e HRM Research

Human Resource Management Review 17 (2007) 19–37www.socscinet.com/bam/humres

Research in e-HRM: Review and implications

Stefan Strohmeier ⁎

Chair for Management Information Systems, Saarland University, Postfach 151150, 66041 Saarbrücken/Germany

Abstract

This article reviews current empirical work on electronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM) and discusses someimplications for future research. Based on a definition and an initial framework the review analyzes the used theories, the employedempirical methods, the chosen levels of analysis, the examined topics, and the revealed findings. The review reveals an initial bodyof work from several disciplines, that is mainly non-theoretical, employs diverse empirical methods, and refers to several levels ofanalysis and to diverse focal topics of e-HRM. Based on the review some initial theoretical, methodical, and topical implicationsare discussed in order to support a future research program in e-HRM.© 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Electronic HRM; e-HRM; Virtual HRM; Web-based HRM; Internet; Human resource information system

1. Introduction

The rapid development of the Internet during the last decade has also boosted the implementation and application ofelectronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM). Surveys of HR consultants suggest that both the number oforganizations adopting e-HRM and the depth of applications within the organizations are continually increasing (e.g.CedarCrestone, 2005). In addition, an escalating number of practitioner reports provide anecdotal evidence that e-HRMis becoming increasingly common and may lead to remarkable changes (e.g. Anonymous, 2001).

Consequently, academic interest in e-HRM has increased, as several special issues of HR-related journalsdemonstrate (Stanton & Coovert, 2004; Townsend & Bennett, 2003; Viswesvaran, 2003). In the interim, there is aninitial body of empirical research in e-HRM. However, since this research stems from several disciplines and isscattered throughout numerous journals and since initial reviews are not encompassing (Anderson, 2003; Lievens &Harris 2003; Welsh, Wanberg, Brown, & Simmering, 2003), the results of these studies remain unclear at present.

The purpose of this paper is therefore to provide a review of this literature and to identify implications for futureresearch that can enhance the understanding of e-HRM. Since it is beyond the scope of this paper, research in adjacentfields, especially in virtual teams (Hertel, Geister, & Konrad, 2005) and e-leadership (Avolio, Kahai, & Dodge, 2000) isnot considered.

After presenting a definition of e-HRM and discussing related concepts in brief, a first framework for systematizinge-HRM related topics is introduced. Subsequently, current empirical research is reviewed. In particular, the review

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20 S. Strohmeier / Human Resource Management Review 17 (2007) 19–37

analyzes the theories used, empirical methods employed, the chosen levels of analysis, the examined topics and thefindings determined. Based on the review, some initial theoretical, methodical and topical implications are discussed inorder to support a future research program in e-HRM.

2. Definition and framework

2.1. Definition

Even though the e-HRM concept is widely used today,1 there are hardly any explicit definitions. The few detectabledefinitions (Lengnick-Hall & Moritz, 2003; Ruël, Bondarouk, & Looise, 2004) are rather general and emphasize theInternet-supported way of performing HR policies and/or activities. Leaning on these intensions, the followingdefinition of e-HRM can be specified:

e-HRM is the (planning, implementation and) application of information technology for both networking andsupporting at least two individual or collective actors in their shared performing of HR activities. This concepthighlights several crucial aspects of e-HRM. At the outset, e-HRM utilizes information technology in a twofoldmanner: First, technology is necessary to connect usually spatially segregated actors and enable interactions betweenthem irrespective of their working in the same room or on different continents, i.e. technology serves as a medium withthe aim of connection and integration. Second, technology supports actors by partially – and sometimes evencompletely – substituting for them in executing HR activities. Hence, information technology serves additionally as atool for task fulfillment. The planning aspect accentuates the systematic and anticipated way of applying informationtechnology. The shared performing of tasks through at least two actors' points out that the sharing of HR activities is anadditional feature and underlines the aspect of interaction and networking. The consideration of individual andcollective actors takes into account that e-HRM is a multilevel phenomenon; besides individual actors, there arecollective actors like groups, organizational units and even whole organizations that interact in order to perform HRactivities.

Beside e-HR(M), there are some further concepts which obviously refer to the same phenomenon. Widely acceptedare such terms as virtual HR(M) (e.g., Lepak & Snell, 1998), web-based HR(M) (e.g., Ruël et al., 2004), or business-to-employee (“B2E”) (e.g., Huang, Jin, & Yang, 2004). “Virtual HRM” refers to technological mediated networks ofdifferent internal and external actors providing the firm with the HR services needed without the further existence of aconventional HR department which therefore becomes “virtual”. e-HRM is additionally open to less developedvarieties of technology application, e.g. the shared performing of an application process by a conventional HRdepartment and an applicant via the Internet. “Web-based HRM” couples the concept to Internet technologies. e-HRM,as well, is particularly web-orientated, but also comprises additional technologies like networked ERP-Systems.Finally, “business-to-employee” reduces the concept to the internal actor categories of “business” (presumably linemanagers and HR professionals) and “employees”. In contrast, e-HRM is open to further relevant actor categories likeapplicants or consultants. To sum up, these further terms undoubtedly direct attention to main characteristics of thesame phenomenon but are of somewhat narrower intensions. Thus, in order to comprehensively embrace relevantaspects, the e-HRM term is used.

2.2. Framework

At the current stage of research, a general framework matching the above definition and based on insights fromprevious conceptual work is considered as most appropriate to structure the relevant topics of e-HRM research. Inshort, the framework distinguishes between context, configuration and consequences of e-HRM, proposing that theconfiguration will determine the consequences of e-HRM, while both configuration and consequences may bepreceded and moderated by contextual factors (see Fig. 1).

Any framework should accommodate the fact that e-HRM is a multilevel phenomenon by its very nature. Individualactors are interacting in groups within organizations that interact with other organizations. As the most relevant levels,

1 The consultancy Watson Wyatt Worldwide has gained legal protection of the term “eHR” as a trademark. The term “e-HRM” is used within thispaper irrespective of possible rights on the part of Watson Wyatt.

Fig. 1. Framework.

21S. Strohmeier / Human Resource Management Review 17 (2007) 19–37

the framework generally distinguishes the individual or micro-level and the macro-level of context, configuration andconsequences.

At first, contextual factors are obviously of relevance for e-HRM. For instance, on the individual level computeravailability, or attitudes of peer groups may constitute relevant contextual factors, while the organizational level may beaffected by contextual factors like culture or legal conditions, etc. Since there is no single and standardized version of e-HRM but a variety of practical applications, any framework should be able to capture the range of differentconfigurations. As a minimal model able to map different configurations on different levels, actors, strategy, activitiesand technology of e-HRM are considered. Actors of e-HRM are all those who (plan, implement and) perform e-HRM,and hence are of vital importance, as e.g. HR professionals, line managers, employees, consultants, applicants, etc.;therefore different actors constitute a configurational component. Besides individual actors on the micro-level,collective actors like groups, organizational units and even whole organization are incorporated on the macro level. e-HRM strategy – as a component of a functional HRM strategy – refers to the establishing of constitutive objectives andthe implementation of e-HRM. It therefore builds a central topic to understanding decision processes that lead to certainarrangements. e-HRM activities encompass the single HR functions, like recruiting and selection, training anddevelopment, compensation and benefits, etc. that are performed in order to provide and deploy the needed humanresources. Though HRM is a non-technical discipline, the technology of e-HRM like portals, self-service systems, etc.should be of interest. In particular, the HR-related properties and functionalities of the employed technology are ofinterest. Taken together, an analysis of these components and their interactions allows a systematic depiction of anyexistent e-HRM configuration.

Having mapped the e-HRM context and configuration, the actual consequences of e-HRM, whether helpful orharmful, delineate a crucial aspect. Consequences again occur on the micro- and the macro-level. Micro-levelconsequences refer to individual impacts like user satisfaction or acceptance. Leaning on previous conceptual work,macro-level consequences can be structured into operational, relational and/or transformational (Snell, Stueber, &Lepak, 2002). Operational consequences refer to efficiency and effectiveness outcomes of e-HRM (Lengnick-Hall &Moritz, 2003), such as reducing costs or alleviating administrative burdens. Relational consequences emphasizephenomena of interacting and networking of different actors. The transformational consequences aim at fundamentaltransformations concerning the general scope and the function of HRM, comprising the ability to contribute to overallorganizational performance.

In addition, the framework assumes multiple relations within and between context, configuration and consequencesas well as between macro- and micro-level. Thus, the existence, kind, direction, etc. of such relationships should clearlybe subject to research, too.

3. Review

3.1. Identification of studies

In order to identify empirical studies with e-HRM as main focus, we used a scholarly Internet search engine (scholar.google.com) and several online data bases (ABI/Inform, Business Source Premier and INFODATA), that cover all


leading journals not only in the fields of human resource and general management but also in information systems, therecently developing field of e-business, as well as industrial and organizational psychology. In total, we used 47 searchterms, beside the main term e-HRM and its variations, mainly activity-oriented terms like e-recruiting, e-learning, etc.,and technology oriented terms like HR-portal, employee self service, etc. In addition, reference sections of articlesfound were searched.

To keep the task manageable and to provide some guarantee of quality research, only studies published in refereedinternational journals were considered. Work published in books, conference or working papers, etc. was excluded. Asthe beginnings of e-HRM actually date back a decade, research published since 1995 was regarded.

Using this procedure, 57 relevant studies could be identified (a synopsis of the studies can be obtained by contactingthe author). Nearly half of the studies found stem from human resource management journals followed byorganizational and industrial psychology journals, (management) information systems and general managementjournals. Thus, as anticipated, there are several disciplines that contribute to e-HRM research. Underlining that e-HRMis a rather new and growing academic field, the vast majority of the studies was published within the last four years.

3.2. Theoretical perspectives

Given different interpretations and assessments of theory, there is an ambiguity concerning theories, frameworksand other phenomenological conceptualizations. Even acknowledging a broad intension of theory, only one-fifth of thestudies rest on theoretical bases. Corresponding to the diverse disciplines and topics, the theories employed are alsoquite diverse. Often, several perspectives are employed in an eclectic manner.

Predominantly, micro-level theories of psychological and behavioral provenance are adopted. Attribution theory andcorrespondence inference theory (Elgin &Clapham, 2004), the attraction–selection–attrition and the similarity–attractionparadigm (Dineen, Ash, & Noe, 2002), change management theories (Ruta, 2005), organizational citizenship behavior(Huang, Jin, et al., 2004), privacy theories (Harris, van Hoye, & Lievens, 2003), procedural justice theory (Dineen, Noe, &Wang, 2004), signaling theory (Cober, BrownLevy,&Cober 2003), aswell as social cognitive theory (Williamson, Lepak,& King, 2003) are adopted in order to explain individual perceptions and reactions arising from e-HRM. Additionally, alearning theory is adopted to compare instructor-led and web-based learning (Coppola & Myre, 2002).

In addition, some theories stemming from information systems research are used. The technology acceptance model(Huang, Yang, Jin, & Chiu, 2004), the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (Ruta, 2005), and the theory ofusability (Williamson, Lipak, & King, 2003) are used to frame again problems of individual reactions and usage. Also, aconceptual IT-framework is used to structure e-HRM impacts on HR-professionals (Gardner, Lepak, & Bartol, 2003).

One single study pursues a microeconomic approach to explain e-employment markets (Nissen & Gates, 2004).In brief, current empirical research in e-HRM is mainly non theoretical. The theories applied are micro-level oriented,diverse in nature and often eclectic in application. Interestingly, recognized macro-level theories of HRM (Wright &McMahan, 1992) were not considered. The field lacks any leading paradigm.

3.3. Methodological approaches

More than a third of the studies use a survey approach (n=21). All of them are cross sectional. In addition, most ofthe studies are primary surveys, while one study rests on an already existing population survey (Kuhn & Skuterud,2000). Besides conventional data collection designs, there are also innovative approaches. For instance, the possibilityof polling applicants within an Internet job board was used for collecting data electronically (Jattuso & Sinar, 2003).Presumably due to the recency of the field, surveys often are rather descriptive orientated (e.g., West & Berman, 2001),while empirical tests of clearly articulated theories or models are scarce (e.g., Wiechmann & Ryan, 2003). As a rule,studies rely on single source respondents and frequently use perceptual measures. Besides studies that are based onsamples of “real” actors such as HR professionals (e.g., Chapman & Webster, 2003), applicants (e.g., Dineen et al.,2004) or employees (e.g., Huang, Jin, et al., 2004), there is a larger subset of surveys based on student respondents(e.g., Harris et al., 2003). These “surrogate samples” elicit critique concerning the external validity of findings(Anderson, 2003) and lead to some problems of properly delimitating surveys from experiments.

Next to surveys, a second major approach is case studies (n=16) within one (e.g., Vaughan & MacVicar, 2004) orseveral organizations (e.g., Welle-Strand & Thune, 2003). As intended by this approach, these studies are mostlyexploratory in nature. Since e-HRM constitutes a rather new and unknown field, case studies yield valuable and


deepened insights that again might lack external validity. A single study also combines an initial case study with a finalsurvey (Kinnie & Arthurs, 1996).

Third, nearly a quarter of the studies use an experimental approach (n=13). As already mentioned, there are someintersections to the survey approach. Thus, studies are counted as experiments if test persons first use some technicalequipment while afterwards completing a survey (e.g., Braddy, Thompson, Wuensch, & Grossnickle, 2003). Sinceonly one experiment does not employ student experimentees (Coppola and Myre, 2002), some restrictions concerningexternal validity remain.

Studies using an action research approach could not be identified. However, by means of prototyping (n=3), i.e.developing exemplary software that demonstrates innovative possibilities of technology, two studies were identified asusing an approach adjacent to action research (e.g., Konradt, Hertel, & Joder, 2003).

Besides this, the empirical examination of technical applications via content analysis (n=4) is also employed severaltimes (e.g., Türetken & Demirörs, 2004). In summary, current studies make ample use of the inventory of empiricalmethods. Due to the recency of the field, studies are descriptive or explorative rather than focused on testing clearlystated hypothesis or cumulatively contributing to the state of knowledge.

3.4. Levels of analysis

Necessarily, the studies found refer to one or more level(s) of analysis. However, level issues are regularly notspecified. Therefore, the implicit level(s) of analysis have to be reconstructed on the basis of topics examined, thetheories employed and, mainly the constructs in use. Using the micro-macro-dichotomy as proposed by the framework,both levels are equally addressed by current research. One-fifth also attends to both levels simultaneously.

Firstly, it comes as no surprise that studies of psychological provenance predominately address the individual levelby examining psychological issues like privacy concerns (e.g., Harris et al., 2003) or user satisfaction (e.g., Huang,Yang et al., 2004). Macro-level research often leans on constructs referring to HRM performance like general learningeffectiveness (e.g., Coppola & Myre, 2002) or HR costs (Buckley, Minette, Joy, & Michaelis, 2004). Mixed levelstudies use micro-and macro-level constructs simultaneously, for instance employee satisfaction and quantity of HRstaff (Hawking, Stein, & Foster, 2004). However, mixed level studies seem to occur rather incidentally or at least withno clear announcement of explicit multi-level research.

To sum up, despite past calls for more accurate addressing of level issues (Klein, Dansereau, & Hall, 1994), currentresearch in e-HRM generally demonstrates a low degree of level awareness. Though there are studies that refer toseveral levels, explicit multi-level studies are missing.

3.5. Topics and findings

With respect to the proposed framework, current research concentrates on specific rather than on general topics.Studies that aim at the complete picture of e-HRM, i.e. intend to consider context, configuration and consequences in acomprehensive manner, are rare (e.g., Ruël et al., 2004). Most studies focus on subsets of the framework that are oftenquite specific, quite diverse and non-cumulative. In order to systematize the rather scattered topics and the relatedfindings, the following review draws on the proposed framework.

3.5.1. ContextContextual aspects do not constitute central topics of current research. Rather, contextual aspects are occasionally

incorporated as variables that explain or moderate configuration and consequences. In addition, contextual aspectsmostly concern the macro-level.

At the outset, the cultural and (inter-)national context is considered within some studies. A specific cross-culturalstudy investigating privacy attitudes concerning e-selection of US and Belgian applicants reveals only non-significantcultural differences on the individual level (Harris et al., 2003). On the other hand, a case study of HR portalimplementation indicates that one should be aware of national cultures and underscores the necessity of culturecongruent, local implementation plans, even if there is a strong corporate culture (Ruta, 2005). In addition, findings of asurvey emphasize that global and mere domestic HR applications show different requirements due to cultural andnational differences. While domestic applications have to deal with one culture and nation only, global applicationshave to balance local particularities against requirements of global coordination (Hannon, Jelf, & Brandes, 1996). In


contrast to an obviously wide spread international adoption of e-HRM, little is known concerning national and culturaldifferences or similarities.

Concerning the sectoral context, a private/public sector comparison showed more similarities than differences in ITusage since both sectors use the same general software applications and support the same tasks with special HRsoftware (Elliott & Tevavichulada, 1999). Accordingly, a UK based study of the usage of human resource informationsystems could not identify sectoral differences (Ball, 2001).

A few studies also consider the organizational context. As expected, firm size is a variable that indicates scope andintensity of e-HRM as this relationship is reported for general applications of information technology in HR (Ball,2001; Teo, Soon, & Fedric, 2001), as well as for e-recruiting (Hausdorf & Duncan, 2004). In addition, the state ofconventional HRM seems to influence the application of e-HRM, since a lack of international harmonization andorientation of HR practices and policies seems to promote and encourage e-HRM (Ruël et al., 2004). Other contextualfactors are not considered, though obviously relevant contextual influences are only fragmentary addressed.

3.5.2. ActorsWith respect to individual actors, especially reactions of actors to e-HRM, comprising for instance preferences,

perceptions of image, perception of attractiveness, acceptance, or satisfaction, constitute a main topic of currentresearch. Since such reactions constitute micro-level consequences of e-HRM, the related findings are discussedsubsequently.

Collective actors as proposed by the framework are also frequently considered, however, mostly without explicitlyviewing them as collective acting entities. Recurrently, macro-level research refers to unit or organization related topics as,for instance, quality of applicants (McManus & Ferguson, 2003) or general cost savings (Buckley et al., 2004). Since suchtopics constitute macro-level consequences of e-HRM, the related findings are again presented subsequently.

As a commonality of both levels, not all relevant actor categories are considered equally. Applicants, HRprofessionals resp. units, and employees are frequent subject of research. Other also obviously relevant categories, suchas line managers, resp. units, and Internet-based consultants, are repeatedly neglected.

3.5.3. StrategyFindings concerning the e-HRM strategy at first hint at a lack of strategic considerations in general IT application

(Liff, 1997; West & Berman, 2001) in e-recruiting (Cober, Brown, Blumental, Doverspike, & Levy, 2000) and in e-learning (Beamish, Armistead, Watkinson, & Armfield, 2002; Welle-Strand & Thune, 2003). Somewhat differing, acase study shows that two out of five major organizations do have a clearly defined e-HRM strategy while the otherorganizations at least had ideas about general objectives, but the link to e-HRM and the overall HRM strategy was lessclear. Within the same study, the crucial role of strategy for success is accentuated (Ruël et al., 2004). Another casestudy again reports the incorporation of HR portal implementation into an overall e-business strategy, emphasizing thecrucial role of comprehensive and carefully planned change management activities to gain acceptance of employeesand promote the actual usage of the portal (Ruta, 2005). Though there are some further hints that additionally point outthe importance of thorough implementation (e.g., Chapman & Webster, 2003; Tansley & Watson, 2000; Tansley,Newell, & Williams, 2001) the process of strategy implementation has not been thoroughly investigated at present.

To sum up, current knowledge concerning the mere existence of e-HRM strategies and their implementation isscarce and somewhat ambiguous. Other central aspects of strategy like types, contents or consequences are currentlysimply not addressed.

3.5.4. ActivitiesActivity oriented research firstly refers to the question whether and to what extent HRM is carried out electronically,

i.e. addresses the diffusion of e-HRM. Besides studies that examine the diffusion within single HR activities orfunctions like e-recruiting or e-selection, there are also studies that address the diffusion of e-HRM as a whole.

Two UK based studies reveal that the general application of IT in HR has spread but remains on an administrativelevel. Mainly administrative tasks like payroll are supported, while advanced strategic or decision support orientatedapplications are lacking (Kinnie & Arthurs, 1996; Lin, 1997; Ball, 2001; Teo et al., 2001). Yet, there were also signs forthe beginning of non-administrative applications of IT (Ball, 2001; Teo et al., 2001).

Besides this, there is broader empirical evidence for a wide spread use of e-recruiting in North America where theInternet has become an ordinary recruiting source, however, without displacing conventional media (Elliott &


Tevavichulada, 1999; Hausdorf & Duncan, 2004; Kuhn & Skuterud, 2000; Pearce & Tuten, 2001). Besides corporateweb sites, primarily Internet job boards are utilized in order to realize e-recruiting (Hausdorf & Duncan, 2004). Theprevalent use of e-recruiting is also revealed for the public sector, however at a more moderate level since the full rangeof available options is not realized (West and Berman, 2001). In addition, a further survey depicts the frequent use ofemployee résumé management systems within fortune 500 companies (Baker, DeTienne, & Smart, 1998).

Compared to e-recruiting, e-selection seems to be in an earlier and developing stage since findings reveal a ratherlimited application (Chapman & Webster, 2003; Elliott & Tevavichulada, 1999; West & Berman, 2001). However,concerning the role of initial screening, e-selection seems to be a growing field since organizations anticipate anincreasing application using technologies like key word search, web-based tests, or videoconferencing for all kinds ofemployees (Chapman & Webster, 2003).

e-Training and-development, or as often labeled e-learning, comprises the (planning, implementation and)application of all kinds of learning that use IT for distributing of learning content and/or for communication. Studiesconcerning the diffusion show that approximately four out of ten organizations apply e-learning, accordantly in privateand public organizations (Elliott & Tevavichulada, 1999; West and Berman, 2001).

These activities are followed by other HR activities, (in descending order: compensation management, performanceappraisal, affirmative action, HR planning, labor relations, and job analysis) which are electronically performed (Elliot& Tevavichulada, 1999).

In brief, there is an initial body of research concerning the diffusion of e-HRM. However, the internationally widespread use of e-HRM commonly agreed upon in the literature is only partly confirmed by current studies. This may bedue to a lack of actual diffusion studies. The findings presented may be out of date due to the ever-changing state oftechnology application.

Besides the diffusion, there are other topics examined in current research that can be identified as consequences ofperforming HR activities electronically; these topics and findings are discussed as consequences in the following.

3.5.5. TechnologyThe respective technological applications are usually considered on a very general level. As indicated by the usage

of generic concepts like “information technology” (e.g., Gardner et al., 2003), current research regularly refers to theinformation technology in question as an integral whole.

There are few studies which refer to more concrete categories of technology. Earlier studies from the ninetiesespecially refer to “Human Resource Information Systems” (e.g., Hannon et al., 1996) as a yet still rather broadcategory. Other categories examined are employee résumé management systems (Baker et al., 1998), HR portals (Ruta,2005) or general systems like word processing, spreadsheet, and statistic systems (Elliot & Tevavichulada, 1999).

Even fewer studies refer to single systems. Sometimes case studies explicitly depict the system(s) in question (e.g.,Hawking et al., 2004). In addition, it comes as no surprise that prototyping (e.g., Li, Roesler, & Meszlery, 2004) as wellas content analysis approaches (e.g., Türetken & Demirörs, 2004) refer in depth to single systems.

Thus, it is mainly content analysis and prototyping which lead to some technology oriented findings. An analysis ofInternet job boards shows a rather premature state with large differences in functionality (Koong, Liu, & Williams,2002). Two studies examining recruiting websites report that the recruiting websites of public sector organizations arehighly text-based, have low usability and show a lack of attention-attracting mechanisms, like multimedia, whileproviding good job previews (Cober et al., 2000). Recent recruiting websites of private sector organizations showincreased functionality and usability and interactive tools (Cober et al., 2004). A further content analysis shows that asingle ERP-System provides functionalities in most of the key process areas of the so called people capability maturitymodel (Türetken & Demirörs, 2004). Prototyping approaches generate insights into the possibilities of new systemslike web-based testing system (Konradt et al., 2003), web mining systems in e-recruiting (Li et al., 2004), orpersonalization technologies in retrieving recruiting information (Smyth, Bradley, & Rafter, 2002).

To summarize, even though there are studies with specific technology related findings, the technology in question isoften treated in a rather general and sometimes even vague manner. A systematic categorization and consideration ofrelevant technologies is missing.

3.5.6. ConsequencesWhile there are studies, that are restricted to the mere description of specific configurations, various papers aim at

the elicitation of certain consequences. Besides studies that specify the consequences under consideration in


advance, there are also studies that do not do so but rather aim generally at “results” or “outcomes” in an exploratorymanner (e.g., Hawking et al., 2004). In both kinds of studies the consequences examined are quite specific anddiverse. Thus, in order to categorize findings concerning consequences, individual consequences on the micro-leveland operational, relational and transformational consequences on the macro-level, are distinguished as proposed bythe framework.

3.5.6.1. Individual consequences. Individual consequences refer to e-HRM impacts on the micro-level. As alreadymentioned, reactions of individual actors are regularly subject to research. Overall findings of two case studiesconcerning HR Portals (Ruta, 2005) and employee self service systems (Hawking et al., 2004) reveal increasedemployee acceptance and satisfaction due to added value like time savings or increased accuracy of results. However,overall findings concerning human resource information systems also show that privacy and fairness perceptions ofemployees depend on their ability to authorize content and targets of the information disclosed (Eddy, Stone, & Stone-Romero, 1999).

In accordance with this, findings regarding e-recruiting show that e-recruiting does not lead to lower applicantsatisfaction (Rozelle & Landis, 2002). Correspondingly, another study demonstrates that applicant perceptions ofelectronic job search were even more positive owing to a clearly greater number of jobs found and an improved qualityof information (Van Rooy, Alonso, & Fairchild, 2003). Somewhat differing, however, are findings that conventional(paper-based) job postings were preferred to web-based postings (Zusman & Landis, 2002). Complementing thesegeneral findings, there are studies concerning the question of what kind of special configuration does lead to positiveapplicant attitudes in e-recruiting. Not surprisingly, ease of navigation, systems speed, and user friendliness of thetechnologies considered lead to better image and attraction of applicants (Braddy et al., 2003; Cober et al. 2003; Sinar,Reynolds, & Paquet, 2003). Also, useful content concerning e.g., compensation and career development (Cober et al.2003), as well as feedback concerning the person-organization fit of applicants (Dineen et al., 2002) lead to positiveattitudes and attraction of applicants. Contrary findings concern the reactions to aesthetical aspects of recruitingwebsite design: While one study reveals positive attraction effects due to aesthetic design (Zusman & Landis, 2002),another study could not replicate this effect (Cober et al., 2003). Besides applicant reactions, attitudes of recruiters werealso examined. Interestingly, paper-résumé applicants are viewed as more friendly, while electronic-résumé applicantswere viewed as more intelligent, technologically advanced, and possessing better overall qualifications (Elgin &Clapham, 2004).

At the intersection of e-recruiting and e-selection, findings reveal that applicants react more positively to recruiting-oriented as opposed to screening-oriented websites since recruiting-oriented websites provide more positive and detail-oriented information than screening oriented websites (Williamson et al., 2003).

Studies concerning reactions to e-selection refer rather to pre-selection than to final selection decisions. Findingsshow that attitudes of test takers do not differ as a result of electronic testing (Wiechmann & Ryan, 2003). Anotherstudy even reveals that electronic versions of tests are more positively perceived by test-takers than conventionaltesting (Salgado & Moscoso, 2003). In addition, privacy concerns do not seem to constitute major impediments, sincerespondents showed no reluctance to submit even quite intimate data over the Internet with higher levels of Internetliteracy even correlating with less privacy concerns (Harris et al., 2003). Again, efforts to investigate what special kindof configuration does lead to positive applicant reactions reveal that perceived fairness of e-selection procedures isinfluenced by a hierarchy of justice factors of which the consistency of the screening system, the opportunity toperform, the ability to provide additional information, and the ability to appeal are important (Dineen et al., 2004).

One study examines reactions to a special variety of e-compensation and e-benefits. Findings concerning a web sitethat offers certain products as additional benefits show that convenience, delivery, interface, accuracy, price, andsecurity are factors that influence satisfaction of employees with satisfaction significantly related to organizationalcitizenship behavior (Huang, Jin et al., 2004, resp. Huang, Yang et al. 2004).

Similarly, employees appreciated an e-health care application due to the realization of employee-defined features(Payton, 2003).

To sum up, so far e-HRM obviously seems to be generally accepted and sometimes even preferred to conventionalHRM. Attitudes of individual actors then seem to pose at least no general problem for e-HRM. However, currentresearch concerning actors mainly refers to applicants, employees and HR professionals, while research concerning theactivities focuses on recruiting and selection. Since actor reactions constitute a main topic of current research, there is aneed for further exploration.


3.5.6.2. Operational consequences. Another common topic of current research concerns operational consequencescomprising both efficiency and effectiveness related macro-level consequences of e-HRM. A few studies address theefficiency of e-HRM. First, there are hints from case studies that support the assertion of increased productivity due to e-HRM. These studies generally indicate a reduction of HR staff, faster-processes, cost reduction, and a release fromadministrative burdens resulting from automation (Hawking et al., 2004; Ruël et al., 2004; Ruta, 2005). On the otherhand, savings within the HR department are also an effect of simply shifting responsibilities from HR to line managersand employees (Ruël et al., 2004). Accordingly, considerable cost savings are reported for e-recruiting and e-selection,due to reduced employee turnover, reduced staffing costs, and increased hiring efficiency (Buckley et al., 2004). Notsurprisingly, e-learning is also able to save costs if used for larger groups of learners (Beamish et al., 2002; MacPherson etal., 2004). In contrast, findings also reveal that special recruiting systems only partially meet the expectations of savingtime and work (Baker et al., 1998).

In addition, there are survey based findings showing HR professionals spent less time on routine tasks but had tospend additional time on information technology related activities and on developing information technology relatedqualifications (Gardner et al., 2003). In line with this, two case studies examining self service applications also revealchanging roles for line managers and employees since these systems constitute central parts of every day work thatcause considerable extra time (Hawking et al., 2004; Ruël et al., 2004).

Besides mere efficiency, general improvements of effectiveness, i.e. an increase in quality of HR activities,constitute a topic of several studies. Firstly, research in general effectiveness of information technology indicatespositive consequences since information technology enables HR professionals to provide increased informationresponsiveness to their customers and to have more information autonomy and more external professional links.Technology then serves as an “enabler” that empowers HR professionals to provide more value to their organizations(Gardner et al., 2003).

Next, there are mixed findings concerning the effectiveness of e-recruiting. Respondents of two surveys report rathermoderate success of e-recruiting since, while the applicant pool increased, the applicant quality decreased (Chapman &Webster, 2003; Pearce & Tuten, 2001). Two other surveys convey quite the contrary: The Internet is less effective thanpersonal networking in yielding appropriate applicants but is far superior to other formal recruiting sources (Feldmann&Klaas, 2002; McManus & Ferguson, 2003). An examination of recruitment quality of Internet job boards yields thatquality of recruiting, as measured in applicant qualification and job fit, was associated with a moderate level of interimapplicant-employer contacts. Also, the job board specificity is associated with recruitment quality since specialized jobboards showed better results (Jattuso & Sinar, 2004). Interestingly, an experimental comparison of several differentrecruiting technologies reveals differences in recruiting appropriate applicants: Non-technically supported and decision-support-system supported varieties performed better in terms of employer satisfaction. Matching algorithms andintelligent-agents supported search performed better in terms of general performance (Nissen & Gates, 2004). Finally,the frequently mentioned concerns regarding the “digital divide” in e-recruiting (e.g., Capelli, 2001; Hogler, Henle, &Bemus 1998), i.e. the discrimination of minorities, could not be confirmed. Though there are findings that substantiatesome socio-economic and demographic differences (Kuhn & Skuterud, 2000; McManus & Ferguson, 2003), comparedto other formal sources e-recruiting yields even a higher number of minority applicants (Chapman & Webster, 2003;McManus & Ferguson, 2003) and is therefore able to support diversity programs (Pearce & Tuten, 2001).

Research concerning the effectiveness of e-selection firstly points out that the transition from conventional toelectronic testing does not lead to a loss of quality since Internet versions of tests seem to be equivalent to conventionalpaper-and-pencil tests (Salgado & Moscoso, 2003). In addition, a case study suggests that web-based screening andselection leads to reduced employee turnover (Buckley et al., 2004).

Research on the effectiveness of e-learning shows little differences between web-based and instructor led training,with web-based training even being slightly more advantageous (Coppola & Myre, 2002) and showing a deliveryadvantage that offers more flexibility to learners (Coppola & Myre, 2002; MacPherson et al., 2004). Several studiesalso provide details concerning aspects that lead to performance. Yet, these aspects are quite different: Activeparticipation of trainers, quality content, control mechanisms, interaction features among trainers and learners (Gascó,Llopis, & González, 2004), evaluation, consideration of individual needs, management support, self-motivation andself-direction (MacPherson et al., 2004), or organizational commitment, communication, and time resources (Vaughan& MacVicar, 2004) are identified as factors of qualitative performance in e-learning.

In summary, findings concerning the efficiency consequences are limited and mixed. While there is some supportfor productivity gains especially due to the automation of routine activities, overall gains and losses of efficiency seem


to be difficult to measure and balance. Additionally, it remains unclear to what extent efficiency gains are illusory dueto a simple shifting of activities to managers and employees and/or a swapping of HR tasks with IT tasks. Similarly,findings concerning the effectiveness of e-HRM are limited and mixed. While findings on the general level showimprovements in effectiveness, findings concerning different activities, especially e-recruiting, are diverse and there arealso hints of shortcomings. In addition, there are clear gaps in effectiveness research concerning specific HR activitiesbeyond e-recruiting.

3.5.6.3. Relational consequences. Relational consequences refer to the new and extended possibilities of interactionsbetween actors, leading to heterogeneous networks and, therefore, represent a crucial topic.

Firstly, findings of a survey reveal increasing relations between HR professionals since they were able to connect tomore professional sources outside the organization, as e.g., to external professional associations (Gardner et al. 2003).Also, there are several confirmations of far reaching integrative potentials of information technology resulting fromrelating different actors. Information technology leads to, or at least possesses the potential for, (global) integration andharmonization of HR activities. Since spatially separated actors can be networked, e-HRM seems to be a means tostandardize HR and to overcome hurdles of different cultures and languages (Hannon et al., 1996; Ruël et al., 2004;Tixier, 2004). In addition, one case study reveals an extensive decentralization of executing HR activities by shiftingresponsibilities to line management and employees. Thus, a combination of centralization of policies on the one hand,and decentralization of executing these policies on the other, seems to be a major relational consequence of e-HRM(Ruël et al., 2004). Relational consequences, though a crucial aspect of e-HRM, are for the most part unexamined atpresent.

3.5.6.4. Transformational consequences. Transformational consequences concern the overall changes of the HRM-function that centrally aim at the role the HRM plays in company performance and strategy support (e.g., Barney &Wright, 1998). However, the decisive question whether e-HRM is able to transform HR into an appreciated businesspartner that provides value to the organization is only parenthetically addressed.

Earlier findings of case studies reveal that IT has not provided a strategy-supporting role of HR despite potentials todo so (Liff, 1997; Tansley et al., 2001). Somewhat opposed, other studies demonstrate the potential of IT to move HRtowards global integration and to support international strategy (Hannon et al., 1996) and at least partially emphasizethe role of HR as a business partner (Teo et al., 2001). Findings of case studies also expose clearly increased relevanceof the HR-department as a flexible and proactive business partner (Ruta, 2005) or at least report an improvement of HRstatus comprising a clearer profile and a better image (Ruël et al., 2004). This is supported by the finding that HRprofessionals can focus on more meaningful tasks and are empowered to provide more value to their organizations(Gardner et al., 2003).

In brief, while robust results that unambiguously evidence persistent transformations are missing, there are mixedfindings and some isolated hints that e-HRM may contribute to a more strategic role of HRM.

4. Implications for research

To address the challenges of e-HRM, empirical research should identify the key research topics, produce viabletheoretical perspectives to frame these topics, collect meaningful data, and transfer the findings into usefulrecommendations for practitioners (Stanton & Coovert, 2004). The following section tries to elaborate on thesedemands by discussing some initial implications concerning crucial theoretical perspectives, methodical approaches,and levels of analysis, as well as topics of a future research program in e-HRM.

4.1. Theoretical perspectives

The main and most detrimental inadequacy of current research is its primarily non-theoretical character. Withoutgood theory, research in the field of e-HRM will produce a plenitude of statements regarding some observedrelationships and/or prescriptions for practice that fail to explain why such relationships exist and/or when, if ever, andwhy such prescriptions will work. Therefore, the explanation of the relationships between context, configurations andconsequences is a basic task. However, a grand or integrative multi-level theory of e-HRM currently does not exist; asan alternative, the possible application of three groups of existing theories can and should be checked: First, the further


adoption of common micro-level theories that provide explanations for individual phenomena (Lievens & Harris,2003) should be fruitful. Second, since analogous issues of performance impacts are to be explained, research shouldespecially profit from applying recognized macro-level theories of HRM (e.g., Wright & McMahan, 1992). Third,theoretical perspectives of information systems research concerning such crucial topics as information systemsacceptance and usage (e.g., Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003) or information systems success (e.g., DeLone &McLean, 2003) are promising in the e-HRM field, as well. Since it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss thesethree groups comprehensively, the potentials of three selected macro-level theories of HRM are exemplarily discussedin the following.

First, new institutional theory (e.g., DiMaggio & Powell, 1983) offers advanced possibilities to explain relationshipsbetween the context and the configuration of e-HRM. Following institutional argumentations, in order to surviveorganizations must not only respond to market pressures but also accommodate institutional expectations of theirenvironment, even though these expectations may have little to do with actual performance accomplishment. Changes oforganizations then originate in pressures from public agencies, social expectations, and the actions of leadingorganizations. e-HRMmay well be seen as such a change. Given that the value and efficiency of IT is generally taken forgranted by surrounding institutions, this will create a pressure on organizations to adopt practices like e-recruiting or e-learning, even though previous conventional recruiting and development practices may fully satisfy organizational needs.For HR and the entire organization, e-HRM then mainly is a means of gaining legitimacy. Institutional explanations thenalso serve as a caveat not to precipitately agree to the positive potentials of e-HRM, but to have a deeper look at its actualperformance contributions. Besides this, institutional theory also predicts the isomorphism of resulting configurations,since coercive and normative and mimetic mechanisms will lead to isomorphic configurations. Generally, institutionalismoffers explanations of the relation between institutional context and configurations of e-HRM and promotes a criticalview on its factual consequences.

Second, transaction cost theory (e.g., Williamson, 1994) offers explanations concerning the configuration and itsrelationship with the economic consequences of e-HRM. As depicted, e-HRM implies a major reorganization withnew assignments of HR tasks to heterogeneous networks. Transaction cost theory explains institutionalarrangements due to their cost effectiveness. Hence, the complex, partially outsourced, partially decentralized,and partially delegated structures of e-HRM can be explained by their ability to save costs. This holds true e.g., forthe outsourcing of administrative tasks to external consultants (Lepak & Snell, 1998). At least from an HR-perspective this also holds true for delegating tasks to line managers, applicants, employees as well as to IT itself.However, this decrease in production costs is accompanied by massive integration requirements within suchcomplex networks of distributed actors. While conventional integration mechanisms like managers, meetings, etc.would have produced considerably increased transaction costs, IT now provides HR with a powerful and costeffective integration mechanism (Lepak & Snell 1998). Hence, transaction cost theory portrays IT not only as thetechnological but also as the economical enabler of e-HRM. Besides this explanation of the occurrence of complextechnologically mediated and supported networks of actors, transaction and production costs also constitute acriterion for the design of e-HRM configurations or “architectures” as suggested by previous conceptual work(Lepak & Snell, 1998).

As a third example, the resourced based theory of the firm (e.g., Barney, 1991) may also contribute to thetheoretical foundation of e-HRM by explaining relationships between the configuration and consequences of e-HRM. Generally, the resource-based view enlightens how corporations can gain competitive advantage and highperformance. It substantiates that HR can be a powerful means to these ends if human resources are valuable,rare, inimitable and their exploitation is supported by the corresponding organization (Barney & Wright, 1998).e-HRM, and its sub-functions like e-recruiting, e-learning etc., then can be explained as contributing activitiesthat provides the firm with human resources that fit to these characteristics. In doing this, the resource-basedview also indicates how HR may become a business partner (Barney & Wright, 1998), and hence, is able toexplain possible transformational consequences of e-HRM. The highlighted characteristics of resources that yieldadvantages also provide some practical guidance for planning and implementing e-HRM. For instance, thecriteria of rareness and inimitability of human resources postulate that corresponding adequate e-HRM activitiesshould not be easily imitable by competitors, e.g., by simply buying and implementing the same software-packages.

Hence as exemplarily illustrated by recognized macro-level theories of HRM, there are several directly suitabletheories at the disposal of future research in e-HRM.


4.2. Methodological approaches

Current research uses a broad range of different qualitative and quantitative approaches. Since e-HRM is adeveloping field with diverse topics, such methodological pluralism seems to be continually necessary. Since previousapplications were largely exploratory, a first and obvious requirement is to relate any method employed closely totheory so as to contribute to explanatory and, hence, also cumulative research.

Second, currently both major methodological approaches, case studies, and surveys are cross sectional in nature.Thus, particularly for the examination of consequences, longitudinal approaches seem to be more adequate due topossible time lags between application and results and also in order to map long(er) term consequences (e.g., Lievens &Harris, 2003).

Third, current research frequently relies on single source respondents. Due to proven concerns about awarenesslevels, and, thus, the reliability of single source research, future studies should profit from multiple respondents,especially if respondents originate from different actor categories that represent different perspectives. In addition,“surrogate samples” of students should be restricted to cases where clear similarities to “real actors” exist and externalvalidity can be substantiated (e.g., Rozelle & Landis, 2002).

Fourth, as hidden contributions of the field, there are additional opportunities of data collection. As demonstrated bypioneers (e.g., Jattuso & Sinar, 2003), existing applications like self-service systems and portals of consultants,constitute new platforms for web-based data collection (e.g. Hewson, Yule, Laurent, & Vogel, 2003). In addition, byusing technology, actors leave valuable “data traces” like web-logfiles and usage protocols as well data input intovarious applications. Such data indicate central facts, like occurred interactions, time spent with technology, functionsused, decisions made, etc., and constitute helpful additional data sources for e-HRM research.

Finally, the appropriate sequence of research and practice should be reconsidered. Currently, empirical research isoften a methodologically determined laggard of practice, i.e. the gathering of meaningful data research relies onpreceding practical e-HRM applications. Even case studies that address the latest developments in e-HRM need at leastone preceding pioneer in practice. As a consequence, empirical research may often not be able to give innovativeimpulses. Therefore, the valuable but rather reactive approaches of surveys and case studies should be complementedby proactive methods. As already partially practiced in current research, experiments are a first suitable approach to testinnovative ideas developed by theoretical or conceptual work. In addition, action research presents the opportunity todevelop innovative solutions for numerous applied questions conjointly with practice and, additionally, then assurespractical relevance of research (Robey & Markus, 1998). Finally, though unusual in HRM the prototyping ofinnovative technical applications offers further possibilities for offering innovative stimuli.

4.3. Level of analysis

Since level issues create particular problems when the levels of topic, theory, data collection and/or analysis areincongruent (Klein et al., 1994), future work would profit from explicitly addressing level issues. As a general measure,the levels of topics, theories, data collection, and analysis should be specified and coordinated. Furthermore, since e-HRM is a multi-level phenomenon, research would profit from studies that address several levels including thecorresponding inter-level relationships (Markus & Robey, 1988). With reference to this, the proposed dichotomy ofmicro-and macro-level research serves as a minimal model that can be expanded by following suggestions ofconceptual work if necessary (Klein et al., 1994). Since the clarification of level issues is first and foremost a duty of theapplied theory (Klein et al., 1994) and, since there are only few multi-level approaches (e.g. the framework ofAnderson, 2003), future multi-level research may be theoretically thwarted.

Related to the level of analysis, future research should also profit from explicitly distinguishing different levels ofinformation technology (Seddon, Staples, Patnayakuni, & Bowtell, 1999). At the generic level, information technologycan be examined as a whole as prevailing in current studies. This level addresses the overall and general aspects ofinformation technology. In order to identify potential differences, this general level research should be accompanied bystudies that explicitly consider different categories of systems, as ERP-Systems, HR-portals, etc. Besides suchcategories, single systems, e.g. a concrete ERP-system or a concrete HR-portal, also constitute a further layer, whilesubsystems, i.e. particular modules or algorithms of single systems, constitute the most detailed level of technology.

Thus, dependent on the desired level(s) of organizational analysis the appropriate level(s) of technological analysisshould also be designated. Obviously macro-level research may tend to more aggregated levels of information


technology while micro-level research may additionally be occupied with disaggregated levels, although there are nofixed rules for combining organizational and technological levels.

4.4. Topics

As already pointed out, a central limitation of current research lies in the patchiness of topics covered. Withrespect to the proposed framework, current topics mainly refer to quite specific and diverse subsets of context,configuration and consequences. As a result, we possess knowledge concerning several focal points and facets ofe-HRM, but have only a vague hint at the “complete picture”. Consequently, three kinds of studies seem topromise advancement: First, specific studies that address a new subset of the framework are necessary to breakfresh ground in-depth. Second, specific studies that address already examined subsets of the framework areappropriate since they can lend robustness to previous findings by replication and may dissolve loomingcontradictions (e.g. Dineen et al., 2002; Li et al., 2004; Sinar et al., 2003). Third, since they can lend anintegrative overview, general studies that synoptically embrace contextual, configurational, and consequentialaspects are crucial.

All studies, whether specific or general, should systematically relate contextual, and especially configurational,to consequential aspects of e-HRM. Systematic knowledge concerning the manner and strength of suchrelationships should be useful for deriving guidelines for designing future configurations that avoid harmful andobtain helpful results. Based on the gaps identified above, the following sections recommend interesting futureissues and aspects.

4.4.1. ContextConcerning the national macro-context, current research shows a strong national focus on the U.S., with only

scattered results from other countries. Though demanding and laborious, future research would profit frominternational comparative studies that reveal (inter-)national influences in e-HRM. The same holds true for theintertwined cultural context.

Closely related to national contexts, legal contexts and their restraining or encouraging influences on e-HRM shouldbe considered. Additionally, depending on differing national regulations, co-determination legislation may also vitallyaffect e-HRM.

Finally, the organizational context constitutes the most promising contextual subset, referring to both the macro- andmicro-context. Again only occasionally addressed, it seems to offer a rich reservoir of factors that may influence certaine-HRM configurations and consequences. Besides general organizational features like size, organizational culture,computer orientation, etc. first findings indicate that especially the narrow HRM context seems to be of relevance.Hence, a systematic investigation of HR strategies and policies, tasks, or status may constitute a further fruitfulcontribution in understanding e-HRM.

4.4.2. ActorsAs a main innovation, e-HRM inaugurates new internal and external actors to HRM (e.g. Lengnick-Hall &

Moritz, 2003). Current research focuses on certain actor categories, especially the novel category of applicants,and, besides this, also HR professionals and employees. At the outset, research should benefit from systematicallyand simultaneously considering all relevant actors. First, due to the idea of decentralization, e-HRM line managersconstitute a crucial, however barely regarded category of actors (e.g. Hawking et al., 2004; Ruël et al., 2004). Inaddition, conceptual work demonstrates that external consultants, i.e. web-based HR content and service provider,are of central importance to e-HRM (Lepak & Snell, 1998). Also, it seems to be necessary to consider themanifold HR relevant external “administrative institutions” such as banks, labor exchanges, labor courts, etc. Suchexternal actors again interact electronically with internal actors in order to perform various HR tasks. As acollective category term, administration could be recommended. Finally, since conceptual work emphasizes thephenomenon of “e-voice” (e.g. Taras & Bennett, 2003), shop-councils and unions also can gain relevance as actorsof e-HRM.

Furthermore, besides individual actors there are crucial macro-level phenomena that are not addressed at present.First, as opposed to a “conventional” HR department, fragmented and changeable networks of actors mediated andsupported by information technology are the beneficiaries of e-HRM, thereby also constituting virtual HR departments


(Snell et al., 2002). Such virtual HR departments should then be an appealing future topic. Second, so-called virtualcommunities of actors (Rheingold, 1993) constitute a further prospective macro-level topic since there is first evidenceof such communities. The idea of initiating internal employee communities by using portal technology to providemeans for interaction – such as chats, forums and newsgroups, as well as additional content, such as health, leisure, orsports – aims at improvements of communication, knowledge transfer, commitment, etc. (e.g. Fandray, 2000).Additionally, there are external communities initiated and controlled by employees and other external stakeholders inorder to effectively represent their interests (see for an intriguing example the case of “greedy-associates” as depictedby Taras & Gesser, 2003). Thus, such virtual interactions, units, communities and networks constitute crucial macro-level topics.

4.4.3. StrategyThe formulation and implementation of a functional e-HRM strategy seem to be a central, yet largely neglected topic

of e-HRM. Besides general aspects of e-HRM strategy formulation, particularly the integration with business strategy(Lengnick-Hall & Moritz, 2003), the pursued operational, relational and transformational goals should constitutepromising future topics. The succeeding strategy implementation encompasses various topics like need analyses,software selection and customization, user training, change management, etc. In order to detect the role and importanceof strategy formulation and implementation, both processes should be incorporated in future inquiries of e-HRMconfigurations.

4.4.4. ActivitiesDue to their role as pioneering activities, current research has concentrated mainly on e-recruiting, e-learning and, in

the interim, e-selection. Since there is clear evidence of further electronically performed HR activities – alsosubstantiated by conceptual work concerning e.g. compensation, benefits and pensions and performance appraisal – afirst task is the ascertainment of a systematic empirical overview (Lengnick-Hall & Moritz, 2003). Besides single HRactivities, it is of special interest if and which “bundles” of HR activities are electronically performed as well as if andhow these activities are interrelated.

In addition, the relationship of electronic and conventional HR activities constitutes a topic of special concern. At firstglance, the displacement of conventionally performed activities seems to be an obvious consequence of e-HRM.However, borrowing from e-learning, blended approaches that explicitly combine electronic and conventional activitiesbecome known. Therefore, research should detect where conventional HR activities are actually displaced and whereelectronic and conventional activities are combined, thereby constituting varieties of “blended HRM”.

With respect to the corresponding actors, the distribution of these activities to a portfolio of internal and external actorsconstitutes a further interesting topic comprising characteristic questions ofHRoutsourcing research (Lepak&Snell, 1998).

4.4.5. TechnologyPresumably based on the implicit assumption that there are no relevant differences, current research frequently

refers to the generic level of information technology. Since rare studies that explicitly examine different technologiesreveal factual differences, e.g. concerning the related consequences (Nissen & Gates, 2004), a systematic considerationof different relevant technologies below the generic level is a further essential step.

On the systems category level, research should discern the meanwhile broad range of different relevanttechnological categories, while also regarding the fact that several of these categories are commonly usedconcurrently to provide the technological basis of e-HRM. As a first and rough distinction, front-end and back-endsystems of e-HRM can be distinguished. Front-end systems usually are web-based and primarily support the task ofconnecting different actors. Central categories of front-end systems are HR portals, self-service systems, orinteractive voice response systems. Such front-end applications represent technical catalysts of e-HRM and aretherefore core categories. Such front ends are reliant on the support of diverse back-end systems. Not necessarilyweb-based, these systems support actors in task fulfillment by means of storing, processing and retrieving data ofvarious front-end systems. Though sometimes conceived as outmoded, human resource information systemsconstitute a “backbone” category of e-HRM (Hendrickson, 2003). The same holds true for (HR-modules of) ERP-systems, or HR data warehouses, among others. To complicate things, empirical delimitations between suchcategories are challenging since real applications increasingly combine the properties of different categories, as e.g.an ERP-system also offers a manager self service module. This distinction of several categories can be extended by


considering single systems or even sub-systems. In brief, due to evident differences, research should detect whichactual patterns of technology are utilized while heeding several levels of technology.

4.4.6. ConsequencesSince consequences are again only partly examined, manifold individual, operational, relational, and

transformational consequences await future analysis. A few crucial consequences of each category should bementioned.Besides the primarily studied actor reactions, on the individual level, the changing requirements and working

conditions should also be critically examined, as for instance changes of qualification profiles, work contents, work andinformation load. Additionally, the consequences of empowering employees for the first time to decide on HR servicesby themselves should be of interest (Lengnick-Hall & Moritz, 2003). Third, given the ubiquity of employedtechnology, e-HRM seems to hold new potentials for telecommuting. Future research then should examine whether e-HRM actually leads to new varieties of HR telecommuting.

Though already a frequent topic of current research, operational consequences of e-HRM still constitute a crucialissue. First and foremost, the cardinal question of e-HRM efficiency is whether there are real efficiency gains beyond amere shifting of HR activities to other actors (Snell et al., 2002), and beyond a mere replacement of HR-related activitiesby IT-related activities (Gardner et al., 2003). Second, if there are real efficiency potentials as indicated by some studies,a crucial subsequent question relates to the consequences for HR staff. On the one hand, the release of administrativeburdens may result in more time for “strategic” activities as frequently imagined in literature (e.g. Lengnick-Hall &Moritz, 2003). On the other hand, investments in technology may result in pressures to simply downsize HR staff inorder to actually realize efficiency potentials (Lepak & Snell, 1998). Thus, the factual exploitation of efficiency gainsnow as before is a vital topic. Effectiveness topics, then, relate to manifold quality aspects concerning all HR activities.Building on current research, it is an intriguing question whether the results of the single HR activities can be improved.In particular, comparative work that concurrently elicits results of conventional, electronic, and also “blended”approaches, promises advancement and further insights. Corresponding with this topic, the general effects on employeeproductivity and performance – beyond the allocation of tasks via self-service – constitute a topic a central concern.

Relational consequences directly refer to the topics of virtual interactions, networks, communities, and units thatemerge due to increased possibilities of relating spatio-temporally separated actors. A central issue should refer to theconsequences for organizing, i.e. differentiating and integrating, HR activities within such virtual entities (Lepak & Snell,1998). For instance, it should be of interest which new patterns of task assignment emerge within such heterogeneousnetworks of HR professionals, line managers, employees, consultants, etc. Subsequently, a critical question is whether ITalone is actually sufficient to satisfy the extensive integration and coordination needs of such networks, or whetheradditional activities are necessary.

Still, the transformational consequences wait for further investigation. Actually, all topics concerning consequentialdetails seem to condense in the crucial question whether e-HRM contributes to redefine scope and function of HR towardsa strategy supporting and value adding unit orwhether it is just another declaiming of the “being a strategic partner”-mantra(Lepak & Snell, 1998).

Given this wide set of consequences, the intra-level and inter-level relationships between consequences are offurther interest. For instance, user acceptance on the individual level seems to be a necessary condition for operationaleffectiveness on the macro level. Also, a variety of operational performance consequences may constitute anantecedent of the transformational changes like redefining scope and function of HR.

Just as current research in consequences draws a rather optimistic picture of e-HRM, future research also shouldexplicitly heed possible downsides. This will provide a balanced picture of e-HRM and will prevent research from thebpro-innovation bias", i.e. taking for granted, that innovative electronic solutions are principally better than existingconventional activities (Anderson, 2003).

As performance related consequences constitute a core obligation of future research, an alignment with the field ofHRM performance research seems to be an obvious step. To date HRM performance research has not picked up e-HRMas a topic of any relevance. Information technology is neither even mentioned in a recent comprehensive review ofempirical studies (Boselie, Dietz, & Boon, 2005), nor treated as a relevant topic in an agenda for future research in thisarea (Paauwe & Boselie, 2005). Given the wide spread application of IT, empiric HRM performance studies necessarilyhave also referred to electronic HR activities, unfortunately without distinguishing electronic, conventional and blendedactivities and their performance impacts. Since IT does matter, the overall effects on firm performance then shouldconstitute a major topic of future research.


5. Conclusion

This paper aimed at a review of current research on e-HRM and the derivation of implications for futureapproaches. Based on a definition and a first framework, it was possible to identify and summarize variousempirical studies from different disciplines. Without repeating single findings, the outlined body of knowledgeconcentrates on several focal points and is patchy at present. It is sufficient, however, to recognize e-HRM as aninnovative, lasting and substantial development in HRM that results in new phenomena and major changes. Basedon the review, some major implications for future advancement in e-HRM research could be derived. First,theoretical grounding is the central condition of any progress in the field. In order to avoid proliferation, amoderate theoretical pluralism, i.e. the concentration on a smaller number of well-established theories from HRMand IS research, seems to constitute an appropriate future approach. Second, referring to the empirical methods,pluralism again seems to be appropriate. Only a combination of different methods seems to comply with the oftenconflicting requirements concerning findings that are concurrently in-depth, proactive, longer-term, reliable andgeneralizable. Third, future research should explicitly address level issues in a twofold manner: The general level(s)of organizational analysis should be coordinated with appropriate level(s) of technology so as to avoid anydrawbacks of level unawareness. Fourth, given the patchiness of current topics, future work using further specificand synoptic studies will benefit from systematically covering context, configuration, and consequences.

There are also limitations of this paper. First, the review is restricted to work published in international peer-reviewedjournals. Thus, further valuable empirical work published in books, unpublished research papers, etc. may be available.Second, the review is narrative and non-statistical. However, since comparable single studies are missing, a meta-analytical application of statistical methods is not practicable at present. Third, the framework used for systematizingcurrent and future topics is normative, since not based on proper theoretical foundations. However, an appropriate theoryfor comprehensively framing e-HRM is missing at present. By means of a general and plain outline, the framework isable to capture at least the basic issues of e-HRM and can be refined for future work.

Clearly, e-HRM is a new and intriguing field of research at the intersection of human resource management andinformation systems. By reviewing the initial research and discussing major implications, this article hopes to stimulatefurther debate and research in e-HRM.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank the editors and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier version of the paper.

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