik kool sõjajärgseil aastail. NõukogudeKool, 7, 391-401.

Laherand, M-L. (2000). Postmodernistliku identiteedi suunas: mina-repertuaarid1970. ja 1990. aastate eesti aabitsates . Kõnelev ja kõneldav inimene: Eesti erinevateeluvaldkondade diskursus. Koost: V-R Ruus. Tallinn: TPÜ Kirjastus, 219 - 228

Läänemets, U. (2006) Õppekavadest, teooriast ja praktikast Riigikogu Toimetised,RiTo 14. http://www.riigikogu.ee/rito/index.php?id=10948&highlight=õppekava&

    (     ).      

-      n        :        - 

 Nagel, Veronika (2004). Eesti koolid Nõukogude Liidu tagalas (1941 - 44). Võimalus ja paratamatus olla õppija. Tallinn,: Tallinna Ülikooli Kirjastus, 97 - 107

 Nagel, V. 1994. Siksali kool http://www.siksali.ee/index.php? pg=sisu&id=131&keel=est

 Niggol, C. H. (1921-1922). Kasvatuse radadel, I – V.

 Nodel, E. (1974). Life and death of Estonian Jewry. Baltic history, editors ArvidisZiedonis, William L. Winter, Mardi Valgemä. e published by . Ohio: Columbus,Association for the Advancement of Baltic Studies.

 Nurk, A. (1981). Tartu üldhariduskoolid sõjajärgsel perioodil (kuni 1980). Rmt. Eestikooli ajaloo küsimusi. (Nõukogude Pedagoogika ja Kool, 24). Tallinn, 7-24.

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 10/12

Raudsepp, A. (2005). Ajalooõpetamise korraldus Eesti NSV eesti õppekeelegaüldhariduskoolides 1944–1985. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus

Raudsepp, L. (1982). Õpetajate uurimiskursuste areng Nõukogude Eestis. Rmt.Kakskümmend aastat õpetajaid-uurijaid. (Nõukogude Pedagoogika ja Kool, 30).

Tallinn, 7 - 45.

Ruus, V-R. (2010). Eesti haridus nõukogude okupatsiooni ajal.http://www.estonica.org/et/Haridus_ja_teadus/Eesti_hariduse_ajalugu_— 

 _ühe_rahva_vaimse_vabanemise_lugu/Eesti_haridus_nõukogude_okupatsiooni_ajal/

Sarv, E-S. (2010). Karulast Siberisse - ikka ja jälle ... (Käsikiri, autori valduses)

Sarv, E-S. (1997). Õpetajale demokraatiast ja humanismist. Tallinn, 1997

Sirk, V. (     ). ducational ideology and professional middle class in Soviet Estonia in  the - .      - Tulviste, P. (1994). History taught at school versus history discovered at home - thecase of Estonia. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 9(2), 121 - 126.

Personal archives: Ene-Silvia Sarv (photos) – vice-director of In-Service

 Teachers Training Institute of Estonia (1983-1989)

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 11/12

Photo 1. Page from school-album. From left: 1. 2nd b grade, 1953/54, 7th7-year school, Tartu, school is still for girls only, school-dress is not yet introduced; 2.

 pioneers singing on meeting, 1956, the official dress; 3. The 1st May procession,1955, Tartu, the national costumes students have were not forbidden, bud school-headwas not sure - is it allowed or not, she took risk - because of children; 4. The 3rdgrade, 1954/55 class, mixed.

8/3/2019 E-S Sarv. 6, 7, 8-year school in Estonia 1940-1980

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/e-s-sarv-6-7-8-year-school-in-estonia-1940-1980 12/12

 

Photo 2. The same class - end of 7th grade, June, 1959.

Photo 3. Scenes from school. 1958, 1959, The 8th cecondary school of Tartu.