Dunn-Benefits of Meditation in Corrections Setting rev7-1-10

Benefits of Mindfulness Meditation in a Corrections Setting

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James M. Dunn

Upaya Chaplaincy Program

March 6, 2010


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Abstract In the last several decades an increasing number of empirical studies have offered strong evidence that meditative and contemplative practices have great value in health-care and mental health as well as improving well-being in general. This paper reviews this literature with special emphasis on the benefits of these practices in a correctional setting and explores the benefits of meditation and contemplative practices as they might apply to restorative justice. After reviewing several methods of meditation practice and how they work, the paper explores the benefits of meditation in general and then focuses more specifically on the benefits of meditation in a prison environment. Some of the key benefits noted are enhanced sense of well-being, improved health with a reduction of medical problems such as high blood pressure, increased self-esteem, lower substance abuse issues, greater anger management skills, significant reduction in aggressive behavior, fewer prison rule infractions and an overall positive change in behavior. Also, better adaptive responses to the stresses of life in general including those encountered in the correctional system. The paper also develops the relationship between meditative practice and restorative justice. The primary point is that as meditative practices develop, self-awareness grows and the inmates capacity to accept responsibility for their actions also grows. This capacity for responsible participation is a critical factor in successful restorative justice programs Table of Contents: I. INTRODUCTION II. Introduction to Meditation, Mindfulness and Contemplative Practices A. Buddhist bases for meditation B. What is Mindfulness? C. How Meditation Works

III. Clinical Applications A. MBSR B. Other Mindfulness Based Therapies C. Cultivating Mindfulness

IV. Empirical Evidence for Mindfulness Awareness Practices in Correctional Settings

V. Mindfulness and Restorative Justice


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VI. Discussion

A. Meditation: Religious or Secular? B. References

I. INTRODUCTION

Over the last several decades, there have been several promising developments in our

approach to the challenges of crime and criminal justice. This paper will focus on two of these

developments: contemplative practices (including meditation and mindfulness) within the

prison system and restorative justice. It may not be immediately apparent how these two

disparate developments apply to the criminal justice system, but it is the intention of this

paper to show that these two trends can come together in a way that can be applied in the

prison system. I will also discuss the benefits of meditative or contemplative practices, both

in general and specifically to the their value in a correctional setting.

Meditative and contemplative practices are derived primarily from the Eastern religions,

especially Buddhism. Most notable are the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MSBR)

programs and mindfulness-based cognitive therapies (MBCT) that have emerged from the

work begun by Jon Kabat-Zinn thirty years ago. MBSR programs have demonstrated

successes in a variety of areas, especially the medical and behavioral sciences. Additionally,

recent findings in the field of neurobiology demonstrate how these programs can actually

alter the brain through its capacity for neuroplasticity, the brains ability to develop new

connections and neurons. Because the brain has this capacity, meditation practices can

actually “rewire” or alter the brain in ways that literally change the mind and lead to more

prosocial behaviors (Siegal, 2007, 2010), thereby offering the possibility of a truly


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transformative corrections program.

This paper will explore how these meditative practices might apply within the

correctional system. A rapidly growing body of empirical evidence shows the value of

meditation in a number of areas related to health-care and mental health. There also is a

growing number of studies directly related to meditation in prison, both as way to improve

inmate behavior and well-being while incarcerated, as well as a way to reduce recidivism and

relapses back into drug and alcohol addictions (Zgierska, 2009; Marlatt 2002). While the

number of studies that directly apply to prison are limited, there are a large number relating

to behavioral problems often seen in prison populations, including addiction, aggression,

depression, post traumatic stress disorder, and health-care issues such as high blood

pressure. The potential cost benefits for health-care alone are significant, but the real benefit

is the possibility of restoring the human potential typically lost within the correctional system.

The other development in criminal justice is the restorative justice movement, which

offers new ways of dealing with crime and criminal justice by bringing healing and

reconciliation both to the victim and into the community. Restorative justice has its origins

first in the indigenous traditions of North America and other parts of the world. Then, working

from these principles, a group of Mennonites began trying to apply them in Canada to the

criminal justice system. Today, the restorative justice movement is becoming well established

as an alternative approach throughout the Canadian criminal justice system and beginning to

take root in the United States, New Zealand and other places (Zehr, H., 2002).

Section II discusses the meaning of meditation and the various ways that the term is

used. The paper will also explore the various practices used in several traditions and the


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theoretical basis for their positive effects on physical and mental well-being in general.

Section III will discuss some of the clinical applications, and Section IV reviews empirical

studies of the impact of meditative practices on physical and emotional health, with an

emphasis on studies of the use of meditation and mindfulness awareness practices in a

corrections environment. Section V introduces the concepts of restorative justice and the

potential benefits that mindfulness practices might add. Section VI concludes the paper with

a discussion of the relevance of the findings of these studies to the challenges and benefits of

introducing meditation practices into the correctional system.

Section II. Introduction to Meditation, Mindfulness and Contemplative Practices

A. Buddhist bases for meditation

Contemplative and meditative practices of one type or another have been in use for

centuries in all of the major religions and have been generally found to be of value. Although

some of the monastic branches of Christianity have maintained a contemplative tradition, the

mainstream Western traditions seem to have lost touch with these practices in the scientific

era. However, with the growing interest in Eastern thought in the last 50 or so years, various

contemplative and meditation practices have become almost mainstream in Western society.

Beginning with the Hindu-based practice of Transcendental Meditation (TM) as taught by

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in the 1960s, meditation practices have steadily emerged as an

important method for developing well-being, relieving stress and providing some measure of

happiness. Since that time, a growing interest in Buddhist practices has brought a wide

variety of meditative practices to the West and has inspired the Centering Prayer movement

within the Catholic Church (Keating, 1994, 2009). As result of this profusion of forms and


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practices, a discussion of what is meant by meditation and a review several of the major

practices seems appropriate.

For the purposes of this paper, meditation is the overarching term that will include a

variety of meditative practices. (For a full discussion of the issues and concerns in defining

the various forms of meditation see Lutz, A., Dunne, J.D., Davidson, R.J. (2007), Lutz, A.,

Slagter, H., Dunne, J., & Davidson, R. (2008) and Bishop, S. R. et al (2004)). Mindfulness

awareness practices (MAPs) (Siegel, 2007) will be used primarily as the general term for

those practices based on Eastern thought and especially on Buddhist teachings. These

include mindfulness meditation, insight meditation (also called vipassana) and Zen meditation

(also called zazen). These will be the major focus of this paper. Contemplation will refer

primarily to the Christian practices that include centering prayer, lectio divina and

contemplative prayer (Keating, 2009).

Although movement meditations such as yoga, tai chi and qigong appear to offer

similar benefits, significant research is lacking, and therefore little emphasis is placed on

these practices. While all of these practices differ in specific techniques, all types of

meditation can be viewed as mental training not unlike physical training. They all share a

common goal of developing attention and awareness to become more finely attuned to

events and experiences in the present moment in an open, nonjudgmental manner.

In traditional Buddhist psychology, meditation is an essential part of the spiritual path

if one hopes to advance to any meaningful degree. The central goal of Buddhist practice is

the alleviation or cessation of suffering, which is broadly defined as the pervasive

unsatisfactoriness of our ordinary life. The underlying root of this suffering is a mistaken or


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defective understanding of the contingent nature of reality and of what is the true source of

well-being or happiness. Any remedy to correct this fundamental misapprehension must alter

the habitual thought processes that are the source of suffering, and they must do this in a

way that will actually uproot these deeply established habitual patterns. This is the intention

of the various meditation practices found in all Buddhist traditions (Nyanaponika, 1965;

Gunuratana, 2002).

Although there is a diversity of practices, they may be viewed as two primary types:

concentrative practices or focused attention practices, and receptive or open monitoring

practices. Focused attention practices are the most basic and are the usual starting point for

new practitioners. The primary technique is to direct attention to an object, most often the

breath, and to sustain attention and to return to the object when attention wanders. Open

monitoring involves no explicit focus on objects and maintains a nonreactive monitoring of

whatever arises in the mind moment-to-moment (Austin, 2009; Lutz, A., Slagter, H., Dunne,

J., & Davidson, R., 2008). Open monitoring meditation is also known as bare attention in the

Theravadan tradition of Buddhism practiced in Southeast Asia and beginner’s mind in the Zen

traditions.

B. What is Mindfulness?

Mindfulness has become the dominate term for meditation in the West and especially in the

scientific literature. Jon Kabat-Zinn, the pioneer in applied mindfulness practices in a secular

context, defines mindfulness as paying attention on purpose to what is happening in the

present moment with an attitude of openness and acceptance, and without adding concepts

or elaborations, dropping our emotional reactions to whatever may be occurring. He further


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states that mindfulness “involves above all the regular, disciplined practice of moment-to-

moment awareness or mindfulness, the complete 'owning' of each moment of your

experience, good, bad, or ugly” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Bishop, et al. (2004) proposed a two-

component definition of mindfulness. “The first component involves the self-regulation of

attention so that it is maintained on immediate experience, thereby allowing for increased

recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves

adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the present moment, an

orientation that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance (Bishop, et al,

2004).” Mindfulness, then, can be thought of as a state or mode of awareness that is

characterized by an attitude that is non-judgmental and that can be developed by regulating

attention intentionally.

It can be cultivated by a variety of mindfulness awareness practices which all share

common procedures. Sitting-meditation is the most common method taught and will serve as

an example of how these approaches work. The meditator sits in an erect posture, either on

the floor cross-legged or in a chair, and places attention on the in and out flow of the breath,

focusing on either the out breath at the nostrils or on the rise and fall of the abdomen. When

attention wanders, the meditator simply notes the distraction and returns to the breath. This

is repeated throughout the meditation session. After some stability has been attained, the

meditator may let go of the focus on the breath and simply note whatever experience arises

with an attitude of openness, acceptance and without making judgments or elaborations on

their significance (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002; Bishop, et al, 2004).

It should be noted that mindfulness is not the same as relaxation. Although reduced


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tension and feelings of stress may be a desirable outcome of mediating, this is not the

primary purpose for practice. Relaxation techniques are usually taught as means of coping

with stress and are usually applied at times of stress and are, therefore, serving as goal-

directed activities. Mindfulness practices, on the other hand, are intended to cultivate

awareness and the ability to maintain non-judgmental presence. This is intended to lead to

insight into one's thought processes and to increased well-being.

Centering prayer is the method that was developed by the Rev. Thomas Keating, a

Roman Catholic priest. Based on The Cloud of Unknowing by an anonymous fourteenth-

century writer and the works of St. John of the Cross, it is intended to bring practitioners into

the presence of God, thereby fostering contemplation. In the Catholic tradition this is

considered to be a pure gift of the spirit. Father Keating had observed that a number of

young people were leaving the church and exploring the Eastern meditative practices and

were actually experiencing contemplative states sought but rarely obtained by Catholic

monastics. Keating and some of his fellow monastics learned TM, and they also actually sat

for several sesshins (a week-long intensive meditation retreat) led by a Zen master. Lectio

Divina (a method of contemplation as applied to the reading of scripture) is another

meditative technique that also is intended to lead to the gift of contemplation (Keating,

2009). Although there is little research on the benefits of these practices, there is

considerable evidence that shows religious practice supports health and longevity (Carmody,

et. al. 2008).

In practice, centering prayer usually uses a short prayer or a word as the focus of

one's attention with a clear intention “to consent to God's presence and action within us”


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(Keating, 2009, p28). This is said to enable the supplicant to let go of his or her entrenched

emotional programs and to begin to move deeper toward the “Divine Indwelling” that is the

source of the divine energy or “ground of being” (Keating, 2009).

C. How Meditation Works

Mindfulness can be considered both a trait or mode of awareness and the practice that

develops a state of awareness or of being in the present moment. The state of being mindful

can be looked at in terms of the underlying physiological mechanisms or in terms of its

underlying psychological mechanisms.

The body of research examining the physiological mechanisms of consciousness has

been burgeoning with the availability of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), EEG

and other techniques. These tools to explore the neurological substrates of the brain have

allowed for much greater understanding of how MAPs operate in the brain. One of the most

important results to emerge from the field of neurobiology is the concept of neuroplasticity,

which states that the brain can continue to develop new neurons and new neural connections

well into old age. This means the brain continues to develop in response to experience, and

trait changes are quite possible (Davidson & Lutz, 2007). Among these new findings is

evidence that long-term meditators may actually alter the structure of their brains. These

changes include significant growth of neural tissue in the brain and can alter how the brain

works as a system. For example, Richard Davidson, a leading researcher in the field, finds

that mindfulness practice enables individuals to regulate their emotions in a positive direction

and are better able to regulate negative emotional states (Davidson 2004). Neuroplasticity

also applies to changes in brain function and in mental experience including feeling and


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mental balance. There are also demonstrated changes in stress response and improved

immune function (See Siegel, 2007, 2010 for a complete discussion of mindfulness and

neuroplasticity). In another study, Lutz , et al (2008) found that long-term meditators

demonstrate increased empathic responses, more so than novice meditators, although

novices did show some degree of increased empathic response after limited practice times. K.

Rubia (2009) reviewed several studies that emphasized physiological aspects of several

different meditation techniques and concluded that there are short-term and long-term

effects on functional and structural neuroplasticity. There are also physiological indicators for

stress relief and relaxation. Long-term meditators also showed enhanced emotional balance

and were better able to maintain focused attention when compared to short-term

practitioners.

On a psychological level, mindfulness provides an impressive set of skills. The

underlying principle of mindfulness awareness is that it develops non-judgmental, present-

moment awareness (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). This attitude of non-elaborative, open acceptance

can be developed by mindfulness awareness practice and involves a self-awareness that

allows one to witness his or her thought processes without altering them. This is a non-

judgmental attitude of curiosity, openness, acceptance and is a “state of mindfulness that is

open and receptive to whatever arises in the field of awareness” (Siegel, 2007 p. 332). This

attitude, which is called bare attention in the Theravadan vipassana tradition, is the condition

for clear comprehension and the ability to see things as they are (Nyanaponika, 1965), and

all theories of mental health contend that an accurate perception of reality is the hallmark of

psychological adjustment (Brown, et al. 2007). In one study, Brown and Ryan (2003)


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argued that mindfulness may facilitate well-being directly, by adding clarity and vividness to

current experience. They further state that mindfulness encourages closer, moment-to-

moment sensory contact with life, that is, without a dense filtering of experience through

discriminatory thought.

A mechanism posited by Shapiro (2006) that points to how bare attention operates is

“reperceiving,” which is a shift in perspective whereby the subject of attention becomes the

object of attention. Shapiro considers this to be the underlying mechanism of mindfulness

that allows one to become a witness to the drama of one's life. Shapiro posits that

reperceiving alters the relationship one has to experience and brings about four variables:

self-regulation, values clarification, greater cognitive and behavioral flexibility and exposure

that leads to the beneficial outcomes of practice. This awareness of awareness is similar to

what other writers have called metacognition (Siegel, 2007). This sense of self-awareness or

metacognition is also a factor in improved self-regulation (Barnes, Et al., 2006, Shapiro,

2006).

Secure or optimal self-esteem has been shown to be associated with reduced

aggressive behavior and should be considered as distinct from contingent self-esteem, which

is dependent on external factors (Ryan, Brown, 2006; Heppner, et al. 2008). Contingent self-

esteem is fragile and unstable. Contingent, or high, inflated self-esteem, is dependent on

outside factors such as feeling respected or having social acceptance. This type of self-

esteem can easily become threatened by insults or rejection, and these threats can trigger

aggressive reactions. A high degree of ego-involvement, which relies on a particular outcome

or experience, is also seen to be related to fragile, unstable self-esteem and is vulnerable to


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aggressive reactions in the case of failure or other negative results. Ryan and Brown (2006)

argue that the cultivation of awareness, operationalized as mindfulness, is the means to

develop optimal self-esteem. Mindfulness, with its aspects of open and accepting awareness,

offers a mechanism to reduce the aggressive reactions that are often typical of criminal

offenders and therefore can enhance secure self-esteem.

A simple standard meditation task involving eating a raisin with complete mindfulness

has been shown to bring about a reduction in aggression as measured by a standardized

questionnaire. Heppner et al. (2008) suggest that alternative mechanisms involving

mindfulness may also play a role. As mentioned, improved self-regulation as been shown to

be enhanced by mindfulness practices. Mindfulness seems to be linked with a sense of

connectedness with others and feelings of compassion.

In another recent study, Borders, et al. (2010) argued that rumination is a significant

underlying factor in anger and aggressive actions. This study offered evidence that

mindfulness has the potential to decrease rumination and other behavioral components of

aggression. The ability to distance oneself from the events of one's life allows for a new way

of relating to experience. Tolerance of negative or unpleasant emotions becomes easier, and

thus maladaptive, habitual patterns lose their hold, offering a degree of freedom. For

example, in many addictive behaviors, the addict turns to alcohol or drugs in response to an

emotion or situation perceived to be intolerable. However, as mindfulness is developed, the

addicts ability to see the situation as a mental state that is impermanent develops, and he

learns that there are other, more skillful means of responding.

As one's practice of mindfulness develops, it becomes possible to clarify the


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established set of conditioned values that may never have been examined and to revise one's

relationship with the world. This also implies increased flexibility along with the opportunity to

become less rigid as one learns to let go of long-held patterns and beliefs. Another

mechanism offered by Shapiro is exposure or the ability to tolerate very strong emotional

states and even pain with objectivity. In fact Kabat-Zinn's MBSR programs were originally

started as a means of aiding with patients suffering from chronic pain.

It should be apparent that many of these issues -- contingent or inflated self-esteem,

inability to tolerate negative or unpleasant emotions, confused or an ineffective set of values

-- often characterize many of those individuals encountered in the criminal justice system.

Section III: Clinical Applications

A. MBSR

Jon Kabat-Zinn's MSBR program is perhaps the best known and most influential source

for bringing meditation and mindfulness out of its essentially Buddhist context and applying

these techniques to the health-care field. Originally, MBSR was developed in the early 1980s

at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center as an attempt to improve the outcomes for

cardiac patients and those with other medical issues thought to be stress-related which are

not amenable to traditional medical interventions (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) . This eight-week

program proved to be quite successful in improving the health and well-being of those who

applied its techniques. Since that time, there has a rapidly growing body of research

supporting MBSR programs and their benefits and a growing interest in developing new areas

where mindfulness can be beneficial including health care, education, business and law

(Duerr, 2004), and to some extent in the criminal corrections system. MBSR is also being


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offered in non-clinical settings as means of enhancing life skills and well-being.

There are seven factors or attitudes that are foundations to mindfulness practices as

stated by Kabat-Zinn: 1. Non-judging – being an impartial witness to experience; 2. Patience

— understanding and accepting that “sometimes things must unfold in their own time;” 3.

Beginner’s Mind — dropping our ideas and beliefs about things and seeing the world as if for

the first time; 4. Trust — developing confidence in your own feelings and intuitions, your

own authority; 5. Non-striving — realizing that there is nowhere to go, you are already here;

6. Acceptance — seeing things as they actually are in the present; and 7. Letting go —

releasing thoughts, feelings, and situations that the mind seems to want to hold on to (Kabat-

Zinn, 1990). These attitudes, perhaps be condensed into acceptance or equanimity and they

can be cultivated with practice and are at heart of all meditative and contemplative practices.

In the eight-week MSBR program, participants are given several practices to use. First,

they are taught to use a formal meditation practice, which usually done in a sitting position.

A body scan and movement meditations in the form of simple yoga techniques and walking

meditation are also included. Weekly classes last two to three hours, and all participants are

asked to practice 45 minutes each day between classes alternating these practices. They are

also encouraged to bring mindfulness to their activities throughout the day.

B. Other Mindfulness Based Therapies

Since MBSR began about 30 years ago, several mindfulness-based clinical applications

have emerged. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale,

2002), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes et al., 1999), Dialectical Behavior

Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993a), and variants of these approaches have been studied and


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overall found to be beneficial overall in different contexts. MBCT has been most widely used

for a variety of mental health issues and demonstrated to be effective in treatment of

depression, and especially in prevention of relapse from depression. Mindfulness is a key

component of DBT which has been one of only therapies effective in the treatment of border

line personality disorder. Although it does explicitly present mindfulness as a practice, ACT

uses many of the strategies drawn from MBSR and mindfulness awareness practices has been

found beneficial for various clinical problems. Mindfulness has also been demonstrated to be

efficacious in preventing relapse for substance abuse problems (Marlatt, 1994). Overall, in a

thorough review of the literature concerning mindfulness-based interventions, Baer (2003)

found that these techniques are demonstrated to be efficacious to varying degrees, although

the research is ongoing and cannot yet be considered definitive.

Other reviews of the research of MBSR and mindfulness-based clinical interventions

have all been supportive. As the underlying mechanism for the effectiveness is being

researched, it is becoming clear that these approaches have value in both treating clinical

disorders, as well as improving human well-being. Grossman et al. (2004) concluded that

mindfulness training is of value in improving coping with the challenges of everyday life as

well as more serious disorders. In a more recent literature review, Santo & Pinto (2009) also

conclude that mindfulness-based approaches are of value in the management of a range of

mental and physical health issues.

Another MBSR approach is mindfulness-based relapse prevention (MBRP) proposed by

G. Alan Marlatt (Marlatt, 2002, Bowen, et al., 2009). This approach is based on Buddhist

psychology and cognitive-behavioral treatment approaches. The emphasis is on the mind-


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based nature of addictive behaviors and how thoughts and expectations influence addiction.

It offers a “middle way” approach that can allow for continued substance use but with harm-

reduction training if total abstinence is unacceptable to the client. To date the research is

quite supportive of MBRP.

Another literature review by Greeson (2008) concludes that the current research on

mindfulness has demonstrated its beneficial effects on several aspects of whole-person

health, including the mind, the brain, the body and behavior. The growing body of research

points to the beneficial effects of mindfulness practices involving shifts in cognition,

emotion, physical health and behavior that work together to improve well-being. Mindfulness

practice has also been demonstrated to enhance a greater sense of meaning and

peacefulness in one's spiritual life and in improved social relationships. Additionally, the

developing field of neurobiology with its cutting-edge technologies of brain imaging are

providing a solid physiological basis for mindfulness practice (Greeson, 2008; Rubia, 2009).

Finally, it seems that research is proving what Buddhists and other meditators

have known for centuries — that greater attention, openness, acceptance and compassion

can bring about more adaptive responses to the stresses of life, which, in turn, can help free

us from suffering and realize greater health and well-being.

C. Cultivating Mindfulness

One question that arises in considering the value of mindfulness practices is the degree

to which is mindfulness a personality trait compared to the degree to which mindfulness can

be cultivated and what methods are most suitable. In traditional Buddhist teaching, the

cultivation of mindfulness is a given. In fact, the Pali – the language of the earliest Buddhist


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teachings -- word for meditation is bhavana, which more precisely means mental cultivation

and is a meditation practice that develops mindfulness (Gunaratana, 2002). However, as

indicated above, with Jon Kabat-Zinn's development of MBSR and the work of many

researchers, we now have a large body of evidence supporting the possibility of developing

and enhancing mindfulness through a variety of meditation practices that do not need to be a

part of a religious tradition.

One recent study by Carmody, et al (2009) tested Shapiro's theory discussed above

and, with some reservations, found support for the key ideas, especially the benefits of

practice. In another study by Carmody and Baer (2009), they also found beneficial results

when meditators practice regularly at home. One finding was that the mindful yoga was

possibly more beneficial than the sitting meditation. Falkenström (2009), in a study of

vipassana meditators on intensive retreat, found that mindfulness clearly enhances well-

being and that mindfulness practice improves well-being. Also, the development of

mindfulness is related to the amount of time spent in meditation and also retreat practice

enhances mindfulness.

The standard MBSR program is eight-weeks and typically requires two to three hours

of instructor-led practice. Participants are asked to practice for 45 minutes per day at home.

There is also a six-hour practice day after the sixth week. This can pose a significant obstacle

to those who might benefit from MBSR. Klatt, et al. (2008) offered a “low-dose” variation on

the standard MBSR program (MBSR-ld) at a major Midwestern university to determine if a

shorter, more available program would be as effective. The low-dose program was offered to

faculty and staff who met specified requirements. The MBSR-ld program lasted six weeks with


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a one hour instructor-led session each week, and participants were asked to spend twenty

minutes practicing each work day. The results for perceived reduced stress, increased

mindfulness and enhanced well-being were fully comparable to the full MBSR program and a

clear demonstration that a shorter program is beneficial.

While much more research is needed, it is clear that mindfulness can be developed

with practice and that meaningful benefits can result from even relatively short-term training.

Section IV: Empirical Evidence for Mindfulness Awareness Practices in

Correctional Settings

It is apparent by now that mindfulness and meditation practices have well documented

beneficial effects for overall mental and physical health and enhance well-being in a general

population. These benefits will also apply to those who are incarcerated. The current

research on meditation and mindfulness directly pertaining to the correctional system is

relatively small. However, there are several studies and a significant amount of more

anecdotal evidence.

In one important study, a modified MBSR program was offered to over 2,000 inmates

in the Massachusetts correctional facilities, including one women's prison, four medium

security men's prisons and one minimum security/pre-release facility between 1992 and

1996. A reported 1,350 inmates completed the program. Results were measured on three

widely accepted measures of hostility, self-esteem, and mood disturbance. All three

measures indicated significant improvements for all participants, although the women and

men in the minimum security facility did better. Opportunities for follow-up were limited from

six to eight weeks but the gains were still evident (Samuelson et al. 2007).


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These outcomes were very encouraging, especially with the limitations imposed by

prison circumstances requiring shorter class times and program length. Also, available

facilities to conduct the program were often less than ideal, and in prison it is often

challenging for inmates to find a quiet place and time to practice. Furthermore, the report

acknowledges several limitations: first, it was not designed as a research study and lacked a

control group and other criteria usually used in formal research. Second, little background

data was available for the participants. Finally, there was no opportunity for long-term follow-

up or a measure of recidivism.

Other studies involving the use of meditation techniques similarly have demonstrated

their value in prisons. A ten-day vipassana meditation retreat was first offered in Tihar jail in

India in 1994. It was so successful in improving the behavior and attitudes of both the

inmates and their jailers who participated in the course that the programs have since become

a standard offering in Indian prisons (reported in Bowen, et al., 2006, www.Prison.Dhamma.-

org). The Indian vipassana retreats are the subject of a powerful documentary movie, Doing

Time, Doing Vipassana (Ariel, 1997).

Since that time, vipassana retreats have been introduced in several U.S. prison

systems including California, Washington and Alabama. Although well-designed research

studies have not been conducted for most of these programs, the reports have all been quite

positive. However, through a grant from the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism awarded to G. A. Marlatt, Department of Psychology, University of Washington,

Seattle, his department has been able to perform a series of studies at a minimum-security

adult jail in Seattle, Washington.


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One of these studies, based on a series of vipassana retreats in the North

Rehabilitation Facility (NRF), a minimum-security adult jail in Seattle, by Bowen, et al. (2006)

concerned substance use disorder (SUD). This study examined the effectiveness of vipassana

meditation as a treatment for substance abuse and looked at questions of improved

psychosocial outcomes and reduced recidivism. The results indicated significantly lower use of

alcohol, marijuana, and crack cocaine in the three-month post release follow-up studies, as

well as fewer alcohol-related incidents. The participants also reported significantly increased

optimism and lower levels of psychiatric symptoms. There was some supporting data for

reduced recidivism; however, the overall rates were too low to draw meaningful conclusions.

There is also concern that the three-month follow-up period was too short.

Another study by Simpson, et al. (2007), looked at post traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) symptoms, substance abuse disorder (SUD) and vipassana meditation in incarcerated

individuals. As the writers point out, rates of PTSD and substance abuse have been higher

among incarcerated individuals than in the general population. Incarcerated men with both

PTSD and SUD are more likely to re-offend than those with only SUD, and women are more

likely to relapse into substance abuse. The presence of both issues is now viewed as an

attempt at self-medication for PTSD. One of the issues with both SUD and PTSD is the need

to avoid unpleasant or negative experiences. Mindfulness meditation offers the conditions

allowing one to look at painful aspects of experience by fostering non-judgmental acceptance

of moment-to-moment experience. It is possible that mindfulness practices may, then, be a

useful intervention in treating PTSD. The authors report that earlier studies supported the use

of meditation practices, including TM, as one of several strategies in managing PTSD. In this


22

study, the key finding for those who were diagnosed with both PTSD and SUD was that there

were comparable reductions in drug use and alcohol abuse for those with and without PTSD

symptoms. As with many of these studies, the outcomes are encouraging and point to the

importance of further research.

There have now been several meditation retreats held in prisons. The first vipassana

retreat held in a maximum security in a North American prison was at the Donaldson

Correctional Facility in Bessemer, Alabama. It is the subject of the documentary film, The

Dhamma Brothers, (2008). The outcomes have, again, demonstrated of the ability of

meditation to transform lives. The stories of the men who participated in the ten-day retreat

are testimony to this transformation. In some cases, this was the first time in their lives that

they were able to accept full responsibility for their actions and make peace with themselves.

The prison staff, although initially quite skeptical, also found that the men had benefited from

the experience and were easier to deal with. However, to date there appears to be no

published analysis of the outcomes beyond the favorable testimonials from all parties

involved and the decision of the prison to continue the programs.

In a study at the Tidewater Detention Center (TDC) in Chesapeake, Va., Sumter

offered a seven-week meditation course modeled on Kabat-Zinn's MBSR program. TDC is a

residential detention facility for female detainees. Their program maintained a highly

supervised, highly structured, paramilitary community environment, which lasted from 20 to

24 weeks. The meditation program was held weekly offering two-and-a-half-hour sessions of

meditation practice and instruction. The method taught was based on the meditation practice

presented by Herbert Benson in The Relaxation Response. Participants were required to


23

maintain silence the rest of the week. No mention was made of encouraging meditation

practice outside of the class. The results were overall quite encouraging: reported reduction

in sleeping difficulties, greater anger management skills, and reduced stress and anxiety.

Also, participants showed improvement by experiencing less guilt and feelings of

hopelessness about the future (Sumter, 2007).

In an unpublished evaluation of the program sponsored by the Heart Mountain Prison

Project at the men's prison in Grants, New Mexico, the writers, Wadsworth, Strong and Brown

(2007), found great value to the programming. The program evaluated was held in a special

“meditation” pod with 16 participants who had chosen to live in the pod and who agreed to

more restrictive rules than the prison's general population. These rules included daily silent

periods set aside for meditation, no television in the common areas and a commitment to

spiritual practice. As an interfaith program, several traditions were represented, and there

was no requirement to adhere to a specific faith. The results showed that most participants

did practice and work at utilizing the skills presented. The inmates also reported less stress

and frustration, and they appreciated the opportunity to participate. Objectively, there was a

significant reduction in prison infractions and an overall positive change in behavior was

noted. The evaluators recommended the program be expanded and otherwise enhanced.

Section V: Mindfulness and Restorative Justice

Restorative justice, in its modern incarnation, was started in Canada in the early 1970s

by Mennonites looking for alternative methods of approaching crime in a primarily Mennonite

community. It has since spread extensively and restorative justice practices are being used


24

throughout Canada, Europe, North America, New Zealand and Africa (Dhami, et al. 2009).

Restorative justice offers a new way of thinking about wrongdoing and criminal and

punishment. Howard Zehr (2002) offer a concise introduction to the basic principles

summarized here:

In its essence, restorative justice has three central concepts or pillars:

1.Restorative justice is concerned mainly with the harm to the victim of the wrongdoing as well as the community. This primacy to the victim's needs and concerns requires repairing the harm done. In considering the harms done to the victim, attention may also be given to the causes of the crime, which will include the offender. The concerns of the community in which the crime occurred are also given attention, with the intent of putting things right.

2.Harm entails obligation. The offender is held accountable and must take responsibility for the harms caused. This may include some type of reparation, community service or even more traditional punishments such as incarceration. The community may also have obligations as well, both to the victim and the offender. Restorative justice has a limited role to play in cases where the offender will not accept responsibility.

3.Engagement is the key element to the restorative justice model. All the stakeholders, the primary parties affected by the crime, are asked to participate in the process in one way or another. There are several methods for doing this, sometimes involving direct dialog or talking circles and at other times indirect exchanges. At times the courts will be heavily involved; at other times the courts may play little or no role at all (Zehr 2002).

The overall impetus is toward healing and restoring the community to wholeness. Ideally this

also means bringing the offender back into the community as a fully participating member

and repairing the harms done to the victim and the community. This emphasis on “putting

things right” is at the heart of the restorative justice movement. This will especially include

victims, who have been left out of much of traditional judicial proceedings. Some of the

methods used are victim-offender conferences, family group conferences and circles as

practiced in the Native American communities of North America. There are a number of

variations on how these methods are employed and who participates. Some include only the

communities involved; others may include the court and will be a part of more traditional


25

legal proceedings. At times, simply acknowledging the victim's need for information and

keeping the victim informed as the case progresses will be all that can be done if the

perpetrator remains unknown.

The role of the offender as a responsible participant is essential for the restorative

justice process to be successful. Responsible participation is not always possible because so

many offenders either overtly or subtly try to place blame away from themselves. One of the

outcomes of meditation and mindfulness practices is an increased self-awareness which may

lead to a more willing attitude toward accepting blame. There is also, as has been discussed,

an increased ability to accept and face the old memories, painful feelings and personal

failures that surface in meditation. It is important to remember that sometimes what the

offenders really needs to face are their own woundedness as well as their responsibility for

the harms they may have caused others.

The accepting, nonjudgmental attitude of mindfulness practice creates a spaciousness,

making painful feelings tolerable, thus allowing a sense of personal responsibility to arise.

Empathic responses to others have been shown to increase with meditation practice (Lutz, et

al. 2008). As Siegel (2007, 2010) suggests, mindfulness skills may actually alter the brain

circuitry for compassion and empathy. This change can foster a state of self-empathy and

create the capacity to enhance our sense of connectedness to ourselves and to others. This

can be the beginning of personal healing as well, which is important to the successful

implementation of restorative justice.

In several of the studies cited in this paper as well as in the testimonials noted from


26

the documentary films cited, mindfulness practices do enable the offender to let go of the

anger and self-protective stance that prevents a healthy connectedness to the world. A new

sense of connectedness, in turn, will enhance the ability of the offenders to face the painful

emotions that arise when they look at their actions, leading to enhanced ability to empathize

with the victim.

When such a change occurs, there is movement toward healing and restoration. While

restorative justice in its fullest sense can only happen if the other stakeholders are interested

and willing, allowing offenders the opportunity to find the strength to look honestly at

themselves is no small thing, and the possibility of actually using restorative justice methods

is now present from one part of the equation. Also, the healing and the actual transformative

power of mindfulness practices offer the real possibility that the offender will be able to

become a productive member of the community upon release. From the personal experience

of teaching meditation and mindfulness practices in prisons both in Ohio and in New Mexico, I

have seen inmates transform from being confused or angry, bitter men who seemed to

blame anyone or anything for their situation grow toward becoming self-aware, responsible

adults.

To date, there are few restorative justice programs in prisons, and the ones that

are in place are often only partially restorative in their programming (Dhami et al., 2009).

However, there are several potential restorative programs that can, with varying degrees of

difficulty be implemented within a prison. Van Ness (2007) offers several possibilities

beginning with programs to develop awareness and empathy for victims. Other possibilities


27

include programming that offer opportunities for reconciliation and making amends to the

victims. Prisoners are often alienated from their own families, and programs that facilitate

reconciliation with family members will have value. Restorative justice can be applied within

prison for conflict resolution between prisoners, staff and between prisoners and staff with

the larger goal of creating a culture of peaceful conflict resolution. In all of these potential

programs, the transformative effects resulting from meditation practices can play an

important role.

The role that mindfulness can play in restorative justice programs is significant.

Offender accountability is an essential part of any restorative justice program, and developing

the ability to accept responsibility for one's actions is a natural outcome of meditation

practice. This sense of personal responsibility will apply to both acknowledging accountability

for the harms caused by the crime and also to taking one's place as a responsible,

contributing member of the community after release.

Section VI: Discussion

The research into meditation and contemplative practices is still in its infancy but is

growing at an exponential rate. The research has strongly supported the value of these

ancient practices for treating psychological and health concerns, as well as improving well-

being in general.

The scientific and anecdotal evidence both suggest that these practices are beneficial

in the criminal justice system. The health-related benefits of reducing medical costs alone

would make them a valuable addition to prison programming. The lower rate of inmate


28

frustration and stress would also reduce the problems of potential violence and prison rule

violations. The inmates who have participated in the programs appreciate them and tend to

follow through with the practices and, in fact, in most of these programs, the inmates

volunteered to participate. Meditation programming also seems to carry a less negative

image than some of the SUD programs.

A. Meditation: Religious or Secular?

One question that often arises concerns the status of meditation as a religious practice

as opposed to being a secular practice. Because the origins of meditative practices are from

religious traditions, this is a reasonable question. In recent times the predominate sources are

the Eastern religions, primarily Buddhism but also Hinduism and yoga. There is an on-going

question that asks if Buddhism is a religion or a philosophy since it is non-theistic. However,

in either case, as Jon Kabat-Zinn has demonstrated, mindfulness practices can be fully

effective and beneficial in a secular setting (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) and need not be considered as

religious practices. Much can certainly be said in favor of a secular approach that is open to

all without the off-putting religiosity that would limit participation.

Even so, there is some debate about what is lost when meditative practices are

disengaged from their spiritual and cultural origins. One consideration would be the

qualifications of the teachers. Because meditation has been taught for centuries by religious

practitioners with great depth of experience as meditators themselves, there is some concern

that Western therapists may lack the necessary depth of experience. Questions also arise

regarding what aspects of the traditional teachings are beneficial in establishing the benefits


29

but may not be presented because they are perceived to be religious (Dimidjian & Linehan,

2003). Although all the research to date has been supportive of mindfulness practice as

universally engendering prosocial behaviors, there can be concern that these practices will

enhance the concentrative powers necessary for, say, safe-cracking. In any event, it would

seem that retaining a connection with the spiritual roots of mediative practice is of value.

And it may not be entirely possible to separate meditative practice from

spirituality. In a study on spirituality, mindfulness and health-related symptoms, Carmody, et

al (2008) found that participants in a MSBR program not only showed the expected

improvements in stress levels, but also associated with these gains were an increased sense

of spirituality. This change is defined as emphasizing humanistic values and qualities

concerning a sense of meaning and purpose in life beyond material values. So, it seems that

the question of spirituality and religion are in some way integral to meditative practice.

Not long ago, meditation practices were viewed as exotic Eastern religious practices

with little value in the modern world. To the extent that anyone thought of the ideas behind

restorative justice, they were dismissed as being hopelessly idealistic and out of touch with

the real world. Now both meditation practices and restorative justice programs are emerging

among the most promising new directions in dealing with the challenges in the criminal

justice system.

End notes: 1Mindfulness and spirituality were measured by established measurement instruments: the Functional


30

Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy – Spiritual Well-being Scale (FACIT-Sp), the Toronto Mindfulness Scale, (TMS) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Two scales were used to measure medical symptoms – the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 90 – Revised and the Medical Symptom Checklist (MSCL).

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