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Dougherty, Neil J., IV, Ed.Principles of Safety in Physical Education andSport.American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, Reston, VA. NationalAssociation for Sport and Physical Education.ISBN-0-88314-345-387186p.; Photographs will not reproduce well.AAHPERD Publications, P.O. Box 704, Waldorf, MD 20601($12.95).Reports Descriptive (141) Guides Non-ClassroomUse (055) -- Collected Works - General (020)

MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.*Athletics; Elementary Secondary Education; FirstAid; Injuries; Legal Responsibility; *PhysicalEducation; *Safety; Teacher Role

ABSTRACTThis book was designed to provide the professional

with a straightforward and complete resource for those factors thatmust be considered in the provision of safe units of instruction inthe commonly taught sports and activities. Twenty-one chaptersprovide essential information, checklists, and outlines, as well asways to ensure student safety. Chapter topics are: (1) the injuryproblem; (2) legal responsibility for safety; (3) administration ofsafety; (4) first aid and sport safety policies; (5) archery; (6)basketball; (7) coed flag football; (8) dance; (9) field hockey; (10)fitness and weight training; (11) golf; (12) orienteering; (13)racquet sports; (14) self-defense; (15) soccer; (16) softball; (17)swimming; (18) track and field; (19) tumbling; (20) volleyball; and(21) wrestling. (CB)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original docum' It.

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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLYHAS EEN G NTED BY

46---Asv

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURcESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

in PhysiEducafonand Sport

4re,

Principles of Safetyin Physical Education and Sport

Neil J. Dougherty IV, EditorRutgers University

sponsored by theNational Association for

Sport and Physical Education

an association of theAmerican Alliance for H&'th, Physical

Education, Recreation, and Dance

Copyright 1987

The American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education,

Recreation, and Dance1900 Association DriveReston, Virginia 22091

ISBN 0-88314-345-3

4

Purposes of the American Alliance for Health,Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

The American Alliance is an educational organization, structured for thepurposes of supporting, encouraging, and providing assistance to membergroups and their personnel throughout the nation as they seek to initiate,develop, and conduct programs in health, leisure, and movement-relatedactivities for the enrichment of human life.

Alliance objectives include:1. Professional growth and developmentto support, encourage, and

provide guidance in the development and conduct of programs in health,leisure, and movement-related activities which are based on the needs,interests, and inherent capacities of the individual in today's society.

2. Communicationto facilitate public and professional understandingand appreciation of the importance and value of health, leisure, andmovement-related activities as they contribute toward human well-being.

3. Researchto encourage and facilitate research which will enrich thedepth and scope of health, leisure, and movement-related activities; and todisseminate the findings to the profession and other interested and con-cerned publics.

4. Standards and guidelinesto further the continuous development andevaluation of standards within the profession for personnel and programs inhealth, leisure, and movement-related activities.

5. Public affairsto coordinate and administer a planned program ofprofessional, public, and governmental relations that will improve educationin areas of health, leisure, and movement-related activities.

6. To conduct such other activities as shall be approved by the Board ofGovernors and the Alliance Assembly, provided that the Alliance shall notengage in any activity which would be inconsistent with the status of aneducational and charitable organization as defined in Section 501 (c) (3) of theInternal Revenue Code of 1954 or any successor provision thereto, and noneof the said purposes shall at any time be deemed or construed to bepurposesother than the public benefit purposes and objectives consistent with sucheducational and charitable status.

Bylaws, Article III

Purposes of the AlliancePreface

Authors

Table of Contents

Chapter 1The Injury ProblemChapter 2Legal Responsibility for SafetyChapter 3Administration of Safety

Chapter 4First Aid and Sport Safety PoliciesChapter 5Archery

Chapter 6Basketball

Chapter 7Coed Flag Football

Chapter 8Dance

Chapter 9Field Hockey

Chapter 10Fitness/Weight TrainingChapter 11Golf

Chapter 12Orienteering Arthur Hugglestone 101Chapter 13Racquet Sports John Smyth 111Chapter 14Self-defense Kenneth Tillman 121Chapter 15Soccer Jchn Fellenbaum 127Chapter 16Softball Diane Bonanno, Sonia Regalado, Patricia Peters 133Chapter 17SwiLiming Ralph Johnson 143

iii

vii

ix

David Feig;ey 1

Neil Dougherty 15

Patricia Barry 23

Phil Hostler 39

Claire Cham' erlain 51

James Bryant 57

Maryar n Domitrovitz 63

Lynne Fitzgerald 69

Barbara Belt 77

Clair Jennett 81

DeDe Owens 89

v6

Chapter 18Track and Field LeRoy Walker 159

Chapter 19Tumbling Diane Bonanno 165

Chapter 20Volleyball Barbara Vtera 179

Chapter 21Wrestling Douglas Parker 185

7

vi

Preface

In 1983 the National Association for Sport and Physical Education pub-lished Physical Education and Sport for the Secondary School Student. This

completely updated and revised edition of the earlier Physical Education forHigh School Students met with immediate and continued success. Althoughdesigned primarily for use as a student textbook, the quality and accuracy ofthe content as well 's the clear and direct application of teaching andlearning progressions has led to its widespread acceptance as a teachingguide as well.

The same quality of authorship and validity of content which led to thebroad acceptance of Physical Education and Sport for the Secondary SchoolStudent has led to another use which although not planned for, probablycould have been anticipated. It is frequently introduced as evidence eithersupporting or condemning the actions ofa teacher who is being sued for anaccidental injury which arose in his/her class. The everpresent threat oflitigation in connection with student injuries; the inescapable fact that theguidelines and recommendations of the Association are frequently consid-ered in assessing potential liability and; most importantly, the desire topromote the safest programs possible have, therefore, precipitated thedevelopment of Principles of Safety in Physical Education and Sport.

This text is designed to provide the professional with a straightforwardand complete resource of those factors which must be considered in theprovision of safe units of instruction in the commonly taught sports andactivities. Using a format which relies heavily on checklists and outlines, theauthors have provided the essential information in a manner which facili-tates its use in the development of detailed unit and lesson plans as well asfor quick pre-class safety checks.

It is the intention of the National Association for Sport and PhysicalEducation that this book, like Physical Education and Sport fer the SecondarySchool Student, will assist the teacher in the development and implementa-tion of a safe and well balanced program of activities from which today'syouth can benefit throughout their lifetime.

vii 8

Neil J. Dougherty IVEditor

AuthorsThe Injury ProblemDavid A. FeigleyRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJLegal Responsibility for SafetyNeil J. DoughertyRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

Administration of SafetyPatricia E. BarryMontgomery Couaty Public SchoolsRockville, MD

First Aid and Sport Safety PoliciesPhil HostlerEast Brunswick High SchoolEast Brunswick, NJ

A rcheryClaire ChamberlainUniversity of LowellLowell, MA

BasketballJames BryantSan Jose State I TniversitySan Jose, CA

Coed Flag FootballMaryann DomitrovitzPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PADanceLynne FitzgeraldMorehead State UniversityMorehead, KY

Field HockeyBarbara BeltJohn F. Kennedy High SchoolSilver Spring, MDFitness/Weight TrainingClair JennettSan Jose State UniversitySan Jose, CAGolfDeDe OwensUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville, VA

at

9

OrienteeringArthur HugglestoneSmith Environmental Education CenterRockville, MD

Racquet SportsJohn P. SmythThe CitadelCharleston, SCSelf-DefenseKenneth TillmanTrenton State CollegeTrenton, NJSoccerJohn F. Fellenbaum, Jr.McCaskey High SchoolLancaster, PASoftballDiane BonannoRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

Sonia Regalado Az Patncia PetersEast Brunswick High SchoolEast Brunswick, NJ

SwimmingRalph JohnsonIndiana UniversityIndiana, PATrack and FieldLeRoy T. WalkerNorth Carolina Central UniversityDurham, NCTumblingDiane BonannoRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

VolleyballBarbara VieraUniversity of DelawareNewark, DEWrestlingDouglas ParkerSpringfield CollegeSpringfield, MA

CHAPTER 1

The Injury Problem

10

DAVID A. FEIGLEY

Rutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, NJ

2 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Accidents just happen. Or do they?While accidents and the injuries

resulting from them, by definition', arenot caused by someone's purposefulactions, a moment's reflection will indi-cate that most accidents have a clearcause-and-effect relationship betweensome preceding event, action, or cir-cumstance and the accident itself. Sys-tematic recordkeeping has frequentlyshown that accidents occur more regu-lar!y in some circumstances than others.Unfortunately, those causal relation-ships often become obvious only afterthe fact.

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

Sports injuries are only a small part ofthe national statistics describing pre-ventable illness a id injury. Accordingto the National Safety Council (1984),more than 100,000 accidental deathsand approximately 9 million disablinginjuries are reported annually. At anApril 2, 1986 news conference, Alvin R.Tar lov, president of the Henry J. KaiserFamily Foundation, stated that, "Pre-ventable illness and injuries claim near-ly 1.3 million American lives and costthe nation more than $300 billion eachyear." Table 1 compares the relativerank of accidents with other majorcauses of death in the United States.

While sports injuries represent only asmall portion of these deaths, the factthat sports fatalities are likely to occurearly in the potential life span of thevictim magnifies their impact on thelives of the victims and their families.Table 2 presents data from the NationalElectronic Injury Surveillance System(NEISS) representing reported deaths in15 sports totaled from 1973 to 1980.

Comparisons of injury or fatality ratesfor the general population versus the

I Once intentional harm is assumed, theincident can no longer be defined as anaccident but rather becomes classified as acrime.

11,

rates for athletes are difficult to makebecause of the lack of information andbecause the data that is available hasbeen collected using different criteria.According to the National Safety Coun-cil (1984), approximately 100,000 acci-dental deaths of all types are reportedannually in the United States (an aver-age of one death every five minutes!).Using an estimated population of 226.5million (1980 census estimate), the fatal-ity rate indicates that 441.5 people per

TABLE IRelative Frequency of Accidents and

Other Causes of Death inthe United States

Rank Cause of Death

1 Heart Disease2 Cancer3 Stroke4 Accidents

Motor VehicleFallsDrowningFires, BurnsSuffocationIngest ObjectPoisoning by solids and liquidsFirearmsPoisoning by gases and vapors

5 Pneumonia6 Diabetes Mellitus7 Chronic Liver Disease, Cirrhosis8 Atherosclerosis9 Suicide

10 Homicide11 Certain Conditions Originating in

Perinatal Period12 Aephritis and nephrvis

Source: National Safety Council, AccidentFacts, 1984, p. 8

million die each year from accidents ofall types. In baseball and softball com-bined, an estimated 11.5 to 13.6 millionplayers between the ages of 5 and 14years participate in the U.S. each year(U.S. Consumer Product Safety Com-mission, 1984). The National ElectronicInjury Surveillance System recorded 51total deaths between 1973 and 1983, foran average of 6.4 deaths per year inbaseball and softball combined. Thus,

TABLE 2Sports Related Fatalities to Persons

5-14 Years ot AgeJanuary 1973December 1980

Sport Fatalities

baseball 40Football 19Golf 13Ball Sportsa 7Basketball 6Soccer 6Trampoline 6Wrestling 2Ice Hockey 2Track and Field 2Racquet Sports 1

Tetherball 1

Lacrosse 0Volleyball 0Gymnastics 0

Total 105

aSports for which the specific activity was notspecifiedSource: U.S. Consumer Product Safety Com-

mission/Epidemiology, Division ofHazard Analysis, 1981

the rate of fatalities in baseball and soft-ball ranges from .5 to .6 deaths permillion participants. While this compar-ison is clearly limited by the fact that therecording systems were different andthe rates were compared across differ-ent age ranges (all ages for national ratevs. 5- and 14-year-olds in baseball/soft-ball), the magnitude of the rate differ-ences is so great that there is almostc"rtainly a dramatically lower fatalityrate for the sports of baseball and soft-ball than for the national average. Sincebas.-_,ball is the most dangerous sportin terms of fatalities (See Table 2),the conclusion appears warranted thatsports have a relatively low fatality ratecompared to the national general popu-lation average.

Nonetheless, according to experts inepidemiology and public health, nearlytwo-thirds of all illnesses and injuriescould be prevented. Nowhere is thisfact more relevant than with sports inju-

12

THE INJURY PROBLEM 3

TABLE 3Estimated, Sports-Related, Medically

Attended Injuries to Persons 5-14 Yearsof Age During the Calendar Year 1980

Sport Medically Attended Injuries

Football 499,400Baseball 359,400Basketball 295,300Gymnastics 209,200Ball Sports 133,200Soccer 107,400Wrestling 55,100Volleyball 46,500Ice Hockey 28,900Track and Field 22,600Racquet Spoi is 17,100Golf 11,600Trampoline 7,200Tetherball 5,500Lacrosse 2,100

Total 1,800,500

aSports for which the specific activity was notspecified.Source: U.s. Consumer Product Safety Com-

mission/Epidemiology, Division ofHazard Analysis, 1981

ries. While many assume that mostsports injuries are the result of "acci-dents," these accidents are frequentlythe result of factors which lead predict-ably to injuries. For example, differentsports have different frequencies of in-jury (see Table 3). Often these accidentsand injuries can be traced directly tosocial, environmental, and behavioralfactors which, if regulated, would resultin dramatic reductions in deaths andinjuries. The fact that injuries are oftenconsidered "accidental" or as part of theinherent risk of sports is one of themajor reasons why these social, envi-ronmental, and behavioral factors re-main uncontrolled and, thus, why acci-dents and injuries continue to occur. Ifsi_ :h accidents and injuries were per-ceived as predictable results of the lackof public health and accident controlpolicies, actions would likely be taken toreduce "accidents" in terms of bothfrequency and severity.

4 PRINCITLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

DEFINING AN ACCIDENT

All of us have undoubtedly experi-enced "acci..1cmts" at time throughoutour lives and h- 'e a general under-standing of the term. When attemptsare made to measure and understandaccidents within the context of thestudy of safety, however, the need for aspecific definition becomes obvious.Definitions serve two functions: first,they provide a specific focus as to what isto be studied; second, they provide pe-ripheral boundaries concerning ..vhat toinclude and what to exclude from thetopic to be analyzed.

Agencies which collect data on sportsinjuries have a variety of definitions ofsports injuries resulting partially fromthe fact that different agencies have dif-ferent purposes for such data (e.g.,knowing what injuries require treat-ment vs. determining the cause of suchinjuries) and because agencies differ intheir organizational responsibility to theparticipating athlete (national surveysystems 3. the local coaching staff).

The two major defining charactens-tics of accidents are that they have unin-tended causes and undesirable effects kThy-gerson, 1986). For example, the Nation-al Safety Council defines an accident as"that occurrence in a sequence of eventswhich usually produces unintended in-jury, death, or property damage" (Acci-dent Facts, 1984). Thygerson (1986)points iy.it that two frequently includedsubfactors defining an accident are that:.1) the event is relatively sudden (mea-sured in seconds or minutes); and thatb) the damage results from a form of physi-cal energy (e.g., mechanical, thermal,chemical). The former characteristic dis-tinguishes accidents from chronic c"er-use injuries while the latter distin-gui hes between accidental injuries andillness and disease.

DEFINING AN INJURY

The term injury is often defined inde-pendently of accident. Haddon (1980)defined injury as "damage or trauma to

13

the body caused by exchanges with en-vironmental energy that are beyond thebody's resilience" (page 1). Two practi-cal considerations are often part of inju-ry definitions. First, an injury is deemedto have occurred if the victim loses timefrom an activity such as work, school, orplay. For example, the National Ath-letic Injury/Illness Reporting System(NAIRS) defines a reportable injury as"any injury/illness which causes thecessation of an athlete's customary par-ticipation throughout the participation-day following day of onset." Thus, timelost from practice is often used as thethreshold to determine whether dam-age sustained by an athlete is consid-ered severe e..ough to be classified as aninjury. The second practical consider-ation is referral to a medical profes-sional such as a trainer, nurse, physi-cian, or emergency staffer. Bumps,bruises, and chronic stiffness which donot necessitate a visit for medical treat-ment are rarely counted in injury statis-tics. Only if their ,severity prompts aformal visit to a meLical professional dothey typically become classified as aninjury.

Within the context of sports, distinc-tions are often made between injuriesdirectly or indirectly attributable to partic-ipation in a sport. Damage sustainedfrom mechanical energy tends to bemore commonly associated with inju-ries resulting from accidents termed"directly attributable" to sport than toother fo:ms of energies. For example,an accident caused by being hit by a ballor bat likely to be seen as directlyattributai..e to sport while heat strokecaused by a lack of water while trainingin hot, humid conditions is more likelyto be classified as an inc irect sportsinjury.

ACCIDENTS VERSUS INJURIES

These distinctions in definitions aremore than simply semantics. Safety ex-perts, for example, often distinguishbetween accident prevention and injuryprevention. Injury is viewed as only oneof many possible outcomes of an acci-

dent. Efforts toward 4- :cident preven-tion are focused on education, prohibi-tions, and regulation while efforts to-ward injury control focus on thelessening of injury and a prevention ofdeath by using rescue, safety belts,emergency medic& care, helmets, andsimilar techniques.

DEFINING SAFETY

While the term "safety" is generallyunderstood, its scientific meaning is of-ten quite vague. According to Lowrance(1976), an activity is safe if its risks aredeemed acceptable; and acceptability isa matter of personal and societal valuejudgements. Thus, what is judged"safe" varies horn time to time andfrom situation to situation. Further-more, Lowrance argues that what istypically measured scientifically is notsafety but degree of risk. An activity isjudged safe if the risks associated withthat activity are judged acceptable. Stat-ed differently, risk involves the calcula-tion of the pro ability of ha-ma scien-tific measurement. Safety involves thejudgement of the acceptability of thoserisksa value judgement. Thus, risksare something we measure while safety issomething we must judge.

DEFINING RISK

Thygerson (1986) defines "risk" as"possible loss or the chance of a loss"(page 39). Theoretically, measuringrisks is quite straightforward. Takinginto consideration the population data,the exposure data, and the injury data,the calculations for determining risk arequite simple. From a practical stand-point, measuring such risks is rarelycarried out because gathering the ap-propriate data is often quite a substan-tial task. There are three general meth-ods of measuring risk: (1) relative riskmethods; (2) probability of occurrencemethods; and (3) relative exposure ratemethods.

1. Relative risk methods. An activity orhazard is rated according to a standardwhich can be ranked along a dimensionof more cr less. For example, a boxing


glove with nine ounces of padding isconsidered to be more risky than a glovewith twelve ounces of padding. some-times a rating scale is adopted to reflectthe approximate degree of risk. For ex-ample, in women's artistic gymnastics,athletes select skills rated from level "a"(easy) to level "d" (extremely risky).

2. Probability of occurrence. The likeli-hood of future injuries can be accuratelyestimated if records have been kept overreasonable periods of tiroe for sizablepopulations which will continue the ac-tivity under similar conditions. Just asthe National Safety Council can predictthe number of fatalities for a gi% en holi-day period, the American FootballCoaches Association Committee onFootball Injuries can predict the numberof football related fatalities for the up-coming season. Both groups have cornpiled a long history of fatality statisticsNhich permit such prediction. If thefuture circumstances were changedfrom the situation upon which the origi-nal data were based, the estimateswould differ from the actual observedfatalities. For example, if the weatherchanged (e.g., it rained) or a rulechange were implemented (e.g., spear-ing was eliminated in football), the actu-al number of deaths or injuries wouldchange. Table 4 reports the number ofdeaths directly attributable to participa-tion for high school and collegiate foot-ball across a 25-year period. While it isclear that tatalities were already on the

TABLE 4Direct Football Fatalities from High

School and Collegiate Programs1961-1985

5-Year Block High Schoo' College

1961-65 75 121966-70 103 121971-75 61 71976-80 44 21981-85 24 4

Source: National Federation News, NationalFederation of State High School As-sociations, June, 1986

14


decline, there was a decided additionaldrop in fatalities during the period afterthe 1976 rule change which eliminatedspearing ;i.e., making initial contactwith the head).

3. Relative exposure. Risks may be por-trayed in terms of exposure rates inorder to compare different risks. Forexample, during the , ive-year periodbetween 1959 and 19E,, 820,000 youthsplayed football and 86 deaths were re-corded. During the period from 1971 to1975, 77 deaths were reported but theexposure rate rose substantially to1,275,000 players (Torg, 1932). Thus,the actual risk appeared to have de-creased during the early 1970s (1.0 x10-4 vs. 6.0 x 10-5 respectively for thetwo 5-year periods). Exposure rates cantake into consideration not only tnenumber of participants, but also thenumber of practices, number of hoursper practice, and the number of actualsporting attempts, depending on thedegree of sophistication of the measure-ment of exposure. An advantage of thistechnique of expressing risk is that dif-ferent sports or different dimensions canbe compared on a rate basis. For exam-ple, Reif (1981) estimates that, while therisk of death in collegiate football is onein 33,000 exposures, the risk of injury orlong-term disability is as high as 1 in 18exposures2.

OVERUSE SYNDROME INJURIES

A relatively new category of pediatricinjuries specific to organized sports pro-grams for preadolescent and adolescentathletes has developed recently. Theseinjuries are called overuse injuries andare the result of purposeful, repetitivetraining. They are clearly injuries al-though they are not accidental. In fact,they are clearly predictable anti oftenendured specifically in the quest forhigher levels of performance from phys-ically immature athletes. Previously,

2 Exposures were based on a per yearbasis in which 25 days of participation peryear were assumed.

15

overuse injunes were restricted to adultactivities, often in the form of bursitisand tendonitis afflicting the construc-tion worker or the weekend tennis play-er. Now, they are seen with increasingregularity in highly trained children.

According to Micheli (1986), childrenare particularly susceptibile to thesetypes of injuries for two reasons. First,the growing cartilage or the joint sur-faces may be more susceptible to stress,especially shear stresses both in termsof single impact trauma (e.g., growthplate fractures) and repetitive micro-trauma (e.g., Osgood Schlatters dis-ease, patellofemoral stress syndrome).Second, the process of growth itselfrenders children more susceptible tocertain injuries. As growth occurs in thebones, the muscle-tendon unit span-ning the bones and the joints becomesprogressively tighter with growth, par-ticulariy during growth spurts. This re-duced flexibility heightens the child'schances of both single impact injuriesand repetitive microtrauma because ofthe increased tension across the jointsand growing surfaces.

UNDERSTANDINGTHE INJURY PROBLEM

Effective understanding and controlIf the injury problem in physical educa-tion and sport requires a multistep ap-proach. Figure 1 describes a possiblemodel for analyzing injuries in sport.

DEFINE EXISTING PROGRAMS

First, the specific programs to be ana-lyzed must be designated. While, at firstglance, this step may seem obvious, oncloser inspection, a variety of complicat-ing factors become evident. If, for exam-ple, you wish to analyze football interms of injury occurrence, you mustdecide what constitutes "football."Does your study include only organizedprograms, or any game, formal or infor-mal, in which the participants play foot-ball? The problems associated with col-lecting data from organized programs

re likely to differ from those encoun-tered while collecting data from parks,playgrounds, and "sandlot" football. Inaddition, you must decide if you areinterested in injuries both directly andindirectly attributable to the activity orsport. For example, an injury resultingfrom tackling is likely to be directly theresult of playing football, while a strokeoccurring to an athlete on the sidelinesmay be unrelated to the individual'sparticipation in sport. Other injunesmay be caused by a combination offactors, some direct and some indirect.Heat exhaustion may be both attribut-able to weather conditions and to thewearing of heavy uniforms and intensetraining regimens during high heat/hu-midity conditions.

MONITORING AND DATACOLLECTION

Once the conditions defining thesport have been specified, an analysis ofinjury patterns requires an accuratemonitoring of the frequency, type, and

THE INJURY PLOBLEM 7

severity of injuries as well as the circum-stances uncle: which they occur. Hereagain, the problem of definition arises.What constitutes an accident or an inju-ry? Depending on the purpose of themonitoring institution, the definitionsof injuries may differ dramatically. Acoach concerned about the welfare ofyoung athletes may define an it jury as abraise which creates discomfort. An or-ganization concerned about medicaltreatment may define injury as anyphysical problem which requires medi-cal treatment. A le, gue concerned aboutthe severity of accidental injury maydefine an injury as any physical prob-lem which requires the athlete to miss aclay or more of training or competition.?'he data collected under each of theseexamples may be quite different andreflect decidedly different patterns.

The collection of accident and/or inju-ry statistics appears deceptively simple.Even assuming that clear and adequatedefinitions of axident and injury havebeen established, the substantial prob-

Define Monitor & Observe SearchExisting Record Patterns forPrograms Data in Data Causes

DevelopAccident and/orInjury ControlPrograms

EstablishPriorities

Resources

Fig. 1. Injury analysis and control model.

Modifications

X16

EvaluateImpact


lems of collecting, storing, and retriev-ing data remain. Not only must atforms be developed and provided, butthe responsibility for reporting the datamust be assigned to specific individualswho have the authority to obtain theappropriate descriptive data. Data col-lection requires many costs in terms oftime, effort, and material supplies, notto mention time away from other tasksoften thought to be more pressing.

Subtle and not-so-subtle distortionsof injury data are quite common. Coach-es and administrators often feel pres-sure to portray their programs in aspositive a light as possible Document-ing injuries often appears to be self-defeating to people held responsible forsafety. An administrator who intro-duces an effective injury reporting sys-tem should be prepared to explain tosuperiors why a dramatic increase iniritnies is now being recorded! Even theathletes themselves often minimize there ing of injuries in order to avoidplaying restrictions. Failure to complainand direct avc lance of reporting inju-ries is a majc ctor distorting accurateinjury surveiliance data.

PATTERN ANALYSIS

An examination of the data often re-flects patterns which are not obvious tothe casual participant because these pat-terns occur over long periods of time oracross large populations of athletes. Forexample, Sands (1984) found that wom-en collegiate gymnasts were significant-ly more likely to be injured in Novem-ber and January than in any othermonths of the season and that the mostcommon types of injuries occurred fromthe knee down. Further, heavier, tallergymnasts were more prone to injurythan lighter, shorter gymnasts. Some ofthese findings are obvious. Few coacheswould be surprised to find that heaviergymnasts are more prone to injury.Other findings are not so obvious oreasily interpreted. The answer to whyinjuries occur more often in Novemberand January requires further informa-tion and analysis. Klafs and Arnheim

17

(1981) concluded that injuries in highschool sports were more likely to occurduring the first 3 to 4 weeks of practicebecause athletes frequently lack flexibili-ty, are overweight, or have little cardio-vascular conditioning when they firstreport to practice. The Little League'sanalyses of injury patterns in organizedyouth baseball have revealed a numberof obvious and non-obvious factors con-tributing to injury. "The result has beenthe elimination of steel spit -es and theon-deck-circle, screening dugouts, man-dating the use of face and head protec-tors for the batters, and installing break-away bases, all of which have resultedin a decrease in injuries" (Klafs & Arn-heim, 1981, p. 9). One of the moststartling injury findings in recent yearshas been the observation that baseballand softball have the highest incidenceof fatalities in youth sports, predomi-nantly due to young children beingstruck in the chest by a baseball andsuffering cardiac arrest (U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Commission, 1984).

DETERMINE CAUSES

Once the descriptive data have indi-cated certain patterns, the cause of thepatterns must be determined. Why doinjuries typically occur during the thirdand fourth week of tr.-Lilting? One possi-Ee explanation might be that this is theperiod during which athletes are shift-ing their training emphasis from condi-tioning to sport specific game skills. Anequally plausible explanation might bethat during the fall sports season, thethird and fourth weeks are a periodduring which the 'thletes are more tiredand distractible; they have switchedfrom a summer schedule to a winterschedule in which they are attendingacademic classes as well as training c.the athletic field. In fact, both of thesereasons, in combination with others,might be causing the increased rates ofinjuries. Multiple causation of a class ofinjunes is more often the case than not.Attributing the "cause" of injuries to asingle, antecedent event is often incom-plete, if not directly misleading.

Some safety experts believe that thehuman element is the fundamentalcause of virtually all accidents. Such abelief focuses on controlling human be-havior as the main basis for reducingaccidents and injuries. Safety educationprograms, reward and punishment con-tingencies for safe and unsafe behaviorsrespectively, and the identification ofaccident prone individuals are all safetyapproaches which rely on the assump-tion that human frailties create acci-dents and injuries. Clearly, there arecircumstances in which human errorleads to increased accident and injuryrates. Individuals who lack knowledgeof accepted safety practices may bemore prone to injury. For example, ath-letes who have not been taught thefundamentals of falling safely appear tobe at a higher risk than athletes whopossess such skills. Nonetheless, theassumption that teaching falling auto-matically leads to reduced risk is unwar-ranted. Athletes who feel in control ofthe risk because they believe their skillat falling protects them may actuallyattempt more risky maneuvers andthereby increase their exposure to nsk.The fact that as many accomplishedswimmers as nonswimmers drown eachyear suggests that increased skill doesnot guarantee a reduced accident rate.

Furthermore, unsafe behavior mayoccur even though the individuals pos-sess an awareness of what constitutessafe behavior. When safe behavior isinconvenient, uncomfortable, "unhero-ic," or reduces one's effectiveness at thesport, unsafe behavior becomes predict-able. Often the value of behaving safelyis less prominent than the value of theunsafe beha' :or. For example, the ab-sence of injury is more difficult for asoccer player to observe than the factthat he or she can run faster withoutshin guards. In such cases, coaches andadministrators must arrange the circum-stances so that the athlete realizes thatsafety is important. For example, a rulewhich bars any soccer player from play-ing unless proper equipment is wornwill demonstrate the need to wear shinguards.


While careless human behavior mayoften be the culprit in creating accidentsand injuries, perceptive analyzers ofsafety should also be alert to opposingpoints of view. Robertson (1983) pointsout that although many "experts" insistthat the injury problem is essentially ahuman behavioral problem, some ofthese opinions may be deliberately self-serving. That is, such opinions are of-fered by those who manufacture or pro-'ride the hazardous equipment and/oractivity and, thus, who may wish toavoid regulation and being held respel l-sible. Such biased pe. Jectives may alsocome from the "human services" sec-tors such as educators, behavioral scien-tists, police, and others who benefitfrom labor-intensive behavior-changeprograms.

As Robertson states:

The wide-spread acceptance of thepremise of correctable human errorcannot be entirely attributed to brain-washing by those with obvious self-interests, however. The assumptionthat human beings are for the mos'.part rational actors in complete con-trol of their actions is imbet:ied in ourmores and laws. To question the as-sumption is to question both a cultur-al theme and a basis for self-esteem. Itis true that in many contexts thiscultural myth is harmless. Wheresplit-second decisions mean the dif-ference between life and death orhealth and disability, however, as isfrequently the case in handling highlyconcentrated energy, reliance on themyth of the rational, fully informed,constantly alert, lightning quick hu-man being is, paradoxically, an irra-tional act. (Robertson, 1983, p. 65-66).

ESTABLISH PRIORITIES

Clearly, some types of injuries war-rant more concern than others. Fatali-ties need to be dealt with at a higherpriority than minor cuts and abrasions.Some injury prevention is also morefeasible a.id/or requires less investmentof resources. Providing access to water

18


during training in order to reduce heatstroke requires less of a resource invest-ment than building a foam pit for safelandings in high-risk gymnastic skills.While the arguments over the value of ahuman life have both philosophic andpractical overtones, the issue is onewhich goes beyond the scope of thischapter. (The interested reader is re-ferred to Thygerson, 1986, Chapter 6.)Any reader who feels that practical val-ue considerations are not a current issueis invited to sit in on a jury trial in civillitigation following an accidental death.

DEVELOP EFFECTIVEPREVENTION PROC,RAMS

Haddon (1980) outlined ten strategiesfor controlling injuries once the causesof those injuries have been determined.Those who use this list to analyze injurycontrol options should realize that effec-tive analysis requires that all options beinitially considered. While some optionsare already in use or can be easily ap-plied, others appear difficult, if not im-possible to implement and are oftencasually dismissed during the initialstages of injury-control analysis. Thepractical aspects of implementationshould be set aside until after all possi-oilities have been outlined.

1. Eliminate the hazard. Sports injuriescan certainly be reduced by eliminatingthe sports or activities which cause inju-nes. While few would advocate thewholesale elimination of sport, there area variety of examples where steps havebeen taken to eliminate specific sports.In 1977, the Amencan Academy of Pedi-atrics advocated that trampolines bebanned from instructional programsand eliminated as a competitive sport.Periodic cries for the elimination of box-ing (usually prompted by a death) arerelatively commonplace. The swingingrings in gymanstics have been eliminat-ed both in physical education classesand in competition. In a different ven-ue, commercial motels and hotelsthroughout the United States have vir-

19

tually eliminated diving boards fromtheir recreation swimming pools.

2. Reduce the amount of the hazard. Of-ten, sports have been modified to re-duce the amount or degree of risk in-curred by the participant, especiallyyounger, less expenenced participants.Young platform tower divers train andcompete on 5, 6, and 7 meter platformsrather than the 10 meter tower requiredby international rules. A "softer" ballhas been introduced into age groupbaseball as a result of the knowledgethat being hit in the chest with a hardball is a major cause of death. Limitingthe degree of vertical drop on novice skitrails to intentionally curtail the speedswhich beginner skiers can attain re-duces the amount of hazard. Similarly,shortened playing periods, ege catego-ries, and weight classes for young, lessexperienced players provides a degreeof hazard reduction.

3. Prevent or reduce the likelihood of therelease of already existing hazards. Coeffi-cients of friction .vhich create injuriescan be improved. Baseball bases whichslide instead of creating barriers which"snap" ankles and the use of magne-sium carbonate ("chalk" or "mag") bygymnasts to reduce the likelihood ofslipping are two examples.

4. Modify the rate or spatial distributionof the release of the hazard from its sourceThe use of seat belts in midget racingcars and the rapid release bindings onskis are examples.

5. Separate, in time or space, the hazardand the participant. Providing bicycle andjogging paths which are isolated fromstreets and highways separates the haz-ards (faster vehicles) from the partici-pants (cyclist and joggers). The separa-tion of spectators, benches for nonplay-ing athletes, and equipment storagearea from the playing field also reducesthe likelihood of injuries caused by col-liding with other players or objects afterrunning out of bounds. Likewise, isolat-ing playing fields from such potentialhazards as streams, roads, and con-

struction sites reduces the potential foraccidents and injuries.

6. Interpositioning of material protectivebarriers. The us: of football and lacrossehelmets, gymnastics mats, chest protec-tors in baseball and fencing, protectiveeye glasses in racquetball and squash,and mouth guards in contact sports areprime examples of the use of such astrategy.

7. Modify the basic relevant qualities ofthe hazard. The surfaces of playgroundsand playing fields can be covered withmaterials which are softer than asphalt,concrete or crushed stone. The use ofbrt kaway goalposts or foam yardmarkers in football illustrate protectivechanges introduced into the basic char-acteristics of the hazard.

8. Make what is to he protected moreresistant to damage. Conditioning ath-letes to be stronger and more flexib;cdecreases their susceptibility to certaintypes of injuries. Providing unlimitedaccess to water and gradually increasingworkout intensity dunng periods ofhigh temperatures allows the athletes tobecLme acclimated and more resistentto heat disorders.

9. Counter damage already done. Emer-gency first aid training to stop bleedingand CPR training to restore heart func-tion and breathing are fundamental toeffective sports medicine programs.Recognizing potential spinal injuriesand knowing that immobilization ofsuch injured athletes is essential to pre-vent further injury is a prime example ofpreventing further damage resultingfrom a sports injury. Well situated,well-trained and well-equipped profes-sionals ready to respond quickly canmake substantial differences in the fatal-ity rate and the severity of damageoccurring from traumatic injuries.

10. Stabilize, repair, and rehabilitate thedamage. Rehabilitative physical therapyprograms, reconstructive surgery, andthe use of knee and ankle braces tofacilitate recovery from sprains andstrains illustrate this approach.

THE INJURY PROBLEM .11

IMPLEMENT SAFETYMODIFICATIONS

Knowing the cause of a type of injurymay suggest a variety of preventiontechniques, not all of which are equallyeffective. Knowing, for example, thatbeing hit in the chest with a baseball orsoftball is the major cause of deathamong basebail/softball players sug-gests that chest protectors may be war-ranted. Getting players to actually wearsuch protective devices is yet anothermatter. Implementing programs oftenrequires much lead-time and substantialresources. Resistance to change also im-pedes the effectiveness of preventionprograms. While the use of helmets isnow accepted in ice hockey, during theearly stages of its implementation it wasresisted by players and coaches alike.Paradoxically, the implementation ofeffective injury reduction programs ismost difficult in areas in which the indi-vidual participant carries the most re-sponsibility for his or her ow afety.

ASSESS THE INFLUENCE OFPREVENTION PROGRAMS

Again, the monitoring of ongoingprograms is required in order to assessthe effectiveness of prevention pro-grams. Often, the frequency of injuryexperienced by an individual instructor,participant, or program is so small thatpatterns are difficult to detect without arecordkeeping system which extendsover a period of years and across manysimilar programs.

Researchers at the University ofNorth Carolina have compiled statisticsof football fatalities annually since 1931.Table 4 describes the pattern of injuriesin high school football programs plottedin 5-year blocks since 1961. There hasbeen a steady decrease in the number offatalities directly related to football sincethe peak observed between 1961 and1965. A similar decline has occurred inindirect fatalities during this same peri-od. While a variety of factors have con-tributed to this steady decline, a signifi-cant rule change was implemented in

12 PRINCIPLES OF SA,'ETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

1976. Initial contact with the head whileblocking and tackling (spearing) wasruled illegal. This rule change was intro-duced because of an awareness, notonly of fatalities in football, but becausestatistics revealed that the vast majorityof fatalities since 1960 were due to inju-ries to the head and neck. This informa-tion led to the development of a preven-tion program involving protecting thisarea of the body via improved equip-ment and rule changes to eliminate theuse of the head as a tackling technique.Continued monitoring of injury fre-quencies indicated that such programshave achieved the desired effect of re-ducing injuries and fatalities. Penaltiesfor spearing and rigid enforcement ofthose penalties plus an increasedawareness on the part of coaches andathletes regarding the nature and sever-ity of injuries produced by spearinghave all contributed heavily to the re-duction of fatalities resulting from headand neck injuries. Data continue to indi-cate that deaths in football are still pri-marily caused by head and neck inju-ries. Efforts continue to develop evenmare effective prevention of such inju-ries.

A PRACTITIONER'S ANALYSIS

The professional in sport and physicaleducation can gain an understanding ofthe factors which should be controlledby using a simple, yet effective ap-proach to analyzing the safety require-ments of the program. While the num-ber of specific concerns to whichattention must be focused can beoverwhelming, virtually all can be sub-sumed under the following classifica-tion plan. When analyzing a specificprogram, ask the following three ques-tions:

1. Are the athletes prepared for the activi-ty? Have they been properly condi-tioned for the demands of the sport?Have they been taught the appropriateprerequisite skills? Have they beentaught to appreciate the risks inhere2

1

in their particular sport? Have the basicsafety regulations been taught to themin terms they can understand? Has theinstructor /coach clarified exactly what isexpected of the athlete during the learn-ing and/or performance stages?

2. Is the instructor prepared to teach theskill and supervise the activity? Does theinstructor have the prerequisite knowl-edge of the biomechanical and teachingprogressions of the skill? Is the instruc-tor capable of individualizing the learn-ing sequence and teaching progressionsto accommodate the needs of the ath-lete, both real and imagined? Is theinstructor aware of the common errorsmade by beginners and the likely haz-ards to be confronted by both the stu-dent and the instructor during thelearning of the skills? Is the instructorfamiliar with the level of mental andphysical preparation of the athlete andcan the instructor modify the learningprogressions to match the learner'spreparation with the difficulty of thetask?

3. Is the t ivironment adequately pre-pared for the performance of the skill? Is theprotective equipment available andproperly positioned? Is the apparatusand/or protective eqt.ipment properlyadjusted for the athlete? Has the activitybeen properly designed for the space,lighting, facilities and number of ath-letes available? Have the athletes beenproperly matched for size, skill and ma-turity? Have activity areas been clearlydefined and separated from trafficlanes, resting stations and teaching sta-tions?

Clearly, the number and type of ques-tions which one can ask under eachheading has not been exhausted. Theydepend on the specifics of the activitytaught and the degree of associatedwith that activity. This strategy does,however, provide direction in terms ofsystematically examining the three pri-mary areas in which teachers and ad-ministrators are responsible for provid-ing adequate care and supervision fortheir students.

REFERENCES

Clarke, K. S. (1962). An epidemiologic viewIn J. S. Torg (Ed ), Athletic injuries to thehead, neck, and face (pp. 15-22). Philadel-phia: Lea & Febiger.

Football injey survey: Number of deaths inhigh schc of football hits all -time low withonly five fatalities. (1986). National Federa-tion News, 3, 6-9. (Available from theNational Federation of State High SchoolAssociations, Kansas City, Missouri)

Hadden, W. Jr., (1980). The basic strategiesfor reducing damage from hazards of allkinds. Hazard Prevention, 16, 1.

Hadden, W. Jr., (1980). Advances in theepidemiology of injuries as a basis forpublic policy. Public Health Reports, 95,411-421.

Klafs, C. E., & Arnhem, D. D. (1981). Mod-ern principles of athletic training (5th ed.). StLouis: C. V. Mosby.

Michell, L. J (1986). Pediatric and adoles-cent sports injunes: Recent trends. InK. B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and sport sa-encPs reviews. New York. Macmillan

Morr;s, A. E. (1984). Sports medicine Preven-tion of athletic injuries. Dubuque, IA. Wm.C Brown.


National Safety Council. (1984) AccidentFarts. Chicago- Author.

Reif, A. E (1981). Risks and gains In P. FVinger & E. F. Hoerner (Eds.), Sports inju-ries The unthwarted epidemic (pp 56-64).Littleton, MA: PSG Publishing.

Robertson, L S. (1983) Injuries: Causes, con-trol strategies, and public policy Lexington,MA. Lexington Books.

Rutherford, W., Kennedy,) , & McGhee,L. (1984). Baseball and softball related injuriesto children 5-14 years of age. Washington,DC: L.S. Consumer Product Safcfy Com-mission

Rutherford, G. W., Miles, R. B , Brown,V R., & MacDonald, B. (1981). Overview ofsports-related injuries to persons 5-14 years ofage Washington, DC. U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Commission.

Sands, B. (1984). Injury data NCAA femalegymnasts 1983-84 Data reveals potentialpatterns. Technique The Official Publicationof the United States Gymnastics Association,4, 7.

Thygerson, A. L (1986). Safety (2nd ed.)Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Torg, J. S (1982). Problems and prevention.In J. S Torg (Ed ), Athletic injuries to thehead, neck, and face (pp. 3-13). Philadel-phia: Lea & Febiger

22

CHAPTER 2

Legal Responsibility for Safety inPhysical Education and Sport

NEIL J. DOUGHERTY IV


1

23


T he number of lawsuits broughtagainst physical educators and

coaches has reached an unprecedentedhigh point and, from all indications, willcontinue to rise in the foreseeable fu-ture. Consider the following reasonswhy this may be the case:

The overwhelming majority of allschool-related injuries occur in con-junction with physical education andsport.A tort is a legal wrong for which onemay seek recompense through legalaction.Under the civil laws of the UnitedStates, it is possible for practically anyperson to sue any other person at anytime for any reason. While the out-come of the suit is, by no means,guaranteed, the right to initiate it isvirtually unquestioned.The overwhelming majority of all neg-ligence suits are settled prior to thecompletion of the trial process.Both the number of lawsuits and thesize of the settlements or awards hasincreased drastically in the last five toten years. This has, of course, beenreflected in the cost and availability ofliability insurance as well as the na-ture and continuation of many pro-grams.The field of physical education and

sport unquestionably carries with it ahigher risk of injury than most cf.::areas of th.: curriculum. The relativeease with which one can institute alawsuit and the high likelihood of someform of settlement, regardless of thestrength of the case, has led to an in-creasing level of professional concernover issues related to risk managementand liability.

While there are many negative as-pects to the liability problem, such asspiralling insurance costs and the loss ofsome programs and activities, the in-creased concern over liability has alsoresulted in safer programs and has beenused by knowledgeable teachers andadministrators as a highly persuasiveargument for program and facility im-provements. Further, although noamount of planning or preparation can'44.)

guarantee freedom from injuries andsubsequent lawsuits, a thorough under-standing of the legal process and theelements of risk management can great-ly increase one's chances of successwhen such a situation arises. This chap-ter will, therefore, examine the funda-mentals of the legal process as theyrelate to physical education and sport.Those factors which most commonlygive rise to lawsuits will be discussed inan attempt to lay a foundation for thesport specific safety principles dealtwith in the remainder of the text.

THE LEGAL PROCESS

Tort claims in physical education andsport are primarily the result of personalinjuries caused by the alleged negli-gence of the teacher or the coach. Inorder for the plaintiff or injured party toprevail in sucii a suit, several elementsmust be proved by the greater weight ofevidence.

Duty. The defendant must be shownto have had a responsibility to providefor the safety and welfare of the plain-tiff. If the injured party was a student inthe defendant's class, or a player onhis/her team, then the duty is virtuallyassured.

Breach of Duty. It must be shown thatthe defendant failed to provide the stan-dard of care which could reasonably beexpected of a professional under thesame or similar circumstances. A dutycan be breached either by omission orby commission. That is, the defendanteither failed to do something that he/sheshould have done, or did somethinghe/she should not have done.

Damage. In order to institute a tortclaim, the plaintiff must have sufferedan actual loss to his person, property, orinterest.

Foreseeability. It must be shown thatthe defendant should have been able topredict the likelihood of an accident orinjury arising out of the specific circum-stances in question.

Proximate cause. The mere presence ofan act of negligence is not sufficientgrounds to allow the plaintiff to prevail.

LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 17

It must be shown, further, that theinjury for which recompense is soughtwas actually caused or aggravated bythe specific act of negligence in ques-tion.

A key point in this entire process isthe establishment of the standard ofcare required of the defendant. In thisregard, the prudent person principal ismost commonly employed. We are obli-gated to perform as would a reasonablyprudent individual under the same orsimilar circumstances. While this state-ment is essentially correct, rememberthat it is also very superficial. The yard-stick by which professional conduct willbe measured in court is the establishedstandards and practices of the profes-sion as applied and explained by a pru-dent professional . . . an expert. It isessential, therefore, that we take everyreasonable precaution to guarantee thatour teaching and coaching behavior al-ways meets or exceeds the currentlyaccepted practices and procedures ofthe profession.

LEGAL AND QUASI-LEGALDEFENSES

There are several legal arguments andprofessional procedures which can helpto form the basis cf a. defense in theevent of a lawsuit. While these are use-ful tools in the litigation process, theyare even more valuable as indices ofadministrative and supervisory respon-sibilities with regard to risk manage-ment.

Contributo, glcomparative negligence. Instates which adhere to the principle ofcontributory negligence, the plaintiff isbarred from recovery if it is proved thathis/her own negligence helped to causeor aggravate the injury. In the majorityof states, however, the doctrine of com-parative negligence is now applied. Insuch a situation, the jury will be askedto apportion a relative percentage ofresponsibility to the plaintiff and to thedefendant(s). The size of the awardwhich the plaintiff could receive wouldthen be diminished by his/her percent-age of responsibility. If, for instance,

Mary Addams was seeking $250,000damages for an injury sustained in asoccer class, and if the jury found her tohave been comparatively negligent inthe amount of 45%, then the maximumaward she could receive would be 55%of $250,000, or $137,500. Obviously theamount of responsibility which a stu-dent can assume for his/her own wel-fare is a function of age, intelligence,skill, and background in the activity. Ingeneral, the more thoro,,gh the instruc-tion, the more explicit the warnings,and the more consistent the feedback,the more the students will be expectedto assume some reasonable share of theresponsibility for their own safety.

Assumption of risk. It is often arguedthat an individual who takes part incertain types of vigorous physical activi-ties must assume the risk of accident orinjury which is normally associatedwith that activity. Assumption of risk,however, is a technical term whichmany feel has no validity as a separatedefense.' Reduced to simplest terms, noone can be expected to assume a risk ofwhich he/she is unaware. If the teacherfails to warn the student of the dangersinvolved in the activity and/or fails toguarantee the level of instruction, skill,and feedback necessary for the studentto reasonably protect him/herself fromthose dangers, then the teacher mayvery possibly have been negligent in thefulfillment of his/her duties and the stu-dent cannot be held to have assumedany risk or responsibility. If, on theother hand, the student was properlyinstructed, warned, and provided withreasonable feedback regarding his/herperformance, and despite this, acted ina manner which increased the likeli-hood of his/her own injury, then theremay be grounds for a valid claim ofcontributory or comparative negligence.In either case, however, the assumptionof risk terminology is merely excessverbal baggage which has no real placeas a separate defense in today's law.

Informed consent. While written docu-

, Mentrich v. Casino Arena Attractions, Inc,,31, NJ, 44 (1959).

25


ments such as waivers and permissionslips cannot provide absolute legal pro-tection f-om our own acts of negligence,they can, when properly understoodand executed, be very useful tools in thereduction of liability.

For our purposes as physical educa-tion teachers and coaches, the mostcommonly used informed consent doc-uments can be grouped into two majorcategories: release forms, often calledwaivers, and participation agreements,which include permission slips.

A release or waiver is a contract,signed by the participant and/or his/herparents, which purports to absolve theteacher or coach from liability in theevent that an accident or injury arisesfrom some specifically named activity.Waivers have very little absolute legalvalue for seve.al reasons: (a) the courtsare reluctant to allow one to be contrac-tually protected from the consequencesof his/her own negligent actions; (b)since no person can legally waive therights of another, parental waivers exe-cuted on behalf of a minor child cannotbe held valid; and (c) the requirement ofa release prior to participation in a pub-lic program is frequently I, eld to be aviolation of public policy ana, therefore,invalid.

A participation agreement is of particu-lar value in circumstances where a re-lease or waiver cannot apply. It is, inessence, a signed statement indicatingthat the participant and/or his/her par-ents understand the dangers which areinherent in the activity, know the rulesand procedures and the importance offollowing them, fully appreciate thepossible consequences (i.e. specifictypes of injuries or even death) of thedangers involved and, knowing all this,requests to participate in the activity.Van der Smissen has indicated that, inorder to be effective, participationagreements should meet the followingcriteria:

1. They must be explicitly worded.2. If there are rules that must be

followed, it is preferable that the rulesbe listed in the agreement or listed onthe reverse side of the paper.

2-..

3. The possible dangers inherent inthe activities must be spelled out indetail, along with the consequences ofpossible accidents to the participants.

4. The participant must sign after astatement expressly assuming the risksof the participation.2

While a participation agreement willnot prevent a lawsuit or absolve theteacher or coach of the responsibility forhis/her negligence, it clearly establishesthe awareness level of the participantand his/her willingness to assume rea-sonable responsibility for his/her ownwelfare and compliance with appropri-ate rules and procedures. It can, there-fore, be a very valuable tool in theestablishment of a contributory or comparative negligence defense.

RISK MANAGEMENT

The best possible means of avoidingcostly liability claims and judgements isby recognizing those circumstances inwhich injuries are most likely to occurand by tcking appropriate steps to elim-inate or minimize the chances of theiroccurrencethat is, through a carefullyapplied process of risk management.

Most activity-related lawsuits allegethat the teacher or coach was negligentin the fulfillment of his/her professionalresponsibilities with regard to one ormore of the following areas: supervi-sion, selection and conduct of the activi-ty, and environmental conditions. Thisis not surprising since it is possible,through careful analysis of these areas,to identify virtually all controllable inju-ry causing factors within an activity. Forthis reason, the areas of supervision,selection and conduct of the activity,and environmental conditions providean exceller t organizational focus for ageneral program of risk managementand prevention as well as for identifyingspecific safety principles within individ-ual activities.

2 Betty van der Smissen (1985, March).Releases, waivers, and agreements to partic-ipate. National Safety Network Newsletter, 1(4), 2.


Supervision. The structure of the edu-cational environment and the nature ofthe students dictate the absolute neces-sity for effective supervision. A skilledsupervisor (teacher, co n, group lead-er, etc.) can, in the normal course ofhis/her duties, prevent many needlessaccidents. effective supervision is,therefore, recognized as an essential el-ement in the delivery of safe and suc-cessful programs of physica: activityand is called into question virtually ev-ery time a negligence suit is instituted.in developing educational programs,literefore, it is necessary to provide asufficient number of supervisory per-sonnel to manage the group in ques-tion, and to insure that the supervisorypersonnel employed possess the neces-sary knowledge and skills to fulfill theirresponsibilities.

The individual teacher or coach isresponsible for the provision of bothgeneral and specific supervision. Thebroad overall supervision of a class orteam is referred to as general supervi-sion. In providing effective general su-pervision, one is expected to maintainvisual contact with the entiie group, tobe immediately accessible to them, andto apply a high level of professional skillin the detection and remediation of de-viations from safe and prescribed proce-dures Specific supervision, on the oth-er hand, refers to situations of directinteraction between the teacher and oneor more students. Direct supervisionmight be required in order to correctsome noted deviation from safe prac-tices or procedures, to provide individ-ual feedback, or to lend direct assistancewhen a student is about to attempt anew or particularliv dangerous skill. Theintensity and specificity of the supervi-sion is inversely proportional fo theability of the student to under id andappreciate the dangers of the activity, toassess his/her performar :e and skilllevel, and to adhere to required safetyprocedures. Generally speaking, there-fore, the age and ability of the stu-dents derreases, the need for specificsupervision can be expected to increaseand the advisability of allowing extend-

ed periods of time with only generalsupervision can be expected to de-crease.

Decisions regarding the relative pro-portion of general to specific supervi-sion are, of course, dependent upon theparticul r group and situation in ques-tion. It should be remembered, howev-er, that the need to provide specificsupervision to one or more individualsdoes not remove the need to providegeneral supervision for the remaind7r ofthe group. The teacher cannot, there-fore, become so engrossed in providingindividual feedback to students in thenortheast corner of the gym that he/shefails to detect and correct the hazardoussituation which may be occurring in thesoutheast corner.

The following general guidelinesshould prove helpful as you seek toprovide effective supervision for all ac-tivities:

1. Take whatever steps may be neces-sary to guarantee your own competencein the activity being taught. You mustbe the expert!

2. Establish general safety rules forthe gymnasium, locker rooms, etc.Rules should be explained to the stu-dents, posted, reinforced, and consis-tently enforced.

3. Develop the habit of writing de-tailed lesson or practice plans. The act Jfplanning will help to identify and cor-rect many potential hazards. Moreover,the plans themselves can serve as valu-ab' legal evidence of your preparationand knowledge with regard to the sub-ject matter as well as the preparation ofyour students.

4. Never leave your class or teamunsupervised. A quick phone call in theoffice, or a brief stop in the equipmentroom to retrieve some forgotten itempresents a period of supervisory ab-sence and, thus, is a potential source ofnegligence. In such a case, if it is deter-mined that the presence of the teacherwould have resulted in the correction orthe prevention of the injury causingbehavior, then the injury sustained bythe student can be proximately relatedto the negligence of the absent teacher.


5. Take care to arrange your classesso that the entire group is within yourfield of vision. Move about the area in amanner NA hich maximizes student con-tact and minimizes the length of timeduring which your back may be turnedto any portion of the group.

6. Be sure to secure the facilities andequipment when they are not in use. Iffacilities are left open and equipment isleft out, it is reasonable to expect peopleto use them. Unplanned and unsuper-vised activities of this nature frequentlylead to injuries and lawsuits.

7. In the event of an emergency, youwill be expected to render necessaryfirst aid until appropriate emergencypersonnel (trainer, nurse, doctor) ar-rive. Be sure that you are adequatelyprepared to do so.

8. Establish a list of emergency proce-dures to be followed in all accidentcases. This will prevent student confu-sion, unnecessary delays in treatment,and supervisory breakdowns. Whogoes for help? Who supervises theclass? How is he/she contacted? Whatdo the unafferted students do?

9. The action,- of one or more stu-dents should never be allowed to en-danger the safety or interfere with thelearning of others.

Selection and conduct of the activity. Asprofessionals we are expected to selectactivities which are appropriate for theage and ability levels of our students.Having selected an appropriate activity,we are further expected to provideinstruction which is factually accu-rate and which is presented in a mannerIn hich maximizes the likelihood of stu-dent success. This instruction should besupplemented by warnings with regardto any potentially hazardous conditionsinvolved in the activity, the provision ofappropriate safety devices and protec-tive measures, and the provision offeedback through which the student cangauge and modify his/her performance.

The courts have been relatively con-sistent in their recognition of the factthat very few activities are inherentlyunsafe. The issue in question, therefore,

of successful participation and wasproperly prepared and instructed.While certain risks may be deemed nec-essary in the interests of good program-ming and total student development,such risks must be well thought out andjustified, and the potential for f_ udentinjury must be minimized. The follow-ing guidelines should be consideredwhen selecting and developing any ac-tivity.

1. Always select activities which arewithin the reasonable ability limits ofthe students.

2. Readiness is an individual mar-enPre-testing and screening, careful re-cord keeping, and the development ofindividualized progressions are, there-fore, essential to safety and success.

3. The development and mainte-nance of comprehensive lesson piano,and curriculum guides is essential bothto instructional success and to a soundlegal defense in the event of a lawsuit.They provide evidence regarding thenature anki organization of the instruc-tion as well as previous student experi-ences and background.

4. Always have planned rainy dayactivities to correspond to planned out-door activities. It is both difficult andembarrassing to try to justify an injurywhich occurred in an ad libbed activitywhich had to be pulled together becausean outdoor lesson was rained out.

5. All activities should be justifiablewithin the context of the educationalobjectives of the school. Tou frequently,activities selected solely on the basis ofexpressed student enjoyment are nc,particularly enjoyed by all and result inneedless injuries. Such injuries are verydifficult to justify.

6. Procedures should be developedfor the acceptance of medical excusesand for return to activity after seriousinjury or illness. Never allow an injuredor ill student to participate without amedical clearance.

7. Do not attempt to coerce studentsto perform when they are, by their ownadmission, fearful or unequal to thetask. Such action is almost impossible to

should an injury occur, is whether the justify when it results in an injury.injured student was physically capable2 8 8. Provide all necessary protective


measures and devices, and require theiruse.

9. If adequate protective measurescannot be provided, then the activity,itself, should be modified.

10. Be sure that all -struction is Lon-sistent with the most professionally ac-cepted information and procedures andincludes warnings regarding the dan-ge s involved and the manner in which',:tey can be avoided or minimized.

H. Take whatever steps may be nec-essary in order to avoid mismatch situa-tions in activities where there is a stronglikelihood of physical contact. It shouldbe remembered, however, that a mis-match is a function of size, strength,skill, and experience. The sex of theparticipant is not a controlling factor.

12. Above all, remember that the fo-cus of the educational process is thestudent, not the activity. Our responsi-bility, therefore, is to tailor the activityaccording to the skills of our students inorder to provide the safest and mostproductive learning experience for all.

Environmental conditions. In additionto providing a safe activity under com-petent professional supervision, onemust also take appropriate measures toprovide for the safety of the facilitiesand equipment used. Before allowingstudents to use an instructional area or apiece of equipment, it should be careful-ly inspected for safety and proper func-tion. Such things as debris or potholeson playing fields or loose racquet headscan lead to participant injuries. Whenthis occurs, the teacher/coach will, al-most invariably, be called upon to ex-plain the procedures he/she followed inorder to prevent injuries due to unsafeenvironmental conditions.

While obvious hazards such as wateron a court surface or a cracked batusually result in immediate remedia-tion, many teachers unknowingly createenvironmental hazards by the mannerin which they use an otherwise safefacility. Instructing students to ru-across the gym, tag the far wall at tdreturn, for instance, is simply invitingan injury due to a collision with thewall. This is not the fault of the facility.It is a function of the manner in which

the facility was used. Similar situationscan be seen where one fails to provide asufficient buffer area around a playingfield or court. Participants must be ex-pected to run out of bounds and beyondfinish lines. A sufficient buffer zone is,therefore, essential to safe play. Otherteacher imposed and easily correctedenvironmental hazards include: relayswhere the turning directions and run-ning lanes have not been clearly speci-fied; the use of improper substi-tute equipment such as candy wrappersfor bases; or the use of equipmentwhich requires a level of skill beyondthat of the participants. An example ofthe latter circumstance would be the useof fixed post bases with unskilled partic-ipants where sliding is allowed. Whilethese bases offer distinct advantageswith skilled sliders who recognize theirunyielding characteristics, they are un-safe for those who lack such skill andknowledge. !f, therefore, they were tobe used with an unskilled group, slidingshould be disallowed in the interest ofsafety.

The following general guidelinesshould prove helpful in reducing thenumber of injuries due to hazards with-in the environment.

1 Start every thy with an inspectionof the facilities which your classes willbe using. Note any hazards such asbroken glass, slippery surface, loose fit-tings, etc., and take steps to eliminatethem.

2. Make appropriate planning modi-fications to keep students away fromhazardous areas until repairs can becompleted. If a problem is located in ageneral use area, consider some form ofmarking as a warning to others.

3. All equipment in use should beinspected daily.

4. Teach studey is to inspect equip-ment and reqtdre them to do so eachtime it is issued. This double checksystem virtually eliminates the possibili-ty of teacher negligence associated withequipment failure.

5. Under no circumstances shouldstudents be allowed to use equipmentwhich is in a state of disrepair.

6. Be sure all facilities and equipment


meet or exceed recommended size andsafety specifications, e.g. thickness ofmats, free area around courts, and land-ing pits.

7. Do not hold running activities onan uneven or slippery surface.

8. Provide and require the use of ap-propriate safety equipment. Post signsand reminders to keep the importanceof this issue clearly in the minds of thestudents.

We are living in an age of litigation.Disputes and losses, whether real orimagined, are commonly brought be-fore the courts for adjudication. It is notsurprising, therefore, that in a profes-sion such as physical education andsport, where the possibility of partici-pant injury is present, there should be agreat concern for matters of legal liabil-ity. To the degree that this concernmanifests itself in careful attention tostandards of safety and professionalismand thoughtful program planning,

30

it is healthy and should be cultivated.Care must be taken, however, to pre-vent overreaction. It is one thing toeliminate unnecessary nsks; it is quiteanother to eliminate programs or activi-ties entirely because some risk happensto be involved. Risk is an unavoidablecomponent of sport. It cannot be elimi-nated, but it must be controlled. Thetask of the teacher is to eliminate allunnecessary risks, and to reduce asmuch as possible those that remain. it,after doing this, the educational value ofthe activity can be shown to substantial-ly outweigh the risks, then the activityhas a valid place in the curriculum andshould be retained. If, however, thepotential risks cannot be justified in thismanner or if all reasonable steps havenot been taken to guarantee the safetyof the participants, then program modi-fications must be implemented in orderto prevent needless injuries and costlylawsuits.

CHAPTER 3

Administration of Safety inPhysical Education and Sports

PATRICIA E. BARRY

Montgomery County Public SchoolsRockville, MD

WS.

0" v 41.4

31

-.11 11111.111"16


rr he administration of safety in phys-ical education and sport cannot be a

fragmented effort. It must be part of atotal school safety program with the fullparticipation of the district administra-tion and the local school. A safety pro-gram must be designed which is inconcert with all aspects of the philoso-phy, administration, and managementof the entire organization.

Regardless of the organization, aneffective safety program must encom-pass:

1. Maximum production.2. Maximum cost effectiveness.3. General efficiency.4. Safety for all involved (this in-

cludes students, employees, and otherpersons and patrons who are involvedin the asAlvities of the institution).

Within the educational setting, gener-ally accepted ingredients of a safetyprogram include:

1. Policy development.2. Safety committee (a physical edu-

cation teacher or physical education andsport administrator should serve on thiscommittee).

3. Accident reporting and investiga-tion.

4. Safety inspections.

ROLE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR

The physical education and/or athleticadministrator serves primarily as a fa-cilitator of the official safety policies ofthe school or school district by insuringthat proper communication channels toeach employee, student, and patron areconstantly open and operating.

Responsibility for the overall safety ofthe organization resides in the hands ofthe institution's chief administrator whoappoints general and specific safety co-ordinators and committees. Specific ar-eas of responsibility must be identified.Physical education and sport are, ofcourse, two very important aspects ofthe total safety structure and should bedelegated to a specific individual whohas the training and expertise necessaryto succeed at the task. 32

The primary administrative responsi-bilities for physical education and/orathletics may be accomplished by sever-al persons or, in fact, may be the task ofone person in a small school district.

Regardless of the size or type of edu-cation institution, several areas must beaddressed by those professionallytrained in the field of physical educationand sport. Some things to keep in mindare the following:

Physical educators and coachesshould not become overly concernedabout legal issues. Rather, theyshould take positive measures to pre-vent accidents. The goal is to mini-mize the frequency and severity ofinjuries.Accidents will never be eliminated.The term "safety measures" in physi-cal education should not necessarilysignal elimination of an activity. Tak-ing actions to enhance activity,health, adventure, and fun should bethe primary goal. Activity eliminationas a means of accident prevention is anegative and often counterproductiveapproach.Recommendations for the purchase ofequipment and supplies designed andconstructed for optimal safety in theparticular situation must be made bytrained physical educators or by theathletic administrator.Proper maintenance and recondition-ing of physical education and athleticequipment and supplies must be reg-ularly completed in compliance withthe manufacturer' specifications.Regardless of the activity, careful andconstant supervision of students inphysical education and athletics is amust.General supervision is also importantand this responsibility may fall uponall professionals regardless of theirspecific assignments. Locker roomcoverage, for example, is often sharedby teachers and coaches.Skill classification and proper assign-ment of the individual physical educa-tion student and athlete are very im-portant. Assigning of students to spe-c. is positions or mclifying the rules

ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

are two methods of managing thisresponsibility.Class size is of major importance inphysical education. Both the activityand the facility are influencing factors.In general, physical education classsize should match that of other sub-jects, as approved by the school orsystem.Budget constraints can never be justi-fied as reasons for not providing rec-ommended protective equipment.When protective equipment is avail-able, teachers must require its use.

ACCIDENT REPORTING

We live in a data-oriented society.Ti .. accessibility of today's computershas -reated the demand for detailedrepei flog and analyzing of all aspects ofhealth and safety. Completion of acci-dent reports is necessary in order toproperly interpret information and toeliminate avoidable accidents. The pur-pose, however, is not to eliminate theactivity or to reduce the resultant healthbenefits and fun. Figures 1 and 2 areexamples of effective forms for report-ing student or employee injuries.

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

Routine preventative and emergencymaintenance requests with safety impli-cations should be submitted as soon asthey are identified. Copies of these re-quests should be sent to all appropriatepersons and kept on file by the depart-mental chairperson/teacher or coach.

BUDGET IMPLICATIONS

Budget planning is necessary for thesuccessful maintenance and renovationof existing facilities. Safety projectionsfor new facilities must be made in ad-vance. These "capital budget" requestscan usually be projected several years inadvance. At the same time, accuratejustification for need must be docu-mented.

There are a number of publicationswhich can be helpful in this area. One

25

such source is Planning Facilities for Ath-letics, Physical Education and Recreation(Flynn, 1985).

SAFETY AWARENESS ANDFORESEEABILITY

Although the ultimate responsibilityfor the safety of students, employees,and patrons lies within these groupsthemselves, the search for existing andpotential safety hazards is a continuousprocess in which all physical educatorsand coaches must constantly partici-pate. Everyone must be encouraged tocarry an awareness and foresight ofsafety issues into every aspect of theirlives, whether at home, in the class-room, at work, at the beach, in themountains, or on the highway.

Professional safety awareness andforeseeability are not limited to seeingthe broken glass on the playing field.Safety begins much earlier with some-one picking up the unbroken glass bot-tle which may have been littering thefield for days. It includes insuring thatthere are trash receptacles in app opri-ate locations and that the receptacles areserviced regularly. If littering is a severeand a constant problem, then there is aneed to ask for cooperation from thelocal school and nearby commercial es-tablishments that serve as vendors ofbottled beverages. Consideration couldeven be given to limiting beverage salesto cans and paper cups.

Investigating the cause of problemsand providing measures for the preven-tion of future ones are far more impor-tant steps than trying to determinewhose responsibility it is to remove thebroken glass from the field after the fact.The broken glass must be removed;however, the glass is only a symptom ofa greater problem that needs to besolved with a more long term solution.

SUPPORT MATERIALS

A number of reference publicationsare available to asc:st the concernedadministrator. The National Safety

3uncil and the Association of School

3C

OSHA Cate Number (School Number plus edditionei dept foe nand... on calendar year)

Mom. el Ineareners and ReareinentMONTGOMERY COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS

660 Hamlet MI OrmeReellyille, Maryland 213650

EMPLOYEE ACCIDENT REPORT

INSTRUCTIONS RON tOspecsal onstruebran on the ravers. lode before completing the (OM Send original and one copy to the Oriono ofbowmen and Rearement, Edumbonal Sermon Center, one copy to your rwe offrte end moan one copy on the *choral

TIME AND PLACE

Location Mcdent or osPosar a Ott redI of School or place whereCode 1

Employer s premises -Yes -No2 Data of noel or annul dregnOsrs of OCCuPerrOnra ono.. I I I I car of weekmi Nei OE) TY

Dem domboloty begen 19 AM PMHour of day III I IAMI I I I IPM 3

4 gam yawed pad on full I. day of rolory 7 ---w Yes -No 5 When

6 Name of regrachta lopervoOr

Cod YOU or Your scOecsisOr fire, know of idlorY1

INJURED PERSON

7 ml LIIPIRIllNome of cal

(Type or Print) First Meddle Lest Sooeer Securoty Number

8 AddrtuNo na Street

9 Check 14 ---,Awned _Single -Widowed -Wodower

11 OccuPatoon [11=1=1

City or Town State Zip Code

'0 Age-Dovorced _Male _FemmeWas this his/her reguoar occ upaban 7 _Nowhen onwred _Yen.

Code 2

12 How long employed Wage per hourIf not WM regular occupation

Wage A e age weekly earnings No hours worked per der No hours workedper cloy

per nook If board iodgong I um or other advantages were furnished on addition to wages gore estimate of valve Cer day week

or month

CAUSE OF INJURY

13 Machone Injury Li 11 14 Was safety appliance or reguIenonprowded? Yes No Was of on use at ten..? LJ YesBe spomoltc II he wm utong tool, or eaudament Or hendlong material wrathy,

U No C,de 3 15 WK., was employee doong when on oared'and tell what he was doong froth them

17 Did dombolity arose out of end ,n the court, of clamant s lost employment? _ Yes _No

NATURE DF INJURY

19 N., cfe CO InIchc or OCCupinonel downs I rPart of Body I I Type of en,ury 1111 Code 4

Cod. 5 Code 6

t9 Probable number of work days away Iron WOr 4 20 Has oniured returned to work t -No-YesII no date and hour At what wog*? At whet occupation?

I t net ght Duty Reassognmen,-Pandirne _F -L -Temporary21 Name and ddrst of c anphys

Name and address of hospital

Innit.ent -0 utPnt nt

WITNESSES

Wdnessin In ccodoentName Phone or Address

Name Phone or Address

MOTOR VEHICLES

23 If motor wohocles are Involved pies na.e and address of onsoranc terriers

PERSONAL PROPERTY LOSS

21 Clothing or other genre.) property damage ea the result of enforcement School If to describeof feguletions

(Proof of ices roust accompany this form)

25 Has injured doled? In Tat CD No

Data thee upon 27 School or Department26 of

T tie&geed byPrinelpadDePrtment Detector

MCPS Form 266 1, Roomed May 1980

Fig. 1. Employee accident report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools,FOckville, Maryland (1985). 34

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS

COMPLETE ENTIRE FORM PROVIDING ALL APPROPRIATE INFORMATION THE ITEMS BLOCKED MUST BE COMPLETED FOR COMPUTERPROCESSING FORM WILL BE RETURNED TO ORIGINATOR IF NOT CORRECTLY PREPARED AND CODED

ITEM I Enter name and Iourd,on code esboned to the department or school where the injury occurred

ITEM 2 .-tour of day 12 1100A enll be entered el 1200 AM 12 rm.:Intent will La lettered as 1200 PM

ITEM 11 Enter Occupation and tow the MOPS Personnel Positron Claw code suprood to the occupation of the injured employee II the mimed baronMa volunteer worker, enter VOLLY for Mit code

ITEM 13 Enweetenty of mum, and app. oP me code from list below

ITEM 113 Ent*r nature of injury sad of body type of injury and &mop..., code for each from bO below

CODE 3 AGENCY OF INJURYMACHINERY

BUFFERGRINDERJOINTERLATHELAWN MOWERPLANERSAW, BANDSAW CIRCULARSAW, JIGSEWING MACHINEVISEPAPER CUTTERMETAL SHEARSORILL PRESSWE LOERPRINT PRES'SAW RADIALOTHER

HANDTOOL

AXECHISELDRILL HANDFILEHAMMERKNIFENEEDLESPAPER CUTTERSAW NANOSCISSORS

SCREWORIVERWRENCHOTHER

WALKING/WORKING SURFACES

INTERRIOR FLOOR (NEC/EXTERIOR GROUNOSINTERIOR STAIRSEXTERIOR STEPSSCAFFOLDINGLADDEROTHER

MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT

ATHLETIC EOUIPMENT NECBASEBALLS FOOTBALLS

VOLLEYBALLS AND THELIKE

BIOLOGICAL SUBSTANCEBOXESCEMENT CONCRETECHEMICAL SUBSTANCES

INCLUDING POISONSCOROS

FENCES AND WALLSFLAMMABLES SUCH AS

MAT^ 4ES GASFURNITURE SUCH AS

OESKS CHAIRSGLASS AND GLASSWAREHOT LIQUIDS SUBSTANCES

CO1

002CO3

CO4

005006007

30B

0013

010011

012013014015016017

099

100

101

102

103

104

105106

107

106

109

110I 1 I

199

201

206207212214

220

299

301

300

3171

32F

32E

304

323

305

303

30P

309310

CODE 3 CONTINUEDMATERIALS/EOUIPMENT, CONTINUED

KITCHEN EOUIPMENT, STOVESOVENS 311

KITCHEN FOODS 312KILNS OVENS 313LOCKERS 330MEOIA EOUIPMENT 327PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 315PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 316POLES ROOS 317PAINTS LACOUERS ANO

SPRAYS 318WINDOW DOORS 319WOOD LUMBER 320METAL 321

PENS PENCILS 322STEEL WOOL 325TRASH CANS 324VENETIAN BLINDS 329OTHER 399

PLAYGROUND APPARATUS 400VEHICLES

AUTO 500BICYCLE 501

BUS SCHOOL 502MOTOR BIKE 503MOTORCYCLE MOTOR SCOOTER

5CmOC1. OWNED ORLEASED 504

PUBLIC CARRIER 508TRUCK 509OTHER 599

MISCELLANEOUSPERSON INVOLVED 601OTHER PERSON OR PERSONS 602SKATEBOARDS 603SCOOTERS 604TOYS OTHER 605ANIMALS INSECT BITEr 607TREES SHRUBS 60BOTHER NEC 899

CODE 4 NATURE OF INJURY

ABRASION/BRUISE oiAMPUTATION 02ASPHYXIATION 03BITE 01BURNS/SCALDS 05CONCUSSION u6CUTS/LACERATION 07OIS LOCATION 08DROWNING 09ELECTRICAL SHOCK 10

FOREIGN BODYIMBEDDED 11

FRACTURE 12POISONING 13PUNCTURE 14SPRAIN/STRAIN 15TEETH DAMAGED 16INTERNAL INJURIES 17

COOE NATURE OF INJURYCONTINUED

MULTIPLEUNKNOWNOTHER

CODE 5 PART OF BODY INJURED

ABDOMENANKLEARMBACKCHEST/RIBSEAREYEFACEFINGERS/THUMBFOOTHANDKNEELEG

MOUTH LIPS TONGUENECK THROATSHOULDER /COLLAR BONESKULL SCALP BRAINTEETHWRISTTOES

MULTIPLEINTERNAL ORGANSUNKNOWNSPINE HIPSGROIN

CODE 6 TYPE OF INJURY

FALL FROM ELEVATIONFALL ON SAME LEVELSTRUCK AGAINSTSTRUCK BYCAUGHT IN UNOER BETWEENOVER EXERTION/ST RAINCONTACT w/ELEC CURRENTCONTACT w/EXTREVIE TEMPMOTOR VEHICL: ACCIOENTASSAULTANIMAL, INSECT BITEOCCUPATIONAL SKIN OISEASEDUST OISEASE OF LUNGSRESPIRATORY CONDITION DLE

TO TOXIC AGENTSPOISONING/SYSTEMATIC

EFFFrTS OF TOXICMATERIALS

DISORDERS OUE TO PHYAGENTS

OISOROERS ASSOC WITHREPEATED TRAUMAS

ALL OTHER OCCUPATIONALILLNESS

lB

9899

01

020301

0607

60

10

12

16

17

IB19

31

3233

35

343698993839

101

102103104105108107

108109110111

210720

230

240

250

260

290

Fig. 1 (continued). Employee accident report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County PublicSchools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

35


Diadem of Insurance and RatiramantMONTGOMERY COUNTY PL tIC SCHOOLS

Radtyi 11*, Maryland

STUDENT ACCIDENT REPORT

Plasm read this Instruct OM on the back of the Goldenrod copy before completing the following

SECTION A

11) Name of InjuredLast Name -Sint Nam* M.6dla Name

12) Home AddressSnirsi Cr Sone Zip

(Coda

13) School Name (4) School Number 1 1 1 1

15) Grade I I I 16) Age',I

I 17) Sex 1 1

PM(8) Date Occurred / / (9) Time Occurred AMMontt, De, vs.,

(10) Date Accident Reported / / (11) Type of Actnity 1 I .I

Montt, Dar 'row

(12) Specific Activity 1 I 1 I 113) Location of Accident I I I I

(14) Description of Accident

115) Was an adult present at scene of accident, Yes No

(16) Name of Individual

SECTION B

(1) Natue of Injury I I 1.1 I I I I I 121 Part of Body1 I 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1

Immediate Action Taken

(31 First Aid 0 Yes 0 No, By

(4) Sent to Health Room Yes No, By

15) Sent to Doctor Yes No, By Name of Doctor

(6) Sent back to Class Yes No, By

171 Sent to Hospital Yes No, By

Name of Novas;

(8) Was Parent, Guardian, or Neighbor Notified Yes 0 No,

How Notified Time Notified

Date Notified __./ _ __/_Month Oat Year

AM PM

By Whom

I I(9) Total Number of Days lost from School I I I I

110) Student has Accident Insurance Yes No

AUTHORIZATION

rrinripsi Sanshirs Dais

term S2S-2 Awned September 1975 ClatrIbution White /Unary /Pink to the (Mellon of insurerce and RetirementGoldenrod - File

Fig. 2. Student Accident Report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools,Rockville, Maryland (1985).

36

ADMINISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 29

INSTRUCTIONS FUR COMPLETING THE STUDENT ACCIDENT REPORT FORM

GENERAL

Complete WI of the questions and the authorication section If not complete the Corns will be returned Send the White/CanaryTink copies within tWo121sumks to -The3mrPon of Intluren. end Retirement' Wnhington Center Keep the Goldenrod copy for your hie E Kemple, of reportable moldiest reports are All imuriM to the heedeye, nick or some env bone or loot tniury that results in swelling any puncture wound burn or Imeratinn that looks as though it oleo require sutures innetion of any drug,chime* or New matersak end other such eccidenb

SECTION A

ITEMS 1 THRU 4 Must be completed as indicated ITEM 5 - Indicate the grade level such es 01 02 03 12 for Grade one I thru twelve 1121 Heed Start should beWarn at "24' Kondewarten at 25 Sar-ie tducabon at 26 and Ungraded as 27 ITEM 6 -AGE State aen of student on lest birthday ITEM 7 - SEX IndicateM" for male and 'F" for female t fEM S - DATE OCCURRED - Indicate date per trample 06/1071 June 10 1971 ITEM I TIME OCCURRED - Indicate the

east boa Ito =Went occurred ce mamma 02 10 Ten 117111y.es pan two 0 ul.k Check whether AM IMo sng) or PM lAftnnoonl ITEM 10 - DATE ACCIDENTREPORTED - Inhere per sea vie 06/21/71 k June 21 1971ITEM 11 - TYPE OF ACTIVITY Indicate using one 111 of the following codes

01 Elam I./wave Educ 03 Eke, Non-Phys Educ 6 Ron Noon Recess 05 &maniere NonsPhw Educ02 Elam Kam Recess IN Secondary Physical E due 06 Varsity & Jr Varsity

ITEM 12 - SPECIFIC ACTIVITY Inchoate using one 111 of the following codes

101 Archery 109 Fenc,ng 117 Parallel Bars/Horizonte102 Badminton 110 Feld Hockey 118 Physical Fitness/Calisthenics11:0 Baleen Been 1 1 Football 119 Ringe/Ropn104 Bewbe11 "12 Games 120 SIae/See Sew106 Baked:ell 113 Golf 121 Snow afX.1 be Sports (Skiing)106 Cheer Leader 114 Jungle Gym 122 SOccer/F told Ball107 Dance 115 Kickball 123 Softball10B Dodge Bail 116 Muscleman 124 Swing,

ITEM 13 - LOCATION DF ACCIDENT INDICATE BY USING ONE III OF THE FOLLOWING CODES

201 All Purpose Room 207 Corridor 213 Levatoon202 Athletic Field 208 Grounds/Non Playground 214 Library203 Auditorium Stage 209 Gymnasium and Auxiliary Gym 215 Locker Room204 Been* 210 Horne Arts 216 Motor Vehicle Passenger

205 Cafeteria 2t1 Industrial Education shops 217 Music and Bard Room206 Clamoom 212 Laboratories 218 Outdoor Education Site

ITEM 14 - DESCRIPTION OF ACCIDENT - Briefly describe how the accident occurredITEM 15 - WAS AN ADULT PRESENT AT SCENE OF ACCIDENT - Check yes or NoITEM IS - NAME OF INDIVIDUAL - Print the individual I full name

SECTION S

125 Tennis126 Track and Find127 Trampoline/Mini Troop128 Tumbling129 Vaulting Boa130 Volley Ball131 Weight Lifting and Training132 WrestlingiSelf Defense

219 Pedestrian

220 Playground221 School Bus Passenger

222 Special Activities IF old TopsClubs Class Trips etc I

223 Stairs224 Conference ROOT225 Caren Programs/

Off Campus

ITEM 1 - NATURE OF INJURY - Indicate using one 111 and not more than three 131 of the following codes that xem describels1 the insurylies/

37 Abrasion/Brune 24 Contusion 31 Foreign Body Imbedded, Loose 35 Otnect in MouthiPoisomng23 Amputation 21 Death 26 Fracture /Chipped 30 Puncture25 Aiplhopetion 28 Dental 22 Internal Injuries 36 Sprain/Strain/Pulled Muscle/38 Bite 27 Dislocation 29 Laceretion,Cuts Torn Ligament32 BurnsiScakedChermcal 33 Electrical Shock 34 Oblect in Eye

ITEM 2 - PART Of BODY Indicate using one (II and not more than three 131 of the following codes If more thn 3 parts of the body here been allured indicate themost venous

Ankle 68 5.1bow 6i Genital Area 66 Knee 64 Shoulders/Collar Bone65 Arm 53 Eye 72 Hand c7 Leg 61 Stomach55 Beck 56 Face 52 Heed 58 Mu, Mil_ los, Torque 73 Teeth60 Chest/Ribs 75 Fingers/Thumb 63 Hip 54 Neck 'Throat 74 Toes57 Ear 71 Foot 51 Internal Organs 59 Nose 70 Wrist

ITEM 3 - FIRST AID Check Yes or No If Yes is checked indicate who gene inc student Fin! Aid INurse Secretory etc 1

ITEM 4 - SENT TD HEALTH ROOM Check Yes or No If Yes is checked indicate who tent the student to the HeaCh Room ISeorelary Teacher etc I

ITEM S - SENT TO DOCTOR Check Yes. No If Yes Is checked indicate who sent the student to the Doctor ISecretmy Teacher Nurse etc I Pont the Doctor s name

ITEM B - SENT RACK TO CLASS Check Yes or No If Yes is checked indicate by whom

ITEM 7 -SENT TO HOSPITAL - Check Yes or No If Yes is checked iicate .To sent the student to the Hospital Nurse Teacher etc I Print the Hospital s name

ITEM S - WAS PAkENT GUARDIAN OR NEIGHBOR NOTIFIED or No DATE NOTIFIED Indicate date Per example 05/21'71 Mk./ 21 1971 HOWNOTIFIED - By telephone etc TIME NOTIFIED - Indicate the eon sample 10 50 10 Minutes before 11 0 Clock Check whether AM IMorning1 or PM(Aftern0010 I/ WHOM - Print full name of person who notifed the parent guardian

ITEMS - TOTAL NUMSER OF DAYS LOST FROM SCHOOL - Indicate per following examples000 5 9. day 001 0 1 day 100 0 100 oasis 023 5 x 23', days

ITEM 10 - STUDENT HAS ACCIDENT INSURANCE - Check Yea or No

AUTHORIEAT10114

This form mat to lined by the Principal also indicate Wa date this report was signed

Flg. 2 (continued). Student Accident Report. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County PublicSchools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

BEST COPY AVAILABLE


Business Officials of the United Statesand Canada have published the SchoolSafety Handbook (Haering, 1986). It pro-vides, perhaps, more detailed informa-tion than the typical physical educationand sport administrator may need on adaily basis. However, it encompasses allaspects of school safety programs. Forexample, a few categories of specificinformation of interest to the physicaleducator, sport administrator, teacher,and coach are:

accident reporting/record keepingemergency action guides includingmany disasters, severe weather, light-ing conditions, and evacuation plansphysical education facilitiesphysical education apparatustumbling, track and field, trampolineeye protectionshowersrifle clubfootball insuranceseasonal safety

LOCAL SAFETY HANDBOOKSAND POLICIES

Each school district should have anofficial collection of its school safetypolicies and regulations. Further, eachlocal school should have a safety com-mittee and specific procedures for han-dling its needs.

Within the overall safety plan for thedistrict are such general categories as:

safety education and accident preventionrisk managementtraffic and bus safetyfire safetyplant and eyeglass safetyemergency and disaster preparednesshealthinstructional and special activities area(It is in this section that safety inphysical education and athletics isgenerally addressed.)Local school system handbooks gen-

erally quote school board and officialinstitutional regulations. Some thatmight be of particular interest to physi-cal educators would pertain to: '

38

student accident reportsemployee accident reportsreporting student accidentsfire safety for schoolsemergency and disaster procedureshealth care for allergic childrenemergency care for pupils subject toanaphylactic reaction to an insectsting or ingestionemergency first aidreporting and caring for an animal bitedogs on school groundsOther general administrative policies

and regulations of the school system tobe considered in the local manual mightinclude:

administration of interscholastic ath-letic programsinterscholastic athletics in the state(state regulation)extracurricular activitiespolicies with regard to showeringpupils excused from physical educa-tion classesstudent accident and football insurancepolicies with regard to equipmentuse of trampolines in physical educa-tion classesrifle club activities and control of riflerangesThe following excerpts (see Figure 3)

typify elements of a local safety hand-book (Montgomery County PublicSchools, 1985).

WHERE TO START

If your school does not have a formalsafety handbook, several establishedreferences exist which can be helpful indeveloping a schematic plan to be com-pleted as your local situation dictates.The entire physical education and ath-letic staff should work together on thisproject in order to guarantee the bestand most useful handbook possible.

The following general questions forphysical education teachers and coachesshould be considered in the develop-ment of the handbook:

1. Does your school district, institu-tion, or school have an overall safety


8-61 SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

A Administrative Responsibility for Safety in Physical Education

Safety must play an integral part in physical education instruction There are certain controls that willaid in eliminating or minimizing accidents

B Orientation

Making teachers aware of established rules regulations and procedures contained in the Ph:,sicalEducation courses of study in the Montgomery County Public Si. hook Poll( les and RelzulatIonsHandbook and in this handbook

C Unique Situations

Policies should he formulated to cover xanations in physical layout

D. Rules and Regulations

All rules and regulations pertaining to the use of facilities and equipment should he brought to theattention of the staff

E Perodic Inspection

All physical education facilities, equipment. and grounds should he checked periodically to eliminatehidden hazards or unsafe conditions

8-62 INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION FACILITIES

A There shall he continuous evaluation and research on the safety aspects of facilities equipment. andsupplies

B Only approved eq iipment shall he installed on playgrounds or gymnasiums

C The school administration shall confer with the physical education supervisor regarding the 'vocationof physical education equipment and apparatus before installation

D All relocation of equipment must he approved by the school administration, supervisor of physicaleducation. and director of the Division of Maintenance

E All physical education equipment shall he installed according to the standard specification for thatequipment or grade level

F Playing surfaces should he free of obstructions. uneven surfaces, and slick spots and should be onlevel ground when possible

C Equipment found to he faulty should be labeled with a red tag and immediately withdrawn from use

8-63 SAFETY INSTRUCTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Adequate instruction relative to the many facets of physical education aLtivities will eliminate many'needless accidents Instruction should he provided in proper skills and attitudes while in the locker room,gym, shower room, etc Definite procedures should he set up to cover before-class activities andsupervision of those arriving e irly Activities should he organized so that skills will he progressive Careshould he taken not to place students in activities or situations for which they are not structurally orfunctionally prepared Certain activities require large and more secluded areas for safe execution. theseareas include archery, golf. etc

Fig. 3. Excerpted from Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland(1985).

39


8.64 APPARATUS, STUNTS, AND TUMBLING

A Instruct students in

1 The safe use of equipment

2 The dangers inherent in each stunt

3 Thz proper mechanics of each stunt

B Condition the student in advance of each apparatus stunt

C. Present a good demonstration either by teacher or capable student

D Provide sequential instruction allowing for mastery of fundamentals before attempting more complexmoves

E Make sure that students have a clear understanding of what they are attempting

F Remember that the proper uniform is an important aspect of safe, pleasurable gymnastics

I. Remove all jewelry, bracelets, pencils, pens, etc

2 Use sneakers or gymnastic shoes

LI insist upon proper warm-up period before any stunt is attempted

H Magnesium carbonate should be available and used

8.65 SHOWERS

A Shower rooms shall be used under strict supervision of a teacher

B Running or playing in the shower room is prohibited

C Standing on locker room benches is prohibited

D Snapping of towels at other students is prohibited

E Use of the master shower control is the responsibility of the teacher Students shall not he assignedthis responsibility

F. Swinging or chinning from bars or pipes in the locker room is prohibited

G Benches should be inspected frequently for splinters, protruding nails sharp corners. etc

8-66 SAFETY GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR TRACK PRACTICE

A Teams will not use corridors as practice areas until 45 minues after the end of the school day

B Teams will practice outside when weather permits

C Signs will be posted stating when and where teams will he prancing

D Monitors should be stationed at all corners and intersections to wain persons who may he in the hallswhile students are running

E Announcements will be made over the public address system making faculty and students aware thatpractice has begun

F Teams that have safe areas may practice earlier than the 45-minute limit

Fig. 3 (continued). Excerpted from Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools,Rockville, Maryland (1985).

40


program with an assigned supervisor?Do you know who that person is?

2. Are safety policies and practicesdynamic and changing as facilities, cur-ricuIa, and other 'actors change?

3. Does your institution provideteachers with written updates, work-shops, and in-service programs in theareas of general and specific ,,afety con-cerns?

4. Does your local school have spe-cific safety guidelines and a safety com-mittee? Is a physical educator on thatcommittee?

5. Are emergency first aid proce-dures known by all staff members in theschool?

6. Are there regular documented in-spections of all physical euucation andathletic facilities?

7. Is your maintenance departmentor system responsive to saff con-cerns?

8. Is documented accident reporting(for students and employees) completedin a timely fashion?

9. Are all students and employeesinformed about student insurance andworkman's compensation policies andprocedures for reporting accidents?

10. Does the school physical educa-tion and athletic administration insistthat all students be properly supervisednot only in the actual teaching of theactivity but also in the locker room priorto and following class?

11. Are all federal, state, and locallaws, codes, and ordinances followed?

12. Are the sport-related safety regu-lations required in the "official" rule-books used by the school enforced? (Ex-amples: National Operational Comm .

tee on Standards for Athletic Equipmentwarning labels, padded volleyball stan-dards).

13. Does the climate in your areawarrant cold or hot weather proceduresto be followed for specific activities?

14. Do you know who is directly incharge of overall general safety in:

a. your school district?b. your

41

c. your physical education pro-gram?

d. your athletic program?15. How are injuries reported?

a. Is a written report made?b. What information is included?c. Are reports reviewed and ana-

lyzed regularly?d. Are recommendations made

based on the reports?16. Has your school developed a

working relationship with:a. local fire and rescue squad?b. local hospitals, clinics and/or

physicians?17. Does your school maintain up-to-

date health records on staff and students?

a. Are these records for peoplewith special needs specially cod-ed?

b. Are the physical examinationsfiled for athletes'.'

c. How does important health-re-lated data get to physical educa-tion teachers and coaches?

SAFETY CHECKLISTS

Checklists are of use to teachers andcoaches if they are directed to specificreal. Individual teachers and workers

should add to the checklists as appro-priate. The following are suggested ar-eas of concern in the development ofindividual safety chec_dists:

security and stability of hanging appa-ratusbleachers (indoors and outdoors)showers and locker areasfloor surfacesclean, nonslippingfield conditions (free from rocks andglass, adequate turf)tennis court surfacesfire exitsfire drill procedures for classes andathletic eventsgeneral maintenance (preventativeand necessary) regularly documentedproper indoor alid outdoor lighting asneededproper securitygym, locker rooms,outdoor facilities


Safety and Locker Room StandardsFor Students in Physical Education

In physical education, students participate in a regular program of vigorous exercisesand activities which require that consideration be given to attire, personal hygiene,and locker room procedures. The following standards are recommended to protecteach student and enable him/her to obtain the maximum benefit from the program:

1. Students will have a complete change of clothing for physical education. AT-shirt and shorts or a school physical education uniform are appropriate formost classes. Sweat suits are recommended for outdoor classes conductedduring cool weather.

2. Appropriate kithletic shoes will be worn to class. This is important for thesafety of the student and for the protection of various surfaces. The shoesshould have flat soles (not elevated in any way) and should be properly lacedor fastened.

3. All personal belongings are to be locked up during class time. Gym clothingis to be locked in the assigned short locker at the end of class. Locks left onlong lockers will be removed.

4. Students are to limit their use of the locker room to physical education classtime and as appropriate for athletic teams.

5. Students are expected to arrive and depart from the locker rocm at theappropriate time.

6. All injuries are to be promptly reporteo to the teacher. The nurse will benotifiod as required.

7. To prevent loss, damage, or personal injury, students should not weari6welry during physical education class.

8. Safety glasses with elastic head strap or other eye protection arerecommended when wearing prescription glasses or contact lenses.

9. Students are to remain off the bleachers, stage, and equipment unlessotherwise directed by the teacher.

10. Food, gum, beverages, and glass are to be kept out of the entire physicaleducation a Please do not litter.

J

AFig. 4. From Safety Handbook, Montgomery County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

42

ADMNISTRATION OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS 35

windows secure and unbrokenproper ventilationappropriate safety paddingweight training and gymnasticsequipment regularly checked and re-paired as neededall National Operational Committeeon Standards for Athletic Equipmentrequirements metall appropriate rule books used forspecific sports adhered to in the areasof safety equipmentappropriate information given to sub-stitute teachers not familiar with ei-ther the school, subjected area, oractivity being taught.

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

A number of federal and state ordi-nances have strict guidelines which re-quire manufacturers of any potentiallycaustic or toxic materials to provide theconsumer with a Material Safety DataSheet. It is most important to have thisinformation on all materials used withinthe physical education and athletic pro-grams which may have ha- lous po-tential.

Hazardous materials may frequentlybe found in physical education and ath-letic areas. Some of them may be:

swimming pool chemicalstraining room and first aid room sup-pliesfield pa...Asmat and ball cleaning agentsgym floor cleaners and sealersAdministrators, coaches, and teach-

ers should be aware of all hazardousand toxic substances used. A list ofthese materials should be developedand a safety data sheet on each itemshould be requested from the manufac-turer. Some state laws require that thisinformation be maintained on file.

POSTING SIGNS ANDWARNING LABELS

The posting of signs and decals cer-tainly does not remove the possibility of

DO NOT SITOR

STANDON BLEACHERS

WHEN THEY ARECLOSED

43

N. 5.County Public Schools, Rockville, Maryland(1985).

From Safety Handbook, Montgomery

accidents. It can, however, serve as aneverpresent reminder that precautionsneed to be taken in a particular area oractivity.

Signs may be professionally pro-duced. However, with the advent ofinexpensive and creative graphics soft-ware programs for personal computers,signs can also be easily made at the locallevel and be very specific to the situa-tion.

Some manufacturers of equipmentare now voluntarily providing warninglabels which must be placed on equip-ment and supplies. These labels aregenera"-7 inexpensive or free. Adminis-trators should provide teachers withsuch materials, and if no administratorfor safety in physical education andathletics exists, the teacher and coachshould assume this responsibility.

Figuies 4-9 are examples of both local-ly produced signs and manufacturers'warning labels.


rUSE OF THIS EQUIPMENT

IS RESTRICTED TO STUDENTSACCOMPANIED BY A TEACHER.

THIS LOCKER ROOM IS FOR THEUSE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION STUDENTS

AND TEAM MEMBERS DURING THEIRASSIGNED PERIODS EXCLUSIVELY.

Fig. 6. From Saf-ty Hpr-j!-- Montgom, y County Public Schouls, Rockville, Maryland (1985).

4 4


WARNINGParticipation in gymnastic activities involves motion, rotation, and height in anunique environment and as such, carries with it a reasonable assumption of risk.

This equipment is intended for use ONLY by properly trained and qualifiedparticipants under supervised conditions. Use without proper supervision mudbe DANGEROUS and should NOT be undertaken or permitted.

WARNINGCatastrophic injury. paralysis, or even death can result from improper conduct ofthe activity.

GERSTUNG/GYM-THING, INC.

Flg. 7. Gymnastics warning label. From Gerstung/Gyn1ining, Baltimore, Maryland.

WARNINGDo not strike an opponent with anypart of this helmet or face mask. This isa violation of football rules and maycause you to suffer severe brain orneck injury, including paralysis ordeath.

Severe brain or neck injurymay also occur accidentally whileplaying football.

NO HELMET CAN PREVENT ALLSUCH INJURIES USE THISHELMET AT YOUR OWN RISK

Fig. 8. Helmet warning labels.

WARNINGDo not use this helmet if the shell iscracked or deformed of if interiorpadding is deteriorated. Do not cleanor shine with any agent except plainsoap and water. The prolonged use ofother chemicals may cause seriousshell degradation.

THIS BATTERS HELMET CANNOTPREVENT ALL HEAD INJURIES IN

BASEBALL OR SOFTBALL

45

38 PKINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

IFEN--1.11,

WARNINGAny activity involving motion or height creates the possibility of serious

injury, including permanent paralysis and even death from landing or falling on the

head or neck.You assume a risk of serious injury in the use of this equipment, but this risk

can be significantly reduced by always following these simple rules:1) Use ONLY under the supervision cf a trained and quakfied instructor.

We recommend instructors certified by the United States Gymnastics Association orUnited States Gymnastics Federation.

2) KNOW YOUR OWN LIMITATIONS. Follow USGSA or IISGF progressivelearning techniques. Always consult instructor.

3) The equipment MUST be used with proper mats, spotting equipment,and qualified spotters SUITABLE to the activity or skill. Always consult instructor.

4) Always INSPECT for loose fittings, damage, and proper positioningbefore each use.

5) TEST STABILITY before each use.

EN 9837 97520

WARNING1. Misuse and abuse of this trampoline is dangerous and can cause serious

injuries.2. Read instructions before using this trampoline.3. Inspect before using and replace any worn, defective, or missing parts

Flg. 9. Your gymnasium mats, apparatus, trampolines, and high jump/pole vault landing pits shouldbear current warning labels. Please inspect your equipment. These are sample labels available fromNissen, Inc., Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

REFERENCES

Flynn, Richard B., editor and contributingauthor. (1985). Planning facilities for athlet-ics, physical education and recreation. NorthPalm Beach, FL: The Athletic Institute;and Reston, VA: American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance.

Haenng, Franklin C., project chairman zndprincipal author. (1986). School safety hand-book. Reston, VA: Association of SchoolBusiness Officials in cooperation with Na-tional Safety Council.

Safety handbook. (1985). Rockville, MD: Mont-gomery County Public Schools.

46

CHAPTER 4

First Aid and Sport Safety Policies

is1

47

PHIL HOSSLER

East Brunswick High SchoolEast Brunswick, NJ


The field of first aid in physical edu-cation and sport is a vast one that

encompasses many general and specificconcerns. Entire books and courses ofstudy have been devoted to this subject.This chapter deals with the basic admin-istrative and procedural concerns in theimplementation of emergency care andprevention of injuries in physical educa-tion classes and sporting activities.

There is no other field where theadage, "an ounce of prevention is wortha pound of cure" carries greater weightthan in medic'ne and related medicalfields. The health care afforded physicaleducation classes and athletic teams hasbecome as much a concern of the legalprofession as the education profession.The provision of adequate, systemati-cally reviewed, and continually updatedhealth care for physically active youth isclearly an area in which the physicaleducation and athletic departmentsmust do their homework. An effectivesports medicine program educates aswell as alerts coaches and teachers tothe relevance of proper training, pre-vention, and handling of activity inju-ries.

According to the American Assoc:.tion for Health, Physical Education andRecreation, "The extent to which socie-ty views an event as serious and unex-pected determines whether it will callthat event an accident. What one groupcalls an accident may not be regarded assuch by another group." (Sports Safety,1977) Being injured, therefore, may bedifferent than being in an accident. Thedifference is based on causal factors inthe setting, possibilities for prevention,and the seriousness of the harm.

An injury may occur at any time andin any location. There is no sport orphysical education activity which is im-mune from injury 100% of the time.Steps can be taken, however, to dealwith any injury which may occur and toensure as adequate and proper care as ispossible in any given situation.

Reasonable and prudent forethoughtwill enable one to produce a predeter-mined master plan for dealing with thispossibility of injury. Although many

injuries can be prevented, others cannotbe foreseen, therefore, it behooves eachdepartment, department head, and allpersons responsible for governing thephysical activities of youth to rememberthe infamous Murphy's Law whichstates "anything that can go wrong, willgo wrong."

The following items should be ad-dressed in an emergency medical sys-tem master plan:

proper supervision of activitiesadequate medical preparation andsuppliesadequate training in injury recogni-tion and first aid treatment by stafffrequent appraisal of facilities ande ,ipment

SUPERVISION OF ACTIVITIES

The best method of h !Idling injuriesin phys. -al education classes and athlet-ic teams is to anticipate and prevent theiroccurrence. Supervision is more thanjust a visual surveillance of the activity,it involves vocal clues to hazardous situ-ations. Students and athletes should bereminded of, and if necessary repri-manded for, actions which produce ahazardous situation for themselves orothers. Prior to each activity or newskill, the instructor should indicate thedesired objectives as well as the possibledetrimental results and dangerous be-havior patterns inherent in the activity.

It is assumed, and it should be re-quired, that any coach or instructor whois introducing, conducting, or merelyoverseeing an athletic or physical activi-ty is knowledgeable in that area. Physi-cal educators are often schooled in thecorrect manner to teach skills, but toooften are not schooled in the myriad ofways in which students can be injured.Athletic coaches should make certainthat they study not only their "gameplan" for success but also the possibilityof a "lame plan" for injury.

There is no substitute for experience.Coaches and teachers who have be. npracticing their craft for years havelearned how to anticipate and preventmany accidents. The "volunteer" or

48

"walk-on" coaches or the novice teach-er, however, often are not experiencedand may fall prey to enthusiastic "shortvision." Some basic guidelines for su-pervision to prevent injuries would in-clude:

1. Never leave the site where the activityis being conducted. Rapid response tosevere bleeding and head injuries maybe the difference between life anddeath.

2. Be in a position to supervise. Thismay require some adjustments in activi-ties such as aoss country and fitnesstrails.

3. Anticipate problems. As a profes-sional you are expected to identify po-tential dangers and take precautionsagainst them. Included here are suchconcerns as:

a. defective equipment such as fenc-ing foils with no protective tips, batswhich are cracked or have slipperygrips, and mats which are worn orthinb. lack of safety measures such aswater on the gym floor, improperlysecured nets and debris on the play-ing fieldc. equipment/clothing which is poor-ly-fitted or defectived. activities which are inappropriatefor the capabilities or conditioninglevel of the participants.

4. Never permit horseplay

5. Never knowingly permit rules, regula-tions, or safety procedures to be violated(Continuing Responsibility of Instruc-tors for Student Injuries, 1984).

MEDICAL PREPARATIONAND SUPPLIES

There is a difference between the han-dling of injuries during the school dayand those that occur during after schoolathletics. For this reason, they will beaddressed separately within this sec-tion.

FIRST AID AND SPORT SAFETY POLICIES 41

ATHLETIC MEDICAL PREPARATIONAND SUPPLIES

Both the physical education depart-ment and the athletic program mustdemonstrate forethought in their prepa-ration for athletic injuries. The follow-ing criteria may be used to determinethe degree of thoroughness shown inanticipation of both life threatening andnon-life threatening situations. This listis not complete in all aspects for everysituation, but rather is a guideline forthe d- 'velopment of one which is specif-ic to the individual situation.

1. Employ an athletic trainer certi-fied by the National Athletic TrainersAssociation. A certified athletic trainercan provide not only quality injury care,but can also provide the athletic depart-ment with better evaluation and dispo-sition of injured athletes, and in-housetreatment and therapy for injured ath-letes under the direction of a physician.A certified trainer is a valuable resourcein the prevention of possible injurioussituations.

2. Provide each team with a first aidkit (including a separate kit for juniorvarsity and varsity teams). These kitsshould be checked periodically and sup-plies replaced as needed.

3. Place in each first aid kit an emer-gency contact card (see Figure 1) foreach athlete and manager associatedwith the team.

4. Place in each team's first aid kit alist of those team members who haveallergies, special conditions, or any oth-er noteworthy medical condition. Thisinformation can be obtained from theathletes' medical histories or from thenurse's office.

5. Providi each member of thecoaching staff and place in each first aidkit a card containing important emer-gency phone numbers such as first aid,-.olice, and hospital.

6. The use of ice in first aid is of theutmost import.nce. Every athletic teamshould have tn_ capability of carryingice in some form with them to all games,both home and away, and to practices.Every school should have enough ice49


ATHLETIC EMERGENCY CONTACT

NAME DATE OF BIRTH ACELAST FIRST

PARENT NAME PHONEMOTHER

PHONEFATHER

AT HOME AT WORK

AT HOME AT WORK

If you cannot be reached, is there someone you wish to be responsible for your child'?

NAME

FAMILY PHYSICIAN

INSURANCE COMPANY

PHONE

PHONE

POLICY NUMBER

KNOWN ALLERGIES TO MEDICATIONS

Fig. 1. Emergency contact card.

for first aid for all teams as well as ice forthe team's drinking purposes. Even aminas injury, if allowed to go unattend-ed, may delay the athlete's return toactivity. The application of a cold mo-dality (ice bags, ice towels, chemicalcold packs) is accepted as essential ini-tial first aid for virtually every athleticinjury. Nurses, coaches, physical edu-cation teachers, and athletic trainersshould instill in their student-athletesthe practice of "when in doubt, applyice." Generally ice is applied for 20-30minutes and then removed for 30-60minutes; this process is repeated severaltimes daily. The techniques for the useof ice in the first aid treatment of inju-ries should be known by all coaches,athletes and parents.

7. it is essential to provide waterfor those teams practicing indoors aswell as outdoors. Heat related disor-ders may be precipitated in a poorlyventilated, humid gymnasium or wres-tling room just as easily as those whichoccur outdoors in the heat of August.

8. All injuries should be properlyand promptly reported. In the absenceof an athletic trainer, the coach mu trecord the details of the injury 4 ...I

report them to the proper authority.This will greatly help the attending phy-sician as well as avoid entanglementsand delays with the insurance compa-nies.

9. It is desirable to obtain a systemof communication by which those teamspracticing on fields which are an appre-ciable distance from the training roomor nurse's office may be in instant com-munication with the proper person.Walkie- talkies may be carried in eachteam's first aid kit and a base stat:onkept in the training room, nurse's officeor main office. In the event of a seriousinjury, the time saved could be crucial.In some situations, it may 13: more prac-tical to provide telephones which areconnected to a main switchboard.Regardless of the method used, it isimportant that needless loss of time beavoided when dealing with a seriousand/or possibly life threatening injury.

10. There are species. items whichmay be deemed advisable to cbtain,however, these require special trainingto use and should not be used by un-trained personnel. Oxygen cylinders arebeneficial in certaia emergency situa-tions which might occur in an athletic

50

setting. Their use should be confined toonly those persons who have been in-structed by medical personnel since,,'.

. . oxygen is a medication. Thismeans that you will hay 2 to decide if itis needed, how much to provide, whatresults are expected, and what harmmay be done. The use of oxygen is aspecial responsibility that can be givenonly to someone of professional status."(Oxygen, 1980)

Splints have long been a mainstay offirst aid procedures. Their use has di-minished over the past years due tothree reasons: first; a decreased numberof coaches who have training in theirapplication; second, the increased avail-ability of first aid and rescue squads;and third, fear of possible legal ramifica-tions due to improper application andtransportation of the injured. Splintshave value in the athletic setting, andtheir use should not be overlooked.Their application is best left to personswho have been properly trained.

The following flowchart (see Figure 2)demonstrates a typical manner in whicha physical education or athletic depart-ment may handle an injury. In the flow-chart, the words "coach" and "trainer"may be interchanged with "teacher"and "nurse" respectively. The Emer-gency Medical System includes injuryrecognition, first aid procedures, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, and properdisposal of the victim. This disposalmay be to the parents, the nurse, thefirst aid squad, or the physician. It isparamount that r.^^1- ,,hysical educationand athletic department develop anemergency medical system such as thisone and ensure that all necessary per-sons are aware of the system.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION MEDICALPREPARATION AND SUPPLIES

In most school systems the prepara-tion demonstrated by the physical edu-cation department to handle injuriesduring classes might be characterizedby the phrase, "Go see the nurse." Inthe majority of cases this may suffice,however, failure to prepare for those

, 1 ;


instances when such a disposal of aninjury would not suffice is inexcusableand negligent. Remembering that "any-thing that might go wrong, will gowrong" should encourage departmentsof physical education to make prepara-tions to prevent and handle activityinjuries.

Most physical education teachershave had minor injuries in their classessometime during their professionallives. Most of these are easily handledby sending the student to the nurse'soffice and later signing the accident re-port. But what about that time when thestudent walks into the swinging bat ofanother student, or when the studentsteps in a hole and cannot bear anyweight on an ankle, or when a fightoccurs and one of the combatants isbleeding profusely? What forethoughtwas given to communications, transpor-tation, and preparation by the physicaleducation department? What prepara-tions were made for that one time whenthe life of the student may actually beendangered?

Each physical education departmentmust take steps to ensure adequatepreparation to prevent and handle aninjury that may occur.

1. Provide all staff members with in-service opportunities to obtain and/orrenew basic first aid and CPR certifica-tion. It is vital that all teachers take stepsvia courses, in-service clinic member-ship in professional organizations, etc.,to remain current in their knowledgeand ability.

2. Project the attitud . that hazardoussituations should be reported and thatsteps will be taken to eliminate them asquickly as possible. It is very discourag-ing for teachers to report areas of con-cern and then have the reports ignored.

3. The school system should work incooperation with the school physi-cian(s) to assess the existing capabilitiesof the physical education department,nurse's office, and building administra-tion to handle both minor and majorinjury situations. This assessmentshould be periodically reviewed and up-

fated.


LIFE THREATENING SITUATIONS

INJURY OCCURS

COACH IS AWARE OF THE INJURY

COACH CONTACTSATHLETIC TRAINER

ATHLETICTRAINER

INITIALFIRST AID

AS NECESSARY

TRA NERUNAVAILABLE

ACTIVATEEMERGENCY MEDICAL

SYSTEM

CONTACT POLICETO DISPATCH

FIRST AID SQUAD

LCONTACT PARENTS

PARENTS MEETATHLETE AT

HOSPITAL

IF PARENTS AREUNABLE TO MEET

ATHLETE, ANAUTHORIZED PERSON

WILL ACCOMPANYTHE ATHLETE

Fig. 2. Emergency medical procedures

52


NON-LIFE THREATENING SITUATIONS

INJURY OCCURS

COACH MADE AWARE OF INJURY

TRA NERUNAVAILABLE

L___COACH REFERS ATHLETE TO 1

ATHLETIC TRAINER

TRAINEREVALUATION

FIRST A''' ASPER PROTOCOL

PARENTNOTIFIED, IFNECESSARY

PHYSICIANREFERRAL, IFNECESSARY

ATHLETE SENT HOMEOR PICKED UP BY

PARENT

ACTIVATEEMERGENCY MEDICAL

SYSTEM

CONTACT POLICETO DISPATCH

FIRST AID SQUAD

CONTACT PARENTS

PARENTS MEETATHLETE AT

HOSPITAL

IF PARENTS AREUNABLE TO MEET

ATHLETE, ANAUTHORIZEDPERSON WILL

ACCOMPANY THEATHLEE

53Fig. 2. Emergency medical procedures (continued)

;


4. The money spent to purchase asystem of small walkie-talkies would bewell worth the expense if the time savedwas responsible for the saving of onlyone student's life.

WHAT WOULD YOU DO IF. ...Your class is outdoors playing soft-

ball. You are more than 1/4 mile from thebuilding. One of the students hits theball and releases the bat by throwing itover his shoulder. (You have warnedthe students against this practice, but ithappened anyway.) The bat strikes thenext batter across the bridge of the nose.The student immediately falls to theground bleeding profusely from thenose and upper lip. When you reachhim he is conscious but in great pain.What do you do?

There are several options and deci-sions to be made, but they can begrouped into two gen,.ral categories:

Solution #1 -Oops!1. Try to stop the bleeding with the

palm of your hand.2. Send a student to the nurse's of-

fice.3. Do you know CPR if the student

should need it?4. How is the nurse going to get to

you?5. Does the nurse know if you need

an ambulance?6. What do you do with the rest of

the class?7.: low mi.:h time is all this taking?

Solution #2-Planned!1. Using the cleanest material avail-

able, e.g. a white T-shirt, try to stop thebleeding with direct pressure.

2. While another student holds thebandage in place, you communicatewith the nurse's office via your walkie-talkie.

3. You inform the nurse what hashappened, that the student is consciousand cognizant but that e first aid squadwill most likely be needed.

4. The nurse telephones for an am-bulance.

5. The nurse telephones the parentstelling them what has occurred; the par-ents will meet the first aid squad at theschool or the hospital.

6. The student is positioned to treatfor possible shock.

7. The class is instructed to join theadjacent class under the supervision ofanother teacher.

8. A vehicle such as the athletic de-partment's golf cart is used to transportthe nurse to the scene to await theambulance.

9. Th, rudent is transported by thefirst aid squad.

10. You fill out the necessary formsas soon as reasonably possible makingcertain to include statements by stu-dents in the class that indicate that youdid indeed instruct them in proper safe-ty procedures.

Which of these two reactions wouldmake the parents feel better about thecare afforded their child? Which of thesetwo reactions would stand up better in acourt? Is it necessary to go to the ex-treme in all situations? Probably not,but it is impossible to know beforehandwhich situations will be routine andwhich will be life-threatening. It is vitalthat preparations be made to ensure thehighest degree and greatest amount ofquality care in all situations.

INJURY RECOGNITION ANDEl 3T AID

One should not be fooled into believ-ing that the hiring of a certified athletictrainer should relieve the coaches of allfirst aid responsibilities. There will betimes when the athletic trainer will notbe available, for example, during awaygames. Therefore, every member of thecoaching staff should have a minimumof advanced first aid and cardiopul-monary resuscitation certification. It isrecommended that the athletic depart-ment, in cooperation with the healthclasses or local first aid squads, providein-service opportunities for all coachesin the district to obtain and/or renewtheir certifi,ations. The athletic trainer

54

can provide in-service education on in-jury recognition for the coaching staffs.

The Committee or. the Medical As-pects of Sports of the American MedicalAssociation recommends that in orderto protect the athlete at times of injury,the following steps for aid should befollowed:

1. Stop play immediately at fIrst indi-cation of possible injury or illness.

2. Look for obvious deformity or otherdeviation from the athlete's normalstructure or motion.

3. Listen to the athlete's description ofhis complaint and how the injury oc-curred.

4. Act, but move the a .Mete only afterserious injury is ruled out (The Profes-sionally Respor,' ble Coach, 19(2).

It is important to remember that firstaid is t "e immediate and temporary caregiven .J someone until the services ofadvanced medical care can be obtained.One of the cardinal rules of activityinjury care is characterized by the acro-nyms ICE, PIE, RICE, and ICES. TItecommon members of all these neu-monic devices are the letter "I" whichstands for ice and the letter "E" whichstands for elevation. The letters "C,""P," and "5" represent similar ideas ofcompression, pressure and support re-spectively. The "R" denotes rest. Thesesimple words represent the propermethod of dealing on a same day basiswith athletic in uries.

If the teacher, coach or trainer did notactually see the injury it is impor-tant to obtain an accurate description ofthe mechanism of injury either from thevictir or a witness. It is also crucial todetermine the exact location of the inju-ry, usually by asking the victim to touchthe location. Using these two parame-ters mechanism and exact location ofthe injury, the medical personnel arebetter able to assess the nature andseverity of the injury. For example, if anathletic steps in a hole while running, itis important to assess the speed that theathlete was running, the depth of thehole, the weight of the athlete, the loca-tion of the injury, a previous history ofinjur: to this joint, any signs of derormi-


ty, and the degree of normal functionthat the joint possesses. It is often diffi-cult, if not impossible, to categoricallydetermine the exact nature of an injury.For example, if a student forces a fingerinto hyperextension when hitting a vol-leyball, it would be impossible to deter-mine the presen_ o, -bs- ice of a frac-ture. General rules of thumb which ap-ply to such injuries would include:

1. Asking the athlete if he/she canmove the finger is not a valid questionto assess the presence of a fracture. It ispossible to move and bear weight onfractured bones.

2. Check for obvious deformity andloss of tunction.

3. Tapping the end of the finger mayproduce a dui! "thud" in an intact fingerand a feeling of "pins and needles" in abroker finger.

4. The degree of stiffness and swell-ing is not directly proportional to theseverity of the ii;jury.

5. If there is any doubt as to tnenature, severity or the athlete's ability tofunction, the services of a physicianshould be obtained.

Table 1 IL several mechanisms ofinjury which may occur in physical edu-catic -r athletic settings. Note that thecare listed for each injury is of a first aidnature; follow -uF ewe and treatmentshould be left to those individuals whoare trained in athletic therapy.

APPRAISAL OF EQUIPMENTAND FACILITIES

Physical education classes have anadvantage over -thletic teams in termsof appraising the condition of the equip-ment since the equipment is used asoften as eight to ten times each day bydifferent instructors. A variety of super-visors will enhance the chances of de-fective equipment being fi.ed or n_placed before it might be used and re-sult in possible injury. Once a defectivepiece of equipment is located, it is im-portant that it be reported and removedfrom use. This extends beyond pieces ofequipment which are handheld; it in-


TABLE 1First Aid and Emergency Procedures

Bones and JointsDislocationSupport joint. Apply ice bag or cold cloths to reduce swelling, and refer to physi-cian at once.Bone BruiseApply ice bag or cold cloths and protect from further injury If severe, refer tophysician.

Broken NoseApply cold cloths and refer to physicipn.

Heat IllnessesHeat StrokeCollapse WITH DRY WARM SKIN indicates sweating mechanism failure andrising oody temperature.

THIS IS AN EMERGENCY: DELAY COULD BE FATALImmediately cool athlete by the most expedient means (immersion in cool water is best meth-od). Obtain medical care rt once.Heat Exhaustion Weakness WITH PROFUSE SWEATING indicates state of shock uue todepletion of salt and watIr. Piece in shade with head level or lower than body. Give sips of di-lute salt water, if conscious. Obtain medical care at once.SunburnIf severe, apply sterile gauze aressing; refer to physician.

Impact BlowsHeadIf any period of dizziness, headache, uncoordination, or unconsciousness occurs, dis-allow any further activity and obtain medical care at once. Keep athlete lying down; if uncon-scious, give nothing by mouthTeethSave teeth if completely removed from socket. If loosened, do not disturb; cover withsterile gauze and refer to dentist at once.Celiac PlexusRest athlete on back and moisten face with cool water 1_-iosen clothingaround waist and chest. Do nothing else except obtain medical care if needed.Testicle Rest athlete on back and apply ice bag or cold cloths. Obtain medical care if p -.npersists.EyeIf vision is impaired, refer to physician at once. With soft tissue injury, apply ice bag orcold cloths to reduce swelling.

Muscles and LigamentsBruiseApply ice bag or cold cloths and rest injured muscle Protect from further aggrava-tion. If severe, refer to physician.Strain and SprainElevate injurer part and apply ice bag or cold cloths. Apply pressure ban-dage to reduce swelling. Avoid weight beanng and obtain medical care.

Open WoundsHeavy BleedingApply sterile pressure bandage using hand pressure if necessary. Refer tophysician at once.Cut and abrasionHold briefly under cold water. Then cleanse with mild soap and water. Ap-ply sterile pad firmly until bleeding stons, then protect with more loosely applied sterile ban-dage. If extensive, refer to physician.

Other ConcernsBlisterKeep clean with mild clap ar.d water and protect from aggravation. If already broken,trim ragged edges with sterilized equipment. If extensive or infected, refer to physician.Foreign Body in EyeDo not rub. Gently touch particle with point of clean, moist cloth andwash with cold water. ! ;insuccessful or if pain persists, refer to physician.

Source: Prepared by the AMA Committee on the Medical Aspects of Sports in cooperation withthe National Athletic Trainers Association and the National Federation of State HighSchool Athletic Associations.

56

dudes larger pieces such as wire backstops, surfaces on floors and tracks,fields, z id other activity areas.

Surfaces that are hazardous includefields with extremely uneven terrain,and smooth surfaces such as tracks orblacktop which become covered with alayer of water or sand. Some floor sur-faces, in the presence of high humidityand/or air conditioning, fail to providenormal traction and can become hazard-ous.

Athletic coaches often are able to pur-chase equipment of the highest qualitydue to greater availability of fundsand/or to the increased demands placedon the equipment in a competitive situa-tion. The coach, athletic trainer, equip-ment manager, athletic director, andathlete should work cooperatively toensure that all pieces of equipment:

are maintained according to manufac-turer's in sti actionsare properly fitted to the individualare periodically checked for defectsthat are required by national or localrules to be worn during participationare worn by all athletesthat are subject to recertification bythe National Operating Commi'iiee onStandards for Athletic Equipment(NOCSAE) are recertified annuallyThe first aid kit provided for each

athletic team is a piece of equipmentthat should be periodically checked andupdated as needed. Although there aresome sports which require specialtyitems in their first aid kit, the followingitems should be included in all first aidkits:

adhesive tapetape adherentunderwrapace bandages (4-inch is the most ver-satile size)band-aidsextra large band-aidslubricant (e.g. vaseline)analgesic cream (heat cream)tongue depressorspieces of foam rubber with varyingthicknessessterile gauze pads 57


triangular bandageemergency contact cards for all ath-letes and managersmoney for pay phonespaper and pencil

CONCLUSIONS

During any athletic activity there isthe possibility of an injury occurring. Itis the responsibility of those personscharged with the governing and imple-mentation of the activity, whether it isinterscholastic, intercollegiate, PopWarner, Little League, recreational, orphysical educCion, to try to preventinjuries through (a) proper condition-ing, (b) observation of rules, (c) properuse of equipment, and (d) elimination ofhazardous practices and situations. Su-pervisors, coaches, and teachers aisohave the responsibility of knowing whatto do wher an injury occurs. This doesnot imply that everyone involved in theactivity must know how to treat some ofthe more serious injuries, but it doesmean that everyone should know howto activate an effective emergency medi-cal plan.

All activity injuries, regardless of se-venty, are best handled by preventingtheir occurrence. Prevention requiresforethought and planning. Within theorganizational structure of the schoolsystem, there should he input fromphysicians, nurses, athletic trainers,teachers, coaches, first aid personnel,and ari-:.iiiistrators to ensure a properlyplanned and adequate system for han-dling both minor and serious injuries.The emergency medical system musttake into consideration the respectivefirst aid training and competencies ofthose persons working within it andmust include considerations for proxim-ity of medical personnel within the sys-tem and those individuals outside theimmediate system. Communication areatransportation limitations must be con-sidered and steps made to correct areasof weakness.


REFER:NCES

Continuing responsibility of instructors for stu-dent !Tunes. (1984). Phoenix. AZ: Univer-sal Dimensions, Inc.

Oxygen. (1980). (Vol. G-4). Arlington, VA.The Compressed Gas Association, Inc

58

Sports safety. (1977). Washington, DC: Amer-ican Association for Health, Physical Edu-cation and Recreation.

The professionally responsible coach a seminar onthe batty of coaches and the .-afety of athletes(19,,) Phoenix, Arizona- Athletic Insti-tute of Continuing Education.

CHAPTER 5

Archery

CLAIRE CHAMBERLAIN

The University of LowellLowell, MA

am* A Ae.---

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52 PRINCIPLES or .FETY IN PHYSICAL. EDUCATION AND SPORT

Archery is an exciting, challengingsport. Because of the equipment

used, however, it can also be a danger-ous and potentially lethal activity. Forthis reason, it is imperative that both thesupervisor and the participant knowand appreciate the risks. Simple care-lessness with a bow and arrow canresult in serious injury. Safety, then,must become a stringent habit for allconcerned.

The recent rise of lawsuits due tonegligence has focused the public's at-tention on the need for qualified super-vision, appropriate emergency proce-dures, proper equipment and facilities,and attention to detail. It is the teacher'sresponsibility to provide a safe environ-ment in which archery can be taught.Not only must the student understandwhat to do and why, but also what notto do and why not. Failure to explainthe dangers involved could result in alawsuit. A person who has "failed towarn" adequately can be held liable forresultant injuries.

Archery is a rewarding activity. In-fuse respect for safety in your students,and you will have a safe, enjoyableprogram.

SUPERVISION: CHECKLIST

1. Only qualified people should su-pervise archery.

2. Keep the class size small. Haveno more than four people shoot pertarget. A partner system can work well,and classes may shoot in flights.

3. Never instruct from in front of theline when arrows are nocked.

4. If correcting someone, do not putyour hand or arm in between their bow-string and bow. They may release thearrow, and you may get hit by thestring.

5. Emergencies.a. School, club, or camp emer-gency procedures should be de-lineated well in at., iance andposted.b. Know the location of the near-est telephone. If it is a pay tele-phone, have the appropriatechange availahle as well as tele-phone numbers needed.

c. If you are outside, considerbringing a first aid kit with you. Ifthe target range is a considerable.

`ance from any phone, per-haps you could obtain a walkie-talkie to call for assistance.d. Have current first aid certifica-tion.

6. Establish clear directions, eitherby voice or by whistle, to begin shoot-ing, to cease fire, and to retrieve arrows.

7. Emphasize that each participantshares the responsibility for safe con-duct of him/herself and of others. Thewarning cry is "hold your arrows!"Teach it and practice it so that there isinstantaneous response.

8. If you wish to have several ar-chers shooting at different distances atthe same time, always move the targets,never the people. Never have morethan one shooting line at any giventime.

9. Assign specific equipment to eachstudent after checking it carefully, par-ticularly arrow length. It is helpful topost the student's names and whichequipment has been assigned for theirfuture reference.

10. Keep all unused tackle locked up.

INDOOR RANGE: CHECKLUT

1. Locate the range away from othersimultaneous activities.

2. Have easy visibility within andaround the area.

3. Any doors to the target rangeshould be closed during class. Postsigns "Archery in progress." It is help-ful it the locks on the doors permitpeople t 10-r..? the area but not to enterit. Unsuspecting people may wanderinto the area and unknowingly becomea target. If possible, have entries limitedto behind the shooting line.

4. Put up an appropriate backdrop tocatch those arrows which miss the tar-get. It can be a specialized archery back-drop curtain or bales of hay.

5. Have clearly marked shootinglines. The archers will straddle the linewhile shooting. A good set-up is to haveone shooting line with targets placed atdifferent distances.

6. Any obstacles or other activityequipment should be removed from thearea.

7. Targets should be mounted se-curely. If target mats are placed on roll-a-way stands, archers should checktheir sturdiness after each end. An un-balanced target of any type could Octforward and injure participants and/orarrows in the target.

8. Post safety rules.

OUTDOOR RANGE: CHECKLIST

1. Use natural terrain when possible.Having a grassy hill behind your targetseases the task of looking for arrows.

2. As much as possible, choose anarea free of obstacles: trees, telephonewires, rocks, goalr/osts, and the like. Aconsiderable area behind the targetsshould also be cleared.

3. Mark the target area well. Rope itoff and post signs. Access to the rangeshould be limited to participants.

4. Have clearly marked shootinglines.

5. Targets should be secured.6. Keep grass mowed well. Long

grass hinders the archer from locatingmissing arrows.

7. Post safety rules.

EQUIPMENT SAFETY

If the archery equipment is kept ingood condition, then chances for acci-dents and injuries lessen, and learningis enhanced. Poorly-maintained equip-ment represents an accident waiting tohappen. Equipment failure can be dueto a manufacturing flaw, abuse, aging,or just plain neglect. It is imperative thatequipment be inspected when pur-chased, before and after each season,and, in some cases, before each endshot. Share this responsibility with thearchers, and the job can be done quicklyand efficiently.

ARROWS: CHECKLIST

1. Any arrow that has a split, crack,or a deep puncture should be destroyedand discarded to prevent its use. Do notshoot damaged arrows.

2. Before each end, check carefully tosee if any arrow that missed the target

ARCHERY 53

was hit by another arrow. Look for apuncture mark and test the arrow's ri-gidity. it the h.)le is too deep, and thearrow begins to crack, destroy the ar-row.

3. Tips and nocks should be whole. Ifnot, some can be removed and replacedwith glue.

4. Blunt tips should be sharpenedcheck with your maintenance depart-ment. Arrows hitting hard objects cancause the tip to be driven into the shaft.If there are any resultant splintering onthe arrow shaft, sand off those splinters.

5. The fletching (feat!_ers) should bewhole and secured. If they are not, itcan cause the feathers to penetrate thebow hand when shot.

6. Students must shoot with theproper length arrow. Too short an ar-row can be overdrawn which is ex-tremely dangerous. Either the arrowcould be shot into the bow hand or, ifdrawn far enough, could hit the insideof the bow and shatter in the archer'sface. It is better to shoot with an arrowthat is a bit too long than one that is tooshort.

7. Excess dried glue around thejeathers should be sanded to avoid anyabrasion (feather cuts) on the bow handas the arrow is released.

BOW SAFETY: CHECKLIST

1. Limber up each bow gradually, if ithas not been used for several days, withgentle quarter or half draws. This re-duces the chances of the bow breakingdue to too much stress too soon.

2. Bows are designed to bend in acertain direction and on a pari.cularplane. When stringing, brace the bowscarefully on the desired plane to avoiddamaging or breaking the bow. Makesure bows are not strung inside out.

3. Before bracing, make sure thestring is secured in the bottom notch.Inspect the bi- w foT splits, tears, cracks,or any suspicious damage. Stress marksin fiberglass bows appear white in color.Stringing a damaged bow can cause thebow to break.

4. As you brace the bow, use suffi-cient pressure on the bow to bend it so

6. 'that you have enough room to move the


string up the bow and not get yourfingers caught. Secure the loop into theupper notch. If the string goes beyondthe bow and comes off, the bow mayrebound into the archer's face.

3. Check the strings for undue wearand tear. Replace them immediatelywi4h strings of proper length that matchthe poundage of the bow.

6. Apply bee's wax to any stringswhich are separated. (Rub with a towelto create heat. Do not put bee's wax onthe serving; use paraffin, if needed.)

7. All bows must be strung to theirproper fistmele, or distance betweenbow and string. Too little can cause asevere wrist slap; t Jo much may resultin a broken bow.

8. Do not go into full draw positionand release without an arrow on thestring. Either the bow or string mightbreak.

CLASS ORGANIZATION:CHECKLIST

1. Wear simple, comfortable cloth-ing. Secure long hair away from theDowstring. Remove bracelets, neck-laces, watches. Bulky articles in shirtpockets such as pens, pencils, and eye-glasses should be removed beforeshooting. Sleeves, sweaters or jacketswhich are pushed up at the bowarmelbow should be smoothed out. Thereleased bowstring could be caught andimpeded by any of the aoove.

2. Flat, rubber-soled shoes are bestfor indoor shooting, not only to protectthe floor, but also to assure a constantheight when shooting. Appropriatefootwear is important when shootingoutdoors. When on a club range, ar-chery golf course, or when hunting,more sturdy shoes are advisable for surefooting and for protection from thorns,underbrush, and poison ivy.

3. Watch students brace their bows.-;e sure they do it correctly. Have themcheck that the bow is not strung inside-out.

4. All arrows must be checked forsafety. (See previous section.)

5. Assign no more than four stu-

dents per target. Check to see that thebows are right-side up.

6. Shooters will straddle the clearlydefined shooting line and will wait forthe signal to begin shooting. Review,also, the warning cry of "Hold YourArrows!" (In field archery, cry "Tim-ber" before shooting.)

7. When finished, all shooters willstep back from the shooting line andwait until the command to retrieve ar-rows has been given. All arrows areretrieved at the same time.

8. Beginning students will tend tosupport their arrow with their bowhandindex finger. Instruct them to wrap thatfinger around the grip before releasingthe string; otherwise, they will experi-er...e a feather cut and impede arrowflig

eginning students will tend toextend or to hyperextend their bow armelbow. Unless they turn that elbowslightly out, the string will slap theelbow and/or get caught on the top ofthe arm guard.

10. All shooters should wear armguards and finger tabs or gloves toprotect them from string slap or stringabrasion. Check to see that they are onthe correct arms and hands.

11. Avoid using high-poundagebows at short distances, as the arrowswill tend to go through the target, caus-ing damage to the arrow and to thetarget.

12. Never point an arrow at anyone.Nock and draw arrow only in the direc-tion of the target.

13. Shou!cl an arrow fall from thebow in front of the shooting line, thearcher may attempt to retrieve it w:ththe bow. If he/she cannot reach it, it isconsidered a shot. Shooters may neverstep in front of the shooting line toretrieve any arrow unless the commandto retrieve has been given.

14. If an arrow is hanging from thetarget, cease fire. Have the student in-sert the arrow properly into the target.Should it be left hanging, it br'comes atarget itself and could become dam-aged.

62

15. Inexperienced shooters tend tooverdraw. Bows are designed to bepulled a certain distance. If they arecr% '.drawn, injury could result: the bowcan break; the arnw can break againstthe belly of the bow; or the arrow can beshot into the bow hand. Emphasize thecorrect anchor pint.

16. All students must shoot from thesame line. If you wish different dis-tances, move the targets, not the peo-ple.

17. Bow hands too high on the gripcan be too close tc the arrow rest. Whenthe arrow is released, feather cuts canresult.

18. Remind students of the sharedresponsibility for safety. If they see any-thing unusual they should call out"Hold Your Arrows!" immediately.Once the situation is corrected, the sig-nal to resume firing may be given by theinstructor.

RETRIEVAL: CHECKLIST

1. No one will retrieve his/her ar-rows until the command is given.

2. One person, the target captain,should remove the arrows carefully. Allothers should stand away to avoid be-ing poked by the withdrawn arrow.

3. Arrows driven into the target sothat the feathers are wholly or partiallycovered should be retrieved by pullingfrom behind the target. Those buried ingrass should he pulled from the tin endto avoid further feather damage.

4. Control arrows by holding thetips down. Fan out the arrows slightlyto prevent feather damage.

5. Do not run with any archery tackle.6. No one should return from

his/her target until all arrows at thattarget have been located. This is bothfor safety and for courtesy.

7. Looking for lost arrows outside inthe grass can be difficult, particularly ifthey are buried. Advise students tokeep track of approximate locations ofmissed arrows.

8. Back at the shooting line, havethe students check all their arrows forsplits, cracks, blunt tips, splinters,

ARCHERY 55

punctures, missing nocks. Replacethose arrows immediately. If outside,wipe moisture and dirt from arrowsbefore shooting again.

9. Count your shooters. Make sureall have returned before firing again. Ifalone on the range, lean your bowagainst the front of the target as a signalyou are up there looking for arrows.

10. Never stand and instruct from infront of the shooting line when studentshave arrows flocked.

11. Allow no horseplay, running, orloud noises on an archery range. Shoot-ing safety is serious business.

EQUIPMENT CARE: CHECKLIST

1. Hang bows up, unstrung, whennot in use or place in bow cases. It ishelpful to group bows by poundage.

2. Arrows should be stored verticallyand separately, to prevent warping ordamage to feathers. Store arrows bylength for easy reference.

3. Keep all tackle in a cool, dry place.4. Periodically, wax the string with

bee's wax and the serving with paraffin.5. Wooden bows and arrows can be

cleaned with Butcher's wax. Fiberglassequipment needs to be wiped with aclean, damp cloth and then wiped dry.

6. Treat leather tackle with any stan-dard leather cleaner/preservative.

7. Keep all tackle locked up when notin use.

8. Dry the matts before storing.

REFERENCES

Klann, Margaret L. (1970). Target archery.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publish-ing Company.

McKinney, Wayne C. (1985). Archery. Du-buque, IA. William C. Brown Publishers.

Niemeyer, Roy K. (1967). Beginning archery,2nd edition. Belmont, CA: WadsworthPublishing Company.

Pszcola, Lorraine. (1984). Archery. NewYork: Saunders College Publishirg.

Rowe, Ruth E. and Bowers, Julia H. (1983).Aichery. In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physicaleducation and sport for the seco, Lary schoolstudent (pp. 35-44). Reston, VA: TheAmerican Alliance for Health, PhysicalEducation, Recreation and Dance.

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CHAPTER 6

Basketball

JAMES E. BRYANT

San Jose State UniversitySan Jose, CA

14

i

58 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY :1\1 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

B asketball is an American game, andas such, has earned a reputation as

an easy, safe game that everyvody knowshow to play. In reality, there are count-less :`.-uclents who really don't knowhow to play the game skillfully andsafely, and that situation creates poten-tial problems.

Basketball requires physical stamina,speed, strength, explosive leg power,agility, and gracefulness. It is a nJn-contact sport with the potential for ex-tensive physical contact. Playing on ahard surface in a confined space alwaysinvolves a certain degree of risk. Theextent of that risk is determined in part,however, by the instnictor's skill in thesupervision of students as they engagein the basketball activity. The ability ofthe instructor to select appropriate skillexperiences for the student is essential.A logical class lesson with learning pro-gressions must be developed and imple-mented. Finally, the environmentalconditions must be controlled to mini-mize risk.

It is imperative that the physical edu-cation instructor has both a knowledgeof the mechanics of basketball and anappreciation of the risks associated withthe activity. The instructor must be in aposition to anticipate safety problemsand to plan strategies that wili eliminateor reduce potentially serious situations.

SUPERVISION

A typical basketball class will consistof 25 to 40 students in a gymnasiumfacility that includes a 50' x 84' basket-ball floor. The facility can be furtherdivided to accommodate game play byusing the width of the court rather thanthe length, yielding a court size of 42' x50'. The role of the instructor is toprovide safe supervision for each stu-dent in that confined space. Strategiesassociated with the quality of supervi-sion, the form of organization and con-trol required, and effective planning areidentified below.

65

QUALITY OF SUPERVISION

The quaFty of supervision of a basket-ball class requires that the instructorhave a knowledge of the following.

1. The mechanics of basketball. It is im-portant that the instructor understandhow correct execution maintains a safeparticipation experience for all students.

2. Skill progression. The instructormust be knowledgeable enough to placeskill acquisition experiences in perspec-tive through a well designed andthought out progression.

3. Student readiness. The instruct-1rmust comprehend :he wide variety orreadiness levels of students and be ca-pable of placing each student in a safeenvironment.

4. Student capabilities. The instructormust understand the student from aphysiological, psychological and psy-chomotor perspective.

5. Student I;ehavior. The instructormust encourage behavior that will en-able the class to operate in a safe andefficient manner.

6. Injuries associated with basketball. Theinstructor should have a backgroundthat permits recognition and first aidtreatment of injuries, as well as an un-derstanding of their causes and theirseriousness. This background shouldinclude the following common problemareas:

blisters and the treatment and pre-vention of blisterscalluses and the treatment of thecallussprains and the treatment and pre-vention of a spraineye injuriesfinger injuries (e.g. jammed fingers)trauma injuries

Quality supervision also requires thatthe instructor sense the "messages ofthe gym." An example of this would berecognizing the potential for alterca-tions between students, due to frustra-tion, the t..--thysical contact that occurs inbasketball or their general behavior. Theinstructor must create, enforce, andmodify rules based on the physical,

psychological, and emotional readinessof the students.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL

The organization and control of a bas-ketball class also centers on the skills ofthe instructor. Following are require-ments for maintaining this aspect ofsupervision.

1. The instructor must always main-tain a visual and physical presence witheach student. It is not acceptable tosimply be in the area. There must beinteraction with the students in theclass, and the instructor must establisha position in the basketball area so thatthe total class can be observed evenwhen he/she is working with a singlestudent or a small group.

2. The instructor must develop a setof safety rules to be distributed to stu-dents and posted. In addition, thesesafety rules must be conveyed verballyto siudents on a regular basis. Theserules should include:

no one may engage in a basketballactivity r.nless the instructor is pres-entall basketballs are to be removedfrom the playing court area andplaced on the ball racks unless be-ing used by a studentbasketball shoes are to be worn dur-ing classabusive use of elbows and otherforms of illegal contact are not per-mitted by basketball rules and willnot be tolerated in class

PLANNING

Planning of a basketball class is cru-cial to the safety of all students. Plan-ning should include the following.

1. A detailed lesson plan must be devel-oped for each instructional cla s. Theplan should relate directly to the day'sclass and specify safety strategies relat-ed to that class period.

2. A lesson plan should reflect an effortto provide a well supervised situationthat would include the identification of:

organized teaching stations that

BASKETBALL 59

provide supervision and assistancefor students practicing skills.logical progression. As an example,blocking out when reboundingshould precede simply going to thebasket and attempting to jump upand rebound the ball.proper varm up and cool downactivities based on the most recentapplied exercise physiology re-search.organized drips that are designedfor the particular age and skill levelof the class. These drills shouldreflect the elimination of situationsthat would create a frustration levelleading to physical altercations.an instnrtional experience de-signed to enhance learning withoutfear of injury. Elimination of drillswhich place students in jeopardy(e.g. loose ball drills have a poten-tial for injury beyond the norm, andshould be controlled or eliminated.Rebound drills have risks, and play-ing five-on-five half-court basket-ball also has a greater potential forinjury than a reduced number).specific instructions on the execu-tion of a drill or the play situation.A good example would be the needfor definitive directions to describethe path players should run duringa drill in order to avoid collisions(e.g. running a fast break drill downcourt mu then returning to the startin an organized fashion by runningon the outside of the sidelines).

SELECTION AND CONDUCT OFTHE ACTIVITY

The instructor's ability to select theproper class content and develop thesafest possible experience for the stu-dent is dependent on several variables.These variables are bases on the stu-dent's maturation level, ability level,and readiness.

Maturation level is of extreme impor-tance in a basketball class environment.In a class with a variety of physical sizes(i.e. height, weight, and age) the poten-

66


tial for injury increases. Following aresome examples of how to reduce thepotential for injury through grouping.

1. Group based on height, weight and age.One method of grouping requires theestablishment o; a component systemthat assigns a point value to each sizefactor which then provides a balance forany learning experience the studentmay be involved in during class (e.g. allstudents with a component value of 20-24 are placed in a grouping, 25-29 inanother grouping, etc.).

2. Select instructional experiences thatmeet the maturation level of the student.Using a drill that requires a student toexceed his or her physical capabilitiescan result II. injury (e.g. a 5'2" studentplaced in a rebound Grill with a 6'1"student places both students in jeop &rdy).

The ability level of a student is also ofimportance and needs to be consideredwhen planning a basketball class. Mix-ing highly skilled students with lessskilled students can create a safety prob-lem. Again, grouping is needed, partic-ularly if a class with mixed ability levelsis assigned, rather than designatedclasses of beginning basketball, inter-mediate basketball, and advanced bas-ketball. Two methods of reducing safetyproblems 3ciated with ability levelsare:

ability group by balancing the skilllevel of each group during drills orplay situations

ability group by separating skill lev-els of each group (i.e. highest skilllevel in one group, next highestskill level in another group, etc.).

Within any ability grouping the in-structor needs to instill in the studentsan attitude of responsibility for one an-other. Highly skilled players need to beaware of their peers who are lessskilled, and learn to serve as a mentorduring instruction rather than attemptto dominate a learning situation. Thiscan lead to a reduction of injuries.

Student readiness is also of impor-tance. A basketball class may have stu-

dents not only with a variety of skilllevels, but also various levels of motorreadiness, interest, and motivation.Safety concerns associated with motorreadiness include the following.

1. Stressing of body awareness. Basket-ball requires extensive jumping andmovement skills. Students must oftenbe taught how to be aware of what tneyare capable of doing. They need to beaware of their surroundings: wherethey are on the floor, how close they areto other players, and where they aresupposed to be during a given circum-stance.

2. Stressing of how to fall properly. Forexample, if the student is knockeddown when re pounding under the bas-ket or falls while dnbiAirg the ball downthe court, the student needs to be at anappropriate readiness level to avoidmost injuries in those situations.

3. Awareness of the physical fitness levelof students and the selection of appropri-ate skill experiences that match fitnesslevels.

Safety concerns related to student in-terest or motivation also must be con-sidered when teaching basketball.These considerations include the fol-lowing.

1. Assisting students on how to deal withfears associated with basketball. Thosefears include fear of failure, resulting intentativeness on the court which cancontribute to injury, not only to thestudent with the fear but other studentsas well.

2. Reduction of the pressures. The pres-sure of performing and possibly failingin a game situation is severe and shouldbe controlled. Remember, that "every-one is supposed to know how to playbasketball" and it is embarrassing not toperform well. Another example of pres-sure reduction is the elimination of theneed to excel on a skill test as therequisite for a "good grade."

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

There o-e a variety of environmentalconditions that affect the safety of abasketball class. These environmental

6 7,

conditions are related to the facility andthe equipment used. Being aware ofthese environmental conditions andeliminating those that have potential tobe a safety problem is of extreme impor-tance.

Facility requirements to meet safetystandards are listed below.

1. There must be buffer zones be-tween teaching stations and playing ar-eas. Players who are concentrating onthe skill or the game will pursue a looseball Into an adjacent court. A bufferzone of at least six feet must separatecourts to avoid collisions.

2. Large padded mat should be af-fixed to the wall behind every baselineof a basketball court. Typically, thereare pads behind the baseline of regula-tion courts, but seldom are there padsbehind the makeshift baselines of courtswhere students play the width of thecourt. These areas are actually the side-lines of the reglAlation court and areoften ignored. Pads must be placed be-hind these makeshift baselines as well.

3. Padding on the bottom of rectangu-lar backboards is needed to eliminate aninjury when a student with excellentjumping ability jumps and risks hittingpart of the body on the bottom of thebackboard.

4. Break away rims should be in-stalled and maintained. A break a, ,'ayrim dramatically reduces the potentialof a glass backboard shattering. Thistype of rim also eliminates any jumpingup and hanging on a rim.

5. Nets for the basket must be in goodrepair.

6. Floors rust be cleaned on a period-ic basis. Both hardwood and syntheticsurfaces should be cleaned of dirt on aperiodic basis during the day just as thefloor is swept at half-time of an inter-scholastic contest. Also, wet surfacesshould be dried immediately with tow-els.

7. All obstacles ,And equipmentshould be placed away from the basket-ball teaching area. Examples of theseobstacles and equipment are:

basketballs randomly strewn on thefloor

68

BASKETBALL 61

gymnastics apparatus or otherphysical education equipment lo-cated in proximity to the instruc-tional area (even padded and se-cured apparatus belong in an areaaway from a basketball instructionalarea)non-class students wanderingthrough the instructional areashirts and other clothing tossed onthe court in proximity to the in-structional area

Equipment requirements associatedwith the instruction of a safe basketballclass include the following.

1. Protection of the students' eyesthrough the wearing of safety glasses.This is highly recommended to reduceeye injuries that may include detachedretinas.

2. Protection of teeth by the use ofmouth guards. Again, this is a preven-tive piece of equipment that is highlyrecommended to avoid permanentdamage to teeth.

3. To avoid scratches that could devel-op infection, it is advisable that nails betrimmed and that jewelry that mightalso harm the wearer or participant beremoved by the student (e.g., rings,bracelets, etc.).

4. Basketball shoes help to preventserious ankle and foot injuries. It shouldbe requireu that a barl!?tball shoe beworn in a basketball class, and a recom-mendation of appropriate shoes shouldbe made. There are at least 3 qualitybasketball shoes produced that reduceminor ankle and foot injuries. A goodbasketball shoe has:

a high collar on the high top shoe.a Y band, which is a leather straparound the ankle that holds theankle in the shoea heel counter that reinforces theankle as the ankle rolls in and out.a full air mid sole that absorbs shocka wide base of the sole that preventsminor ankle sprains.

Students should be informed of theadvances in the shoe industry and en-couraged to select a shoe that has the:..:features.

62 PRINCIPLES OF SAFFIY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

CONCLUSION

There are potential hazards in basket-ball, and with each hazard, there is apreventive safety measure. Proper plan-ning, anticipation of potential safetyproblems, and capable supervision bythe instructor will , I contribute to a safeenvironment for students ,,-.,drticipatingin a basketball class.

REFERENCE

Doane, G. (1983). Basketball In N.J. Dou-gherty (Ed.), Physical Education and Sportfor the Secondary School Student (pp. 63-75).Reston, VA: The American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance.

69

CHAPTER 7

Coed Flag Football

MARYANN DOMITROVITZThe Pennsylvania State University

State College, PA

e

At

8

i

F: PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION Als D SPORT

he popularity of the game of foot-ball is not only reflected by the

attendance at high school, college, andprofessional games, but also by its fre-quent appearance in the physical educa-tion curriculum. Although in physicaleducation classes the game appears in amodified version such as flag football,the skills and strategies inherent in for '-ball, exclusive of physical contact, app.yequally to flag football.

Prior to participation in this activity, itis imperative that students differentiatebetween the game as played with pro-tective equipment and that played withflags. Further, since some aspect of thegame can appear from the elementarylevel through the senior high schoollevel, it is critical that the skill level andthe physical differences and capabilitiesof the students are kept in mind whendesigning the unit and lesson plans. Inmany situations the activity classes arecoeducational, therefore, this musi alsobe a consideration when selectingand programming skills, progress'ons,drills, lead-up games, and the regula-tion game.

The attention to appropriate equip-ment must also be deliberate. The size,weight and composition of the footballwill vary from the modified equipmentappropriate for the elementary level tothe regulation football appropriate forthe high school student.

Because students may be unaware ofor ignore the potential for injury in thisactivity, it is imperative that a safe learn-ing and playing environment be a ain-tained. Although the correct executionof the activity skills and their applica-tion in practice or game play is a priori-ty, enforcement of the rules of the gameis of the utmost importance. Inconsis-tency in officiating and rule interpreta-tion or enforcement, particularly withthe non-contact rules, has the potentialto contribute to a wide range of injuries.The supervision must be of the highestquality.

The impact that daily use and theweather have on the activity area mustalso be taken into consideration. Aninspection of the playing field to deter-

mine its suitability for class must beregulnly scheduled. Bare spots, rocks,holes, glass, and obstructions nearboundaries are hazards to safe playingconditions and must be removed beforeapproval fl r use is issued.

Although attention to each of theaforementioned is essential, perhapsthe most important in,,,ret nt is theselection of a qualified and conscien-tious physical educator who is knowl-edgeable and qualified to teach the ac-tivity and who will devote the Time andeffort necessary to provide a safe andenjoyable experience for the students.

CONDUCT OF ACTIVITY

Prior to designing a unit for coed flagfootball it is essential to identify the skilland ability level of the students forwhom the unit is planned. This is aconsideration that must be dealt withnot only in the preparation of the unitplan, but with each daily lesson as well.One question that must be asked is,"Do these students possess the qualitiesnecessary to allow them to safely andsuccessfully participate in this lesson?"

The following checklist has been com-piled to assist in the development of asafe and successful plan.

1. Assess the abilities of the class.Do they possess the skill level to allowtht n to participate in the day's activity?

2. Assess the physical attributes ofthe class. Organize the distribution ofparticipants for equitable practice andcompetition.

3. Develop your unit pl. n and les-son plans with cognitive, psychomotor,and affective objectives.

4. Develop content appropriate forthe age and skill level of the pc_: tici-pants.

5. Organize yuir activity so all di-rectional flow is similar. ( Example: allstudents throwing in the same direc-tion.)

6. Allow adequate distance betweendrill groups when accuracy and execu-tion may not be consistent. (Example:punting.)

7/..

7. Consider the direction of thewind in drills when the ball will bethrown and kicked.

8. Be aware of the location of thesun in drills involving catching andtracking the football.

9. Emphasize the rules interpreta-tion for the day's activity.

10. Demonstrate, describe, and teachthe correct skill technique and providefeedback to the students regarding theirexecution.

11. Remind students of boundariesand limitations of the drill, leadup, orregulation game.

12. Review your expectations for thelesson.

To help you develop and organizeyour unit or lesson plan, the chart infigure i may be of assistance. The threelevels can be interpreted as beginning,intermediate, and advanced skill orknowledge.

The use of the chart for each activityclass should enable you t ev late theclass and modify your lessons accord-ingly. Suggested drills and ..ctivities forthe individual skills may be found inPhysical Education and Sport for theSecondary School Student (Domitrovitz,1983).

SUPERVISION

The importance of proper supervisioncannot be overly emphasized, particu-larly wiCi an activity such as coed flagfootball. To insure the needed supervi-sion for he lesson, it is imperative thatthe physical educator be well organizedand prepared. Following is a checklistthat should assist the planning andpreparation of the lesson with particularemphasis on supervision.

1. Specify the area where the classshould meet.

2. Establish a procedure for dispens-ing equipment.

3. Organize the warm-ups, drills,lead-ups, etc., so all the activity will bewithin your field of vision.

4. Establish a pattern of rotation soinstruction and specific supervision ca

2

COED FLAG FOOTBALL 65

take place without hindering your vi-sion of other activity areas.

5. Determine if the student behaviorin the activity is what you had intendedand initiate coti,_^tive action where ap-propriate.

6. Observe the offir4- ling and correctany improper interpretation or enforce-ment of the rules.

7. Specify a pn-cedure for dismissal.Check to see that the area has beenvacated by all students.

ENVIRONMENTAL ANDSAFETY CONDITIONS

Prim to any activity, it is imperativethat a procedure be established for theinspection, maintenance and reportingof hazards. This inspection should oc-cur on a regular basis and any reportedhazard must be attended to beforegranting permission for resumption ofthe use of the facility or equipment.

The following checklists have beencompiled to assist in the inspection ofthe f. -ility, the equipment, and properactivity attire.

EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST

1. Inspect the condition of the flagsand belts and repair when necessary.

2. Inspect the condition of the foot-balls.

3. Order a variety of sizes and typesof footballs to accommodate the variouslevels of ability.

4. Inspect all markers and determinewhether they are safe for the activity.

5 Gather and place unus.xl equip-ment off the tieki of play and a safedistance from the activity area.

6. Collect all equipment at the con-clusion of the cla- and store it in asecure space.

FACILITY CHECKLIST

1. Inspect the fields for holes, glass,poles, sprinklers, and obstructions.

2. Inspect the turf for suitability ofplay.

3. Lay out adjacent fields with en-ough space between fields to minimize


Class (Gr..-23 & Period)

Number of Students. Girls. Boys

Overall Ability Level: I , II , i:I

Skills/Knowledges Level I Level II Level III Safety Rules

1. Rules

2. Body Control

3. Blocking/Screening

4. Passing

5. Receiving

6. Place Kicking

7. Punting

8. Center-1g

9. Tagging

10. Lead-ups

11. Ball Carrying

12. Bail Handling

13. Regulation Game

14. Team Offense

15. Team Defense

r

I

Skii. Exceptions (List students of extreme levels of skill)

High Low

1 1.

1 2

3. 3

4. 4

5. 5.

Fig. 1. Class ability levels can be recorded for reference

73

the potential for collision between par-ticipants on neighboring activity areas.

PARTICIPANT CHECKLIST

1. Check for proper footwear. Do notallow metal cleats.

2. Check for students weanng glassesand provide appropriate glass guards.

3. Stress the rules governing play forthe day's activity. Reinforce the non-contact rule.

4. Assign appropriate stretchir.g ex-ercises for the weather conditions andthe activity to be presented.

5. Establish a procedure for the re-porting and treatment of injuries sus-tained in the activity.

If the necessa ,. attention is devotedto (a) the condu.., of the activity, (b) thesupervision, and (c) the environmentaland safety conditions, the inclusion ofcoed flag football in the physical educa-tion curriculum should allow for enjoy-able participation that is relatively freefrom injuries and incidents.

COED FLAG FOOTBALL 67

REFERENCES

Bayless, M and Adams, S H. (1985). Aliability checklist. JOPERD, 2, 49.

Bucher, C A. and Koenig, C. R. (1983)Methods and materials for secondary schoolphysical education (6th ed.). St Lows, M&C. V. Mosby

Domitrovitz, M. (1983). Coed Flag Football.In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical educationand sport for the secondary school student (pp.115-126). Reston, VA: The American Alli-ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation and Dance.

Dougherty, N. J. and Bonanno, D. (1979).Contemporary approaches to the teaching ofphysical education. Minneapolis, MN. Eur-gess.

Henderson, D H. (1985). Physical educa-tion teachers: How do I sue thee? Oh, letme count the ways! JOPERD, 2, 44-48.

Siedentop, D., Mand, C , and Taggart, A.(1986). Physical education, teaching and cur-riculum strategies for grades 5-12. Palo Alto,CA: Mayfield

Vanderzwaag, H. J. (1984). Sport managementin schools and colleges New York: JohnWiley and c,ans.

74

CHAPTER 8

Dance

LYNNE FITZGERALD

Morehead State UniversityMorehead, KY

75

70 PRINCiPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Fr he variety of programs that fall un-der the label of "dance" is ever

expanding. Most recently, the newdance-fitness form has emerged, per-meating our culture and renewingAmericas' interest in exercise. Manyschools have now added some versionof dance-fitness to their already estab-lished folk, square, social, modern,jazz, and afro-american dance curricula.With these new programs and renewedinterest, physical educators are provid-ed with an excellent opportunity to re-evaluate all of the programs in thedance curriculum.

Some questions need to be addressedin the planning stages of any new danceprogram. Are th 2 members of the physi-cal education department prepared todesign and teach a quality dance-fitnessprogram? Do they understand the con-cepts and principles of fitness, and theworkout framework options? Is anyonecertified? Has a sa.e program, whichwill promote positive learning opportu-nities for the students, been construct-ed? Physical educators today are beingheld accountable for their teaching, andmust be able to demonstrate responsibleplanning and decision making in theevent of an accident or injury. It mayseem that dance is not a high risk activi-ty, yet muscles do get strained, anklesget sprained, toes broken, and feet blis-t' 'cl. These kinds of injuries are corn-, to dance, but can be controlled bytaking responsibility for the safety as-pects of each dance program.

Our task, therefore, is twofold. First,we must increase our awareness of thesupervisory concerns of the dance pro-gram; and second, we must clarify ourobligation to carefully sehct and con-struct dance activities to be taught in asafe learning environment. A teacherwho addresses each of these concernsby meeting and maintaining the stan-dards set forth in this chapter can signif-icantly reduce the risk of accidents.

SUPERVISION

Dance, like all other forms of phys. 'alactivity, requires the instructor to take

responsibility for both general and spe-cific supervisory concerns. In general,the teacher of dance must be preparedto teach a variety of skills and move-ment patterns as they relate to theframework of a particular dance form.More specifically, the teacher of dance isresponsible for presenting a wellplanned prouram in a safe and positivelearning environment. Following is achecklist which should be referred to inthe planning and evaluation of the su-pervisory aspects of dance programs.

TEACHER PREPARATION ANDADEQUATE SUPERVISION

A. Content. Those aspects of danceone must be aware of, fully understand,and be able to communicate and ac-count for:

1. The movement skills.2. The movement and rhythmicqualities and characteristics asso-ciated with a dance pattern orform.3. The movement principles thatare used to support effective, effi-cient, and safe learning.4. Specific techniques or methodsthe 4- are used to enhance the learn-ing process.5. The movement, dame, and/orfitness concep s that must be clari-fied and fulfilled.6. The specific nature of commondance injuries and the first aidtreatment prescribed for these in-juries

B. Individual readiness. A teachermust know his or her students:

1. Their physical, mental, andemotional potential and character-istics.2. The relationship between theirabilities, goals, and images ofthemselves.3 Any specific medical or learn-ing disabilities or problems whichmight affect a student's progress.

C. The environment. To provide a safelearning context, a teacher must be fa-miliar with:

1. The care and maintenance pro-7 6- cedures for a dance facility.

2. The principles of equipmentand prop maintenance and use.

GENERAL ORGANIZATION ANDADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES

A. An instructor must be in thedance facility during the entire class.Leaving the dance facility, for any rea-son, regardless of duration or proximi-ty, would be negl; -nt.

B. An instructor must position himor herself so that the entire class cart bewithin his or her field of vision, evenwhen offering corrections or feedback toa single student or small group.

C. When using audio-visual equip-ment, the instructor must continue toprovide supervision for the class.

D. The instructor must be constantlyaware of the individual student's safetyas the whole class moves throughspace, performing imposed movementpatterns or solving creative dance prob-lems.

E. The boundaries of a designatedsafe area of the dance facility must beestablished.

F. The instructor must be clear aboutthe direction, pattern, starting and end-ing points of each movement beingtaught. This helps to organize studentseffectively and reduce the number ofcareless collisions, as well as increasingthe students' potential to move fully in asafe environment.

G. A clear set of procedures to befollowed in the event of an emergencyor accicient should he established. Theinstructor must:

1. Communicate these to the stu-dents.2. Run through the procedureswith the students so that theyunderstand their responsibility.This is particularly important ifthe students are very young and/or cannot read.3. Post a list of the procedures,stated in clear and simple terms.

LESSON PLANS

A. Construct a detailed lesson planfor each class period. Account for con-tent development, organization, and

77

DANCE 71

the use of support systems. Eliminatethe need to impiovise!

B. The lesson plan should clarifyspecific methods to be used to increasethe students' awareness of themselvesand their position in space relative toothers as they dance.

C. The lesson plan should identifyand clarify specific movement risks orenvironmental hazards, as well as themethods to be used to eliminate theseelements.

SELECTION AND CONDUCTOF THE ACTIVITY

Conduct refers to the decisions ateacher makes in regard to the organiza-tion and presentation of all aspects of adance class. Selection refers to the proc-ess of determining, for example, whichdance forms and what content areas areto be addressed in the framework ofeach dance for n. The scope of decisionsmade in regard to conduct and selectionin dance activities is broad Two generalcategories serve as the organizir g centerfor this section: a) general concerns, thatis, those principles which should beconsidered in the selection, planning, orconduct of any dance activ ,i; and b)specific concerns, those factors whichshould be addressed when teaching aspecific dance form. The followingguidelines should be followed whenplanning and presenting a safe and suc-cessful dance experience for all stu-dents.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

A. Program selection.1. Identify a clear purpose foreach dance activity so that eachhas a clear role in the curriculum.2. Be sure instructors are quali-fied to devc lop and teach eachdance activity included in the cur-riculum.

B. Planning. A clear, well organized,and thorough plan will improve one'seffectiveness, reduce or t.- -ninate theneod to improvise, and if necessary,p-ovide documents for a liability de-fense.


1. Identify a specific goal or pur-pose for each class. These shouldreflect the goals for the dance ac-tivity.2. State objectives which will clify the specific intentions of theactivity.3. The dance activity contentwarmup, cool down, skill devel-opment, improvisation, dancemaking, etc.should be designedto fulfill the intentions of the ob-jectives.4. Methodologies should be se-lected according to the learningprocess which will promote a pos-itive, informative, and safe learn-ing experience for the students.5. Specify movement pathwaysdirection, level, facing, tempo,and any other element whichmight need to be clarified to as-sure the safe movement of stu-dents through space.6. Identify options. Students withlearning disabilities may need tohave a choice in regard to themovement itself, speed of execu-tion, goal.;, etc. By planning alter-natives, the teacher can providedisabled students with movementchoices that will allow them toparticipate fully and safely indance activities.7. The level of thi teacher's ex-pectation and his or her system ofevaluation should account forboth the students' growth and thequality of their performance. Thiswill allow students to develop attheir own rate and provide themwith clear goals, enhancing theirlevel of personal safety and suc-cess in dance.

C. The studer' Identify the level ofunderstanding, ability, and awarenessthat each student has in 're followingdance movement categoric s. This infor-mation will help the teacher to providestudents with a positive dance experi-ence because they will be prepared tosafely explore, learn, and create move-ment in carefully considered c'anceframeworks.

1. Motor skillthe level of readi-ness and ability to perform thebasic locomotor, non-locomotor,and movement skills inherent indance activity.2. Body awarenessunderstand-ing one's ability, limitations, andtendencies -s a dancer.3. Movement principlesunder-standing and ability to embodythe conditions associated with thefollowing will promote the effi-cient and safe use of the bodywhen dancing: centering, ground-ing, balance, landing, and align-ment.4. Spatial awarenessan under-standing of self as a moverthrough shared space which hasnatural or prestated movementboundaries.5. Comprehension levelunder-standing the terms, concepts, andcharacteristic movement frame-works inherent in the dance activ-ity.

D. Personal safety. Monitor students'preparation for each class. Students willbe ready to dance safely if these policieshave been accounted for and followed:

1. Footwearrequire appropriatefootwear for the dance activity.Account for the conditions in theenvironment and the specialneeds of any students when mak-ing decisions about footw' ar.2. Attireclothing should benon-restrictive so that the studentcan breathe and move fully. Lay-ers of clothing should be worn sostudents can adjust the amount ofclothes they are wearing accord-ing to the temperature of theirbodies. ever heating or being coldcan create personal health andsafety problems when dancing.3. jewelry sharp, dangling, orprotruding objects should be re-moved because these are poten-tially harmful to the dancer.4. Gum and candy should not beallowed.5. Long hair should be tied back.6. Glasses should be secured to78

the student's head so they don'tfall off when bending or turning.

DANCE FORM SPECIFICCONSIDERATIONS

A. Dance -k' tness Activities.1. Pre-screen students to deter-mine their level of fitness.2. Each student should be in-formed about his or hei fitnesslevel and be supported in the clar-ification of appropriate personaldance fitness goals.3. Plan for a warmup, workout,and cool down segment for eachclass period.4. Clarify personal options asthese pertain to the intensity, fre-quency, duration, and move-ments selected for the dance as-pects of each class. Informed stu-dents can monitor their ownsafety when the choices are clear.5. Continually scan the studentsas they move and make personalcorrections when a student ismoving in a way that is not struc-turally sound.

B. Folk, square, and social forms.1. Warm students up.2. Introduce new dance skills pri-or to the teaching of a dance.Students will feel more able toperform a dance when they arefamiliar with all the movementelements of that dance.3. Orient students to the move-ment patterns inherent in a specif-ic dance. This will reduce the levelof confusion and therefore thenumber of collisions.4. Each student should know hisor her role and the related move-ment responsibilities te.g., leadcouple).5. When using a musical record-ing, identify starting cues and in-troduce listening techniques sostudents can effectively executethe c ce in relation to the music.6. Provide students with a cue%..hich can be used to stop a part-ner, square, line, or circle whenconfusion occurs. This will reduce

DANCE 73

the number of accidents that re-sult from moving when disorient-ed or confused.

C. Art forms: ballet, modern dance, jazz,afro-american dance.

1. Orient students for the day'sdance activity by presenting themwith a warmup which will pre-pare them to succeed physically,emotionally, and mentally.2. Be sure the technical aspects ofthe movement and dance skillsare demonstrated and performedcorrectly.3. The development of each classshould be progressively sound.4. When teaching a complex orlong dance sequence or pattern,ask students to "mark" throughthe sequence first so they have anunderstanding of all its parts priorto performing it in its entirety.5. Identify any typical problemareas in a sequence or in a stu-dent's performance so they canmonitor themselves as they move,enhancing their potential to dancefully and safely.6. BE prepared to modify a taskfor any or all students who havedifficulty understanding or doinga dance task so Al have an oppor-tunity to participate and succeedat their own level.7. Clarify any specific movementqualities or characteristics the stu-dents are expected to fulfillthrough their dance.

ENVIRONMENT

There are two general areas of re-sponsibility which must be fulfilledwhen providing students with a safeand positive dance learning environ-ment. First, the facility in which thedance classes are conducted must bewell maintained. Second, the equip-ment, for example, audio-visual or anyprops being used, must be mechanicallysound and safe. The following guide-lines are provided to help the teacherplan for an maintain a safe environment

,Jor97

a dance program.


FACILITY

A. The condition of the floor1. Is it clean? This is especiallyimportant when students dance inbare feet.2. The floor must be free fromsplinters, cracks, chips, or holes.If any of these conditions exist,the spec is area(s) should bemarked off. If the general condi-tion of the floor is bad, danceshoes should be worn at all timesand dance activities should bemodified appropriately.3. The floor surface should be re-silient, and have some "give." Ifthe floor is hard (wood or tile overcemer.i), the amount of jumping,hopping, running, and leapingthat the students are asked to per-form should be reduced or elimi-nated. This will reduce the poten-tial for such problems as shinsplints and the leg, foot, and an-kle injuries which result fromstress induced by dancing on ahard floor surface.4. Check the floor for sticky orslippery conditions. The instruc-tor should test the floor with eachkind of acceptable dance foot-wear. Extremely slippery or stickyfloors are dangerous and may in-terfere with performance success.Account for these conditionswhen planning by either adjust-ing performance speed or themovement elements of a dancepattern.

B. Other considerations.1. Whenever possible, move allunnecessary equipment off thedance floor or out of the area. Ifthis is not possible, move theequipment to one side of the facili-ty, pad and/or mark off the area.Make sure that students recognizethe boundaries of the safe dancingarea.2. Note extremes in temperature.When a facility is extremely hot orcold, modifications of the warm-up, cool down, and intensity or

duration of the activity may bewarranted.

EQUIPMENT

A. Audio-visual aids are often used inconjunction with dance programs. Theinstructor must take responsibility forthe following:

1. The record player, tape deck,and video equipment should be ingood working order.2. The plugs for the equipmentand the outlets in the facilityshould be electrically sound andin good working order.3. The instructor must be trainedto operate the equipment safelyand effectively.4. Operation of the -'udio- visualequipment is the sole responsibil-ity of the instructor, unless a stu-dent has been specifically trainedfor this duty.5. Be prepared with an alternativelesson plan. Mechanical problemsare unpredictable.6. Class time should not be spentin honing an instructor's equip-ment skills or making repairs.Proper supervision of studentscannot be given if all the teacher'sattention is on the equipment.

B. Props and performance items.1. When using props, be sure thatall students are clear about howand when they are to be used.2. Make sure that students under-stand the proper ways to handleand move props. Accidents andinjuries can occur when props aremisused.3. Inspect all props (e.g. tiniklingor bamboo poles) prior to use.Any damaged equipment shouldbe eliminated or repaired beforestudents are allowed to handle it.

CONCLUSION

The suggestions made in this chapterhave been presented as guidelines tosupport the teacher's efforts to providea safe learning experience and environ

stunt for the dance program. Meeting

and maintaining these standards willhelp to reduce the risks associated withdance. Students who feel safe will feelmore comfortable, and therefore will bemore likely to move and express them-selves fully while dancing. A safe danceexperience will bring joy and satisfac-tion 'io the student.

DANCE 75

REFERENCE

Fallon, D. (1983). Dance in education. In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education andsport for the secondary school student (pp. 93-101). Peston, VA: The American Alliancefor Health, Physical Education, Recrea-tion, and Dance.

81

CHAPTER 9

Field Hockey

BARBARA J. BELT

John F. Kennedy High SchoolSilver Spring, MD

82

78 lUNCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTr field hockey is a snort for boys and.1." girls, men and women of all agerThere are organized opportunities toplay in elementary and secondary phys-ical education programs, interscholasticand intercollegiate programs, recreational.d club programs, and competitive re-0-ional, national, and international programs. As a physical education activity,field hockey can be a positive coeduca-tional experience in which students de-velop c. ordination, speed, stamina,and teamwork skills.

As in any physical activity involvingan implement, a propelled object, and aconfined area of play there is a need forcareful consideration of safety. Fieldhockey can be a safe, fun-filled experi-ence if common and specific problemareas are c'onsilered before introducingthe activity to students. Areas of con-cern include proper supervision, theselection and conduct of the activity,and the car and mai-. ince of facili-ties and equipment. Thorough planningand preparation are the keys to provid-ing a positive learning experience allparticipants.

Competent supervision is a very im-portant element in any teachini, unit.The more qualified the staff member,the more effective the supervision. Ateacher with experience as a player,coach, or umpire in field hockey is morelikely to have a complete knowledge ofthe sport and to be aware of potentialdangers. If an inexperienced staff merit-ber is assigned to teach this activity,ample time should be given to becomefamiliar with the sport. The quantity-Ind quality of supervision improves as ateacher becomes more familiar with theactivi:, .

Proper conduct of a field hockey un:tincludes the appropriate selection ofspecific activities for the age and abilitylevels of the students. The scoop andthe flick are difficult skills to controlduring game play and they can he omit-ted from an instKtional unit io, safetypurposes, thus placing the focus orkeeping the ball on the ground duringskill instruction and game play. Provid-ing correct instruction in various skills,

enforcing guidelines for safe gameplay, and providing the necessary safe-ty equipmmt are pal t of the properconduct of a field hockey unit. Writtenlesson plans are essential.

Maintaining safe playing areas andequipment is another concern whenteaching field hockey. Playing areasmust be free of obstructions or looseimpediments and the grass must bekept short to allow for better stickwork.If adjacent fields are used, space shouldbe left between them to avoid an over-lap of activity from field to field. Protec-tive equip_ lent such as shin guardsshould be provided and used by everystudent. Goalie leg pads and kickersshould be used for protec,,on if thegoalie is a designated position duringclass play .

Risk manarrent comes through anawareness of the potential problems orhazards associated with a specific activi-ty A teaches who is aware of suchproblems can plan activities that mini-mize 4hr, risks to 11- e participants. Soundplanni, . and ,.;ood judgment are impor-tar backgroi...d elements in a positivelearning experience.

The following checklists have beendeveloped to provide a quick referencefor tr.:achers as they plan an instruction-al unit in field hockey. They cover t'-areas of supervision, selection of con-tent and conduct of activity, and thecare and maintenance of facilities aroquipment.

SUPERVISION

1. Only qua'ified instructors should.each field hockey. Qualifica`lons i,.dude:

a. thorough knowlec4, of thesportb. up-to-date techniques andteaching methodsc. first aid and emergency training

2. Main. lin visual contact with allgroups in the class during the entireclass period. Do not leave the activityarea.

83

3. Maintain awareness of total classactivities while givi-tg instruction or as-sistance to individual students.

4. Students should not have directaccess to the equipment. Equipment leftout is an invitation to participate inunsupervised activities.

5. Establish policies and proceduresfor safety during the class.

6. Students should have access to theinstructor at all times.

7. Lesson plans should be detailed toshow supervisory efforts used to main-tain a ;afe learning environment (see. ext section).

8. Be prepared to provide both gener-al and specific supervision during thecourse of each class.

SELECTION ANLCONTENT OF ACTIVITY

1. Use an established cumculumguide as a cornprehensi . e refc-ence forcourse content. An excellent resource ischapter 8, by Belt and Reimann, ofPhysical Education and Sport for the Sec-ondary School Student (Dougherty, 1983).

2. Select tasks that am, appropriatefor both the ages and abilitu levels ofstudents.

3. Prepare and maintain writtenunit and lesson plans for all activities.Specific plans include objectives, learn-ing experiences, teaching methods, andassessment measures.

4. Individual lesson plans should in-dicate a progression of appropriateskills and learning experiences. Sampledrills and suggestions for s-lf-evalua-fion may be found in Physical Educationand Sport for the Secoadary School Student(Dougherty, 1983).

5. Provide warm-up sequences thatinclude fitness activities such as joggingand flexibility exercises.

6 .:eep accurate records of all classactivities.

7. Prepare procedures for dealingwith accidents and/or other emergencysituations.

8 Prepare lesson plans for indooractivities that provide the opportunity

00,

FIELD HOCKEY 79

to continue working on field hockeycl,ilis or game tactics if space is avail-able.

9. Stress the non-contact aspects ofthe game.

10. Include student officiating as askill activity that facilitates game playduring class.

11. Warn students of the risk of inju-ry if the hockey stick is used for pur-poses other than those intended or ifthe stick is raised too high during skill-work and game play.

12. Develop a personal safety check-list for student that includes removingall jewelry, eli.ninating gum chewing,and securing eyeglasses in some way.

13. Group students according to size,strength, and skill.

14. Following are suggested modifi-_ itions to skillwork and gameplay in physical education class-es.a. Do not teach the flick or thescoop. These are aerial strokesthat increase the potential fordangerous play.b. Limit the backswing and fol-low-through to waist height.c. Limit the game play to 5 v 5, 6v 6, or 7 v 7. Small games developthe larger game concepts and al-low students more opportunitiesto be involved in the activity.d. Eliminate the goalie positionunless proper protective equip-ment can be provided. If using aplayer to cover that position with-out protective equipment, limitshots on goal from outside a cer-tain distance in front , 4 the goal.This will avoid chaotic play infront of the goal.e. Use playing areas as small as30 X 50 yards depending on thesize of the teams.f. Discourage the use of reversesticks when playing because itleads to over-reaching and com-mitting such fouls as obstructionand stick interference. Studentsshould be taught to move intoproper position to avoid the re-verse play.

80 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPOFT

g. Substitute cones or other fieldmarkers for mgulation goalswhen using smaller fields (or ifgoals are not available).

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OFFACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

FACILITIES

1. Playing areas must be kept free ofobstructions (examples: football andsoccer goalposts, bleachers, drainagegrates).

2. Remove loose impediments (rocks,sticks, broken glass).

3. Goal cages (if used) must be as-sembled properly and anchored to theground.

4. Adjacent fields must be separatedby open space to avoid an overlap ofactivity from field to field.

5. Sidelines and goal lines must bemarked with field white and/' 1. cones.

6. Scoring circle must be marked infront of each goal or activity modified toomit these areas.

7. rtuvide space for non-participantsthat prevents interference with class ac-tivities.

8. Provide easy access for emergencyfirst aid personnel.

85

EQUIPMENT

1. Apply linseed oil to cleaned andsan-i?d sticks to prevent dryirL am,cracking during storage.

2. Discard sacks that are splinteredand cracked

3. Replace torn or frayed grips onsticks.

4. Provid -.: plastic (inside-the-sock) orcanvas and cane shin guards for everystudent. Buckles of cane shin guardsmust be worn on the outside of the legto prevent chafing.

5. Provide protective equipment forgoalie if that position is designated dur-ing class play: helmet, leg guards, kick-ers, chest protector.

6. Discard cracked hockey balls.7. Clean or paint hockey balls (whit .)

periodically for better visibility.8. Provide cones or corner mark s

for designated playing areas. Bound-aries for available playing space must bemarked and visible to all participants.

9. Select sticks of a proper length foreach individual student (26"-38").

REFERENCE

Belt, B. and Reimann, B. J (1983). FieldHockey. In N. J. Doughe::y (Ed.), Physicaleducation and sport for the secondary schoolstudent (pp. 103-113) Reston, VA: TheAmerican Alliance for Health, PhysicalEducation, Recreation and Dance.

CHAPTER 10

Fitness/Weight Training

CLAIR JENNETT

San Jose State UniversitySan Jose, CA

86

82 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPOFT

r xercise programs have been in exis-tence for centuries. There remains,

however, a great need to reach morepeople of more i-:ge groups with theseprograms. One question frequentlyasked by those contemplating the devel-opment of an exercise program is,"How shall I begin?" The stfety ramifi-cations of this question must be consid-ered when answering. Too frequently,mistakes have been made in answeringthe question by la', persons, health spaemployees, g) mnasium directors,teachers, physicians, and others. Thosepersons, lacking an understanding ofthe specific safety hazards which existin the conduct of programs of exerciseand fitness, may unwittingly be puttingthe participant at risk.

The purpose of this chapter is to pre-sent the risks involved in exercise pro-grams, and to suggest procedures forconducting safe programs of exercise forall. When the elements of risk havebeen considered during program plan-ning, exercise programs can provide avaluable addition to one's recreationaland profes -ional life. The following ma-terial is, ' Before, pi zsented as a guidefor safety in exercise programs. Supervi-sory concerns, conduct of the activity,and environmental conditions are pre-sented with a focus on the prevention ofinjury. Safety procedures for exerciseF rograms which include cardiorespira-tory endurance activities, flexibility ac-tivities, and strength activities (e.g.weight training) are presenter! withineach of the three areas.

SUPERVISORY CONCERNS

A. Knowledge of the subject matterdealing with exercise is essential. Cei ti-fication programs are available whichinclude both study and supervised in-ternship,. for exercise specialists.strength training specialists, and aero-bic specialist;. Completion of an ap-proved course of study in exercisephysiology is highly recommended.

B. The ability to assess the fitnesslevel of each student and prescribe ap-

propriate exercises based upon the A'-sessment is essential.

C. Inst -actors must possess a knowl-edge of p-- egressions in exercise pre-scription in terns of frequency (howoften), intensity (how stressful), dura-tion (how long), and mode (type ofexercise).

D. A thorough knowledge of first aidprocedures including cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR) is required.

E Instructors must be familiar withthe proper use of the equipment com-mon to exercise programs.

F. A knowledge of the current andpast research concerning exercise pro-grams is necessary.

G. Safety procedures for the conductof exercise programs mest oe estab-lished and implemented by the instruc-tor.

FACILITIES MANAGEMENT

A. Exercise rooms or gymnasiumsmust be supervised by qualified instruc-tors.

B. The instructor must be aware ofthe space demands of each exercisingperson as well as the space demands foreach piece of exercise equipment.

C. The instructor must be aware ofthe movement patterns of each exv_rciseactivity in order to allocate adequatespace.

D. R...les of conduct and safetyshould be dev, loped by staff and stu-dents, including:

1. When the area is to be used(hours and days).2. Who may use the area.3. Who is in charge of the area.4. How each piece of equipmentis to be used.5. Where exercise:, occur in thearea.6. Where equipment is placed andstored.7. What equipment can be used inthe area.8. What pa `ems of movementcan be used in the area.

E. Each exercise area should haverules of conduct and safety posted.

F. In addition to the proper posting7

of rules, students should be informedverbally of the rules of conduct andsafety.

PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION

A. Teaching plans should include:1. Consideration for safety mat-ters.2. Placement of equipment.3. Placement of students for exer-cise activities.4. Placement of the instructor forteaching and supervision.5. Assessment of students' physi-cal status and plans for mode,frequency, intensity and durationof the activities.

B The teaching plan should be pre-pared after consideration of the risksinvolved in the activity and proceduresby which the risks can be reduced andavoided.

CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITY

Everyone can improve their cardio-respiratory endurance, flexibility, andstrength. When a perso 1 begins an ex-ercise program, the body adapts. Theadaptive responses are the "training ef-fects" of the k '"ogram. Everyone, there-fore, is physically ready for exercise, buteveryone is ready at a different level.Assessing illat level is essential to prop-er exercise prescription. An increascedpotential for injury exists whenever animproper assessment is made. Whileunderassessing participant capabilitiesmay not present an immediate physicalhazard, the resultant loss of motivationcan easily lead to a multitude of otherproblems. The dangers of overassessinga participant's capabilities are obvious.The instructor must, therefore, refer toaccurate assessment measures when as-signing the frequency, intensity, dura-tion, and modes of exercise. Followingis a guide for assuring safe conduct forexercise programs.

PARTICIPANT READINESS

A variety exercise programs areused to improve fitirss. Continuous

FITNESS/WEIGHT TRAINING 83

activities such as walking, swimming,bicycling, rowir, dancing, jogging,rope jumping, and largemuscle exercises with the whole bodymoving are activities commonly usedfor the improvement of cardiorespirato-ry endurance. Calisthenics exer-cisesare used for strength, flexibility, bal-ance, and agility improvement. In addi-tion, a large number of weight trainingdevices 'lave been develc ied to im-prove strength and flexibility. Assessingthe readiness of an individual for eachexercise is a difficult task. Assessing t:,ereadiness of a class of students presentsan even greater challenge. Some generalrules of readiness are suggested in thefollowing four areas of concern.

A. Physical readiness.1. Review medical records for JIstudents before activity Exerciselimitations may be necessary inthe presence of some medical con-ditions. Medical records shouldprovide historical data as well asthe results of recent examinations.2. Determine the level of endur-ance, strength and/or flexibilityslowly, allowing ample time forassessment and recording the lev-el for each activity. Begin the exer-cise program at a relatively lowlevel which offers the safety ofreadiness and the mon ration ofachievement.3. Allow parent participati'n inthe assessment by discussing re-sults of any medical examinationsor early assessments which indi-cate a deviation from standard ex-pectations.4. Keep records of initial and sub-sequent assessments and usethem for individual advising andguidance.5 Use a continuous activity as awarmup to the exercise programeach day. Vary the warmup tomaintain motivation. Includestrength and flexibility activities aswell as cardiorespiratory activities.Students should begin to experi-ence sweating before difficuitstrength, flexibility, balance, or

68

84 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL

agility activities are added to theroutine.6. Require written permissionfrom a physician to begin activityafter an injury or serious illness.Special activities for the injuredand low-fitness students are im-portant. It is essential, however,that the aid of a physician be en-listed in the development of suchprograms.7. Provide individual programsfor au students who have specialneeds. All students can benefitfrom some type of exer.ise. Modi-fications of intensity, duration,fi luency, or mode facilitate theadaptatior of exercises for individ-ual needs.

B. Skill readiness.1. Review the skill level of ail ac-tivities to ensure a sequencingfrom easy to difficult.2. Be sure that thorough instruc-tion and feedback are providedwith regard to all skills and tech-niques.3. Start the class at an appropriatelevel of skill tc, ensure safety andmotivation.

C. Emotional readiness1. Provide sufficient activity levlsto ensure success.2. Keep interest high by provid-ing variety in frequency, duration,intensity, and mode.3. Pressure to increase the fre-quency, duration, and intensityshould come from the studentrather than from the instructor.4. Self-regulation of frequency,duration, and intensi.y should beinstilled in each student. Recogni-tion of preliminary signs of over-stress or injury shculd be taught.Students should learn to under-stand their bodies and how to rec-ognize when more or less intensi-ty, requeney, or duration is need-ed.5. A statement of the risks in-volved in exercise programs andtechniques for avoiding injuryshould be presented to each stu-

)UCATION AND SPORT

dent. This should be a writtenstatement in language that all s'dents can understand. After thestudents read the statement, dis-cussion and an opportunity forquestions should follow. Thesedocuments, called informed conrent forms, should be used to in-form the pare.its as well as thestudent. While they do not relieveany party of responsibility, stu-dents, parents, and school person-nel will have a better understand-ing of the program and their re-sponsibilities and will feel free toconsult with the program direk.zorwhen given the opportunity toread and sign consent forms. Fig-ure 1 provides an example of anappropriate informed consentdocument.

D. Social readiness.1. Group activities are usuallymore motivating than workingalone. Students should be taughtto support each other in their exer-cise activities. This support shouldnot be pressure; it should be en-couragement and acceptance.2. Students should have funwhile working hard. Group sup-port enhances the enjoyment.

CURRICULAR CONCERNS

A. The aim of the fitness / weighttraining unit should be to meet "leneeds of the Students enrolled.

B. Objectives should be establishedwhich lead to fulfillment of the aim.

C. The exercise activities should -e-late to the objectives.

D. The following general guidelinesfc r the fitness/weight trainirg unit mayalso be used to further assess the indi-vi, ...1 exercise activities. The activitiesshould:

1. Increase tone, stability and con-trol of the body.2. Prepare the student for morestrenuous exercise activities.3. Meet student needs.4. Be good for overall fitness.5. Be progressively sequencedfrom easy to difficult.89


In the prevention of injury in exercise programs, it is important to understand the causes of injurypresented below. Injury prevention procedures are listc-i after each causal factor. Be aware of risksand conduct your personal program in a safe manner.

Causes of Injury

Lack of adeque' ) warmup

Lack of adequate cool down penod

Lack of adequate rest (overexertion)

Overextendir; range of (cants

Excessive heat, humidity, pollution, or altitude

Using sudden stops or starts or exercising onhard surfaces

Failing to use progression or increasing intensi-ty and duration too early

Failing le listen to the body

Failure to dress for the activity

Failing to check equipment before use

Pr ;ientive Techniques

Use related rather than unrelated warmupactivitiesUse active rather than passive warmup activi-ties

s Bnng the tcd.iy to sweating temperature grad-ually &ding warmup activities

Keep moving at a gradually slower pace afterexerciseAvoid hot showers, hot tubs, and saunas afterexercise

*Use a frequency of 3-4 days per week forbeginning exercise programs

Use low intensity )r beginning exercise pro-grams

Use short duration for beginning exerciseprog.ai nsAvc:d corroetition for beginning ex Imre. pro-grams

Use short rango of movement for beginningexercise programsAvoid painful stretching for beginning exerciseprogram:,

*Decrease intensity and duration in these con-ditions

Drink water freely dung exercise

Use smooth movements* Avoid hard surfaces and sudden stops

Slow progression avoids ifiluryIncrease intene'', and duration ivhen it feelsgood to the bodyReduce intensity and duration when sorenessc.r pain are felt

Avoid overexertion when sick, fatigued, orinjured

Avoid being compelled into activity becauseof habit, fiends, or competitive reasons

Avoid r:dinuing Er:ease or cGmr,:eting a^activity when the bady says stop

Dress for warmth an cooling as dictatedby temperature

*Avoid restrictive clothingUse shoes that fit the activity and protect thefoot and leg joints

Check all equipment beire exercisingUse all equipment as specified

Clear area for equipment use

Figure 1. Statement of informed co, sent.

90Continued


Causes of InjuryLack of eating habits

Lack of proper adjustments in restarting activityafter a layoff period

Failure to seek exercise specialist's advice onquestions pertaning to exercise prescnption

Failure to recognize injury

Failure to exercise with proper form and rhythm

Failure to breathe properly dunng exercise

Failure to use spotters for exercises requinngthem

Preventive Techniques*Allow digestive time after meals before begin-

ning activityMaintain good nutntional balance to prevent

problems of vitamin and mineral deficits

*Adjust the exercise program to lower intensityand t 'ration after layoff

Adjust the exercise program to lower intensityand duration even when fatigue level seemsacceptable (fatigue may not appear in earlyactivity stktsions after layoff)

Seek specialist's advice over "quacks" withquick remedies

Seeks specialist's advice regarding mythsprevailing in some exercise groups

Be aware of types of injunes (blisters, jointimtation, muscular soreness, stress fractures,shin splints, tendonrks, etc.)Pra Vent chronic injunes by caring for all inju-nes at the first sign

Avoid injuries by knowing and avoiding theCallSeS

Use rhythm in performing activitiesUse smooth, full-range movementUse proper form and alignment for eachexercise

Avoid "cheating" on exercises

Use the mouth and nose in breathingInhale on exertion and exhale on return (don'thold your brer,th)

Avoid working ak ,neUse spotters in weight lifting exercises

Be surf. that spotters understand their duties

I have read and understand tne preceding guidelines. I agree to fellow the injury preventionprocedures contained therein.

student name date

Fig. 1. Statement of informed consent (continued).

6. Be fun and suited to the ageanti ability of students.7. '.- safeconducted without in-jury to students.

E. The lesson plans should be devel-oped from the unit plan and the lessonobjectives should grow out of the unitplan objectives. The following shouldbe considered in the development ofindividual lessons.

1. Progressively more difficult ex-ercise activities should be planned

for each lesson.2. Safety consideration should bepart of each lesson plan.3. Plans and procedures for safeuse of the equ';ment should oepart of each lesson plan.4. Questionable movement pat-terns (deep knee bends, straight-knee leg lifts, straight-knee situps, botalcing toe touch, etc.)should not be included in the exer-

91 program.



A. Exercise areas must be supervisedby qualified persons when in use.

B. All equipment should be returnedto the proper storage area after use.

C. Safety rules for each exercise areashould be posted in highly visible loca-tions.

D. Only proper use of the facilitiesand equipment is allowed.

E. Safety inspections of facilities andequipment should be planned on a reg-ular time schLiule and records of theinspection should be kept on file.

F. Regular cleaning of the equipmentand facilities is an important safety mea-sure.

EXERCISE AREAS

A. Weight training room.1. Placement space for all equip-ment should be clearly marked.2. Space allocations for all equip-ment should meet the manufac-turer's specifications.3. The maximum number of par-ticipants that can safely use thespace should be posted in highlyvisible locations.4. Emergency procedures in caseof injury should be posted in high-ly visible areas.5. Ventilation and lighting mustbe adequate for the exercise activi-ties.6. Traffic patterns should be clear-ly designated.7. Equipment shouN be used forspecified exercise only.8. Equipment and facilities shouldbe inspected daily. Careful inspec-tiPn records ust be maintainedindicating:

Security of all floor and wallanchor points.

Safety stop pins present on ex-ercise machines and weight racks.

Floor surface free of dust, debrisand moisture.


Bars, plates and machinery arefree of rust.

All free weight bars have properfastening hardware.

Security of all joints and fasten-ings.

Stability of all benches and plat-forms.

Security of all chains, cables,pulleys, and other moving parts.

Cleanliness of mats, benches,seats, etc.9. N3ted deficiencies should beimmediately corrected or thefaulty equipment taken out of ser-vice.

13. Exercise rooms or gyms.1 Ventilation and lighting mustbe adequate for the exercise pro-gram.2 Storage space for all equipmentshould be clearly marked and thestorage space should be secure ifthe room is used foi other activi-ties.3. Space limitations and numberof participants should be posted inhighly visible areas.4. Traffic patterns for some exer-c:se activities should be estab-lished before students begin theactivity.

CONCLUSION

There are a great many ways for peo-ple to become physically fit. In conjunc-tion with the attainment of fitness goals,howc-:er, safety considerations must bea planning priority. The guidelines pre-sented in this chapter should help attainboth fitness and safety goals so thateveryone can enjoy a safe, healthy andworthwhile experience

REFEREt' CE

Ward, Bob. (1983). Weight training. In N.J.Dougherty (Ed ), Physical education andsport for the secondary school student (pp.365-380). Reston, VA. The American Alli-ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation, and Dance.

92

DEDE OWENS .

University of VirginiaCharlottesville, VA


T he nature of the game of golf invitespotential safety hazards. Swinging

an implement in excess of 90 mph in anattempt to propel a solid sphere 1.68inches in diameter and weighing 1.62ounces can be both exhilarating anddangerous. The manner in which thegame is introduced and organized forinstruction and practice can greatly re-duce the danger and enhance the exhil-aration. The key to safety in golf isawareness. Awareness must be devel-oped through three levels: the adminis-tration, the golf instructor, and the stu-dent Each has a major responsibility inregard to safety considerations.

Administration. Golf is Lecoming morepopular in physical education curiculaand in recreational programs. Howthe question of whether qualified person-nel are on staff to supervise and/or in-struct golf is rarely addressed by admin-istrators. Often, an individual whoplays golf *IF assigned to the activity withthe assumption of instructional ability.This may be a faulty assumption andcould lead to safety hazards.

The administration must determine ifan individual is qualified to teach golf. Ifnot, adequate time must be provided fortraining to insure that technical, organi-zational, and safety skills are acquired.

If a person accepts the responsibilityfor teaching golf, he or she is acknowl-e,..:ging the preparation to do so. If theteacher does not feel prepared, addi-tional training should be secured beforeassuming those responsibilities.

Golf Instructor. The greatest resnonsi-bility for safety awareness resides withthe instructor. Readiness to instruct re-qu'res the technical knowledge to in-sure the understanding and develop-ment of eff. :ient and effective swin.-,mechanics; organizational knowledgefor safe student practice and movementin the instructional and practice area; anunderstanding of individual needs andcontraindications for golf drills andtechniques; knowledge of the selectionand care of equipment; and knowledgeof appropriate prom cedures for the careand maintenance of facilities. Constantawareness of the safety issues in each of

t!'ese areas is needed, regardless of howmuch or how little experience an indi-vidual has had in golf instruction.

Students. Students are the third link insafety. They should be made aware ofsafety concerns and required to assumea major role for their personal safetyand the safety of others while in a golfclass. This is critical if safety is to bepracticed when students are on theirown dunng actual course play.

COMMON INJURIES IN GOLF

The potential for injuries during golfinstruction is far greater than the a:tualseverity of most injuries which occur.The most common miror injury in golfclasses is blisters. These are caused byexcessive movement of the club in thehands. A faulty grip or improper gripsize is usually the problem (sec figure1). Both can be remedie I by awarenessof individual hand size and grip tech-nique relative to the size and conditionof the club grip.

The less frequent and more seriousinjuries occur when individuals are hitby a club or golf ball. Being hit by a clubusually occurs when an individualwalks into the path of a swinging club.Such injuries can be avoided by estab-lishing and enforcing rules which gov-ern where and when a club may beswung. Each instructional area shouldhave designated areas for studentmovement in the instructionkpracticeenvironment and hitting field (see fig-ure 2).

Injuries due to golf balls occur morefrequently on golf courses with paralk'fairways than in physical education orrecreational golf classes. In fact, they_nould nevi:. occur dunng instruction ifappropriate safety rules are followed.This is especially true if individuals areproperly instructed never to retrieveballs prior to a designated signal by theins' -uctor. Walking in front of the desig-nated area or into the hitting fieldshould never be allowed while anyoneelse is swinging a club.

*

*.

11. iter :pg.;

4r***:*:;;'. ';%;4!.

Fig. 1(a). Proper grip size.

1

GOLF 91

Fig. 1(b). Grip size too small---unsafe.

Fig. 2. Safe practice environment.

qr--.1#7trt't-:-,:ii,

95

ahartiamea..


FIg. 3(a). Proper position for one - legged drill.


Student information sheets. Student in-formation is important for establishing asafe and effective environment. The fol-lowing type of information is particular-ly beneficial in golf:

1. Experiences in golf.grouping by ab'lityselection of peer teachers/aidesdetermination of starting level

2. Disabling conditions.potential equipment and tech-nique modificationscontraindications of specificdrills

3. Allerg: s.awareness to potential allergicreactionsmedication side effects

Progressions. Skill progressions in golfare not always based on safety consider-ations as in gymnastics or swimming.The progression selected is determinedby instructor preference with regard tobeginning with the long game and pro-gressing to the short game, or the re-verse. No specific progression has beensupported by research as being more

"lg. 3(b). Potentially unsafe modification ofoise-legged drill.

effective in skill development. Safety,however, must be instilled in the orga-nizational structure and instructionregardless of the selected progression.

Drills. Golf drills greatly enha ice thelearning process and are beneficial forgroup instruction. There are, however,drills which are contraindicated for par-ticular indi, iduals due to pre-existingconditions such as back problems,shoulder or knee dislocations, and ar-thritis.

As an instructor, it is important to beaware of the potential good or harmspecific drills may cause. Drills shouldbe expiained clearly, demonstrated cor-rectly, and used appropriately. Figure 3(a) is an example of the "one-legged"drill which has become popular forhelping students develop an arm swing.Note the position of the rear foot placedup on the toe. This allows the lowerback to be free of tension. Figure 3 (b) isa dangerous position. It shows a modifi-cation of the basic drill which hascaused back problems to occur in peoplewith no previous history of back trou-ble. These po.,itions may also exacerbateor irritate already existing problems, orback weaknesses.

96

GOLF 93

TABLE 1Examples of Safety Rules In Golf

Where Clubs may be swung arr' balls hit only in the designated area.Note: Designated areas should be clearly delineated with visual markers, andverbally described to students.

When Clubs may be swung and balls hit only when indicated by the instructor.Balls are to be retrieved only when indicated.Note: The "when Indicated" should be an established signal such as a whistle orverbal command.

Direction Clubs are to be swung and balls hit toward the designated target(s) only.Note: Targets should be set toward which balls must be hit.They should be placed toward the center of the hitting area and at a variety ofdistances to accommodate for swing lengths.

The use of the student informationsheets is a valuable tool in the selectionand omission of drills when problemsare noted. Know your students and thedrills you select.

Safety awareness should begin as theactivity is introduced. Similarities anddifferences relative to safety and equip-ment in other activities need to bestressed. The length of the club, subse-quent differences in the space requiredto swing, and the potential speed of theswing should be noted and comparedvisually and verbally by demonstrationwith bats, tennis Jackets, and/or otherimplements familiar to the students.

Rules should be established to helpthe students become familiar with theirresponsibility in promoting the safety ofthe game for themselves and others. Itis important to relate the rules for yourclass activity to specific implications at adriving range, golf course, or practice inthe park or backyard. The safety rulesshould specify where, when and the direc-tion in which clubs can be swung andballs hi Once set, the rules should bestrictly followed.

Table 1 is an example of a rules formatthat may be used in your classes. Thenote insertions are clarificatjons provid-ed for instructors, and not for inclusionin the handouts.

Copies of the n,- . should be datedand distributed to each student as wellas posted in areas which are clear-ly visible to the students. Computergraphics and attractive posters can en-

, ,4

hance the visibility of the rules andprovide subliminal reinforcement. Ex-amples of such signs are provided infigures 4 and 5. When laminated, thesigns can be used for both inside andoutside activity areas.


Golf can be taught effectively in a gymor on a playing field. Larger areas aremore conducive to safety because stu-dents can be provided more space inestablished hitting areas and stationsAnytime space becomes restrictive orless than three yards of space is allowedfor a swing station, safety becomes aprcblem.

INDOOR PLAYING AREAS

The designated swing stations shouldbe marked and safety rules clearly post-ed. The swing stations should be free ofextra clubs, bags or ball baskets.

Mats. Brush mats with rubber matsupports should be used when possiblefor safety. The brush mat provides athick protective hitting surface (particu-larly for beginners) while the rubbermat creates a non-slippery surface forstance and brush support.

Full swing stations in which plasticballs are hit against walls should be',Laced away from doorways and a mini-mum of 7 to 8 yards from the wall.There should be a minimum of 3 yardsbetween stations (see figure 6). This

97


gorill11111

S

000

Fig. Sample safety awareness poster

allows ample roc.,:n for the plastic ballto bounce c" the wall and roll safelyback toward the mats. If the mats areplaced too close co the wall, studentsmay become swing-shy, feeling toocramped

The physical arrangement of the sta-tions 3hc.I.uid be :hecked frequently di.r-

ing cuss, and between classes. It isparticuk-ly important to check the dis-tance between stations, and be sure tomaintain the 3 yard minimum.

Traffic flow. Traffic flc N needs to beconsidered in the gym, partcularlywhen various stations are implemented.Des.gnated pathways can be marked

98

GOLF 95

602 2 fi@g7It Illm

WHERE?Swing & Hit only inDesignated Areas.

WHEN?Swing & Hit only onSignal.

DIRECTION?Swing & Hit only toTargets.

Retrieve only onSignal.

Fig. 5. Sample safe, rules poster.

using cones, jump ropes, chairs,brooms, etc.

Changing stations should be done ona signal and it, a single direction. Thissystematic procedure, under the controlof the instructor, helps to assure safety

of movement. Once the change is com-plete, activity should be allowed onlyon a signal from the instructor.

Stations. The swing stations should bemarked clearly as putting, chipping,and full swing. This will help the stu-


STATION 4

CHIPPING

STATION 1 FULL SWING

Plastic BallContainer,

4

5 yards

I3 yds

44 A A AL

1

8 yards

III

WA 4 A[>

>

I>STATION 5 CONDITIONING(No Clubs or Balls)

V V VC' VV V V V-7 V V

>

>

IIIIminimum

5 yards

obstacles

Hard BallContainer

STATION 3 PUTTING Code=Swing Station

:_. Safety Cones no swings-- = Swing Direction toward wall only

STATION 2

PITCHING

Figure 6. Illustration of a safe indoor practice area.

dent understand the proper swinglength i. the given area. For example, afull swing should not be made in theputting or chipping areas. It should beindicated that this is also true whenpracticing at a golf course.

Balls. When using plastic balls forswing practice and hard balls for put-ting, the ball containers need to be clear-ly marked. It would also be helpful tohave different colored balls (e.g. bluestripe on hard balls). The plastic ballcontainer should be carefully checkedbefore each class to assure that hardballs have not been mixed in. Studentsshould be made aware of the differencesand instructed to check each ',all fortype prior to hitting. It is easy for abeginner to become engrossed and not

be aware of the ball he or she is about tohit.

Dress. Loose fitting clothing and ten-nis shoes should be required. Tightclothing can be uncomfortable as well asrestrictive in the swing. Street shoes areunsafe in that they lack support and aresorr,.....nes slick on the floor.

Cleaning up. The area in which you arepracticing should be clean and neat. Itshould be dust mopped each day, andpreferably between each class. Brushmats and rubber mats create a dust filmon the floor which can be hazardous toothers using the gym.

Equipment. The clubs and balls shouldbe collected at the end of each class andsecured if the gym is left open or with-out supervision. Each area should be

100

checked frequently to assure that thestations are the proper distance apart.

OUTDOOR PLAYING AREAS

Hitting Surface. Mats may or may notbe used in outside hitting areas. A grassarea is preferable to mats if at all possi-ble. Grass provides the best learningenvironment and will assist in the directtransfer of the skills to the actual golfcourse. Whether mats or grass are used,the hitting surface should be free ofrocks or any obstacles which could behit accidentally.

Swing stations. Swing stations and thesafety considerations discussed earlierare equally important outside. The openspace may tend to give students a falsesense of security. When students arenot swinging or awaiting their turn,there should be an area designated inwhich they should stand or sit. Thisarea should be away from the swingstations.

Balls used outside. As with indoor prac-tice, plastic balls and hard balls shouldbe separated and not used simultaneouslyat any one station. A hard ball hit acci-dentally in a confined area could bedangerous.

Hard balls are fun to hit, howe er,they need to be used with discretionwhen instructing the full swing. Ade-quate space, both length and width, isneeded to accommodate the novice wholacks control of distance and direction.

The grass space should be clear andcut close to the ground. This will help infinding golf balls. Balls which are notfound can be hazardous to others usingthe fieid for activity classes and afterschool sports. The same is true whenpracticing in parks or other fields.

The total number of golf balls shouldbe counted at the beginning and end ofeach class. Students should be instruct-ed to cou- c the number of balls theyhave before hitting and pick up as manyballs as they hit. Students should payparticular attention to any misdirectedshots (i.e. balls that go an unusual dis-tance or direction) and be instructed topick them up when it is time for all balls

101

GOLF 97

to be retrieved. This takes time, but iscritical to the safety of others.

Most secondary education facilitiesdo not have appropriate outdoor spacefor safe use of hard balls. Plastic ballscan be stiffed with cloth to produce afirmer feel and flight similar to the hardball. An advantage of the plastic orstuffed ball is that they require less timeto retrieve since they can not be hit asfar. They are also much saferjust becareful not to use tightly stuffed ballsinside the gym if space is restri_ted.

RESTRICT THE AREA

When golf classes are in session,signs should be posted around the area.This is needed particularly in areaswhere the fields are used by communityjoggers or others as a thoroughfare.

EQUIPMENT

Appropriate equipment. Golf clubsshould be purchased which vary inlength, weight, and grip size. If the clubis not appropriate for the learner, it canhave a negative effect on the rate andprogress of learning, as well as compro-mise safety. If you are not sure how to"size" clubs for a class, be sure to checkwith a local professional, or ask the golfclub manufacturer for advice when or-dering equipment.

The students in figure 7 could be in agolf class in the 10th grade. The golfclub held by each is the same club, astandard men's 7-iron which is general-ly longer and heavier than a woman'sclub. The same students in figure 8 areholding a woman's standard 7-iron.Will they benefit in a golf class using theclubs they are holding?

Clubs which are at the extremes inweight or length for individuals affecttheir ability to swing the club effectivelyand efficiently. These extremes decreasethe potential for success.

Grip sizes in the extremes can causeblisters. Sore hands from trying tomaintain club control, and "flyingclubs" can both be the result of a gripwhich is too large or too small for thehand size. These are safety hazards


Fig. 7. Men's 7-iron.

which can easily be prevented, but notwithout awareness.

Maintenance of clubs. Three areas of aclub should be checked for wear anddamage: thi grip, shaft, and hosel.

Grips which get worn or fray id cancause blisters and slippage in the hands.These should be checked and cleanedfrequently. Compos.tion grips are rec-ommended for use in most classes be-cause they are safe' on the hands andeasy to clean and replace (inexpensive).Grips should be cleaned with soap andwater on a frequent schedule since theybecome slippery when dirty.

Clubs receive unavoidable wear andtear through extensive use. Shafts canbend as a result of hitting the groundrepeatedly during swings, gettingstepped on, or improper storage. Theyshould be checked daily. If a shaft isbent it should be broken completely. Abent shaft is much weaker and if used,could snap in two. This is quite danger-ous. Depending on the condition of thehead, including the hosel, it can be usedagain by having it re-shafted. Other-wise, if it is too worn, it should bethrown out. If a shaft is only slightlybent, it can be straightenedjust besure to check it frequently.

The head of the club, where the shaftenters the hosel, receives tremendousabuse and may weaken over time. The

Fig. 8. Women's 7-iron.

club heads can snap without warning.Frequent checks are needed and oftenweaknesses can be detected by holdingthe head of the dub and trying to turnthe shaft. A squeaking sound indicatesa potential weakness and it should berepaired (by a club repair expert) ordestroyed.

Inspection. An equipment recordshould be kept. As golf equipment isreceived it should be numbered and thedate noted. A wntten record should beestablished for a periodic inspection ofall equipment. This is in addition to thedaily inspection which should be notedin lesson plans or logs of activity ses-sions.

An ongoing ecord of equipment mayprovide information relative to the lon-gevity of equipment purchased fromvanous companies. Clubs which are in-expensive and therefore often attractivefor purchase may not be as durable, orsafe, when they receive excessive use.Such records may later be used to justifybudgets when ordering a different qual-ity club.

Students should be encouraged tohelp in checking and inspecting theirgolf clubs. Before hitting balls, all stu-dents s )uld check the clubs. Thisaids in r, ising their awaren2ss to thecare and maintenance c I clv' s, and theimportance of safety.

102

SUMMARY

Safety issues in golf instruction arekeyed on developing awareness throughclassroom organization and instruction-al procedures. Awareness to safety inand beyond the school program is criti-cal to the students themselves and oth-ers. As a teacher, your task is to set theenvironment for learning and continuedinvolvement beyond the school setting.

T . following checklist is provided asa tool for developing a safe golf pro-gram.

GOLF SAFETYREVIEW CHECKLIST

Instructor_____ previous instruction/trainingKnowledge of:

group techniquesdrillsselection/care of equipmentadaptation of facilities

Environmental ConditionsRules

rules handouts(e.g. discuss/date)rules poster

Fality (indooroutdoor)hitting surface cushioned/securedarea free of obstaclestraffic flow established/discussedstations minimum of 3 yardsapart (check during activity)

GOLF 99

stations indoors minimum of 7yards from wall and away fromdoors and hallways (checkperiodically dunng activity)warning signs posted aroundoutside area if thoroughfaresignal established for beginningand end of hitting

Equipmentfile established for periodicchecksdaily check for condition andrepair of clubsstoreroom and gym secured orlocked between classes

Balls

containers marked andseparated for hard versus plasticballscheck plastic ball containerbefore each classinstructor directs students tocheck balls before hittingcount hard balls prior to hittingand after each class

REFERENCES

Owens, D (1983) Golf In N.J Dougherty(Ed ), Physical education and sport for thesecondary school student (pp 129-148). Res-ton, VA The Amencan Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance

103

CHAPTER i 2

Orienteering

ARTHUR HUGGLESTONE

Smith Environmental Education CenterRockville, MD

104

IP^

102 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION' AND SPORT

rr here comes a point in most orien-teering programs when the stu-

dents are out on the course ar d you findyourself alone with the feeling that theprogram you planned is now well un-derway. It doesn't take long, however,to begin wondering what is really hap-pening out there on the cowse is ev-erything all right? Will each o. .tie stu-dents make the correct decisions? Whyhasn't anyone finished the course yet? Ifonly you could see them. At this point,ycu have three alternative courses ofaction: (a) sit and worry; (b) run out andspot check the course which will, atleast, keep you busy; (c) plan for thenext "bring 'em back alive" orienteeringclass which will stress safety and "lost-proofing" the students. How much bet-ter it would have been to have includedsafety planning and instruction in theprogram from the outset.

EQUIPMENT

Begin the safety planning process bychecking your equipment. Any com-pass can be used for orienteering, andregardless of the type that is used, youmust first verify that each is in workingorder. The easiest way to check a com-pass is to ask the students to point inthe direction that the north seeking ar-row is pointing, then turn 180° and dothe same thing again. The most com-mon problem with a new compass isreversed polarity, that is, the north ar-row points south. When this is found tobe the case, either return the compass tothe vendor or dispose of it. You maywish to keep one compass with re-versed polarity for use when demon-strating compass handling. A reversedpolarity compass can be used while fac-ing the students, thus allowing you toeasily maintain visual contact withthem. Keep a special lanyard on thiscompass for easy identification and toprevent confusio:i with the properly ori-ented compasses.

With older compasses, there is often aloss of dampening fluid. If it is a rela-tively small loss, the compass will prob-

ably still be usable. Too large a bubblecan, however, obstruct the free move-ment of the needle. It this is the case,the compass should not be used.

Our school system lost a lot of com-passes until orienteering maps wereglued on boards, varnished, and thenhad a compass tied to one end and awhistle tied to the other. Even if every-thing is not tied to a board, the compassand the whistle can be tied to a cord andworn around the neck or wrist. Stu-dents should be instructed that thewhistle is to be used only in an emer-gency. Three repeated short blasts are asummons for help, while a single shortblast identifies the searcher who hasheard the three short blasts and wantsthem repeated.

A small brightly colored daypack orfanny pack equipped with some emer-gency supplies should be carried at alltimes except in competition. There aregood first aid kits on the market. One ofthese should be chosen and supple-mented from the follcwing list, depend-ing on the area and time of year.

bandaidsbutterfly closers for large cuts (prac-tice using)sanitary napkin for large wounddressingplastic adhesive, wide rollsafety pinsmedicated soap, small barmatches, waterproof in waterproofcontainer or magnesium fire startertinder in ziplock bag (practice beingable to build fires under any circum-stances)water in canteen and/or clear, plasticdetergent bottle with push-pull capinsect repellentsting swabsunscreen #15magnifying glasswoolen sweater or down vestgarbage bagsuse as rain gear, sleep-ing bag, or even litter bag

3 signal mirrorsavailable from marineand surplus stores (practice using)freeze dried foodcandle

105

whistle that is loud but does not re-quire much windsmall flashlight with alkaline batteriesknifeheavy fishing lineextra socks and bread wrappers orplastic bags (put on dry socks andplasf c bread wrappers and you willnot know shoes are wet)extra compass, map, paper, pencil(glasses if needed)

The list could go on depending on howmuch you ale willing to carry.

Although it is possible to pu 'easemaps with declination lines already inplace, it will often be necessary to drawthem yourself. When drawing magneticnorth/south lines on a map, use a pro-tractor or Silva type compass to lay outthe number of degrees of declination.The U.S. Geological Survey warns thatthe diagram pictured on the lower leftmargin of their maps is only an approxi-mation of the actual number which isprinted next to the magnetic north ar-row. This number is accurate for theyear printed just below the diagram.Deviation may :hange very little or asmuch as one degree in five years. Youcan get the current deviation for yourarea by calling the National Cartograph-ic Information Center, Reston, Virginia.The toll free number is 1-800-USA-MAPS.

If you place the magnetic north/southlines at a convenient and uniform dis-tance apart (500 feet, or 1,000 feet, or 1/2mile), they can aid the orienteer in judg-ing distance. Any time when drawinglines or making marks on a map, becareful not to cover or obscure any im-portant symbols. A piece of clear plasticcan be used as a straight edge whichmakes it possible to see whatever sym-bols are along the line. Leave a break inthe line where symbols occur. If a 6mmhole is drilled in the plastic straightedge, it can be used to make the circlesthat mark the control points on themap. When making circles, skip a spaceif any symbols would be obscured. Donot put a dot in the center of the circle.

It is important to draw parallel mag-netic north lines (arrows) on the map

ORIENTEERING 103

you reproduce because if you do not, itis likely that students will draw magnet-ic north/south lines using the diagramor, worse yet, confuse magnetic northand true north.

SUPERVISION

Because of the nature of orienteering,it is impossible to maintain visual con-tact with all students at all times. Afterthe initial learning experiences, duringwhich the students can and should begrouped in an open area and constantlyobserved, the students will, of neces-sity, be released onto orienteeringcourses of gradually increasing size anddifficulty. Once this phase of the activityhas begun, it is no longer possible tomaintain visual contact with the entireclass. It is important, under these cir-cumstances, that an area be set asidewhew the students can always find helpif it is needed or desired. The base areashould be relatively central in locationand easily found. Placement near someprominent and recognizable featuresuch as power lines, or atop an easilydistinguished hill would assist the stu-dents in quickly locating assistance ifneeded.


Since the students will be on theirown for a significant portion of theorienteering unit, proper preliminaryinstruction and safety training is essen-tial. Orienteering skills should belearned and practiced under supervi-sion to guarantee full knowledge of andcompliance with safe practices and pro-cedures. Course and safety rules shouldbe understood and followed by all andshould be printed either on the back ofeach map board or on a separate sheetincluded with it. In addition to orien-teering skills students should be provid-ed with an understanding of basic au-vival techniques. This will increase theirconfidence in the field and provide anadded margin of safety in the unlikelyevent that someone is lost for more thana matter of minutes or hours. An intro-

106

104 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PI-IYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

ductory survival course should include:how to use the equipment and sup-plies in your emergency kithow to help searchers find youhow to treat an injury or sudden ill-nesshow to build a shelterhow to conserve energy and tempera-turehow to signal for helphow to forage for foodhow to be safe in a stormhow to remain calm and wait for help(this will be the adventure that youtalk about later)It is generally best to send students

onto the orienteering course in groupsof three. If teams of three are used andone person is injured, another can staywith him/her, while a third goes forhelp. While larger groups provide thesame advantage, they tend to becomeunwielc"y and result in lowered involve-ment for individual students.

If you don't know the students andwould like to send them out in teams oftwo or three with at least one capablestudent in each team, use the BeginnerCompass Game available from Orien-teering Services, USA, P.O. Box 1604,Binghamton, New York 13902. Thisgame may be played in any open areaapproximately 100 x 100 feet. To play,the participant must be able to finddirections with a compass. No pacing ofdistances is necessary. Time are 90courses, using eight labeled markersplaced at exact spots in a large circle.While playing the same, all players arecontained in the circle. You can ea: yidentify the students with the most andleast aptitude. As the students completethe game they will come to you to findout if the courses they've charted arecorrect. If they are, put their names atthe top of a roster and ask them to helpstudents who do not have everythingright. The list formed this way will rankthe students from most proficient toleast. When it is time to make up theteams, they cao be made up of oneperson from the top, middle, and thebottom of the list. Another option is tosend the first time orienteers on an open

mini-course that will take only a fewminutes and allow them to demonstratetheir ability to manipulate a map andcompass.

In deciding how difficult or easy tomake the orienteering course, you musttake into consideration the age, experi-ence, and skill of the participants as wellas weather conditions and the time ofthe day and year. If you run a course inthe morning and the afternoon, itwould be much better for the moreexperienced group to run a more chal-lenging course in the morning and theless experienced group to tackle an easi-er course in the afternoon, especially inthe winter when the days are shorter.Courses laid out for beginning orien-teers should have all stations accessiblefrom trails.

Even if you have an alarm that can besounded in the event of a problem,everyone won't hear it. It is importantthat you establish an understandingahead of time concerning cancellation ofthe event due to storms, fahing trees, orother emergency. Trees may fall at anytime. When the ground is soft after asoaking rain, trees may fall even with-out wind. Anyone who sees or hearstwo or more trees fall of natural causesin a short period of time should take adirect route to the nearest road or cleararea and report this information to theperson in charge.

Even if students understand all thefundamentals of orienteering, theyshould be "lost proofed," or taught toorient themselves to the larger geo-graphic area before they go out. Thiscan be accomplished by using a largewall map that covers a greater area thanthe orienteering map. Prominent moun-tains with specific shapes can serve asgross reference points. Indentify any offlimits or dangerous areas and the far-thest limits they should go. There mightbe a long straight road on one side, ariver on another, and a power line onthe third. Anyone who goes far enoughin a straight line will end up at one ofthese features which serves as a perime-ter and as a reference point for thosewho get that far. If operating in an area

107

ORIENTEERING 105

\Search area increased by

a factor of four

Fig. 1. An hour's delay means that the search area will be four times larger.

where most of the above features arenot 1-o be found, advise students to trusttheir compass. It will get them veryclose to where they want to be or backto where they started.

In the event that participants losetheir compass or feel hopelessly lost,they should be instructed to hike downhill until they find a trail or stream.Water will eventually lead to some signof civilization. Instruct them on how toask for help and point out that thephone number where the instructor cmbe reached is on the map. (Be surealways to inc ude a phone number onthe map.)

If students are only going to be out fora short time, they 51tould take a bearingon the sun and notice the direction theirshadows cast. It is a good idea to pointout the approximate direction the sunwill be in two hours from now and itscourse across the sky. Even after sunset

the western part of the sky will bebrighter for hours unless there is abright moon or the reflected lights of acity.

If some students do not return at theexpected time, they may be lost, in needof emergency care, or if they are unreli-able, may have abandoned the courseand wandered off to their own interests.Schools often run one orienteeringcourse in the morning and another inthe afternoon. If someone is late return-ing in the morning, you may have theleisure to wait a while. If someone islater in returning in the afternoon, espe-cially in the winter when it gets darkearlier, time is more critical. An unac-counted for person can create an urgentsituatichi that requires response in theform of search procedures. A delay oftwo hours instead of one means that thesearch area will, of necessity, be fourtimes larger. Figure 1 illustrates the ef-


feet of time or a search area.In a search situation, do not delay.

Decide who is going to be in charge(stays in central area and maintainscommunications), then fill out a nissingperson questionnaire (see sample, fig-ure 2).

Send out a few people who can patrolthe perimeter of the search area. Thesesearchers should travel in the fastestway possible, car, boat, all terrain bicy-cle, or on foot.

Try to attract the lost person by ring-ing bells, blowing vehicle or air horns,or using whistles. This "attention get-ting" should be done from an open areaso that sound will travel better. Search-ers should be careful nr - to make anysounds that could be mistaken for aseries of three that viild he the call forhelp from the lost orienteer. It is impor-tant to frequently pause to listen for acall from the lost orienteer.

If there is a narrow off -road areathrough which a disoriented personmight wander, and thus enlarge thesearch area, this area should b h?avilypatrolled. It is important to confine thesearch area to as small a plot as possible.In off-road areas it is more important tolook for signs or clues of the missingperson. If you are looking only for theperson, you could very easily miss thetraces or other evidence that could con-centrate the area of search and insure aquicker discovery.

If there is a high point from whichmuch of the search area can be sur-veyed, assign at least two people to thispoint so that they In take turns scan-ning the area. Binoi. ars should only beused to identify something aireadyspotted.

In the rare case where someone is nc `found after a reasonable time, check hisor her home, friends' houses, hospitals,F.nd favorite hangout. As a cast resort,the sheriff or police should be called.Once this decision has been made, re-sist the temptation to go into the generalarea where the lost person is suspectedof being. Since tracking dogs may beused, do not allow anyone to touch any

articles of found clothing. Pick up arti-cles with a stick and put in a cleanplastic bag and store in a cool place. Ifmore than one person is lost, storeitems in separate bags and label them.

The police or sheriff will interviewyou, scan the area, and call a rescueteam. They will probably have trackingdogs that will search for a particularscent left on the ground by the lostindividual. They may have air scentdogs that can quickly smell the air forany human scent, not just the lost per-sons. A trained handler and his dog canbe as effective as 20 or 30 human search-ers. If you can keep well meaning butinexperienced individuals out of thearea, trained search and rescue person-nel and their dogs will have a muchbetter chance of finding the missingperson.

Initially, all rescue actions are limitedto perimeter patrols, attraction, and sur-vey search. The effort is to confine thesearch area by patrolling natural perim-eters or areas that would be outside thedistance the victim could have traveledsince last seen. An exception to goinginside this area could occur if a personwere lost overnight and you could de-fine a central area in which a groupcould camp. These people would haveto confine themselves to a specific areafor a specific time and enter and leaveby the same route. Singing and a camp-fire might help attract the victim to thegroup.

You and the orienteeis constitute thelargest group with the most immediateknowledge of the area. Should you useZhis group to try to find the subject oruse them to confine the search area?This will always be the dilemma facedby the person in charge. The NationalAssociation for Search and Rescue offerstraining, uata collection, educationalprograms, and conferences that couldgive you the skills necessary to managea complete search and rescue operation.If you are conducting orienteeringmeets in areas where participants couldbe lost for long periods of time, youshould avail yourself of their services.

ORIENTEERING 107

Name _ _

Build Hair

Shut

Punts

Hat _ __

Raingear

Age Scx Race Ht Wt

_ Length Other

Sweater Jacket

Shoes

Gloves Glasses

Other

General Condition

Medical Problems

Psychological Problems

Handicaps

Smoke'Dnnk

Outdoors Interest

Outgoing/Ouiet

Depression/ __

StopKsep Moving

Medication

Drugs

Hitchhike/

Other

Ever ALI' Away/

Give Up Keep Going

Last seen Time

By Whom -

Reason for Leaving

Destination

Unusual Behavior

_ - Place

Direction

Pickup')

Pack _

Food

Matches Flashlight

Other

Outdoor Skills

Familiar with area/

Eve out overnight/

Trails/Crosscountry

Tent

Dnnk

Firearm

Sleeping Bag

Map Compass

Camera

Ever Lost Before")

Talk to Strangers/

Specific Fears/Interests

Other _ _ _ _

Accept Rides/ If Lost

Tendency to Hide') _

Old Haunts, Special Places

Other __ _ _

Anything Else

Flg. 2. Missing person questionnaire. 110


They can be contacted by writing toNASAR, P.O. Box 50178, Washington,DC, 20004.

The United States Orienteering Fed-eration (P.O. Box 1444, Forest Park,Georgia 30051) was established in 1971to promote orienteering in the UnitedStates. It can put you in touch with aclub in your area or help you start one ifnone is close by. Their magazine, Orien-teering U.S.A., is published nine times ayear and contains information on im-proving orienteering skills, map mak-ing, rules for competition, safety, andorienteering for different ages andskills. Belonging to USOF includes auto-matic membership in the InternationalOrienteering Federation. At a recentconvention workshop, the USOF pro-duced the following document.

SEARCH AND RESCUE

To avoid unnecessary searches theorganizing personnel should:

1. Make sure the meet area has clearboundaries such as roads or rivers.

2. Make certain that a person notonly has registered but has started thecourse.

3. Know how many participantsthere are and have a brief individualdescription, i.e., age, sex.

4. Make certain to impress upon allmeet participants the necessity to checkin even if the course is not finished.

Recommendations for preliminarymeet preparations to insure a successfulsearch and rescue:

1. Know your victim! A novice orien-teer is likely lost and may have wan-dered far from the chosen course. Anexperienced orienteer is likely injuredand near the route.

2. Require all orienteers to carry awhistle. A different code for victim andsearchers must be decided on before-hand.

3. Have some emergency instruc-tions for the orienteer incorporatingcommon wisdom of steps to take whenlost.

4. Have a club first aid kit with a listof emergency numbers for the nearestprofessional medical assistance, ambu-lance, sheriff's department, club mem-bers with CPR and first-aid training, etc.

5. Have a prepared list 01 personnelable and willing to be part of an emer-gency team.

6. Organize a group CPR and first-aid course for club members.

7. Carry equipment helpful in asearch in your car's glove compartment.Items to include would 1`,e a whistle anda Night-0 headlamp.

8. Have meet d;:ector know locationof nearest telephone.

9. Decide on the particular type ofcommunication control equipment to beused in the meet area. (United StatesOrienteering Federation Workshop,1986. Reprinted with permission.)

In the event of an actual search it isabsolutely essential that a search coordi-nator and a control center be set up. Theduties of coordinator include coordina-tion of efforts with other groups (e.g.,forest rangers), exact knowledge of thesearch parties' locations, and recall ofthe 3earchers. Knowledge of terrain willmodify conditions and alter plans.

As knowledge accumulates in searchtechniques it should be shared withother clubs and USOF. Orienteers at alllevels feel more secure knowing thattheir club can demonstrate expertise insearching (USOF, 1986).

Most outdoor emergencies can bedealt with satisfactorily given the prop-er training. The fact that students are inthe field navigating with map and com-pass means that they have a valuablesurvival skill. They are also more likelyto go out on their own and venturefurther afield. The teacher who has giv-en students the confidence to navigatethrough the wilderness should also besure that they know the importance ofinforming someone of their where-abouts and carryins, certain emergencysupplies. Whether someone goes outalone or with a partner, a responsibleperson should always be informed ofwhere they are going, what they are

111

doing, and when they expect to be back.Because the emphasis has been on

safety throughout th!s chapter, onemight get the impression that orienteer-ing is dangerous or risky, but this neednot be the case. In over 15 years ofconducting orienteering activities in-volving thousands of students, the au-thor has had no one seriously injured oreven lost for a long period of time.However, knowing what to do shouldsuch emergencies arise c.^.n give theteacher confidence to offer activitiessuch as orienteering that otherwisemight be avoided. From an instructionalpoint of view, orienteering is an ideal

ORIENTEERING 109

activity because it is enjoyable as well aseducatijnal, and students find it bothchallenging and satisfying.

REFERENCES

Hugglestone, A. and Howard, J. (1983). Ori-ontee:ing. In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physi-cal education and sport for the secondary schoolstudent (pp. 191-198). Reston, VA: TheAmerican Alliance for Health, PhysicalEducation, Recreation and Dance.

United States Orienteering Federation(1986). Search and rescue. Workshop pre-sented at the USOF convention, Plym-outh, NH

112

CHAPTER 13

Racquet SportsJOHN SMYTH

The CitadelCharleston, SC

1 1 3


D acquet sport participation is grow-l% ing at a rapid rate. The injuriesassociated with racquet sports, natural-ly, are showing increases proportionalto the growing participation. The mostcommon injuries in racquet sports havebeen to the eye, elbow and shoulder,and the strains and sprains related topoor conditioning and/or failure towarm up properly. Direct eye damagefrom the ball, eye and facial damagefrom the racquet, tennis elbow, rotatorcuff tears, and swing-related bursitisand arthritis collectively form the r+ri-mary concerns for the racquet portplayer.

SUPERVISION

Proper supervision in racquet sportsrequires adequate planning, risk man-agement strategies, prudent judgment,and elimination of site/equipment haz-ards. The participant should be warnedof the inherent dangers of the activityand any specific hazards. Pre-activitywarning should be followed by regularoral reminders and posted visual aidslisting safety measures in a manner ap-propriate to participants.

SELECTION AND CONDUCT OFTHE ACTIVITY

The instructional curriculum shouldbe educationally sound. One character-istic of good teaching is the identifica-tion of and provision for a learningprogression. Racquet sports requireproper throwing mechanics which cantransfer to hitting mechanics. The par-ticipant should demonstrate physicaland psychological readiness in all areas.Physical readiness should include prop-er warm-up, satisfactory health, dem-onstrated fitness levels, demonstratedperformance in prerequisite neuromus-cular skills, and proper post-activitycool down routines. Psychological read-iness includes the player's ability to actresponsibly in competitive situations, toenjoy the participation, and to growfrom positive interactions with part-ners, opponents, and mentors.

114

Rules should be established, commu-nicated, frequently repeated, and prom-inently posted. The reading level of thestudents or players should be estab-lished and the rules targeted at thatlevel. The rules must be modeled by theinstructor and enforced unilaterally.Where special populations or conditionsexist, rules must be modified to matchthe activity to the participant. Printedhandouts should be prepared and dis-tributed to each student.

Common sense rules in regard to re-placing fluids, pacing oneself, attendingto one's body in instances of pain andfatigue, and wearing pr4.. per clothingand safety equipment are no less impor-tant in racquet sports than in any otheractivity. Proper conditioning for thespecific sport is a prerequisite. Othermore subtle areas of safety includeknowing the competitive habits of youropponent and resisting the overly ag-gressive "big play." Another safetymeasure might be limiting matches to asfew players as possible, since cutthroatand doubles generally produce moreinjuries than singles.

Organizational control should bedemonstrated by professionally trainedpersonnel who can observe the playingarea to determine that conduct and safe-ty rules are followed. Through plan-ning, the instructor should provide forreasonable participant/space ratios andpractice formations which include ade-quate space for swing planes and ballflight. Racquetball and squash courtsare logically supervised from an elevat-ed vantage point to provide an overallview, but the instruction generally mustbe conducted on a court-by-court basis.This can create supervision concerns inthe remainder of the courts. It is critical,therefore, that students be taught toaccept responsibility for their own wel-fare, as well as relying on the guidanceof the teacher.

THE PLAYING ENVIRONMENT

The playing environment is a primaryconcern for the racquet sport instructor.The playing courts need to be free of all

extraneous equipment, including main-tenance and sports items. The playingsurface should be flat, well-groomed,and its composition such that safe foot-ing is provided. There should be noprotrusions from side walls or fences,especially at player or racquet level. Thecourt layout should provide for a safeplaying area, adequate intercourt space,and ample baseline area off court. Thereshould be a plan for players and observ-ers to move to and from the playingcourts. Facility guides give official courtdimensions and give suggestions for thedesign of active court areas and thenecessary inter- and off -court space.

Written policies and proceduresshould include the court maintenanceprocedures, safety inspection proce-dures, use policies, equipment mainte-nance procedures, and participationagreement forms. Court maintenancedocuments should reveal the surfacetreatment schedule, cleaning or clearingschedule, and the itemized mainte-nance checklist. The safety inspectionprocedures should include a time table,key element precautions, and some in-dication of the personnel responsible forsafety in the area. Use policies shouldindicate eligible users, conditions, risks,hours of use, and user responsibility.The equipment should be checked regu-larly for deterioration, damage, andcompliance with manufacturer mainte-nance suggestions. The participantagreement should include the primaryrisks, inherent safety concerns, and aplace for the player or responsible adultto indicate an awareness of the statedconcerns and give consent to play withthat understanding.

AVOIDING COMMON INJURIES

EYE INJURIES

The aspect of ocular injury is thegreatest hazard in racquet sports. TheNational Society to Prevent Blindnessreports that 10% of all sports related eyeinjuries are incurred in racquet sports.In Malaysia, where badminton is a pop-ular sport, two-thirds of all injuries ail

1 1

RACQUET SPORTS 113

to the eyes. Tennis balls measure from6.25 to 6.57 centimeters in diameter andreach speeds of 50 to 85 miles per houras they cross the net. The size of thetennis ball makes it less likely to enterthe eye socket, but the ball's texture andthe dirt it collects make corneal abrasionmore likely than with a racquet ball.

Racquet related injuries in tennis andbadminton are not as prevalent as insquash and racquetball. This may bedue to the more confined area andmulti-directional swing planes createdby the four wall court games. Ballspeeds in racquetball can reach 125miles per hour. The smaller ball insquash (1.56-1.75 centimeters) and themore pliable racquetball fit into the orbitof the eye and create an increased prob-ability of ocular injury. There are moreinjuries from the racquet in squash thanin racquetball because of the great-er racquet length and the somewhatshorter court.

As a result of these dangers, eye-guard lenses and frames have been thesubject of considerable investigation.Although development in the protectivedevices has been an Griping process,there is still room for improvement indesign and materials. The weakness ofthe open eyeguards is that they do notprevent the penetration of a com-pressed ball between the rims into theorbit of the eye. Hardened glass, whilemore protective than regular glass, isstill subject to shattering when the lenshas been scratched. Plastic streetwearglasses are not generally break resistantin spite of the widespread perception tothe ccntrary. The wrap-around eye-guards with lateral coverage atid protec-tive frame for the nose appear to pro-vide safer protection than the openmodel. Models utilizing a polycarbonatelens have been demonstrated to resistball contacts up to 100 miles per hour.The CR-39 prescription lens should beof industrial thickness (3 mm) at thecenter, or a polycarbonate lens shouldbe used. The primary weakness of thebubble and wrap-around guards ap-pears to be one of ventilation.

Eyeguards suffer from people's per-5


ception of problems with restricting pe-ripheral vision, being unattractive, and/or being uncomfortable. It is because ofthese perceptions that players often willnot voluntarily wear the guards, withthe exception of those who have previ-ously suffered injuries. Predictably, it isthe unprotected player who is injuredmost often. The teacher, therefore,must take the lead in guaranteeing play-er safety by requiring the use of propereye protection.

The degree of experience in racquet-ball play does not seem to affect theprobability of eye injury. One reason forthis may be that novice players, whileless controlled in their movement, tendto watch the front wall; more skilledplayers, while exposed to higher ballspeeds, seldom take their eyes awayfrom the ball. A very common safetyproblem in racquetball and squash occurs when the front court player facesthe back wall as his opponent returns ashot. Another potential eye injury is arichochet from a racquet or off a back orside wall.

Players should concentrate on courtawareness: their position in relation tothe walls, their racquet, their opponent,and his or her racquet. When there isany danger of striking an opp-ment, a"hinder" should be called and the pointreplayed. Court awareness is particular-ly important in avoiding the hinder andthe danger inherent in that situation.

Although eye injuries in tennis aresomewhat less frequent than in theclosed court racquet sports, awarenessof potential eye hazards is important.The probability of eye injury in tennisincreases as the player approaches thenet. The speed of the ball and the re-duced reaction time are contributingfactors in this situation.

ELBOW AND SHOULDER INJURIES

Recurrent microstress of the elbow isknown more commonly as "tennis el-bow." This name is used even thoughprobably less than five percent of thosewho suffer from the condition are actu-

ally tennis players. Tennis elbow is nota new problem; in fact, it was firstdescribed in medical journals in 1863.Even now it is thought that approxi-mately '/3 of all tennis players experi-ence this condition at some point intheir playing careers. Proper swing me-chanics is good preventive medicine fortennis elbow. The proper swing me-chanics should include a backswing in-volving the rotation of the trunk, withthe upper arm close to the body and theforearm in the pronated position. Uponimpact and during the follow-through,the player should generate external ro-tation with shoulder abduction. As thetrunk unwinds, the elbow is extendedwhile the racquet is held with a fixedwrist from a pronated forearm. fhispronated position is thought to be themost stable for the forearm. The for-ward transfer of weight occurs with theforward momentum of the racquethead. The two-handed backhand may-Iso reduce the incidence of tennis el-.,ow by forcing the proper shoulder turnand spreading the shock of contactthrough both arms, thereby decreasingthe force on either arm. Off center hits,frequency of play, grip strength, stringtension, grip size, racquet head size,court surface, shock from returningpowerful strokes, and ball weight haveall been related to the incidence of ten-nis elbow.

The occurrence of shoulder injury inracquet sports is most common in theoverhead strokes, primarily the serve.In tennis, rotator cuff tears and subacro-mial impingement ar' two of the mostcommon injuries associated with thistendonitis-related problem. The throw-ing action and the trauma of continuedcontact can aggravate this condition.

CHECKLIST FOR SAFETY

Tables 1-4 should help in developingand implementing a safe and effectiveinstructional program in the racquetsports.

116

RACQUET SPORTS 115

TABLE 1Tennis Elbow Checklist

STROKE MECHANICS

DOUse a two-hand backhandUse a shoulder turnUse a pronated forearm position

DON'TLead with elbow on backhandSwing with arm onlyUse a supinated forearm stroke

EQUIPMENT TIPS

DO

Use an oversized racquet (larger sweet spot)Reduce stnng tensionUse the proper gnp size (larger grip size reduces wristUse a lightweight ball for practicePlay on softest surfaces possible

play)

PLAYING TIPS

DO

Play less frequently if tennis elbow symptoms appearPlay with an opponent who doesn't continually use "power" strokesWork to increase grip strength and flexibilityUse a counterforce bracePractice proper stroke mechanicsDevelop and maintain proper conditioning

TREATMENT NOTES

DO

Use anti-inflammatory medication as prescribedHeat elbow pnor to playingIce elbow with massage after playingWaitsurgery is generally not advocated until after a 6 to 9 month rest period followed by a

rehabilitative exercise program and possibly prescribed injections Surgery is not a firststep

1 1 7

116 PkiNCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

TABLE 2Badminton Safety Rules

EQUIPMENT

Check Racquetsproper string tensionsafe grip

tightly woundtacky/not slippery

no loose, broken, or missir.g partscracks in headcracks in shaft

Check Shuttlecocks (Birds)no sharp feather quills or sharp protruding plasticbalanced shape (proper flight symmetry)proper weight for environment (indoor/outdoor)

Check Net and Standardsnet secured properlystandards adequately weightel or anchored

Check Courtfloor clean and dry (adequate traction)lines ^Wady markedplapi.g area free of extraneous equipment

PRACTICE

Allow adequate space between players for swing formationsAllow for safe distance in stroke practiceUse fleece balls when appropriateStretch the major muscle groups generally and the upper arm and shoulder specifically

GAME SITUATION

Match the players by abilityProvide recommended space around the courtMake eyeguards available and encourage their useAssist the players in gaining and maintaining proper level of conditioning for cc,..wetition

118

RACQUET SPORTS 117

TABLE 3Racquetball and Squash Safety Rules

EQUIPMENT

Check Racquetproper string tensionsafe griptightly wound, tacky/not slipperyno loose, broken, or missing parts

cracks in headcracks in shaft

check wrist thong (racquetball only)test the tensile strength of the thongtest the knot/connection of the thong

provide and require eyeguardslens materialpolycarbonate recommended, if CR-39 is used, require 3mm thickness at

centerdo not allow street eyewear for protectiondo not use eyeguards without lensestype

use lens modeluse wrap-a-round modelprotect eyes and noseavoid temporal hinges

ballcheck for proper pressure, keep ball clean and drycourt

check door for fit and securityleave all non-essential equipment outside of the courtbe sure the floor is clean and dry

PRACTICE

Establish safe drillscheck swing space for all drillscheck ball path for all drillsestablish ball retrieval strategyestablish court communication responsibilities

Require eyeguardsRequire thong (racquetball only)

PLAY

Require eyeguardsStretch major muscle groups and specific swinging musclesAvoid hinders; Call hinders, if unavoidablePlay under control, don't be aggressive beyond skill levelFace the front wallSwing under controlUse the wrist thong (racquetball only)Use proper swing mechanicsPlay the ball from low position to low targetPlay singles rather than cutthroat (3 players) or doubles (4 players) and cutthroat rather than

doubles to reduce risk from other playersWear the proper shoes (thick soles)Call waming "coming around" (back corner shot in squash only)Use a short follow through toward the front wallAvoid contact with the wallsCommunicate with partner and opponentsDon't misuse the rule loophole of playing the ball off an opponentGain and maintain the proper level of conditioning for competition

119


TABLE 4Tennis Safety Rules

EQUIPMENT

Racquetcheck string tension (reduce to ease or help prevent tennis elbow)grip characteristics

tightly woundtacky /not slipperyproper size (increase to ease or help prevent tennis elbow)

head size (increase to ease or help prevent tennis elbow)no loose, broken, or missing parts

cracked headcracked throatwom or broken strings

Ballsproper pressureproper napproper weight (reduce to ease or help prevent tennis elbow)keep clean and dry

Net and Standardsnet secured properlystandards adequately weighted or anchored

Courtsurface clean, responsive, and level (slower to ease or help prevent tennis elbow)lines clearly markedsufficient border space around/between courts

Shoessuitable treadthick soles

PRACTICE

Use proper stroke mechanicsUse safe formations

adequate swing room in drill iormationssafe distance from ball in stroke formations

StrOch '.ne major muscle groups general:y and the upper arms and shoulders specifically

PLAY

Match the skill levels of the playersApproach the net only when under controlUse proper swing mechanicsReplace fluids lost during playStretch the major muscle groups generally and the upper arms and shoulders specificallyPlay within skill and conditioning limitsDevelop and maintain proper level of conditioning for competition

1 2 0

REFERENCES

Bemhang, A. (1979). The many causes oftennis elbow. New York Journal of Medicine,79(9), 1363-6.

Cofield, R. H. and Simonet, W. T. (1984).The shoulder in sports. Mayo Clinic Pro-ceedings, 59(3), 157-63.

Cooney, W. P., III (1984). Sports injuries tothe upper extremity: How to recognizeand deal with some common problems.Postgraduate Medicine, 76(4), 45-50.

Doxanas, M. T. and Soderstrom, C. (1980)Racquetball as an ocular hazard. ArchivesOphthalmology, 98(11), 195-6.

Easterbrook, M. (1981). Eye injuries in racketsports. International Ophthalmology Clinic,21(4), 87-119.

Feiglman, M. J., Sugar, J., Jednock, N.,Read, J. S., and Johnson, P. L. (1983).Assessment of ocular protection for rac-quetball. Journal of the American MedicalAssociation, 250(24), 3305-9.

Kohn, H. S. (1984). Current status and treat-ment of tennis elbow Wisconsin MedicalJournal, 83(3), 18-19.

RACQUET SPORTS 119

Sports related eye injuries for selectedsports. (1980). National Society for thePrevention of Blindness. 1.

Priest, J. D. (1982). Elbow injuries in sports.Minnesota Medicine, 65(9), 543-545.

Smyth, J. P. (1983). Racquetball/Handball.In N.J. Dougherty (Ed.), Physical educationand sport for the secondary school student :pp.223-233). Reston, VA: The American Alli-ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation and Dance.

Soderstrom, C. A. and Doxanas, M. T.(1982). Racquetball: A game with prevent-able injuries. The American Jot --nal of SportsMedicine, 10(3), 180-183.

Stamford, B. (1986). Can you get fit playingracket sports? The Physician and Sportsmedi-cine, 14(1), 208.

Stotlar, D. and Lasley, D. (1985). Racquetballeye injuries: An analysis of student atti-tudes and behaviors. National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association Journal, 10(1),16-18.

Vinger, P. F. (1986). How I manage cornealabrasions and lacerations. The Physicianand Sportsmedicine, 14(5), 179.

121

4

-......x,

CHAPTER 14

Self-defense

KENNETH TILLMAN

Trenton State CollegeTrenton, NJ

122


T he key to safety in a self- def'inseclass is to instill, in each student,

the proper attitude toward the activity.Students must have a different view ofself-defense than they have of otheractivities that are included in a physicaleducation program. Basketball, tum-bling, wrestling, dance, and other sportskills are learned to provide enjoymentand develop competency in performingan activity for recreational and/or com-petitive purposes. The goal is to use theskills that are learned. In self-defense itis hoped that many of the techniqueswill never be used. The skills are notlearned f-,t use in a competitive situa-tion with friends or in an interscholasticathletic setting. The dangerous natureof attacking and retaliatory self-defenseskills mandates that students know thatthese skills are to be used only whensomeone's safety is threatened and theymust not be used with full force in thepractice situation.

Students must have ingrained inthem an understanding of the seriousconsequences that can result if theyapproach the learning of self-defenseskills in a flippant manner. They mustaccept the fact that the skills they arelearning can cause serious injury andeven death. They must follow all safetyprecautions established in the class.

As part of the instructional approach,the teacher must emphasize that self-defense skills should be used only as alast resort technique. Avoidance of dan-gerous situaii,,ns, fleeing when threat-ened, and discouraging an assailantmust precede the use of physical force.This concept is important for studentsto accept if they are to participate safely.A macho attitude has no place in a self-defense class.

The tenor of the class should be thatof helping each other develop skills, notcompeting against another person. Theskills are being developed, not for sport,but for protection Practice must be safe,even though the techniques will bedamaging to an assailant if they areused in a life threatening situation.

Classes are structured to maximizesafeguards against injury. Falling, strik-

ing, and throwing are skills that areused in self-defense. It is, therefore,iinFortant that students know how tofall and develop a good kinestheticsense. This must precede practicing theadvanced techniques.

SUPERVISION

An instructor will significantly reducethe possibility of injury by carefully su-per'ising each participant during theself-defense class. This means that theentire class will be in view and estab-lished practice procedures will be ad-hered to at all times. Strict control iscritical for this activity because the skillsthat are being learned are designed todisable an antagonist. It is thereforenecessary to enforce practice proce-dures that provide safety for membersof the class, both when executing a skilland when simulating the attack.

Aggressiveness must be controlledwhen practicing dangerous tactics. Theinstructor needs to be in a position toobserve all groups as they practice.

Appropriate instructor supervisionrequires the following:

1. An instructor must be in the activi-ty area at all times when students arepresent.

2. P-, activity area that provides anunoLstructed view of all participants isimportant.

3. The instructor must be aware ofeach student throughout the class.

4. The instructo- should be with stu-dents who are trying difficult skills forthe first time.

5. The instructor should be knowl-edgeable in all the skills that are beingtaught and insure that proper progres-sions are being followed.

6. Students should be taught how toassist their partners when practicingskills. Student understanding of the in-tricacies and dangers of the skills willincrease overall class safety and assistthe instructor in carrying out superviso-ry responsibilities.

7. It is important that the instructorknows the capabilities of each studentin. th..; class and adjusts class require-

1231

ments to the psychological and motorreadiness of the students.

8. Students must be comfortable withthe instructor and be willing to seekassistance when needed.

9. The instructional area must be ca-pable of being secured when class is notin session.

10. Students should be permitted topractice self-defense techniques only inproperly matted areas.

11. Detailed lesson plans should beprepared and followed during eachclass period.

12. Potential dangers, both in the en-vironmental setting for the class and inthe class presentation, should be elimi-nated as part of the class planning proc-ess.


Careful planning needs to be done inthe selection of skills that will be incor-porated into a self-defense unit. Self-defense tactics are designed for protec-tion from a violent action and to thwartan attacker; they are not governed byrules designed for safe participation. Itis particularly important, therefore, thatthe activity be conducted using special-ized safety procedures. This poses aninteresting dichotomy. Skills are select-ed because of their potential to disablean attacker, and yet the teaching proce-dure must be designed to provide extraprotection to make the learning processsafe.

It needs to be further emphasized thatthe student's attitude toward this unit iscritical. The student must accept the factthat self-defense tactics are to be usedfor protection from imminent danger tooneself or someone else. The studentmust treat the skills in a serious fashionbefore they can be practiced safely.Many self-defense skills can never bepracticed with full force. They are prac-ticed in a simulated fashion and usedwith full intensity only in the event thatthe student is in a situation where per-sonal safety or life is threatened.

124

SELF-DEFENSE 123

The self-defense skill that is beinglearned will dictate the safety procedurethat should be followed. There are cer-tain guidelines that apply at all timesand others that are specific to special-ized tactics such as delivering a blow orthrowing an attacker.

GENERAL

1. Each session should begin withwarm-ups. Many self-defense tactics re-quire explosive action and suddenn ovements. Warm-up is important toprevent muscle pulls and ready thebody for strenuous activity.

2. Students must be physically capa-ble of handling the rigors of executingself-defense techniques. A physical fit-ness unit is a good preliminary step tostarting a self-defense class.

3. Incorporate physical fitness intoyour self-defense unit so the studentswill have strength, flexibility, and mus-cle suppleness to minimize the possibili-ty of injury.

4. Competency in basic tumblingskills is a prerequisite to learning fallingand throwing technique:. Studentsshould, at a minimum, be able to doforward, backward, shoulder and for-ward dive rolls.

5. Tapping is the universal signal tostop. This signal must be respected byall members of the class and the holdbroken immediately if a participant tapsthe mat, partner, or herself/himself.

6. Establish safety rules and makesure e-o rules are understood and fol-lowea.

7. Emphasis should not be on tryingto prove that moves work, but rather onlearning the techniques.

8. Proper progression is important.Start with basic skills and use these asthe basis for more advanced techniques.

9. Regularly review basic skills to de-velop a firm foundation for the moredifficult self-defense tactics.

10. Demand that students follow in-struction consistently. Horseplay can-not be condoned.

11. The only techniques that shouldinclude contact with a partner are those


which do not involve inherent risk ofinjury.

12. Practice in a large area on surfaceshaving at least the resilency of a wres-tling mat.

13. The instructor should be able todemonstrate each skill that is beingtaught. It is important that the instruc-tor know the dangers of each skill andbe able to effectively impart this infor-mation to the students.

14. Work slowly when learning tech-niques. The skill must be learned beforemovements can be controlled duringpractice. Speed should be increasedonly as control is developed.

15. Never force a student to attempt askill. Be sure the student has the neces-sary background before moving to newskills.

16. Do not permit the wearing of jew-elry or other assessories during a self-defense class.

17. Comfortable physical educationclothing that does not have buckles,snaps, or other items that can causeinjury should be worn. Sneakers are therecommended footwear.

18. Safety and emergency proceduresmust be established and understood bythe students. There should be access toa telephone and emergency numbersshould be posted.

FALLING

1. Be sure that the students knowhow to do forward, backward, shoul-der, and forward dive rolls before teach-ing falls.

2. Practice on thick mats to protectfrom injury.

3. Develop proper form by practicingeach fall slowly. Speed up as the propertechnique is learn.. Learn the correctprocedures to minimize impact whenlanding on the mat.

4. Follow proper progression whenlearnmg to fall.

5. Start falling from a low position(kneeling or squatting) and graduallyincrease the distance until the fall can beexecuted from a standing position.

BLOWS

1. Do not allow physical contact witha partner. This includes hand and footblows.

2. Use padded dummies and othersafe substitute targets such as play-ground balls when practicing blows.

3. Use imaginary opponents whenusing full force.

4 Make extensive use of simulationdrills when practicing the variousblows.

5. Emphasize the destructive natureof the blows that are being learned andthe importance of treating dangeroustechniques with respect.

6. Remember: never try to prove thata disabling blow works. Emphasizelearning correct techniques for maxi-mum effect.

HOLDS

1. Never allow students to apply fullforce to a hold.

2. Do not allow the use of fast orjerky motions on an unsuspecting part-ner.

3. Be sure the partner is aware of the.hold and knows how to react to preventinjury.

4. Instruct the class members to al-ways go with the leverage when a holdis being applied.

5. Stop immediately when one part-ner taps to indicate pain.

THROWS1. Students should be thrown only

after they have learned falling tech-niques and are able to fall correctly.

2. Simulate the throws many timesbefore using a pa tner. Learn properthrowing techniques thoroughly.

3. Partners should be of a weight thatthe student can safely control whenlearning a throw.

4. Gradually increase the size of op-ponents as a student's skill increases.

5. Control skills are exceptionally im-portant when making throws. Partici-pants must be able to control their part-fes5body when throwing her/him to

the mat. Throws should be executedgently and never with full force.

6. Instruct students as to when theyshould release their grip to prevent apartner from falling incorrectly.

7. Gradually increase the pace of thethrows.

8. Make certain that there is a mini-mum of 75 square feet per pair of stu-dents when practicing throws. Otherstudents must stay away from this areawhen throws are being pi.? -ticed.


Safe surroundings are important forevery physical education activity. Thevigorous action that takes place in a self-defense class mandates an environmentthat will protect each student to thehighest reasonable degree.

PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGS

1. An unobstructed matted area isneeded. It is recommended that the mathave the resilency of at least a wrestlingmat.

2. The size of the class will determinethe mat size that is needed. For someactivities, such as throws, it might benecessary to rotate groups to provideappropriate safety parameters.

3. Ten foot circles, such as thosepainted on some practice wrestlingmats, are ideal to use to keep satisfac-tory space between groups when prac-ticing.

4. Wrestling rooins which have pad-ded walls make good locations forteaching self-defense classes.

5. It is best to have one complete matwith the different sections taped togeth-er. Do not have small individual matsplaced on the floor.

6. Any obstructions in the self-de-fense practice area should be matted.

SELF-DEFENSE 125

7. Extra mats, including those of 6"and 8" in thickness, should be availablewhen practicing falls and throws.

8. The mat area must be cleaned reg-ularly.

EQUIPMENT

1. Partially deflated volleyballs andplayground balls with target areasmarked on them should be available forpracticing various blows.

2. Punching bags, hand pads, block-ing shields, tackling dummies, pillowsand rolled sleeping bags are examples ofequipment that should be available forstudents to use when practicing.

3. Small exercise mats should be pro-vided so they can be rolled and usedwhen practicing blows and throws.

4. Rules of conduct and safety andemergency procedures should be clearlyposted in the practice area.

CONCLUSION

Self-defense techniques are valuableskills for students to learn. Even thoughthe emphasis of this class is differentfrom other physical education classeswhich key on sport, exercise and/orrhythms, the course makes a significantcontribution to each student's educationby developing self confidence and pre-paring them to handle dangerous situa-tions. It is very important, however,that the safety guidelines that are cov-ered in this chapter be followed so thisphysical education experience will besafe as well as benefal

REFERENCE

Tillman, K. G. (1983). Self-defense. In N 1.Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education andsport for the secondary school student (pp.201-220). Reston, VA. The American Alli-ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation and Dance.

126

CHAPTER 15

SoccerJOHN FELLENBAUM

McCaskey High SchoolLancaster, PA

127


ailed the world's most popularL. sport, soccer, as we know it, is notas foreign to the Americas as one mightthink. Written reports from Boston dur-ing the 1600s refer to soccer, and actual-ly ban it from being played in the streetsdue to the injuries incurred by the par-ticipants. As the years progressed, soc-cer went through various modificationstending towards the more violent formsof rugby and American football. Thesesetbacks were eventually overcomewith President Theodore Roosevelt'sWhite House conference aimed at curb-ing the American form of violent rugby-football, and with incv-asing contactwith Europeans and other peoples ofthe world. Soccer has slowly and steadi-ly made its way into the ranks of anational sport. Today, the soccer rebirthin the United States is phenomenal.Youths from coast to coast are playingthis relatively simple team sport andparents are enjoying the advantages ofwatching their children engage in asport which is healthy for their bodiesand relatively gentle on their pocket-books.

Unfortunately, when you have agame where little equipment is usedand successful play depends primarilyon body stamina, injuries will happen.Following is a list of common soccerinjuries, the body parts most often af-fected, and suggestions for their pre-vention.

COMMON SOCCER INJURIES

Abrasionsscraping of the skin.A. Area most affected

1. All parts of the body especiallythe legs

B. Prevention1. Use safe and well-maintainedequipment2. Avoid unsafe playing areas3. Avoid dangerous play

Contusionsbruising of the skin and under-lying tissue.

A. Area most affected1. All parts especially the quadri-ceps

B. Prevention1. Avoid dangerous collisions

BlistersA. Area most affected

1. FeetB. Prevention

1. Conditioning of feet2. Properly fitting shoes3. Wearing two pair of socks4. Tape over the tender areas5. Use lubricant on friction area6. Use powder to reduce moisture

Straindamage to tendon or muscle causedby overuse or overstress

A. Area most affected1. Lower extremities, especiallythe gastrocnemius muscle, Achil-les tendon, and patellar tendon

B. Prevention1. Adequate fitness training2. Sufficient warm-up3. Restrictive taping

Sprainstretching or tearing of ligamentbeyond its normal limits.

A. Area most affected1. Ankle and knee areas

B. Prevention1. Adequate fitness training2. Sufficient warm-up3. Restrictive taping4. Use of braces5. Avoid dangerous situations

Heat Exhaustionrapid, weak pulse, light-headedness, faintness, profuse sweating, dis-orientation.

A. Prevention1. Adequate fitness training2. Regular water breaks every 15to 20 minutes3. Plenty of water before play be-gins4. Don't play in excessive heatand humidity

As in any sport, soccer does have itsinjuries, but many can be minimized byproper attention to safety standards set

121the instructor.

SUPERVISION

A. Proper attention should be givento the health status of the studentshave them complete a health form.

1. Be aware of present physicalproblems such as fractures,sprains, strains, etc.2. Be aware of health history, e.g.diabetes, allergies, asthma, etc.

B. Medical equipment should beavailable at all times.

1. First aid kits should be avail-able including telephone numbersof the police, ambulance, rescuesquad, etc.

C. If an injury occursthe teachershould provide first aid only.

1. First aid training should be amust2. Never diagnose unless quali-fied3. Never permit the student toplay through pain. Let pain be theguidepain is nature's way oftelling us something is wrong andto continue playing would onlyaggravate the situation.

D. Never allow a student who hashad a serious illness or injury to rejoinclass without a written note from thedoctor.

E. Record the nature, circumstances,time, date, treatment, and follow-up ofall injuries.

F. Never allow students to be with-out supervision while in the gymnasi-um or on the field.

G. No climbing or hanging from thenets or goal posts should be allowed.

H. Encourage good sportsmanshipwithin the classroom structure. Stressthe development of student self-controlduring competition.

I. Officiate games or instruct othersto officiate as fairly as possible withsafety of the students *An mind.

J. Adapt the rules to the age and skilllevel of the students.

K. Constantly stress the rules of soc-cer with the realization that safety ispromoted through rules.

L. Consider the weather and its effecton the field in the decision to go outside

SOCCER 129

or remain inside. A wet field can beextremely slippery and lead to unneces-sary injuries.

LESSON PLANS

A. Since soccer is aerobic in nature,begin each lesson with warm-up activi-ties and conclude with a cool-down.

1. Warm-up(slow stretching ex-ercises no ballistic type). A thor-ough warm-up stretches all partsof the body to prepare for activity,stimulates the body systems, anddiminishes the chance of injury.2. Cool-downexercises thatgradually slow activity after in-tense exertion speed recovery timefor the body and return the circu-latory system to pre-exercise state.

B. Be aware of the conditioning andfitness level of your students. Soccer isan endurance spor. Consider having afitness and conditioning unit before thesoccer unit. Incorporate fitness and con-ditioning into your soccer unit lessonplans. Develop strength, endurance,and flexibility in the areas most vulnera-ble to injury.

C. Stress the proper progression ofskills, to include:

1. Fundamental techniqueLearn and practice skills with littleor no movement around the field.2. Match related skillsPerformlearned skills with movement.3. Match conditionsPerformlearned skills in a game situation.

D. Proper instruction of skills is amust. Explain the skills; demonstratethe skills; and make sure everyone un-derstands the skills.

E. Analyze the drills and teachingmethods used with students' safety ut-most in mind.

F. Provide ways and methods ofpracticing skills that are fun and moti-vating. This insures proper learning ofskills and better body and ball control.

G. Provide ample feedback to the stu-dents regarding their technique. Allowsufficient practice time to improve skills.

H. The maximum number of studentsper team should be kept as dose to the

129


TABLE IRecommended ball Sizes

Age Ball Size Circumference WeightPlayers under 6 yrs #3 23"-24" 8 to 10 ouncesPlayers 6 yrs. to 11 yrs. #4 25"-26" 11 to 13 ouncesPlayers 12 yrs. and over #5 27"-28" 14 to 16 ounces

rules (11) as possible allowing for lessconfusion and injury during play. TheUnited States Youth Soccer Associationrecommends smaller team numbers foryounger players. Instead of 11 vs. 11,play 6 vs. 6 or 7 vs. 7.

A teacher's responsibility for safetyextends beyond the actual lesson orplay to involve the equipment and envi-ronment in which the instruction takesplace.

EQUIPMENT

A. Shirts.1. Shirts or scrimmage vestsshould be of different colors foreach team. This prevents confu-sion and helps prevent collisions.

B. Shoes.1. Sneakers should be used forindoor play.2. The following alternatives ap-ply when playing outdoors:sneakers; all purpose athleticshoes; soccer shoes with moldedcleats. All of the above are softtypes of shoes to keep injuries to aminimum. Cleated shoes are idealbecause they provide better trac-tion and less slipping.

C. Shinguards.1. Shinguards are a must for class-room competition. They providesafety by decreasing injuries in theshin area.2. Shinguards come in severalsizes and should be sized to fit thestudents.

D. Goalie Uniform.1. Suggest wearing a long-sleevedand long-legged outfit (sweat suit)

of a different color than the teamshirt. A long-sleeved and long-legged outfit will protect the goaliefrom abrasions and contusionswhile diving for the ball. The dif-ferent color shirt will help otherplayers recognize the goalie.

E. Soccer Ball.1. The ball should be sized to fitthe age of the students for setterball control. It should be inflatedto the recommended pressure forproper ball control and less injuryto the body when heading andcollecting.2. Use smaller lighter balls foryounger players. Table 1 gives rec-ommendations for ball sizes forthe various age groups.3. The ball may be constructed ofa variety of materials. For outdooruse, a leather or rubber coated ball(less expensive and more durable)is recommended. Indoors, an in-door soccer ball, nerf ball or slight-ly deflated outdoor soccer ball orvolleyball is appropriate.

FIELD

A. Size.1. For players under 12 years ofage, the use of a smaller field withsmaller dimensions is highly rec-ommended.

B. Playing Area.1. The grounds should be free ofholes, ruts, glass, sticks, stones,etc.2. The goalposts should be free ofhooks and protrusions and should

130

be secure. There should be noloose bolts or connections.3. A reasonable "buffer zone" ofunobstructed space should bemaintained around the playingfield.4. Daily inspection of the area be-fore classes begin will protect stu-dents from unnecessary injurydue to unsafe playing fields.

CONCLUSION

Prudent and reasonable care in fol-lowing the safety rules outlined in theprevious pages will help to prevent in-juries in the soccer program. This isimportant not only for the safety of thestudents, but for the protection of theinstructor against liability. Planning forsafety is a prerequisite to any soccerprogram.

SOCCER 131

REFERENCES

Chyzowych, W. k1979). The official soccer bookof the United States Soccer Federation Chica-go, New York, and San Francisco RandMcNally.

Cramer. D. (1970). United States Soccer Foot-ball Association coaches manual. New YorkUnited States Soccer Federation.

Fecht. G. (1979) The complete parents' guide tosoccer. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear.

Fellenbaum, J. (1983). Soccer. In N. J. Dou-gherty (Ed.). Physical education and sport forthe secondary school student (pp. 235-249).Reston, VA: The American Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance.

United States Olympic Committee SportsMedicine Council. (1985, January). Themedical aspects of soccer. National SoccerCoaches Association of America and Unit-ed States Soccer Federation.

Woog, D. (1986). "Prudent coaches keepgame on field and out of court." SoccerAmerica, July 31, 1986, p. 11.

13i

CHAPTER 16

Softball

DIANE BONANNO


PATRICIA PETERSand SONIA REG ALADO

East Brunswick H;gii SchoolEast Brunswick, NJ

132

134 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCA ITC"' AND SPORT

S oftball is truly one our our greatnational pastimes. In addition to the

organized leagues sponsored by schoolsystems and recreation departmerts,there are literally hundreds of thou-sands of "pick-up" games played eachyear. Indeed, beach parties, family pic-nics, company outings, and school fielddays are all fertile ground for a "coupleof innings of ball."

Widespread participation in thissport, though, has its advantages anddisadvantages in terms of safety. Activeleague play has resulted in numerouschanges to rules, equipment, and play-ing field conditions which have contrib-uted immeasurably to insuring the safe-ty and well being of the player. Unfortu-nately, very few of these improvementshave filtered down to the "pick-up"game or in some cases the physicaleducation class or intramural league. Inthese instances, familiarity with thesport seems to be our worst enemy inregard to safety.

Familiarity with softball appears tobreed carelessness. While we insist onhaving gloves and catcher's masks wornat the varsity game on Friday afternoon,we sometimes find it a nuisance to re-quire the same gear for players in ourclass on Friday morning. Why? Is oneset of students at less risk than theother? The answer is obviously no. Theonly thing that is different is our atti-tude.

In our minds, the game I ayed by thevarsity is fraught with risi.. Anythingcan happen when playing another teamon another field. We view the gamesplayed in our classes, however, quitedifferently. What can happen? we askourselves. It's only a game for funit'sonly a "pick-up" game among friends.Are all the precautions necessary be-tween friends?

Yes, all the precautions are neces-saryeven among friends. Accidentscan happen at anytime. Our only de-fense is to be prepared. If we take safetylightly in our classes or during intra-murals, we are doing our students adisservice in two ways. First, we placethem at greater risk than need be, which

speaks for itself. Second, and not asobv.ous, is that we instill in them acarer less attitude about safety, which canbe just as debilitating as asking them tocatch without a mask.

Safety is everyone's responsibility, atall times. Whether we're coaching asport, teaching a class, or playing a"pick-up" game of softball, taking pre-cautions is part of the game.

SUPERVISION

Supervision refers to the ability of theteacher or coach to monitor the activitythat is occuring. Following are guide-lines which should be kept in mindwhen planning for effective instructorsupervision.

THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OFSUPERVISION NEEDED

A. Instruction in softball should onlybe provided by individuals who areknowledgeable in:

1. The rules of tae sport, especialiyas it is played by the age groupthey are supervising.2. The mechanics of the skills espe-cially those which place a player atgreater risk, such as sliding.3. The teaching techniques which areused to provide safe instruction.4. The teaching progressions for eachskill, especially as they apply tothe age and ability level of theplayers.5. The potential hazards inherent inthe sport.6. The care and maintenance ofequipment.7. First aid and emergency proce-dures

B. As a general rule, the ratio ofstudents to teacher should be smallerwhen the students are beginners orwhen new and potentially hazardousskills, such as sliding or batting, arebeing taught. In these instances theteacher/coach can improve the teacher/student ratio by:

1. Dividing the group into smallunits, where each unit is given an

143

assignment which can be safelyself-directed. This should allowthe teacher/coach to move fromunit to unit to introduce the newskill under conditions which per-mit better supervision.2. Teaching students to providefeedback on a skill. Students whoare chosen for this task must betrained and tested by the instruc-tor to be sure they have a thor-ough knowledge of the subjectmatter. Providing the student assistant with written material isalso helpful.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL

A. Instructors should station them-selves at the area of highest risk. As agencral rule, a high-risk area can bedefined as one in which a new skill isbeing learned, a highly complex skill isbeing learned or practiced, or one inwhich a group of novices or poorlyskilled players is practicing.

B. Be sure student assistants or man-agers are well instructed in the dutiesyou expect them to perform. Two wordsof caution: student assistants should bereviewed periodically for effectiveness;and they should never be asked to as-sume responsibilities for high risk areas.

C. Softball fields provide wide openareas. Instructors should be sure thatthe activities they are conducting areplaced in such a way that:

1. They can see all players at alltimes.2. They can get from one activityto the next with minimal time lostif there is an emergency or if spe-cific discipline is required.

D. Instructors should move from ac-tivity to activity in such a way as toensure full view of the group at alltimes. Generally this means movingalong the perimeter of the field.

E. Students should always be awareof the location of the instructor. If thearea in which the activity is being con-ducted is large, the instructor may de-cide to:

1. Wear something that is brightlycolored or distinctive so that he/

SOFTBALL 135

she can be spotted easily.2. Rotate the group through his/her location.3. Announce a change of positionbefore moving.

F. Bats, balls, or other equipmentwhich may create an attractive nuisancefor a child/player should not be left outif an instructor is not available to pro-vide supervision.

G. Policies should hr developed con-cerning potentially hazardous activities,e.g., sliding, baserunning, and catch-ing. The policy should take into consid-eration:

1. The ability of the player.2. The instruction provided.3. The type of playing area pro-vided.4. The quality and quantity of su-pervision provided.5. The type of softball game beingplayed (e.g. fast pitch, slow pitch,16-inch softball).

H. Safety rules that reflect the type ofsoftball being played should be com-piled and presented to the group at thebeginning of the unit and reviewed pe-riodically throughout the season. Fol-lowing are general rules which apply toall situations and should be included onany list.

GENERAL SAFETY RULESFOR SOFTBALL

A. Don't throw the bat. Drop it afterhitting the ball.B. Check the area before swinging the

bat. de sure no one is near you.C. Don't use the hat to hit stones or

other objects. The bat should be used tohit the ball only.D. When throwing to warm up, be

sure you are throwing in the same direc-tion as everyone else. Check to be sureno one could be hit by an overthrow.E. Don't stand on the bag when play-

ing a force out. Use the side or corner ofthe bag for the tag.F. Don't fake a tag on a player.G. Remember that the fielder has the

right of way in the baseline when field-ing the ball.

1 i4


H. When playing offense, stay wellback from the playing field. If there is afenced-in dugout, be sure to stay thereuntil your turn at bat comes. Stay alertfor foul balls that may be hit toward thebench.I. Never leave equipment lying in ei-

ther fair or foul territory.J. Call for the ballavoid collisions.

PLANNING

A. Detailed lesson plans should bewritten for every instructional period orworkout session.

B. Plans should include, but not belimited to:

1. Specific objectives which ex-plain the purpose of the sessionand what the instructor hopes toaccomplish.2. Detailed explanations of the ac-tivities that have been selected toachieve the objectives.3. Diagrams which illustrate themanagerial aspects of the drillsbeing taught or the organization ofthe group.4. Notations of any special safetyconsiderations for the skills beingtaught.5. Provisions for warmup activi-ties and review of prerequisiteskills.

C. Lesson plans for rainy daysshould be prepared in advance. Theyshould correspond to the activities be-ing taught in the unit or outline anactivity which must be performed inlieu of the skills being taught in the unitdue to limitations on space, equipment,etc. If a substitute activity is planned fora rainy day, the most important consid-eration is that the students can safelyperform the activity at their presentlevel of ability or conditioning.

D. Be sure planning reflects an un-derstanding of the learner's level of abil-ity and the limitaticns that might beplaced on learning due to lack of equip-ment or facilities.

E. Taken collectively, the lessonplans should reflect sound progressionsfor skill development.


Conduct of the activity refers to theproper selection of an activity or teach-ing method based on the size, age,ability level, and experience of the play-er. Following are several points whichshould be considered when searchingfor the most effective course of action inpresenting or reviewing material withyour students.

READINESS

One of the first areas one shouldconsider in the selection and conduct ofan activity is whether a player is likelyto succeed (ready) when trying a newskill.

A. Never force a player to attempt askill if he/she is afraid or expresses un-usual insecunty. This caution extends topreviously learned skills as well as newones.

B. Never force a player to assume aposition on the field for which theyhave never had instruction or for whichthey express fear or uncertainty.

C. Never allow an individual to playat a level for which they have insuffi-cient skill. If a level of play requires thata player be able to slide for safety pur-poses do not allow an individual to playif they cannot slide.

D. Stress self-control. Teach studentsto follow the rules and assume responsi-bility for their own safety. Teach themto check their equipment before theyuse it and to survey the playing fieldbefore they begin play. Have them re-mind each other of good playing habits(i.e. dropping the bat). Make everyonesafety conscious.

E. Prepare the students for emergen-cies. Explain the potential hazards ofthe game and the methods for avoidinginjury. Outline what should be done ifan emergency occurs.

F. Never engage the group in gameplay unless they are ready. Be sure youknow what they are capable of doingsafely. If you feel it important to playthe game early in the instructional peri-od, modify the rules lnd equipment so

135

that the game conforms to the skill andability of the players. Following aresome suggestions for modifying thegame.

1. Modify Equipment. Use a ballthat is bigger, brighter in color, orsofter. Use a longer or shorter bat,or one that is lighter in weight.2. Modify Rules. Allow for:

no balls and strikesone pitch or 3 pitches per batterpitcher from own teamfewer baseshit ball off teeno pitchereliminate infield positionseliminate outfield positionsno batting

G. Be sure the players are physicallyready to play the game. Stress condi-tioning in the early stages of the seasonespecially for the arm and shoulder gir-dle.

H. Stress the need for warming upbefore practice or play. Teach the play-ers a specific routine for warming upand explain the possible injuries thatcould result from inadequate warmupactivity.

SKILL PROGRESSION

Progressions are one of the most im-portant ways of ensuring safety in anysport. A proper progression minimizesthe likelihood of injury during the in-structional phase and prepares the play-er for injury-free ball during the execu-tion phase. Following are suggestedprogressions for several of the basicskills in softball.

A. Throwing. Throwing progressionsshould always begin with a light weightball that is easy for a player to grip. Asthe player becomes more skilled, a larg-er heavier ball may be substituted. Rec-ognize, however, that a regulation ballmay ne er be appropriate for someplayers. Before a regulation ball is sub-stituted, consideration should be givento the age, size, and ability level of theplayer a- well as the availability ofgloves.

To ensure safety, throwing drillsshould always be set up so that (a) thereis ample distance between throwing

SOFTBALL 137

pairs/groups, (b) each pair is throwingin the same direction, and (c) throwingpairs never overlap.

THROWING PROGRESSIONS

1. Demonstrate proper mechanicsof overhead throw.2. Have players practice mechan-ics of the throw without the ball.3. Throw short distances practic-ing mechanics.4. Throw short distances practic-ing accuracy.5. Increase distance, concentrat-ing on accuracy and mechanics.6. Practice running to the ball,fielding, and throwing.7. Throw from different positionson the field starting with infieldpositions and progressing to ou.-field positions.

B. Catching. Catching progressionsshould always begin with a light weightball that is large enough for the player totrack easily. When working with veryyoung players, it is a good idea to workwith a ball that is brightly colored. Asthe catching ability of the player im-proves, a regulation ball can be substi-tuted safely.

Note the precautions that apply to theplacement of a throwing drill apply tocatching as well. In addition, careshould be taken to locate the catchingdrill on level ground. Grounders thattake an irregular bounce are difficultand dangerous to field. Level groundwill make it safer and easier for a playerto catch the ball. It also minimizes thepossibility of injury due to falling.

CATCHING PROGRESSIONS

1. Demonstrate mechanics ofcatching.2. Have players toss ball to them-selves and catch.3. Have players throw ball to awall and catch it on a rebound.Throws should be varied so thatpractice is gained catching ballsthat rebound at various heightsand speeds.4. Have players toss and catchwith each other. Practice should136


be gained:catching ball of varying heightscatching balls thrown to the leftand right of the midli'.emoving to the ballmoving backwardmoving laterallycatching and throwing immedi-ately to a target

5. Have players field balls hit off abat.

C. Batting. Batting should be piac-ticed in a designated area that is largeenough to allow the batter to pull theball left or right or hit a foul withoutinterfering with another drill or game.Each player involved in the batting drillshould be assigned 7 specific task andpositioned on the field in such a way asto eliminate the possibility of beingstruck by the bat. This is particularlytrue of the players who are catching the,alls thrown in from the field. The,'

must be stationed in an area where theycan perform their job without worryingabout being struck by the bat or a linedrive off the "at. When providing in-struction duniig the early stages oflearning be sure to use a light weight batand ball to practice. This procedureshould be followed as much to protectthe fielders, who may not be highlyskilled catcht...s, as to make it easier forthe bat ter to perfect his/her skill. Anoth-er precaution which should be consid-ered is using a light weight or "soft" balli.e., mush or cloth ball) when a ba,,er is

facing a live pitcher. This adaptation issuggested because of the dubious talentmost young pitchers exhibit when try-ing to pitch the ball directly across theplate. If a ball strays from its intendedpath I is less likely to cause the batterinjur., . it is light weight or soft. During"live" pitching sessions don't forget toin3ist that the catcher wear a mask. Livebatting practice has all of the elementsof a real game, and it requires all of thesame precautions.

BATTING PROGRESSIONS

1. Demonstrate the mechanics of.ie swing.

2. Using A light weight bat, have

the learner practice swingingwithout a ball. Be sure the battershave ample room in which to exe-cute the drill. Allow for the possi-bility of the bat flying off on thefollow through.3. Practice batting off a tee. Havethe batters place their own ball onthe tee. This will help to eliminatethe possibility of a player beingaccidentally hit by a practice swingas he/she goes to place the ball onthe tee for the better.4. Practice batting with the coachor instructor pitching. Care shouldbe tai- 'n in this drill to place theball into play slowly so that thefielders have time to recover. Thetendency is to concentrate on thebatter, pitching the ball as soon asthe stance is regained. This cancreate a dangerous situation forthe players in the field. M theyare concentrating on field; .g oneball, another is launched into theair. It would be very easy in ail,instance for a player to be hit by anunseen ball or for two players tocollide because they were payingattention to two different situa-tions.5. Practice batting with anotherplayer pitching. Start this drillArith a light weight ball. Remem-ber that batting ability develops ata much faster pace that pitching.This can lead to two problems:first, the novice pitcher may inad-vertantly strike the batter with theball; and second, the 'latter mayhit a line drive back to the pitcherwho, because of inexperience, isnot ready to catch the ball. Theeffect of both of these situationscan be reduced, as mentiPfied pre-viously, by the use o a lightweight ball and a modified pitch.6. Practice batting with a pitcherwho is throwing medium speed.

D. Baserunning. There are two pri-mary areas of concern connected withbaserunning drills. The first is the con-dition of the fi?ld where the runners arepracticing. It should be free of holes,

`137

uneven surfaces, or any equipment ordebris which may cause injury. Itshould also provide enough traction forthe runners to accelerate safely withoutslipping and ample room for them todecelerate without fear of crashing intoa wall, a fence, or some other unmove-able object.

The second condition focuses on thephysical readiness of the players. Base-running drills can be extremely firing.As such they can be debilitating. Tiredplayers don't worry about techniquethey just want to get through a drill tosave face. When the point of fatigue isreached, the likelihood of injury in-creases due to lack of concentration andinability to make the body perform cor-rectly. To minimize the effect of fatigue,the instructor/coach should treat base-running as a conditioning drill in theearly stages of the unit or season. Thenumber of times a runner is asked toperform should be based on physicalcondition, not on mastery of technique.As time progresses and the player'sphysical condition improves, more em-phasis can be placed on proper form,with less regard to the number of timesthe player is asked to round the bases.

The following steps should be per-formed at a moderate speed while tech-nique is being learned. As techniqueimproves, maxims- , speed and accel-eration should be ttie goal.

BASERUNNING PROGRESSIONS

1. Practice sprinting to checkform.2. Practice running straightthrough the base.3. Practice swinging, droppingthe bat, running through base.4. Practice rounding bases.5. Practice swing and running fordouble, triple, homerun.6. Practice picking up coach's sig-nal, before leaving the base, asapproach to base is made.

Sliding. Sliding is a technique for ad-vanced players who have he skill andability to execute it properly. It is not askill that should be taught to an entirephysical education class. It is a skill,

, )

SOFTBALL 139

however, that should be taught, re-viewed, and conscientiously practicedwith varsity players who may need toexecute the skill to avoid injury. Even ina varsity situation, though, it should berecognized that there will be playerswho are efraid to slide. The coach hasonly two choices with these individuals:either nes'er ask them to slide, or if he/she feels it is a crucial skill at their levelof play, cut the individual from theteam. A player who is afraid must neverbe required to slide. It is a request thatmost surely will increase the chances ofinjury for the player.

A progression on sliding is not irclucled in this section. Rather, seven,'precautions are listed smich should beconsidered when teaching the skill toadvanced players.

SLIDING PRECAUTIONS

1. Perform learning stages of skillin sand pit or on a very grassysurface.2. Have performers learn the skillin sneakers before using cleats.3. Use loose or throw down basesuntil the skill is perfected.4. Do not have have a basemanpresent until the skill is perfected.5. Break the skill into manageableparts when teaching.


When planning for safety in sc.ftball,the instructor must consider two majoraspects of the environment in which theunit will be conducted. They are fieldpreparation and layout and equipmentmaintenance. (Where specifications aregive n, refer to the National Federationof High School Association Rulebook onSoftball.)

FIELD LAYOUT

The following guidelines are writtenfor a regulation softball field. It is clearlyunderstood, hows-ver, that most of thesoftball being played today, outside ofstructured league play, is being playedan makesh: .fields. Where applicable, a

13


standard is modified to address thissituation.

A. Infield. The infield shall be askinned surface, free of rocks, grass,weeds, potholes, or foreign debris. If askinned infield is not available, the areashould be checked for irregular surfacesor holes.

B. Markings. All markings on thefield including foul lines, batter's JOX,etc., shall be marked with a materialwhich is not injurious to the eyes orskin. Materials such as lime are prohib-ited.

C. Outfield. The outfield shall extendunobstructed at least 200 feet fromhomeplate for male and female fastpitch, 250 feet for female slow pitch and275 feet for male slow pitch. It should befree of all rocks, holes, and debris.

D. Orientation. Where possible, thefield should be positioned so that a linerunning from home plate through sec-ond base points in an East-Northeastdirection.

E. Warning Track. If a field is bound-ed by a fence, the fence shall be at leasteight feet high. To warn the fielder ofhis or her approach to the fence, thereshall be a track of a different surfacethan the outfield grass.

F. Dugouts. Where dugouts are notprovided, an area shall be designatedfor player seating at least 25 feet outfrom the foul line.

G. Backstops. Backstops should be po-sitioned not less than 25 feet behindhome plate. If backstops are not in use,no one shall be allowed to sit or standbehind the catcher.

EQUIPMENT

Following is a safety checklist forequipment. The "..st in no way impliesthat every piece of equipment is re-quired in order to conduct a safe pro-gram. The type of equipment neededwill be dictated by the game played andthe age and ability level of the players.The list does, i'owever, represent a setof conditions which should be present ifthe equipment is used. (Technical sped-fications such as weight, length, etc. of

specific pieces of equipment when usedreflects the rules governing High SchoolFederation ball at the time of this writ-ing.)

A. The Bat.1. The bat should be round and aone-piece construction of hard-wood, metal, or plastic. Bats oftwo-piece construction, in whichthe barrel and the handle are sepa-rate units, are unsafe and shouldnot be used.2. The proper weight and lengthof a bat will vary will the age andability level of the player. At itsmaximum, the bat should not ex-ceed 34 inches in length. Fungobats should not be used in regula-tion play.3. The bat should have a safetygrip made of a rough surfacedmaterial. Smooth surfaced gripsmade of plastic tape are unsafe.Grips should be checked for tearsand slippage. Damaged gripsshould be replaced immediately. Ifthe repair cannot be made at once,the bat should be removed fromplay.4. Wooden bats should bechecked for cracks and splinters.Bats with cracks and splinters areunsafe and should be removed.5. Every bat should have a safetyknob at the end. If a bat is missingthe knob or if the knob is dam-aged, the bat should be replaced.6. Donut rings are not recom-mended for use on softball bats.Do not allow them to be used atany time.

B. The Ball.1. The proper size and weight ofthe ball will depend on the gamebeing played and the age and abil-ity level of the players. It will alsodepend on whether gloves areavailable for all the players andwhether the game is being playedindoors or out. Be sure to use theball for the purpose for which itwas intended. If you decide to usea ball in a situation where it is notnormally used, be sure you have139

sound educational justification fordoing so.2. Balls should be checked regu-larly to be sure they meet specifi-cations. Those that are rnisshaped,have torn seams, or are waterlogged should be discarded.

C. Gloves.1. The decision to use gloves willdepend on the type of game beingplayed. Anytime a regulation sizeand weight softball (61/4-7 ouncesin weight, 1174-121/2 inches in cir-cumference) is used, glovesshould be worn for protection.2. Be sure that the gloves that areissued are appropriate for the po-si tion.3. Check laces to be sure they arenot broken or worn. Worn or bro-ken laces sitould be repaired im-mediately or the glove should beremoved from play.4. Work the gloves to be sure theyare supple. Gloves that are stiff donot afford the player sof:kit ntc. Intro!5. Be su.e gloves are properly fit-ted for the size of the player'shand.

D. Healgear. Headgear is required fo:use :ri all varsity situations that aregoverned by tne Nititinnal Federation ofState High School Assc ciations. Accord-ing to the r,(! es 'It is mandatory for eachbatter, runner, and the catcher to wear ahead protector. The head protector shailbe a type which has safety Featuresequal to or greater than those providedby the full plastic cap with padding onthe inside. The head protector worn byeach batter and each runner shall haveextended ear flaps which cover bothears and temples. . . ." In a class situa-tion, where students do not wear ballcaps, sanitary precautions preclude theuse of headgear. Measures to protectthe batter, runner, and catcher in thissituation should occur to include rulemodification if necessary.

E. Catcher's Equipment. In addition toheadgear, the catcher in a varsity situa-

SOFTBALL 141

tion may be rervired to wear some or allof the following equipment. Again, theeAact choices will differ depending onthe game played, the rules that arebeing enforced, and the ball and batbeing used.

1. Mask. If the catcher wears ahead protector be sure the mask iscompatible with the protector.Check straps to be sure they ad-just for tight fit. Have masks ofvarying sizes or adjustable pads toensure a snug fit around face.Have the catcher ches:k mask to besure visibility is not impeded.Check the frame for dents oropenings that may give upon im-pact with ball. Under no circum-stances should a catcher be al-lowed to take a position immedi-ately behind a batter without acatcher's mask.2. Chest Protector. Secure appro-priate protectors for each sex. Donc allow players to alter equip-ment in any way. Check the strapsfor wear and tear. Be sure protec-tor provides snug fit without re-stricting mover- ent in any way.3. Shin Guards. Be sure guardsare capable of covering lowerthigh, knee, shin, instep, and an-kles. Straps should be adjusted for

tight fit. Be sure buckles fit onthe outside of the leg once thebuckles are tightened and in place.

F. Bases and Home plate.i. Peg Down Bases. Use two pegsand straps to anchor each base. Besure anchor pegs are placed awayfrom baserunner's sliding path.Permanently anchored bases areinappropriate for use in situationswfwre players who lack high levelsliding skills are allowed to slide.2. Homeplate. Edges should beflat and even with the infield play-ing surface. If the plate has pro-truding pegs on its top surface, itshould be replaced. Homeplateshould be made of a smooth sur-faced material.

140


CONCLUSION

Softball refers to many differentgames, each of which has its own spe-cial concerns in terms of safety. The bestadvice, when conducting any one of thesoftball-type games, is that the coach/instructor should consider every aspectof the activity from a high risk point ofview and then initiate the precautions

1 4 1

necessary to eliminate the likelihood ofan accident.

REFERENCE

Sisley, B. L. (1983). Softball. In N.J. Dou-gherty (Ed.), Physical education and sport forthe secondary school student (pp. 251-264)Reston, VA: The Amencan Alliance forHealth, Physical Educa.ion, Recreationand Dance

CHAPTER 17

Swimming

RALPH JOHNSON

Indiana UniversityIndiana, PA

142


I n the past thirty years a significantnumber of public and private schools

have added a swimming pool to theirphysical plant or included them in theconstruction of new facilities. Its valueis incalculable when considering themany activities and benefits a swim-ming pool makes possible. A compre-hensive aquatic program in the hands ofa professionally trained aquatic directorcan provide instruction, recreation,competition, rehabilitation, therapy,and fitness activities for everyone in theschool and community. The swimmingpool adds a measure of safety to thecommunity, furnishes an outlet forteenage energies, offers the possibilityto earn college a'hletic scholarships,and provides social activity for the dis-abled. It is a source of family activityand entertainment. The simple skill oflearning to swim of en opens the doorto a vast world of fun and excitement.

Unfortunately, hazards such as un-safe design, careless maintenance, orimproper supervision and instruction

1 4 3

cause accidents leading to significantconsequences for the victim and theschool district. The National ElectronicInjury Surveillance System (NEISS) esti-mates that swimming pools are annual-ly responsible for over 140,000 accidentswhich require hospitalization. Prima.yconcern in these statistics should befocused on the more than 13,000 seriousdiving accidents and the more than 1000drownings which occur each year.While only approximately 4% of thespinal cord injuries and drownings oc-cur in school swimming pools, one seri-ous accident is too many. One death orpermanent disability can ruin a pro-gram, destroy a career, and create alifetime of guilt.

Concern for student and patron safe-ty is a serious matter for all schooldistrict employees, from the pool custo-dial staff to the superintendent. To as-sist school officials Li understanding thebroad spectrum of their potential liabil-ity, the following general risk assess-ment is provided.

SWIMMING 145

GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENT

1. Are you aware of what aquatic activities are considered to be high risk?YES _ NO

2. Does your school district employ a trained professional as an aquatic director tosupervise and coordinate programs and activities and to be responsible forremedial and preventive maintenance?_YES _NO

3. Has the aquatic director taken courses in aquatic facility management, poolchemistry and maintenance, aquatic program administration, and aquatic liabil-ity and hazard/risk reduction?

YES NO

4. Are all teachers and coaches assigned to the aquatic program currently certifiedin lifeguard training, standard first aid, CPR (Basic Life Support), and assNimmin,, instructors by a nationally recognized age'-icy such as the Red Crossor YMCA?_ YES _NO

5. Do your teachers, coaches, an- supervisors possess current certifications from arecognized ajency providing instruction in the activity to which they areassigned?_ YES NO

6. Does the school district provide funding for continuing education or creditbearing certification courses to update or retrain the aquatic director?_ YES _NO

7. Are maintenance workers provided with funding to attend pool operator andequipment maintenance workshops?_ YES NO

8. Have aquatic facility and program safety policies been established, including thedevelopment of a pool operations and procedure manual?

YES NO

9. Is there an ongoing program for updating aquatic policies and procedures?YES NO

10. Does the school administration and aquatic staff have an understanding of thelegal implications resulting from an accident in the school district's pool?_ YES NO

11. Do your teachers and coaches provide a safety orientation for students at theoutset of every school program and are students aware of their responsibilitiesfor their own safety and the safety of others?_ YES NO

12. Are you familiar with the skills and activities that teachers and coaches areconducting in terms of their risk to students?

YES NO

13. Has every precaution been taken with high risk activities to prevent theoccurrence of an accident?_YES _NO 144


GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENTConhnued

14. Is there a standard form and system for reporting aquatic accidents in yourschool district?_ YES NO

15. Are emergency and accident management procedures written and rehearsed toassure a prompt, organized response to an accident?_ YES NO

16. Have emergency and accident management procedures been reviewed by yourattorney, school doctor, and local paramedics or hospital officials?_ YES NO

17. Are emergent' and accident management drills conducted at least twice amonth, one of those times during peak facility use?_YES _NO

18. Is current safety literature available to your teachers and coaches?_YES __NO19. Are all accidents carefully investigated and reviewed, with the proper authori-

ties and corrective action taken?_ YES NO

20. Are safety checks of facilities and equipment made by aquatic staff membersweekly, with the report or check sheet filed in the appropnate office?_ YES NO

21. Is a hazard identification conducted by an outside professional or consultant atleast once every three years?_ YES NO

22. Prior to being put into use, is all new equipment inspected for defects ordeficiencies which could lead to an accident?_ YES NO

23. Are in-service training safety workshops conducted by the aquatic staff on aregular basis?_ YES NO

24. Are you familiar with all local, county, state, and professional safety and healthstandards which may affect the operation of your program?_ YES NO

25. When building a new facility or rehabilitating an old facility, is a professionalaquatic consultant retained for the duration of the project to assure that allaspects of safety are accounted for?_ YES NO

26. When building a new pool or rehabilitating an old one, is the school's aquaticstaff involved in the design and implementation process?_ YE NO

27. Is worn out safety, instructional, competitive, fitness, and recreational equip-ment replaced or repa: -4 as needed?

YES NO

28. Is the aquatic staff involved in the procurement of safe, high quality equipment?_ YES NO 145

SWIMMING 147

GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENTContinued

29. Have written safety rules regarding equipment and activities been conveyed toall teachers, coaches, and program leaders?_ YES NO

30. Are all your students covered by accident insurance?YES _NO

31. Are your teachers, coaches, and supervisors covered by liability insurance?_ YES _NO

32. Are participants in competitive and high risk programs required to provideevidence of a physical examination with participant approval granted by thecertifying physician?_ YES NO

33. Are participants in competitive and high risk activities required to provide anagreement to participate or an informed consent document signed by a parent orguardian if the participant is of minority age?_ YES NO

34. Are safety rules specific to the use of diving boards, slides, scuba gear, ..ndflotation devices established in writing in your pool operations manual andconveyed to program participants verbally and/or in writing?_ YES NO

35. Do your teachers and coaches carefully inspect equipment each day before usein order to assure its safe use?

YES NO

36. Is your pool currently equipped with essential first aid, life support, andlifeguarding equipment?_ YES NO

The following scale is provided to help evaluate your general nsk level.

General Risk AssessmentNumber of Risk Level

NO's checked2 Relatively Safe4 Marginally Safe5 Unsafe7 High Risk8 or more Pull the Plug!

146


Understanding the major hazardsand preparing effective strategies foraccidents in the aquatic environmentare related to four areas of concern:design, maintenance, supervision., andinstruction.

DESIGN

NEW POOLSAccident prevention begins with the

architect or engineer. The pool designershould be selected on the basis of hav-ing successfully designed many poolsduring his/her career. Be sure that thedesign meets or exceeds all current cri-teria established by the following:

1. State Health Department.2. County and City Health Depart-

ment.3. Professional Standards:

Council for National Cooperationin AquaticsAmerican Public Health Associa-tionAAHPERD

4. Federal Government (Departmentof Health and Human Services).

5. Competitive Aquatic SFt,.-""l

Groups:National Collegiate Athletic As-sociationU.S. SwimmingU.S. DivingNational Federation of State HighSchools

6. Aquatic Safety Agencies:American Red CrossYMCA of the USA

When the architect's plans are sub-mitted for approval, a comparison ofdesign standards and guidelines shouldbe made with publications issued by theaforementioned groups. Often designmanuals used by architectural firms arenot up-to-date with competitive, gov-ernmental, and safety agencies. Be surethat the plans are submitted to the statehealth department for approval.

In addition to hiring an experiencedarchitect, it is wise to retain an aquaticexpert, experienced and skilled in de-sign safety, to review pool drawingsand recommend necessary changes.

OLDER POOLSTwo hazards are evident with older

pools (those designed and built in thelate 40's and in the 50's and 60's). First,some design features once thought to besafe, such as hopper or spoon shapedbottoms and safety ledges, have provenover the years to be the direct cause ofmany serious accidents. Hopper andspoon shaped bottoms are deceptiveand dangerous for divers who enter thewater from a springboard into whatappears to be 12 feet of water, only todiscover that the pool is 12 feet deep in avery small area directly in front of theboard.

The second design problem is relatedto technology. Diving from startingblocks 30 inches above the deck intowater 31/2 feet deep has always beendangerous. With the advent of the rac-ing dive known as the "pike", "shoot",or "scoop" start, competitive swimmersare being exposed to unreasonable risksand are breaking their necks. High per-formance competitive type divingboards are enhancing the performanceof varsity divers, but unfortunately, rec-reational divers are using them as well.Many older pools are not compatiblewith "high tech" diving boards, yetcoaches and teachers are demandingstate-of-the-art equipment without con-sidering its effect on diving safety.Depth of water and the amount of deepwater in the landing area is sometimesoverlooked in the excitement of pur-chasing a new diving board.

The following checklist provides aquick reference in helping to identifysome of the common design hazardsfound in both new and older pools.

147

Area

1. Pool Entrance:

2. Pool Deck:

3. Pool Walls:(anderwater)

4. Pool Bottom:

5. Ladders:

6. LifeguardChair:

7. StartingBlocks:

8. Diving Boards:

9. Diving Area:

10. Lighting:

DESIGN SAFETY CHECKLIST

Item

Doors at shallow endLocks are functionalNon-slipSlope-good drainageDepth Markers 4"-6" highDepth Markers on vertical wallDepth Markers on deckDepth Markers in Feet and MetersNo obstructions

Smooth surfaceNo obstructionsSmooth surf.....eMarked for depth perceptionMarked at breakpointDrain grates screwed inSafety ledgeHopper/spoon shapedAttached securelyNon-slip stepsEdged in contrasting color

5-6 feet highPositioned at pool edgeSafe seat and steps

Located at deep endNon-slip surfaceAnchored securelyNon-slip stepsAnchored securelyNon-slip surfaceMount anchoredNon-slip stepsDouble handrails12 ft. deep-1 meter13 f:. deep-3 meterDepth extends forward 20 ft. fromfront edge of boardDepth extends 8 ft. on either side ofboardDepth extends under board back towallDeck (100 ft. candles)Water surface (100 ft. candles)Underwater (100 lamp lumens/sq.foot of pool surface)

148

SWIMMING 149

Pass Deficient Fail


MAINTENANCE

Safety is directly related to goodmaintenance practices as well as compli-ance with local and state regulations.Copies of pool regulations should beobtained from local and state healthdepartments. They should be kept onfile and reviewed frequently. Somestates require that a copy of their regula-

tions be posted in the pool area for thepublic to see. Failure to comply withthese regulations can lead to conditionscausing accidents, and makes the schooldistrict liable either through negligenceor by direct violation of the law. Regula-tions common to all states pertaining topool operation include the items listedbelow. Does your school swimmingpool meet the following state regula-tions?

COMMON STATE REGULATIONS

Regulations1. Copy of regulations on file

2. Current pool permit on file

3. Electrical inspection up to date

4. Proper safety equipment

5. Pool operations report maintained and submitted to health de-partment when required

6. Bacteriological analysis conducted weekly

7. Chlorine an I pH tests conducted as required

8. Water turnover rate maintained (8 hrs.)

9. Gas masks available and in working condition

10. Water clarity maintained as required by law (usually 6 inch blackdisc visible on bottom from anywhere on deck around deep end)

11. Water level maintained above gutter or skimmer

12. Test kit available with fresh chemicals

13. Capable manager in charge of pool

14. A certified lifeguard on duty for all classes and activities

15. Hazards reported and eliminated

16. Depth markingsproper size and location

The custodial staff can reduce the riskof all aquatic programs through goodwater quality, proper care of the deckarea, pool equipment and safe handlingof the many types of chemicals commonto pool operations. Maintenance con-tributes to pool safety and risk reduc-tion in three ways: 1) daily operations;

Pass Fail

2) remedial practices; and 3) preventivetechniques.

Daily operations consist of routinemaintenance such as testing the waterchemistry and adjusting appropriately,cleaning filters when necessary, clean-ing the deck, starting blocks and diving

14board surfaces, adjusting the water lev-9

el, vacuuming the pool, and maintain-ing correct water, air temperature, andhumidity levels. Good daily practice in-cludes proper storage of all types ofequipment, maintaining above waterand underwater lighting, and checkingsafety equipment. One of the most fre-quent causes of diving and drowning

SWIMMING 151

accidents is cloudy water which is di-rectly related to filtration and waterchemistry. Filters should be cleaned andmaintained at a turnover rate of 5-8hours. Water clarity and swimmer com-fort are easily maintained if the poolenvironment is maintained as follows.

HOW DOES YOUR POOL RATE?

Item1. Air Temperature: 3 degrees higher than water temp.

2. Humidity: 60-70%

3. Clarity: .1-.2 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Units)

4. Filtration: 5-8 hour turnover

5. Water level: over the gutter (pool not in use)

6. Vacuuming: every 1-2 days

7. De-ks: sanitized 2-3 times a week

8. Langlier Saturation Index: between -.3 and +.3

9. Free Chlorine: 1.0-1.5

10. Chloramines: less than .3 ppm

11. pH: 7.4-7.6

12. Total Alkalinity: 100-150 ppm

13. Calcium Hardness: 100-300 ppm

14. Total Dissolved Solids: less than 800 ppm

Routine daily maintenance should berecorded in a daily pool log which isacccessible to custodial and aquaticstaff. The log should contain informa-tion such as:

1. Who opened the pool and timeopened.

2. Name of lifeguard for each class/activity.

3. Environmental factorschemicallevels, Langlier Saturation Index, hu-midity, air and water temperature.

4. Filter operation.5. Chemicals added.6. Vacuuming.

Pass Fail

7. Miscellaneous maintenance.8. Who closed pool, who witnessed

the securing of the pool and timeclosed.

Remedial practices consist of maki rIgrepairs as soon as notified if the condi-tion can lead to an accident. A remedialmaintenance form should be completedby the staff member who identifies thecondition. The form should be complet-ed and forwarded to the maintenance orhousekeeping staff with a copy forward-ed to the administration and one re-tained by the aquatic director. Such aform snould include the following infor-

omation.


Remedial Maintenance Form

Pa- 'I Identification of Condition

1. Hazardous equipment or condition:Time Date

2. Maintenance/housekeeping notified.Time Date

3. Administration notified.Time Date

4. Reported by

5. Action Recommended

6. Action taken to prevent injury

Part IIAction Steps

1 Received by Maintenance/Housekeeping

2. Condition verified by

3. Action steps taken 1

2.

3

4. Action steps completed 1

2.

3

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

Time Date

5. Verified completeAquatic Director e Date

15i

1

I

Preventive maintenance is an ongo-ing process which involves continuingeducation and actually seeking out po-tential hazards. Continuing educationincludes course work in pool chemistry/maintenance, aquatic facility manage-ment, and aquatic liability. For example,has your pool custodian completed apool operations course offered by:

1. Your state health or environmentalresources department?

2. YMCA (P.O.O.L.) Pool Operatoron Location?

3. National Recreation and Parks As-sociation Pool Operators Course?

4. AAHPERD Aquatic Council PoolChemistry/Filtration Course?

Annual maintenance also helps elimi-nate potential hazards. Questions re-ganling annual maintenance involvecleaning and inspection. Does yourmaintenance staff annually:

1. Drain the pool (if possible)?2. Clean sand filter surface or the

Diatomaceous Earth Elements?3. Clean chemical feeders and con-

tainers?4. Inspect the bottom and ji.in cov-

ers?

A weekly safety inspection is also apart of preventive maintenance which isoften overlooked or considered too timeconsuming. A simple weekly checksheet should be completed and kept onfile. The following equipment and areasmust be carefully inspected:

1. Walkways2. Fences3. Doors/locks4. Pool Office5. Locker Rooms6. Signs/exits7. Shower Room8. Drying Room9. Rest Rooms

10. Pool Entrance11. Deck12. Safety Equipment13. Fixed Equipment14. First Aid15. Filter Room16. Chlorine Room17. Chemical Room

154

SWIMMING 153

18. Chemical Containers19. Storage Room20. First Aid Room

SUPERVISION ANDINSTRUCTION

Supervision and instruction are safetyfactors which combine with safe designand proper maintenance to provide thelowest possible risk in school aquaticprograms. Supervision is simply de-fined as being in charge of others asthey participate in aquatic activities. Thesupervisor can be the aquatic directoroverseeing the daily operation of thepool, or the teacher overseeing studentsin a swimming class.

Supervision may be classified as gen-eral and specific. General supervisior.means that school aquatic professionalshave responsibilities which extend tothe equipment rooms, shower room,drying room, and locker rooms, as wellas the pool. For aquatic coaches, generalsupervision responsibility extends tothe bus, restaurants, other schools, andthe weight room in addition to otherathletic equipment and facilities used bytiie team. Specific supervision encom-passes the pool, equipment, conduct ofthe activity, and care of the individualparticipants.

Swimming and aquatic activities havelong been recognized by the professionand the courts as hazardous, requiringclose supervision and careful instruc-tion. Unlike basketball, tennis, and oth-er land activities, recreational swim-ming requires constant supervision (alifeguard). The elements of safe aquaticsupervision include personnel, theenvironment, safety equipment, an or-ganization and control system, recordkeeping, and insurance.

Personnel employed by the school aresignificant factors in providing theschool district with safe instruction. Ofprimary concern in the supervisoryprocess is the aquatic director. A profes-sional aquatic director should possessthe following qualifications:

1. BS in Education: emphasis or ma-jor in Aquatic Administration.

154 PR!NCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

2. Three to five years teaching/aqua-tic facility administration experience.

3. Certification as YMCA or RedCross Swimming Instructor, LifeguardTraining, CPR, Standard First Aid,Swimming Pool Operator, and AquaticFacilities Management.

4. Experience as participant or coach-ing aquatic sports (swimming, diving,water polo, synchronized swimming).

5. Knowledge of (basic or instructorlevel certifications preferred) a variety ofaquatic activities such as springboarddiving, scuba, synchronized swimming,adapted aquatics, aquatic fitness, andpre-school swimming.

6. A recognition certificate by theAquatic Council of AAHPERD as ateacher or Master Teacher it any of the16 subject areas.

Another professional concern is forthe faculty who teach courses in theaquatic curriculum. Their qualificationsshould include:

1. BS in Education: Emphisis as anAquatic Specialist.

2. Certification as a YMCA or RedCross Swimming Instructor.

3. Certification as an instructor byYMCA or Red Cross in the aquatic spe-cialty areas that the teacher will be re-sponsible for in the school curriculum.

4. Certification in lifeguard training,CPR and Standard First Aid.

5. Recognition certificate by theAquatic Council of AAHPERD as"Teacher of or "Master Teacher of inthe aquatic specialty areas being taughiin the school curriculum.

Lifeguards are a recognized standardof care and no schr-, swimming pro-gram should function without a life-guard on duty for every class and activi-ty. This has been a standard identifiedby the American Red Cross since thepublication of their Swimming andAquatic Safety test in 1981. It has beenproven time and again ;.hat the teachercannot adequately provide instructionwhile working simultaneously in thecapacity of a lifeguard. Many schooldistricts have employed an adult whoresides in the community to providelifeguard services for their classes. Life-

guards must not be assigned instruc-tional dutiestheir responsibility is en-tirely focused on the observation andsupervision of the students in the poolarea. Lifeguard qualifications includecurrent certification in:

1. YMCA or Red Cross LifeguardTraining.

2. CPRBasic Life Support Course.3. First AidStandard or Multimedia

Course.The environment is a key element in

the safe conduct of school swimmingclasses. The environmental factors list-ed below are necessary for the safeconduct of swimming classes:

1. Lighting-100 foot candles of illu-mination at the surface.

2. Clear water.1.2 Jackson Turbid-ity Units.

3. Signsemergency exits, entrancesto locker rooms.

4 P3o1 rulesenforced and postedin pool areas and locker rooms clearlydescribing expected behavior in a posi-tive manner.

5. Air temperature-3 degrees Fabove the water temperature.

6. Bottom markingslane indicatorsin the swimming area or crosses onbottom 6 feet out in front of each divingboard. These markings serve as a pointof reference for divers, enhancing depthperception and visual activity.

7 Walking surfaces (deck, startingblocks, diving boards)clean and non-slip.

8. Obstructionsno obstructions orequipment left out on the deck. Under-water obstructions such as ladders,safety ledges, hopper bottoms, drains,hydrostatic relief valves must be paint-ed with contrasting colors.

9. Telephonewith a list of emer-gency phone numbers.

Appropnate safety equipment mustbe available to provide for rescue andfirst aid. Fundamental equipment in-cludes:

1. First aid kitdeveloped for aquaticpurposes, checked and re-suppliedweekly.

2. Backboardsminimum of 2 de-signed according to Emergency Medical

153

Services (EMS) specifications.3. Reaching polesat least one on all

four sides of the pool.4. Rescue tubes or rescue cans--at

least two, as it always good to haveflotation equipment available for a vari-ety of rescues.

5. Blankets(minimum of 2) helpfulfor shock.

6. Gas mask{SCBA) Self ContainedBreathing Apparatus is necessary inpools which use chlorine gas, bromine,calcium, or lithium hypochlorite.

7. Miscellaneous equipment-02 in-halator and splints depending on ambu-lance response time.

The conduct of a safe swimming classis also contingent upon organizationand an effective control system. Thiscontrol system has a minimum of eightcomponents:

1. Lesson planwritten and kept onfile.

2. Course syllabusidentifies activi-ties which will be taught and specificinformation on how the class will beconducted.

3. Oral orientationcovers the sylla-bus in detail to rule out lack of commu-nication with those students who mightnot read the syllabus.

4. Emergency /accident managementprocedureswritten and rehearsed,planned responses to each situationwhich could possibly occur in the facili-ty or program. The following list in-cludes the minimal considerations:

a. Emergencies (no injury at thisstage).

power failurefireC12 gas leaktornadosecuring or closing the pool

b. Accidents.drowning/near drowningspinal cord injurysevere bleedingtraumawounds, broken bonesseizures

5. Communicationin the event ofan emergency, accident or other situa-tion where it is important to get the

SWIMMING 155

attention of the class, a whistle or an airhorn is necessary. An emergency alarmswitch in the pool which sounds in theadministration or nurses office may behelpful as well.

6. Active supervisionthe teachermust stay close, especially in high riskactivities such as diving, springboarddiving, scuba and water polo. At notime should the teacher or lifeguardleave the class or pool area while anactivity is in progress.

7. Record keepingretain all lessonplans, incident and accident reports,student skill test results, maintenancerequests, staff meeting minutes, in-ser-vice training logs, and personnel evalu-ations.

8. Insurancestudents should be en-couraged to purchase accident insur-ance. Teachers and aquatic directorswould be wise to obtain a minimum of$1,000,000 of professional liability insur-ance.

Safe, quality instruction is comprisedof several key elements. The importantelements of safe instruction include les-son plans, participant readiness, teach-er qualifications, identification of highrisk activities, and the conduct of theactivity. The following list contains im-portant concerns for the safety con-scious teacher

1. Lesson plansdaily lesson plansshould be developed in accordance withtexts and standards developed by theYMCA of the USA and American RedCross.

2. Participant readinessto deter-mine motoric readiness students shouldbe screened with a swim test to deter-mine if their skill level justifies involve-ment in the class. A procedure shouldalso be developed regarding studenthealth and medical excuses which willdetermine when they can go back in thewater after a period of illness. Psycho-logical readiness is also a concern. Somestudents come to class with learned orperceived fears about drowning. Coer-cion, embarassment, or force shouldnever be used as a means of gainingparticipation, especially in high riskaquatic activities.

'156 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HORT

3. Aquatic Activities which have highrisk potential:

a. Divingfrom pool side or startingblocks into less than 5 feet ofwater.b. Springboard diving.c. Skin and scuba diving.d. Beginner and advanced beginnerclasses.e. Water polo.f. Adapted aquatic classes and activi-ties.4. Personal teacher qualifications:a. Teachers must be certified inswimming and other specialty activi-ties they will be teaching.b. Continued certification must bemaintained.c. Teachers must update when na-tional agencies such as Red Cross andYMCA change their courses and stan-dards.d. Updating in aquatics also includesattending the variety of workshopsand courses offered by:

colleges and universitiesAquatic Council of AAHPERDCNCACouncil for National

Cooperation in AquaticsNRPANational Recrea ion

and Parks Associationstate and county health depart-

mentsThe actual conduct of the aquatic ac-

tivity is the final step in assuring a safeaquatic experience for all students. Con-duct of an activity involves:

1. The lesson plan. Of particular im-portance are:

a. Psychomotor objectivestheymust be realistic for the swimmer'sskill level, justifiable and consistentwith YMCA and Red Cross stan-dards.b. Relate all class activities directly toplanned objectives.c. Provide clear verbal descriptions ofskills, a demonstration or film of theskill and a great deal of closely super-vised practice.d. Include written safety consider-

should be provided which identifiescourse requirements and performancestandards. A statement should also bemade requesting students to identifymedical conditions such as hypoglyce-mia, diabetes, seizures, allergies whichmight affect their safety while swim-ming and diving.

3 Checking safety, instructional andfixed equipment. Items used for rescueor participation should be checked dailyand fixed equipment (i.e. ladders, div-ing mounts and boards) checked week-ly.

4. Emergency/Accident ManagementProcedures During the first day ofclass, several students should be identi-fied to participate in an organized re-sponse to a class emergency. These stu-dents can assist by clearing the pool,keeping other students away fiom anaccident victim and smiling assist, Acefrom other school officials.

5. Teacher attitude. The teacher mustbe a good role model. Pushing studentsinto the pool and clowning on the div-ing board are examples of unacceptablebehavior.

6. Teacher/Student Ratio. Acceptableratios have been identified by profes-sionals and aquatic agencies.

a. Beginner/Advanced beginner: 1

teacher for 15 students.b. Intermediate /Advan'°d courses: 1teacher for 22 students.Teachers should not be expected to

instruc' a class with diverse swimmingability without teacher aides (properlycertified) or other teachers assigned. Inaddition, a lifeguard must always beassigned to each class or activity beingconducted in the p:Jol.

7. Class Orientation. Students mustbe informed during the first class meet-i;-,g and reminded frequently of classprotocol such as:

a. staying out of the water until beingtold to enter by the teacher.b. chewing gum not permitted dur-ing class.c. warning about drugs and alcohol.

ations into eacl- ?Ian. d. obeying the rules of the pool.e. Do not deviate from the plan. e. identifying other expected behav-2. A course syllabus. A handouti

55iors.

8. Warnings. Cleirly identify highrisk activities such z s diving into shal-low water and tell the students what theconsequences are i.e., quadriplegia.Identify and warn about the proper useof equipment such as starting b!ocksand springboards.

9. Aquatic equipment. Be sure to useequipment as it was intended to be usedby the manufacturer.

COMMON NEGLIGENCE INSCHOOL AQUATIC PROGRAMS

Listed below are the common causesof liabliiy cases identified by attorneys,expert witnesses, and professionalsover the past 20 years. They are:

1. Improper location or absence of alifeguard.

2. Improper location or absence ofthe teacher or coach.

3. Unacceptable teacher/student ra-tios.

4. Large classes (more than 25 stu-dents) with diverse skill levels (beginnerto advanced level) under the direction

SWIMMING 157

and supervision of one teacher.5 Improper instructional tech-

niques.6. Failure to use lead up skills or

acceptable progression.7. FailtiTe to warn and identify the

consequences of student behavior.8. Equipment failure.9. Inadequacy of instruction (teach-

er unqualified or uncertified).10. Expired aquatic certifications (fail-

ure to re-certify) and false certifications.Aquatic teachers should know that all

a,_cidents cannot be prevented. Howev-er, reasonable attempts made in con-junction with the guidelines provided inthis chapter will provide an excellentdefense. Caring and professionalismdoes count.

REFERENCES

Fairbanks, A. R. (1983) Swimming. In N. J.Dougherty (Ed.), Physical education andsport for the secondary school student (pp.267-287). Reston, VA: The American Alli-ance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation, and Dance.

156

CHAPTER 18

Track and Field

LeROY T. WALKER

North Carolina Central UniversityDurham, NC

157


T here are many approaches to thedevelopment of a safe environment

in track and field. The literature is re-plete with specific recommendationswhich are essential to provide a safeenvironment for individual activities.There is, however, less discussion aboutthe total environment in track andfielda sport in which multiple eventsare the core of competition.

Of equal significance to the provisionof a safe environment in track and fieldis a basic understanding of the multipleevents. Therefore, safety in track andfield is tied to demonstrated knowledgeof the coach or teacher.

It is generally agreed that knowledge-able and sensitive leaders can producemotivation to achievement, enjoyment,self-fulfillment, and improved skills ifthe athletic experience is conducted in asafe environment. Safety in track andfield demands attention to the perform-ance of the specific events. However, toguarantee the overall safety in multi-event competition, other factors mustbe considered.

The following general safety rulesmust be adhered to by the leaders andparticipants alike.

1. In view of the fact that many activi-ties are conducted at the same time, it isimperative to look around before walk-ing onto the track to avoid walking intothe path of a runner or hurdler.

2. Before walking into the throwingarea, look to see that the throwing cir-cles are not occupied.

3. If jumpers are on the runway, donot walk into the path of a jumper.

4. If a participant is preparing tothrow, look first to see that the area isclear.

5. Do not throw implements back to-ward the throwing circles.

6. If walking during a recovery phaseof a workout, move either to the outsidelane or completely off the track.

7. Do not walk between hurdles if ahurdler is approaching.

S. Do not leave implements on thetrack or on the field which may trip aperformer.

There are a number of additional fac-

1

tors which must be observed in safety intrack and field. Among them are

equipment safetyselection of clothingrunning surfacestraining format

Equipment safety. The quality andquantity cf equipment (and supplies)available for instruction influence thesafety factor in track and field.

Clothing. Track and field athletes par-ticipate in a variety of weather condi-tions including heat, cold, and rain. It isalso necessary to wear support gear insome events. Participants should avoidsupport garments that restrict move-ment.

It is important to avoid wearing rub-berized or plastic clothing. Increasedsweating does ;tot cause permanentweight leas. The rubberized or plasticclothing does rot allow body sweat toevaporate. Excessive dehydration andsalt loss may eventually lead to heatstroke ar d heat exhaustion.

A vari-ty of shoes are required toservice participants it the multipleevents of track and ueld. Shoes forrunning are of different constructionthan those intended for field events.Since the athletes are of varying bodybuild, the shoes must be pliable, prop-erly fitted, provide for excellent sup-port, and fit firmly but not too tight.

Running surface. It is a "safety must"to avoid constant work on hard synthet-ic surfaces which lead to foot and legproblems. However, the surface itselfmay not create as much a problem forthe athlete as it proper foot strike. Thecoach must be aware of the proper footstri for various events and train theathlete appropriately.

TRAINING FORMAT

A series of factors must be consideredin developing safety control in track andfield. Among the factors are mode, fre-quency, duration, and intensity.

Mode. It is always best to utilize condi-tioning or pre-conditioning activitiesprior to competition. The selection of

activity may vary but should focus oncardio-vascular endurance (walking,jogging, running).

Frequency. This factor is important butless critical than duration and intensity.In developing a margin of safety, thecoach must develop a training regimenwhich creates and exercises habit.

Duration. Research reveals that a safeapproach to duration is to modify thelength of performance according to thematurational level of the athlete. In gen-eral, 20-30 rdnuies of intense trainingper activity category provides the great-est return for the time invested.

Intensity. In viewing a safe approachto training, it is recommended that theathlete generally works at 60-80% ca-pacity.

BASIC SAFETY LAWS

Safety in track and field demands thatseveral basic laws be followed to guar-antee a margin of safety in training.

Flexibility training is critical to safeparticipation and demands adherenceto the following principles.

1. Specificityflexibility trainingmust focus on joint action and the de-mands of the event, e.g., running vs.throwing or jumring.

2. Overloadsgains in flexibility takeplace when the participant achieves thelimit of existing range regularly, thusallowing new limits to be set.

3. Reversibilityimprovement inflexibility will be lost if regular work isnot maintained.

In the attempt to achieve greater safe-ty in training, several pitfalls must beavoided.

1. Insufficient warm-up. Trainingwith weights without warm-up causesmany injuries.

2. Over training. This occurs whenthe body is being worked so vigorouslythat it does not have time to repair itself.

3. Hard training sessions before acompetition.

4. Weight training too often.5. Increasing body weight without an

appropriate increase in strength.

TRACK AND FIELD lbl

6. Increasing bulk to the point of re-stricting movement.

SAFETY IN TRAINING FORSPECIFIC EVENTS

Sprints. It is imperative to develop abalance between strength-building exer-cise and high repetition movements forgreater endurance and improvement incoordination. Speed enhancement insprinting can be safely pursued by de-veloping both coordination andstrength.

Hurdles. The hurdles event demandsvery serious attention to safety consid-erations because of the dangers inher-ent in the event. There must be a verifi-cation of the technical preparation of thehurdlers, their coordination, boldness,and rhythm.

To avoid injury caused by faulty hur-dle clearance, the hurdlers must havethe necessary physical and psychologi-cal preparation. Critical to the safety ofthe participants are: basic training formuscle efficiency stamina and flexibility;belief in the ability to undertake strideconversion in the intermediate hurdlesrace; and development of the ability touse alternate legs in the intermediatehurdles in an emergency.

Distance running. The primary safetyfeature in training for distance runningrequires that the coach recommendphysical activity with muscle groupsother than the fatigued group. Theremust also be training variations to avoidboredom. It is desirable to develop asane training regimen which will stabi-lize the aerobic capacity of the distancerunner. Long distance runners usuallydevelop aerobic capacity to a maximallimit through sustained training. Quali-ty work increase would tend to enhancea safe stabilization. Safety in training fordistance running demands:

discipline which permits and en-courages vigorous practicedevelopment of a good balance be-tween natural speed and endurancethat the athlete progress throughseveral years of hard workthat the athlete develop the physio-


logical and psychological capacityto endure pain and fatigue

The javelin. The leader must develop aprogram of training for strength andflexibility to avoid injury to knees,groin, trunk, sides, lower back, andshoulders. Safety considerations are sig-nificant because throwing the javelin isan unnatural movement due to the sev-aration of the hip and shoulder axis andthe delayed arm thrust for delivery withelbow ahead of the delivery hand.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDPHYSIOLOGICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

Safety in track and field is significant-ly influenced by the psychological andphysiological dimensions of training.These factors are most clearly manifest-ed in five areas:

the running program during thesummer monthsthe nature and extent of anyweight-training programthe nature and extent of any off-season competition in other sportsthe nature and extent of any inju-ries that may have been sustainedduring the summer, or which mayhave lingered from the previousseasonthe event or events for which 'heathlete will train

The athlete must have a completeunderstanding of the facts concerningproper care of the body. It is importantto use an objective approach to healthfacts for the well-conditioned body,rather than a long list of training ruleswhich are almost impossible to imple-ment. While there are some fundamen-tal h^alth facts which have a definiteinfluence on the performance of an ath-lete, most of the "training rule" listsinclude items which are basically psy-chological. To break one of the pub-lished rules often would have little ef-fect upon the performance of the ath-lete, but it may have serious social andemotional implications. Goals for theathlete should be high and he/she

should be dedicated to the Spartan sim-plicities.

PSYCHOLOGICALCONSIDERATIONS

The athlete is not only the sum of hisphysical qualities but also an intricatecombination of psychological condi-tions. However great his/her speed orstrength, these may be rendered uselessif there is not an effective combining ofthe physical and psychological qualitiesat the most appropriate moment.

One of the fundamental principles isthat psychological conditions changeand have varying effects upon the trackand field performer.

"Psyching" is a term frequently usedby athletes. It refers both to the per-former's influence on the opponent andthe ability to prepare for competition."Psyching" takes many forms. It variesfrom simply ignoring an opponent andexuding confidence in the preliminarywarm-up to dropping hints which startan opponent thinking negatively andrunning for second. A gre It perform-ance has tremendous "psyching" influ-ence. Psychological effects vary accord-ing to strength and length, and they aredifficult to explain or predict.

An important point for the athlete tounderstand is that psychological statesmay be useful or undesirable. Usefulstates include interest, readiness, self-confidence, enthusiasm, and persever-ance.

Practice sessions should be organizedto keep interest and enthusiasm high. Ashorter practice session in which moti-vation and concentration levels are highis much more effective than a longer,loosely organized, and boring session.

The ability to sustain an intense work-load is diminished if the athlete has lostthe zest for practice. Too frequently,this condition is brought on by an hourand a half workout extendect to threehours. Should it be necessary to workover an extended period of time, varythe program, change the work pace

' fg blittle "spice" in the session.

PHYSIOLOGICALCONSIDERATIONS

The athlete's training in track andfield is largely a self-determined respon-sibility. While the coach may directpractice routine, the athlete is responsi-ble for diet, sleep, and rest.

There are a wide variety of trainingpatterns which the athlete can choose toachieve a physiological base. An under-standing of the effects of activity on thehuman body is absolutely essential inplanning the individual workout. Ath-letes respond differently to weight train-ing or other systems. Select the planwhich is best for the individual. Slavishimitation may prove detrimental. Fol-lowing are some general principles fortraining.

1. Perform exercises correctly interms of the results desired. If an exer-cise cannot be performed correctly forthe desired repetitions (usually a mini-mum of eight), reduce the amount ofweight.

2. Increase repetitions each workoutuntil 10 to 12 can be performed. Five toten pounds should be added to the loadwhen repetitions can be easily handledand performed with less than full effort.

3. Rest 2 to 3 minutes between exer-cises.

4. Schedule weight training work-outs with three factors in mind:

alternate days for more effectiveworkoutsspace exercises during the workouttrain but do not strain

Perform the exercises in a proper se-quence. Shift the demands on musclegroups during workouts. This is accom-plished by changing emphasis. Exercisethe legs and the back, then the chestand arms. The workouts may vary from30 minutes to 2 hours, given properorganization.

Muscular strength and endurance in-creases when exercises are repeatedagainst increased resistance. The fol-

TRACK AND FIELD 163

lowing principles should be remem-bered:

1. Progressively increase the totalload.

2. Progressively increase the totaltime given to a load.

3. Progressively increase the repeti-tions against a constant and knownresistance.

4. Progressively increase the speed ofthe performance.

5. Increasing the body weight with-out an increase in strength is bad. ttl-ways continue strength-building exer-cises I rnmbination with weight con-trol measures.

6. Exercising before proper warm-uphas been completed is risky.

7. Continuing intense weight-train-ing immediately prior to competition isnot desirable. It is essential to allowmuscle fibers to repair and recover fromsoreness.

Every athlete may not have access to atraining center. They can, however, im-provise their own bar weights to use athome in the basement or back yard. Useof free weights can be of great value indeveloping the body.

CONCLUSION

Safety in track and field is an ongoingprocess. It demands attention not onlyto the individual events, but to the sportas a whole. A safe track and field pro-gram depends on the knowledge andexperience of the teacher or coach. Byfollowing the guidelines set forth in thischapter, he or she can work towardproviding the safest possible environ-ment for students.

REFERENCES

Walker, L T. and D'Annollo, S. (1983). Trackand Field. In N.J. Daugherty (Ed.). Physi-cal education and sport for the secondary schoolstudent (pp. 321-343). Reston, VA: TheAmerican Alliance for Health, PhysicalEducation, Recreation and Dance.

161

-"11111i

_Agri

162

CHAPTER 19

Tumbling

DIANE BONANNORutgers University

New Brunswick, NJ


rr here was a time when it was stan-dard practice to ask performers to

execute their floor exercise routines andtumbling runs on bare wooden floors.We cringe today thinking about the in-jury that could have resulted from sucha request, and undoubtedly lookaskance at the physical educator orcoach who made those demands. Wehave to ask ourselves, however, if oursmugness is well founded. Granted, wemay not be making the same blatantmistakes that our predecessors didwhen they taught this activity, but arewe certain that we have considered theelement of participant risk from everyperspective before we ask our studentsto become involved?

Logic leads us to believe that tun,bling is a high risk activity becauseparticipants who engage in the sportoften find themselves moving throughspace in ways that are unfamiliar tothem. In truth, when we examine theaccidents that occur in this activity, wefind that the element of risk is moreclosely associated with instructor per-formance, gymnasium conditions, andperformer readiness than it is with thedangers inherent in any one specificskill. This is an important observationfor it helps us to recognize that the risksin tumbling are usually a function ofjudgment, a factor that is well withinour ability to control, rather than a func-tion of the activity itself. It also helps tr,to realize that sound judgment is ourbest defense in cases of liability.

Given two instructors with equalknowledge of the mechanics of tum-bling, the one who also possesses infor-mation on the potential hazards of thesport has a better chance of conductingan accident-free program. The reason issimple: if you are cognizant of the po-tential hazards, you can design strate-gies to avoid them. In the case of tum-bling, as in all sports, your risk manage-ment strategies should concentrate onthe supervision you provide, the envi-ronment you create, and the degree towhich you prepare yu_ir students topartieipate in the activity.

SUPERVISION

Both general and specific supervisionare important in every ac vity that istaught in the gymnasium. In the case oftumbling, however, the need to formdeliberate patterns of teacher behaviorare c,. greater concern than in otheractivities because tumbling generates agreater variety of individual responses.Placement of mats, student groupings,and the ability of each individual in theclass to work independently are just afew of the elements that must be consid-ered to ensure that the teacher's view ofthe class is not obstructed while giv-ing individual attention to those whoneed it.

Following is a checklist that should beused when planning strategies to en-sure adequate instructor supervision. Itincludes guidelines for determining thequality and quantity of the supervisionneeded, the type of organization andcontrol that is necessary, and the plan-ning that must be done to avoid poten-tial hazards.

THE QUALITY AND QUANTITYOF SUPERVISION NEEDED

1. Supervision should only be pro-vided by qualified instructors who havea thorough knowledge of:

the mechanics of the sportappropriate horizontal and verticalskill progressionsthe most up-i-o-date teaching tech-niquesspotting techniques and the use ofspotting equipmentthe care and maintenance of mattingand safety equipmenthe principles of gymnasium layoutfirst aid and emergency proceduresgeneral student characteristi_s (phys-iological, motorical, and emotional)individual student readiness2. Where possible, supervision

should be provided by those who pos-sess gymnastics safety certification orthe equivalent achieved through in-house training programs.

163

3. Students should never performwithout the aid of a spotter. Whereappropriate, individuals in the class canbe used to improve the performer/spot-ter ratio, but it should be rememberedthat students who assume spotting re-sponsibilities are pirt of the supervisionprovided by the teacher. They should,therefore, be specifically trained inproper spotting techniques and safetyprinciples and periodically evaluated ontheir ability to perform effectively in thiscapacity.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL1. The tumbling area must never be

left unattended while an activity is inprogress even if it is for only a fewmoments. A qualified instructor mustbe stationed in the area at all times.Note: being in the equipment room.even though it is adjacent to the gymna-sium, does not qualify as being presenton the floor where the activity is beingconducted.

2. The instructor should have the en-tire tumbling area in view at all times.Even though assistance (direct supervi-sion) is being given to a specific student,the instructor is not relieved of the re-sponsibility of having everyone else inthe class within view (general supervi-sion). in other words, physical presencedoes i t constitute supervi-ion, knowl-edgable and alert presence constitutessupervision.

3. The instructor should be in thearea where the greatest need for assist-ance is anticipated. If a new skill is'eing taught to a small group within the

class or if an individual is attempting aparticularly difficult skill for his or herability level, the instructor should bepresent to provide help.

4. Students should always have di-rect access to the instructor. Theyshould know where to find him or herimmediately and they should be taughtto seek assistance whenever they areattempting something new or difficult.

5. Students shoula never have directa( ness to the tumbling area; it should belocked whenever it is unsupervised.

TUMBLING 167

6. Mats should not be left open orplaced 'n an area where unsupervisedstudents can gain access to them. Theprudent person should assume that ifmats are accessible and/or open theywill be viewed as an invitation to partici-pate.

7. Policies should be developed thatexplain the department's position ongymnasium security and the steps thatare to be taken to ensure that an unsu-pervised area is never left open to thepublic. The procedures that emanatefrom this policy should include:

an explanation of who is responsiblefor opening and securing the areathe exact manner in which the areashould be opened and securedthe times at which the area is to beopened and securedthe placement/condition of the equip-ment when the gymnasium is secured8. Rules of conduct and safety should

be posted in several places throughoutthe gymnasium to serve as a constantreminder of the behavior that is expect-ed. Care should be taken to use wordsthat the participants can understand.The tone, although nonthreatening,should convey to the participant theserious intent of the message. At thevery minimum the rules should includethe following points regarding supervi-sion:

without exception, r,-. one is allowedin the tumbling area unless an instruc-tor is presenttumbling practice may not begin with-out the express permission of the in-structora new skill may not be attemptedwithout the express permission of theinstructorall tumbling skills must be performedon a mat with the assistance of aqualified spotteronly teacher approved spotters maybe used9. The safety rules should be re-

viewed with the students on . regularbasis and time should be taken to ex-plain why they are necessary e d thetype of injury that can result if they are

164


ignored. As a general rule, the youngerthe student, the more frequently theinstructor needs to present a formalreminder to the entire class.

PLANNING

1. Detailed I ,son plans should beprepared for each instructional period.They should demonstrate, without adoubt, that the instructor has considered every aspect of the lesson and thathe/she has made every effort to elimi-nate any potential hazards.

2. The lesson plan should explain theinstructor's efforts to provide a wellsupervised activity. At the very least, itshould incilde information on:

mat placement and how it relates tothe instructor's abili'y to provit'. spe-cific supervision while maintaininggeneral supervisionplacer nt of qualified spoth.,:s andtheir rvaponsibilities as the seconc,aryline of supervisionthe efforts that are taken to make thestudents cognizant of the safety rulesand the conduct of behavior that isexpected of theman explanation of the efforts that aremade by the instructor to make him orherself readily available to the stu-dentsthe steps that are taken to ensure thesecurity of the gymnasium and equip-ment NI, ,n they are not in use duringa supervised class


Conduct of the activity refers to theselection and development of programas it relates to the age, abity levels andreadiness of the students, the type ofinstruction offered, the measures thatare taken to ensure an kidividual's safe-ty, and the warnings the- are given sothat the individual underb;.ands the in-herent dangers of the skill they areabout to try. Following are the guide-lines which should be considered whenplanning for a tumbiing unit.

PARTICIPANT READINESS

Participant readiness is a very usefulconcept in tumbling, especially as itrelates to liability and risk management.Generally "readiness" refers to the per-form !is potential for success when at-tempting a new skill or activity. If theperformer demonstrates the requisite el-ements necessary to p form a skill, wesay that his potential for success ismuch higher than his potential for failure and that he is "ready" to move on inthe progression. ,vel of readiness,therefore, can help us determine what issafe and what is hazardous for eachindividual in the class.

When we use the word readiness,more often than not, we are referring tothe participant's level of ir z.'or ability . Ifthe participants have the requisitemovement vocabulary to perform a skillwe are usually satisfied with their levelof readiness and allow them to progressto the next level of difficulty. While thisperspective is universally accepted, itpresents problems in regard to tumblingand liability.

The unique aspec4-, of tumbling re-quire a carefull, plaimed approach tosafety. Tumbling is one of the few activ-ities in which the individual has little, ifany, previous experience. This, in con-junction with the fact that tumblingrequires the student to move thrc ughspace in ways that cannot be related tofamiliar activities, alerts tiq otherforms of real ness that 11..43+- be testedbefore a student can be allowed to moveon in the skill progression. In additionto ensuring motoric readiness, we mustalso ensure an appropriate level of psy-chological and physical readiness.

Attempting a new activity generates acertain amount of excitement, but it al.generates a certain amount of fearwhich must be dealt iith if we are toensure our students' safety. Fear of fail-ure, fear of the unknown, and lack ofunderstanding about what may happento us when we plunge head first into anactivity for which we are unpreparedare all elements of psychological readi-ness th:.4 m tst be addressed as our

I 6

students advance through a tumblingprogression

The issue of physical readiness, onthe other hand, rela to the perform-er's ability to successfully complete askill based on his/her physical condi-tion. Physical readiness includes twocomponents: (1) the performer's presentcondition in terms of physical disabil-ities, muscular strength and endurance,flexibility, postural alignment, and bodycomposition; and (2) the performer'sphysical status just prior to porformancebased on a warm up routine.

Following are several points whichmust be considered when trying to de-termine or improve a student's level ofreadiness.

MOTORIC READINESS

1. Stress body awareness activitiesthroughout the tumbling unit.

2. Check to be sure that the studentcan perform fundamental movementsrequisite for tumbling.

Teach the saidents to toe properAnding technic, ies.4. Help the y e-formers to be more

aware of what they are feeling whenthey are executing a skill.

PSYCHOLOGICAL READINESS

1. Never require a student to do askill that he/she is afraid to do. orkwith the student to overcome his/herfears, but never force a student to per-form by making threats or suggestingthat the student is acting foolishly.

2. Do not put extra pressure on astudent to perform by making theaccomplishment of a particular skill re-quisite to receiving a passing grade.Find an alternative method for gradinga student': performance. Prepare a listof skills that move horizontally as wellas vertically and grade the student onthe number of skills attempted. Fe- ex-ample, list at least ten variations of theforward roll and the same number ofvariations for each of the other skillswhich appear at the simpler end of theskill nrogression. Base your grade not

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TUMBLING 169

on the number of skills accomplished inthe vertical progression but on the num-ber ac-omplished overall.

3. Stress self control. Teach the stu-dents to be responsible for their ownsafety and well-being. Have them learnana practice good safty habits. Teach-ing the students to be in controlhelp them reduce their fear and anyreckless behavior that may result in In-jury. For their safety and the safety orthose around them, have them learnand practice the safety rules. A writtenhandout, which you review with themat the start of the unit, is probably thebest means of conveying this inform-tion. If you decide to exercise this op-tion, remember to use language that thestudent can clearly understand. Figure 1is a sample of a safety handout whichcan be given to secondary school stu-dents participating in a tumbling unit.

4 Keep vane in your lessons. Ifyou provide vai_ety and excitement inyour lessons your students will be lesslikely to try to create variety and excite-ment on their own.

5. Provide a positive working envi-ronment for your students. Demon-strate patience and appreciation fortheir efforts. Don't indirectly push yourstudents to try skills beyond theirmeans becaus you only give praise tothose who extatinely talentta orthose who attempt the difficult skills. Bepc,siiive about everyone's efforts regard-less of how small their accomplishmentsmay be.

6. Prepare your students for emer-gencies. Much of the anxiety and dreadwe experience during an emergency isdue to our feeling of helplessness in thesituation. The actions of those aroundus appear to be chaotic because we donot have a clear understanding of whatis to be done. Preparing our students foremergencies in gymnastics will help usto do three things: (1) alleviate the senseof helplessness that is pervasive; (2)ensure the proper kind of help from ourstudents when we need it; and (3) dis-cuss the possible injuries that can resultfrom an accident in tumbling and whatwe can do to avoid them.

170 PRINCIPLES Of SAFETY IN PHYSP_AL EDUCATION AND SPORT

For Your Safety

Maintaining personal atety in gymiostics is ycur responsibility. To minimize accidents andprotect yourself from injury, nenduct your own personal safety check at the beginning of everypractice session using the outline given below

Before Performing: Check Your Clothing

Remove all jewelry, including nngs and esmngs.

Be sure your hair is worn so that it does not block your vision or the vision of your spotter

Be sure to wear the appropriate footwear Heavy sneakers or shoes can be extremelydangerous to you ..:nd your spotter

Never chew gum or have anything in your mouth while you are performing

Wear clothing that is comfortable, but not baggy Baggy clothing can impede the ability ofthe spotter to assisi you.

Be sure that your clothing is free of buckles, buttons, nvets, or zippers

it eyeglasses must be worn, be sure they are secured to your head

Before Performing: Check the Area

Be sure ths area is sufficiently matted for the skill you are going to perform. As a generalrule, the less familiar you are with the skill and/or the more diffirilt the :.kill, the morematting you should have.

Check the matting to ba sure that it is not slippery and that it is free of faults such as rips orgashes.

If using more than one mat, be sure that thsy are securely fastened together

check the landing surface to be sure that it can absorb the weight of a landing or fall.

Be sure you place your tumbling strip or individual mat in such a way as to permit amplespace for traffic or spotter movement.

Be sure that mats are located a suffice it distance from walls or other apparatus

Check the area to be sure it is free of small equipment such as balls or ropes that cancause you to trip.

Be sure the pathway you have chosen for rur tumbl.ng run does not interfere withsomeone else's pathway.

When you are not performillj, be sure to yield the right-of-way to those who alb

Fig. 1. Student safety checklist.

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TUMBLING 171

Before Performing: Screen Your Spotters and Yourself

Do not attempt a skill with a student spotter unless your instructor has given ys,upermission to do so.

Be sure to use two spotters at all times unless two spotters will interfere with the free flowof the movement.

O Be sure you have a thorough uflderstanding of the skill before you make your first attempt

Determine whether you are in the proper physical condition to safely execute the skill. Besure your body is well cone .ioned in regard to strength, flexibility, and muscular andcardiovascular endurance.

O Do not attempt a skill which requires a level of fitness beyond your present physical ability

Be sure ycu understand the proper progression.

Be sure your spotters know what skill you would like to try and that he/she knows how tospot it.

Be sure you know the problems you may encounter when attempting this skill

Be sure that the spotters are strong enough to spot a person of your size and ability level

Be sure you trust your spotters and that your spotters are confident in spotting you.

Attempt new skills at the beginning of the workout session before you become fatigued.

At the Time of Performance: Chick Yourself

Be sure to warm up sufficiently so that your muscles and joints are ready for the demandsyou are about to make on them.

O Stop and rest when you or your spotter are tired Your body cannot perform as well whenyou are tired and you may cause yourself senous injury.

Follow the progression step by step just as the instructor has outlined.

Only attempt skills in which you have received instruction Instructions given to anotherindividual do not apply to you

Perform at you level and not above. Do not try something because of a dere or becausesomeone else, says that it is easy. Know your limitations and abide by them

Always use a spotter.

Follow a skill through to its completion, neve, change your mina in the middle of amovement. You can seriously ,..,ire yourself or your ;potter if you do

Be sure your spotter knows exactly when you intend to legit; W e a sig,,a1 that you havearranged between the two of you so that there is no doubt in anyone's mind t ai you areready to begin.

Fig. 1 continued.

163


7. Generate an attitude of respect andunderstanding in your gym. Teach yourstudents, through your example, tohave respect and understanding for oneanother. Teach them to step in andassist; help them to be aware of otherpeople and their needs.

PHYSICAL READINESS

1. Before the tumbling unit begins,review the students' medical reportswith the school nurse or the athletictrainer. Be familiar with any condition astudent may have that could negati elyinfluence their performance in tumblingor that could be aggravated by the activ-..y.

2. Conduct a physical screening pro-gram before the tumbling unit begins.P I-ermine a level of performance thatsuould be met on each test to ensure aproper level of conditioning for eachparticipant. The screening programshould include tests that measurestrength and muscular endurance of thearms, abdomen, and legs, tests for flexi-bility of the shoulder girdle, legs, andlower back, posture screening to &-termine defects or misalignments thz tmay be aggravated or cause injury, anda test for body composition or a simpleweigh-in. Check points should be setfor each test that will help the .-eacheridentify students who will be at nskwithout a special program.

3. Discuss the physical limitationsfound in the medical record review andthe physical screening with the partici-pant and if necessary with the parent orguardian. During the meeting discussthe physical limitation and the relation-ship it has to the success/risk in tum-bling.

4. Do not allow a student to resumenractice after an injury or serious illnessunless you have written permissionfrom ,P doctor or other qualified expert.

5. Prepare an individualized programfor anyone you have identified as hav-ing special needs. The program shouldhave a fit ass component as well as alisting of approved skills which can beameliorated through conditioning.

6. Keep accurate records of all stu-dents' progress. Especially documentthe progress of those for whom youhave prepared special programs.

7. Design a basic warm up routinewhich is required at the start of everytumbling session. Tea:. the studentsthe warm up routine you have de-signed. If you do not intend to performthe routine as a group, post the pro-gram on the wall in several areas of thegym and explain the importance of itscareful and consistent application.

8. Du not combine the warm up rou-tine with a training program. Conductthe warm up routine in the beginning ofthe workout session and the trainingprogram at the end. The warm up rou-tine should be composed primarily ofstretching and flexibility activities. Lightjogging and skipping should be used toraise the temperature 4 the body, not toimprove cardiovascular fitness. Work toimprove arty component of fitnessshould be left until the end of the ses-sion.

CURRICULUM AND LESSONPLAN DEVELOPMENT

LURRICULUM

1. The tumbling unit should be out-lined in a curriculum guide that is espe-cially designed for the age and generalability level of the students enrolled inthe class.

2. The curnculum objectives shouldreflect an understanding of gymnasticsand the general ability level of the par-ticipants.

3. The activities that appear in theunit should be directly related to theachievement of the objectives.

4. The activities should be screenedto ascertain whether:

they constitute the most appropriatemeans of achieving the objectivethey are appropriate for the intendedage groupIre teaching staff is capable of deliver-in.; the activitythere is a record of injury connectedwith the delivery of this activity

1 (..;t.1

they are recommended by experts ,nthe fieldthey fit appropriately in the skill pro-gression5. The activities should be organized

in a proper progression. The progres-sion should:

move vertically as well as horizontal-ly, that is to say the skill should bepresented with many variations sothat the performer does not feel?ushed to move on in the verticalprogression until he or she has suffi-ciently mastered the skill. Skills can bevaried by changing the starting posi-tion, cl. :ing the finish/landing, put-ting the skill in a sequence, or chang-ing the position of the arms or legsduring movement.contain many leadup activities foreach skill. The leadup activitiesshould familiarize the performer withthe basic components of the skill be-fore they ever attempt the full move-ment.contain body awareness activitiescontain spatial awareness activitiescontain combination.; of skills whichcan be performed safely by those whohave mastered the requisite move-ments6. The tumbling unit should contain

sound justification for its inclusion inthe overall curriculum.

7. The tumbling curriculum shouldcontain a series of units that demon-strates expected skill development fromgrade to grade.

8. The curriculum should outline theappropriate teaching techniques.

9. You should not deviate from thecurriculum guide. If you decide to doso, however, you should state this inyour lesson plan citing the educationalprinciples you used to reach your (:eci-sic n.

LESSON PLANS

1. Specific lesson plans should beprepared for every lesson you teach.

2. Your lesson plan should include:the objectives for the lessonthe activities that we_e used toachieve the objectives

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TUMBLING 173

a detailed description of the teachingmethods that were used to deliver theactivit ,3. Taken collectively, your lesson

plans should demonstrate the progressof your class in the tumbling unit.

4. Lesson plans should be kept on filein an accessible location such as a cen-tral office.

THE STUDENT SPOTTER

1. Train student spotters in the rec-ommended techniques.

2. Give them ample practice withpeople who can perform the skill beforeyou ask them to spot someone who isjust learning.

3. Evaluate them periodically to as-certa)n their effectiveness.

4. Only ask them to work with some-one they can handle. Never ask them toassist someone who outweighs them oris too tall for them to spot safely.

5. Screen the performer they areabout spot t, be sure the performer isready to attempt the skill and the be orshe demonstrates reasonable pot,ntialfor success.

6. Never ask them to spot a perform-er who is attempting a moderately diffi-cult skill unless you have worked withthe performer and you are sure he orshe only neeas slight assistance.

7. Never ask them to spot a perform-er who is attempting a difficult skill nomatter how talented the performer is.

8. Give them frequent b eaks to re-duce their level of fatigue.

9. Give them every available advan-tage in terms of matting. Never ask thespotter to assist anless there is amplematting.

10. Only ask them to spot performerswho are executing skills from a station-ary position. Never ask them to spotsomeone who is on the run.

THE TEACHER AS SPOTTER

1. Do not substitut, jotting for goodfundamentals. Do no put a studentthrough a skill unless they are physical-ly, motorically, and emotionally ready.


2. Thoroughly understand the me-chanics of the skill before you attempt tospot it.

3. Become familiar with all the thingsthat can go wrong during the executionof a skill so that you are prepared forany emergency.

4. Review the components of the skillwith the performers before they beginany attempt. This will allow you to givefeedback as well as to reinforce theimportant aspects of the skill.

5. Explain the mechanics of yourspotting technique to the performer sothat he or she knows what you aregoing to do.

6. Try a new spot (one you are justlearning) on a performer 1. ho has mas-t-Ted the skill. This should oreferably bedone in the presence of a qualifie .1 in-structor who can assist you if necessary.

7. Spot only those students you caneasily assist. Never spot someone whois too heavy or too large for your physi-cal capability.

8. Stay close to the performer andprovide continuous assistance through-out the execution of the skill. As theperformer becomes more accomplished,avoid excessive spotting which may im-pede the natural rhythm of the move-ment.

9. Become aware of each performer'sidiosyncratic behavior. Prepare for theworst thing they may do.

10. Do not give in to a performer whowishes to try a skill, but who is notready for the challenge.

11. Use spotting techniques that em-ploy biomezhanical principles that assistyou in the lift and potect the perform-er's vital areas (spine and neck).

12. Establish a signal between theperformer and you which eliminatesany surprise as to the exact time anattempt will take place.

13. Never leave a performer posed toexecute a skill and turn to talk to some-one else.

14. Never lose contact with the rest ofthe group while you are spotting a spe-cific person. Between attempts, taketime to supervise the area.

171-

15. Never lose your concentration.Complete the entire spot before movingon to correct a situation in another partof the gym.

SAFETY EQUIPMENT

1. Use safety equipment (safety belt,overhead belt, and traveling overheadbelt) that best suits the circumstances.The decision should be based on:

the ability of the gymnastthe ebility of the spotterthe difficulty of the skill being learned2. If safety equipment is to be used,

you should practice with it on a regularbasis so that you can work the equip-ment efficiently Izcl do not present ahazard to the performer.

3. Only qualified instructors shoulduse overhead safety equipment.

4. Safety equipment should not beused unless it is inspected for safety justbefore use.

5. You should be familiar with thepotential problems associated with us-ing an overhead safety belt so that youare prepared for any emergency.


In addition to providing effective su-pervision, appropriate activities, andproper teaching techniques, you have aresponsibility to proviLie a safe environ-ment and well maintained and up-to-date equipment. Following are guide-lines you should use to ensure a safeenvironment for your students.


1. The tumbling area must never beleft open or unsupervised.

2. Tumbling equipment should neverbe left out in a multi-purpose area. Themats should be secured in an equip-ment closet. If an equipment room isnot available, the mats should be se-cured in some manner so that theycannot be used by unsupervised stu-dents.

3. Warning signs should be postedthroughout the area reminding the stu-dents of the safety rules, especiallythose which forbid any type of activity

without the assistance of a qualifiedinstructor.

4. Students should not be allowed tomove equipment unless they have beentaught how to do it properly. This willprotect the students against injury andthe equipment from damage throughmishandling.

5. Spectators, inch- -ling studentswith medical excuses should not be al-lowed in the tumbling area. A placeshould be set aside for nonparticipantsthat keeps them out of the path of theperformers.

6. Where safety specifications havebeen established by a national associa-tion or a manufacturer, be sure yourfacility and equipment meet or exceedthe minimum standards.

7. Develop an inspection policywhich stipulates:

the regularity (yearly, monthly, week-ly, or daily) with which the equip-ment and the facility should be in-spectedthe specific personnel or outside orga-nization that is responsible for theinsrectionthe items to be inspected and theconditions that ar ^.onsidered accept-ablethe records to be kept and the r12.ce offilingthe procedure.; used to determinewhether an item is to be replaced orrepaired8. Be sure the floors are cleaned daKy

and if need be, between classes, to besure that chalk, dust, and other slipperymaterial has been removed.

THE TUMBLItiG AREA

1. The tumbling area should be largeenough to accommodate the number ofstudents who will be participating.

2. The area should be free of anypillars or posts.

3. The walls should be free of anyprotruding F arts.

4. The area should be physically sep-arated from all other activities, especial-ly those that require the use of balls. Apan..non of some sort should be used(i.e. ceiling to floor netting, ceiling to

TUMBLING 175

floor moving door). Cones and othersuch markings are not acceptable unlessthe opposing activity is compatible(dance is an example of a compatibleactivity).

5. The area should be easily accessi-ble to emergency first aid personnel.

6. A phone or some other means ofcommunications with emergency per-sonnel should be available on site. Ifdirect communication is not available, aplan which is known to all instructors,should be devised which will ensure thefastest method of obtaining help.

7. The area should not contain win-dows that are at eye level. Windows, ifany, should be located high in theroom.

8. Any windows in the area shouldbe masked in some way so that the lightthat enters is muted. Bright light mayinterrupt the vision of the performersand cause them to break their concen-tration or loose their line of sight.

PHYSICAL LAYOUT

1. Place mats in a pattern so that youcan maintain a clear line of sight withevery group.

2. Be sure that ample space (6-10feet) is left between each mat to accom-modate the traffic flow.

3. Place mats in such a way that youcan specify the exact direction in whicheveryone should tr.nble.

4. Keep mats at least six feet fromwalls.

5. Keep mats away from doors in-cluding equipment room doors even ifthe room is not no:mally used duringthe class period.

6. Many safe organizational patternsare possible. Figure 2 illustrates twopossible configurations.

MATTING

1. Use mats only for the purposes forwhich they were intended. Inf drmationon recommended use can be obtainedfrom the manufacturer and the nationalbodies governing the sport of gymnas-tics.


x

A

A

A A

x

x

rAll

I

A

[,

A

x

x possible teacherlocations

A Direction tumblers move

flow of movementshould be along outsidepenmeter

Teacher assists from outside the horseshoe. x's indicate several alternative locationswhere a teacher can stand.

Never use more than two rows of mats or you will loose the ability to view the whole classwhen trying to assist someone in the middle rows.

x

Dir. of tumble

x

Fig. 2. Tumbling area configurations

2. Remember that mats are not a sub-stitute for good progressions and com-petent professional spotting.

3. The amount and kind of mattingrequired will depend on:

the skill being performedthe moredifficult the skill, the more mattingrequired

x

x Teacher locations recommended

x

the ability level of the performerthelower the ability, or the less experi-enced the performer, the more mat-ting requiredthe landing required by the performerand the stability under fcct requiredby the spotterthe age of the performer

173

the resiliency of the mat due to ageand use4. Check mats daily for: nps and

gas' 3; worn surfaces; cleanliness; dete-rioration of cushioning material; resil-iency and absorption; and quality ofconnecting surfaces (e.g. velcro fasten-ers). Remove mats that require evenminimal repair.

5. Be sure all mate have a warninglabel attached. Extra warning labels canbe obtained from the manufacturer toreplace worn or lost notices.

6. A two-inch base mat is recom-mended for basic class work.

7. A landing mat is recommended forteaching difficult skills.

PARTICIPANT WARNING

It is the instructor's duty to notify theparticipants and if necessary the partici-pants' families of the possible risks intumbling. A warning in the form ofsigns that illustrate what can happen tothe participant if safety rules are ig-nored, a personal letter which explains

TUMBLING 177

the hazards that are involved witl thesport, or a written test which evaluatesthe student's knowledge of the safetyrules and the possible consequences ofunsafe practices all provide notice to theparticipant of the possible hazards inthe activity. The decision to use one orall of them will lepend on the age andexperience of the performers.

SAFETY-ANONGOING ?ROCESS

Tumbling can be a safe and exhilarat-ing experience for students if the teach-er takes control of the activity andmakes it such. Implementing the recom-mendations made in this chapter will bea positive first step in minimizing therisks associated with the activity. Oncethe standards are met, however, oneshould not become complacent. Riskmanagement requires constant vigi-lance and persistance if we are to con-stantly ensure the safety of our stu-dents.

174

CHAPTER 20

Volleyball

BARBARA L. ViERA

Uni-,ersity of DelawareNewark, DE

175

,:


olleyball is an activity which isrelatively safe when played at all

levels of ability and by different agegroups. For this reason it is a popularactivity for backyard barbeques, picnics,parties, and any occasion when peopleget together to socialize and have agood time. The main reason that thisactivity tends to be safe is that it is trulya non-contact sport. The two opposingteams are separated by the net and thusthere is usually little or no body contactbetween opponents. If, hem. Per, thegame is played by two highly competi-tive teams, there can be contact aboveand belf_aw the net between spikers andblockers. During games played by lessskilled players, the danger of injury isgreater because players lack effectivebody control and often fall into thenet and over the center line into theiropponent's side of the court. Becauseplayers are confined to a small area andthe game demands constant jumpingand movement on the court, it is notsurprising that an occasional injurydoes occur when one player runs into orfalls on top of another. These injuriesare usually minor. The two body areaswhich are most susceptible to such inju-ries are the ankles and the fingers. It is,nevertheless, extremely important tothe safety and success of thc game thatthe players maintain a high level ofcommunication on the court. Every timeplayers know that they are going to playthe ball it is essential that they call for itto notify their teammates of their inten-tion. Good communication can elimi-nate many of the more common errorswhich cause collisions and can, there-fore, reduce the potential for injury.

When discussing volleyball safetythere are four major areas that need tobe addressed: the teaching of propertechnique foi the performance of theskill; the selection of proper teachingstrategies; the proper set up and use ofcorrect and adequate equipment; andthe use of proper clothing and protec-tive equipment by the players. Becausethe repeated use of a body part in aninefficient position can cause muscle

176

pulls, strains, or sprains, players usingimproper technique are often injured.Teachers must be able to select the cor-rect teaching strategy for the level andstrength of their students. A teacherwho hits a ball at a ,tudent who isincapable of receiving it at the givenintensity puts that student in a danger-ous situation. The equipment must beup to standard and safely set up. Per-fectly good equipment can become verydangerous if it is imF:Poperly installed.Finally, students need to prepare them-selves for a game by making sure thatthey are not wearing anything that wallbe a hazard on the court, and by wear-ing any necessary protective equip-ment.

SUPERVISION

When teaching volleyball, there areseveral things which should be consid-ered in order to make the class as safe aspossible. The ideal situation would beone in which there is at least one volley-ball available for every student in theclass and at least one court for everytwelve to fifteen students. Students willlearn more quickly if they have theopportunity to handle the ball as oftenas possible. Unfortnitately, however,the ideal situation is rarely found in theeveryday teaching environment. Whenfaced with a group of students workingin a small enclosed area, there lust besome control over how and where thestudents move. The following is a list ofsuggestions for making the class funand safe.

1. In the initial class sessions whenbasic ball handling is being learned, donot set up the nets. They are not neededand could be an obstruction to freemovement.

2. When running drills involving twoor more players, make sure that allgroups are moving parallel to each otherand far enough from each other thatthere is no danger of collision.

3. The teacher must be in a positionin the gymnasium where all studentsare within view and must be aware of

any extraneous activity which couldcause an accident.

4. When the teacher uses a piece ofequipment as an instructional aid, itmust be used so that L is not a hazard tothe students. An example of this is theuse of a chair or box for the teacher tostand on when spiking or serving theball to the students. It must be farenough away from the net so that thereis no danger that the blockers will comedown on the chair and suffer an injury.

5. In teacher led drills, the goal is toextend the students toward their poten-tial. At the same time, however, it isessential that the teacher know the ca-pabilities of each student so that noneare forced to participate beyond theircapabilities.

6. When the activity of the day isvolleyball, that is the only activity whichshould be allowed. If the balls are avail-able at the beginning of class for stu-dents to use in warming up, theyshould not be allowed to shoot at thebasketball hoop or play variations ofbombardment.

7. No student with an injury shouldbe allowed to participate. This is partic-ularly true of finger and ankle injuries.

8. Students should not be allowed tobegin their warmup unless the teacheris present in the gymnasium.

9. At the end of class all the volley-balls should be collected and put awayuntil the teacher is ready to begin thenext class.

10. Students should practice theirdrills on the court so that they gain anappreciation of the size of the playingarea. Developing an awareness of theplayers around them helps studentsbuild the ability to react appropriately ina game setting.

11. When running drills that involveboth spikers and blockers, it is essentialthat the teacher make the studentsaware of the danger of balls rollingunder the feet of the jumping players.Players who are serving in the role ofretrievers for a drill should be toldwhere to return the balls and how to getthem there. Players should also be

VOLLEYBALL 181

taught to react to a given signal dunngdrills in case the ball does n,11 under thefeet or toward the feet of jumping play-ers. A simple "NO" spoken with anauthoritative voice should be warningenough so that players do not jumpuntil the area is safe.

12. When more than one adjoiningcourt is being used at the same time, it isessential that a rule be establishedwhich prohibits players from enteringan adjoining court to play the ball. Assoon as the ball enters an adjoiningcourt it should be whistled dead by theofficial or teacher.


Many injuries occu: in volleyball be-cause the student attempts to perform askill without the proper technique. Stu-dents must be taught the proper begin-ning position and method of executionof each of the basic skills in volleyball. Itis also extremely important that theteacher uses the proper terminology inthe teaching of the skills. Often a stu-dent uses the incorrect technique be-cause they have misunderstood or mis-interpreted the teacher's explanation. Agood example of this is the expression,"hit the ball with the finger tips," usedwhen teaching the overhand pass involleyball. In this skill the ball is contact-ed with the upper two joints of thefingers and not the finger tips. If playersattempt to hit the ball with the fingertips they are likely to jam their fingers.Following is a list of considerations forteaching the basic skills of volleyball.Understanding and implementing themwill help to insure that the studentslearn proper technique and thereforeplay a safe game.

1. Make sure that the correct termi-nology is used so that students thor-oughly understand what is expected ofthem.

2. Teach the students the skills theyneed to gain good body control. This isparticularly important in three areas:

177


a. Teaching spikers how to stopforward momentum into the net.The planting of the heels beforetake-off is essential.

b. Teaching blockers how to mt. yeto join a teammate for a doubleblock without knocking tha playerover. It is the middle blocker's re-sponsibility to move to the outsideblocker and net to the ball.

c. In defensive techniques inwhich the player hits the floor tosave a ball, the player must beskilled in the proper method offalling. It is important that whenfailing the player learns to land onthe body parts that have sufficientmuscular padding and not onparts that are boney such as theknees, elbows or hips.

3. When teaching the block andspike, make sure that students learn toland on both feet simultaneously. Land-ing on only one foot puts extra strain onthat foot. If the player comes down onone foot and lands on a teammate's oropponent's foot, it is very likely that aserious sprain will result.

4. When teaching the spike in volley-ball, make sure that the students hit theball with a fully extended arm. Hittingthe ball with a bent arm makes theplayer depend heavily on the rotatoruff muscles for attaining power. This

added strain on the rotator cuff cancause tendonitis. On the other hand,when hitting with an extended arm youuse the powerful muscles of the shoul-der and back (Johns, 1977).

5. When teaching the dive or sprawl,make sure the elayers flex their kneesand arch their backs. Failure to do thesethings causes the player to jam the toesinto the floor causing bruised joints,especially of the big toe (Johns 1977).

6. Make sure students condition theirankles.

7. If a student has weak ankles, theyshould be taped before each class andcompetition.


The equipment used in volleyball isrelatively simple. It consists of .. -et,standards for holding up the net, andvolleyballs. If the competition is at ahigh level, the net also needs to beequipped with antennae. These shouldbe attached to the net near the sideline,the exact location depending on the setof rules governing the competition.During competitive volleyball it is alsoessential to have at, official's stand. TheUnited States Volleyball Association,the National Association for Girls andWomen in Sport, and the National Fed-eration of State High School Associa-tions all publish rut' s and each set in-cludes specific regulations pertaining tothe safety of participants. Following is alist of considerations for the teacherwhen setting up the gymnasium eitherfor a class or for a competition.

1. The best standards are usually fair-ly heavy and must be handled with carewhen setting them up. Some standardsinclude a base and will stand on theirown as long as there is no tensionplaced on the net before they are firmlyattached to the floor. If a slight tensionis placed on the net, however, the stan-dards will fall over very easily. Whenthe teacher uses student assistants to setup, they must be aware of this danger.It is possible for a standard to fall overand hit a student and the resultantinjury could be very serious. Teachersshould make sure that the standards areheld upright by someone until they areattached to the floor. This will eliminatethe chance of an accident.

2 The standards must be placed atleast three feet from the sideline.

3. Round standards are less hazard-ous to the players than any other type.

4. Standards which fit into a sleeve inthe floor are safer than those with a basewhich requires guide wires. Supportwires are very dangerous to a playerwho is moving to play a call and isunaware of their location. If guide wiresmust be used, the heavy chain type are

178

better than the wire cable type, and anytype trust be covered with a soft flexi-ble material. The National Federation ofState High School Associations requiresthat this material be at least 1/2" thick andthat m ist be applied to a height of 51/2feet (Tine, 1986-87).

5. The standards, referee's stand,and all the tensioning devices shouldalso be covered by soft, flexible materi-al. The National Federation of StateHigh School Associations recommendsthis material be at least 1/2" thick (True,1986-87).

6. The cranks which are used to placetension on the net should be removableif at all possible. If they are not, the typewhich fold back so that they are notsticking out would be the next best. Ifneither of these types are available, thetensioning mechanism t.a.u.t be com-pletely covered with soft flexible materi-al (Smith, 19F"

7. The ante: inae must be securely fas-tened to the net. ...ach antenna has adevice to attach to tie let. Oncea ..ached, a piece of athletic tapeshould be wraj..ped around the attach-ment for added security and also toprotect the player from being hurt onthe antenna. If, e.unng a competition,an antenna becomes dislodged, thecompetition should be halted immedi-ately until is can be reattached. A looseantenna could cause a serious eye injury.

8. Th'- -vire cable which extendsthrough the net should have a plasticcovering on it. This prevents the wirefrom splintering and causing injurywhen anyone touches it as they try toset up the net. The cable at the bottom^f the net should be rope, as rope is lesslikely to cause injury to a player whoaccidently runs into it.

9. Due to the high degree of tensionplayed c the nets to get th? correctheight, a great deal of stress is alsoplaced on the floor plates used withstandards that have a base. Often whent ,ese standards a-e improperly at-tached, or if no guide wires are usedwhen they are needed, the floor plates

VOLLEYBALL 183

begin to raise up from the floor. theseplates can become a hazard to unsus-pecting athletes when the standards arenot in place.

10. If wire supports are used for thstandards, it is recommended that inaddition to coverm them, stnps of ma-terial be hung trom the wire to a'ertplayers of their presence (Smith, .986).

11. A clear area should surround thecourt. The United States Volleyball As-sociation rr .ommends that this clearspace be at least three meters for anoutdoor court and at least two metersfor an incit ..r court (Smith, 1906).

12. The surface of the court must besmooth and should not be abrasive inany way.

13. If an outdoor ..:ourt becomes softor slippery, the game should be stoppedimmediately (Smiti., 1986).

14. Any off-court areas where haz-ards exist should oe declared nonplay-able. Players should not be allowed toenter non playable areas for the purposeof playing the ball. Players should bemade aware of this and during play theball should be whistled dead as soon asit goes into such an area.

15. For beginners, the air pressure inthe ball should be kept at the lower endof the acceptable range. Unfortunately,most teachers have a tendency to makethe ball pressure too high which causesthe ba' +o hurt the student's forearmsand e ., cause some bruising.

16. During competition, the floor of-ten gets wet after a player falls whilemaking a good defensive effort. It isessential that the competition be halteduntil the floor '-an be toweled dry. Thewet surface is extremely slippery andvery d ,ngerous.

17. Certain items worn by playerscan help protect them from injury.There are also several items which , anbe a hazard `D the wearer or to otherparticipants in the game. Following aresuggestions for a player's personalequipment that help to prevent injury.

a. Long sleeved shirts help to pro-f ct the arms and elbows from

179


floor burns, particularly when theplayer .- forced to hit the floordunng a defensive maneuver(Johns, 1977).b. Knee pads are highly recom-mended at all levels of play. Theyprotect the knees from floor burnsand bruises. Many players ale notas inhibited about hitting the floorwhen they wear knee pads andthus have better defensive skills.c. All three sets of rules prohibitthe use of jewelry and certain oth-er articles during play. Generally,rings, bracelets, clang!. -,s earrings,and necklaces long enough to clearthe chin must be removed. Al-though post earrings are allowed,it is recommended that these alsobe removed as they can get caughtin the net or 3n another player'sclothing and cause damage to theear (Smith, 1986).d. The wearing of ..1 hard cast isnot allowed on any part of thebody. ;lard splints or other protec-tive devices are not allowed to beworn on any body part waist highor above. Soft bandages of anytype are allowed (Smith, 1986).e Protective type braces for thelower extremities are allowed aslong as there are no exposed metalparts that may be a hazard to otherplayers (Smith. 1986).f. Prosthetic limbs may be wornunder certain conditions. Theymay have to be approved by thegoverning body of t"e rules beingused. It would be wise to check inadvance and get the approval inwriting so that there will be noproblem with the officials on theday of a competition. These de-vices should be covered with pad-ding and should nut endanger the

1S0

other participants in any way.g. Anything worn on the headshould be soft and pliable. Hatsare not allowed but sweat bands,barrettes, a.d bandanas used acsweat bands are all allowed as longas they are being used to securethe hair and not just for adorn-ment. Braided hair with beadsmust not be allowed to swing free-ly in a hazardous manner (Smith,1986, True, 1986-87).h All players should wear appro-priate footwear.i. Eyeglasses should have un-breakable lenses and should befirmly attached to the head.j. It is strongly recommended thatgum chewing not be allowed dur-ing participation.

REFERENCES

Johns, D (1977) Care and prevention ofcommon injures in competitive volley-ball Volleyball Technic i Journal, 4, il), 46-50

National Association for Girls and Womenin Sport. (1986) Volleyball Guide Reston,VA American Alliance for Health, Physi-cal Education, Recreation, and Dance

Smith, R. E (Ed ) (1986) United States Vol-leyball Associution Official Guide ColoradoSprings, CO United States Volleyball As-sociation

Tomas', L. (1979) Injury prevention andtreatment In B Bertucci (Ed ), Champion-ship volleyball by the experts (pp 245-259)West Point, NY, Leisure Press

True, S S (1986-87) Official high school voileybidl rules Kansas City, MO. NationalFederation of State High School Associa-tions

Viera, Barbara L. (1983) Volley bail. in N J.Dougherty (Ed.), Physics! education andsport for the secondary si /tool student (pp345-363). Restor, VA. The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Rec-reation and Dance

'N...,..

131

CHAPTER 21

Wrestling

DOUGLAS PARKER

Springlie!d CollegeSpringfield, MA

IS.aNellwa.,


Wrestling is an exciting activity forstudents of all ages. Facilities and

equipment are much improved com-pared to past years and interscholasticwrestling is ranked among the top fn esports in numbers of participants andteams Ho.vever, considering the dualcombative nature of the activity, it isobvious that safety factors must be ahigh priority with physical education'eachers.

In some parts of the country, elemm-tary school students are familiar withwrestling. Many of them have seen interscholastic matches and some haveolder brothers who are on wrestlingteams. Unfortunately, however, theonly kind of wrestling that many otherelementary school students have seen isthe fake "rassling" seen on television. Itis very important, therefore, that stu-dents be informed never to use tech-niques that would endanger their oppo-nent's life or limb. The Federation ofState High School Associations' filmThe Winning Edge: Wrestling by the Rulesis immensely valuable is reinforcingthis concept. It is a one reel film, 18minutes in length, and is available fromthe federation's Kansas City, Missourioffice. This film should be viewed by allstudents prior to the start of a wrestlingunit.

To present a high quality wrestlinginstructional program, it is advisable tostart dual combative activities at thethird grade level. By this time, the stu-dents have experienced self-testing ac-tivities and are psychologically ready totest themselves against others. If safetymeasures are stated emphatically by theteacher, the students will be aware ofand establish patterns of behaviorwhich will snow concern for the safetyof others. It is not uncommon for somestudents who have not experiencedsimple dual combatives at eight or nineyears of age to t , apprehensive aboutparticipating in actual wrostling whenthey are older. Simple combative activi-ties, therefore, such as chicken fighting,foot push, hand wrestling, hop andpull, chest wrestling, and arm lockwrestling will provide for the needs andi

interests c.` students. This type of activi-ty will also help students develop thebalance necessary for actual wrestling.

The teacher should refer to the cu --rent Official high school wrestling ri.les(National Federation of State HighSchool Associations,) for illegal hold.,and illustrations of these holds. The mit-,book also includes potentially danger-ous holds. Some techniques and holds,although legal, may be dangerous if notexecuted properly. The instructor mustguide the student in the defensive posi-tion as well as the person performingthe technique. Some positions are un-comfortable and may be frightening to abeginning wrestling student. The frontcradle hold is an example of this situa-tion. Some students may feel they willhave trouble breathing when held inthis position and their opponent's bodyweight is on them. The teacher shouldbe aware of this, and help the studentsunderstand the holds and their reac-tions to them.

The most potentially serious injury inany activity involves the spinal cord.The physical education teacher present-ing a wrestling unit must be aware ofthose techniques, holds, and body posi-tions that have the potential for injuryto the spinal cord. The teacher mustpresent wrestling techniques and activi-ties with special emphasis on this safetyaspect, espccially with regard to thearea of the cervical vertebrae. The teach-er should instruct the students to stopany wrestling activity whenever a stu-dent's head is in a vulnerable positionor injury to the spinal cord may result.Signals should be developed wherebythe teacher or an opponent Lan signalfor an immediate rel...,:e of a potentiallydangerous hold. The teacher should in-troduce all dual combative lead-up ac-tivities and actual wrestling lessonswith the following neck strengtheningactivities:

neck bridgingresisting half Nelsonresisting quarter Nelsonresisting three-quarter Nelsoncombination sit-up and neck resist-

82ance exercise

To further emphasize safety measuresand also encourage the problem- solvingmethod of learning, the teacher shouldhave the students experience isolated"tasks" or "situation wrestli.,g." Situa-tion wrestling is defined as a tnal inwhich one student will attempt an of-fensive technique and t'le other a defen-c've technique. Examples include theturnover, breakdown, and go-behind.

When the teacher "shows and tells"technique, safety factors should be thor-oughly explained. To help with safetymeasures as well as accelerate the learn-ing process, the teacher should have atleast one assistant. The assistant may bea co-teacher, student teacher from alocal college or a skilled senior student.Instructional emphasis should be onprecise techniques and drills to perfecttechniques. Under no circumstancesshould the teacher's methods empha-size brute strength and aggressiveness.There is no place for a "macho" attitudein the instructional program.

Progressions must be considered by ateacher when presenting wrestling in-struction. When young people learn towalk they experience falling, and learnhow to fall and adjust to falling withoutinjury. However, since falling tech-niques are rarely used after early child-hood, students must re-learn fallingskills. Under no circumstances should aperson fall with the fingers pointingbackward. This position locks the elbowjoint and a dislocation may occur. Fall-ing to the mat safely should be part ofe,-ery lesson's warm-up period. Theteacher should not start the wrestlingunit with takedowns, even though theofficial match starts with the wrestlers ina neutral standing position. For the pur-pose of safety, takedowns and countersfor takedowns should be taught last,after basic techniques and falling skillshave been well learned and practiced.When teaching "tat -edown throw" tech-niques, especially those involvii highamplitude, dummies should be usedinitially. "Live" throws should only bepermitted on an individual permissionbasis, after the technique has been per-fected using a wrestling dummy. The

WRESTLING 187

tear _.ig order should be as follows:1. Falling techniques.2. Getting out of pinning combina-

tions.3. Reversing from the defensive posi-

tion.4. Breaking the opponent down from

a position on hands and knees.5. Applying pinning techniques.6. Escaping from the defensive posi-

tion.7. Takedowns from neutral position

on the knees or at least one knee down.8. Takedowns from standing.9. Counters for takedowns.Because of the complexity of wres-

tling skills and the potential for injury, itis essential that safety be of the utmostconcern to all. Following are conceptsthat are essential to the safe conduct of ahigh-quality instructional wrestling pro-gram.

THE INSTRUCTOR

1. Presents the important rules ofwrestling and assists students in gain-ing an understanding of potentiallydangerous positions and techniqueswhich should be used with caution.

2. C yes beginning students lead-upactivities which are appropriate to theirability levels and which relate to someaspects of wrestlinr.

3. Has interscholastic or c Ilegiatewrestling experience.

4. Has assistant or student teacherwho was a high school or college wres-tler.

5. Took a wrestling course in college.6. Has a working knowledge of basic

wrestling techniques and the ability topresent them in logical progression.

7. Has an understanding of exercisetechniques which will prepare studentsfor wrestling.

8. Presents dual activities or combative games that will not only stimulatestudents' interest but help them devel-op balance and other Qualities of motormovement necessary for wrestling.

9. E,thibits concern for cleanlinessand safety.

183

1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

STU DENTS

1. Suitable clothing is t-shil Jrts,and warm-up pants. Loose fitting cloth-ing should not be worn. Belts, buckles,zippers, snaps, etc. are not allowed.

2. Rings, watches, bracelets, neck-laces, earrings, and other forms of jew-elry may not be worn.

3. Fingernails must be trimmed be-yond the ends of the f, agers.

4. Hair should be cut short.5. Clean socks should be worn.

Shoes should be taken off and leftaround the edge of the mat. The soles ofshoes carry bacteria, as well as dirt.Sneakers with heavy soles may alsocause injury.

6. The students should be weighedand their actual weights recorded.Names and weights should be posted.Students should not be matched upwith more than a 10 lb. difference inweight.

7. Students should be prohibitedfrom wrestling when recovenng fromillnesses or injuries.

8. It is recommended that the teach-er do skinfold tests on the students todetermine their lean body weight. Skin-fold calipers are inexpensive and theprocedure is simple.

9. Students should be paired orpartners selected based on weight, age,and physical &velopment Lean bodyweights are more important than actualweights.

10. Students must recognize their re-sponsibility for their partners' safety aswell as their own.

11. Students should 1 e aware of oth-er students' place on the plat as well astheir 01. n.

12. Students will be required to offici-ate matches and supervise classmates.They should be prepared to stop stu-dents physically using a "hands on"method and also catch them and com-mand "stop" if they are in danger ofgoing out of bounds.

184

MATS

1. The wrestling unit should be con-ducted on a plastic cellular foam mat atleast one inch thick. Thicker mats pro-vide more gaiety. Old packed-downhair and felt mats are not suitable inphysical education classes today. Tyingthese m. ,s together and using a plasticcover is not an acceptable safety prac-tice.

2. The mats should be washed dailywith a concentrate that cleans, disin-fects, ad deodorizes. Tne productshould a.so serve as a fungicide andvirucide.

3. Sections of mats should be secure-ly taped together. If the mats are putdown daily, two inches of tape is satis-factory, providing that it is applied well.Three inches or four inches of tape isrecommended if the mats are used forseveral days or weeks

4. The temperature of mats sliouid bebetween 60 and 70 degrees. A mat at 40degrees is hard, rigid, and has a"boardy" surface. It will not absorb asmuch shock. A mat at 90 degrees is softand has a greater tendency to "bottomout."

5. It is advisable to recondition foammats every five years. If the vinyl coat-ing peels off a mat, the exposed foamccre has less ability to provide afety.

6. Foam mats should be tare ed overperiodically so both Lides receive equaluse.

7. Each pair of students should have100 square feet of mat space on which topractice. Specific areas can be markedoff by tape temporarily or by permanent10-foot painted circles. The typical 40' x40' wrestling mat has nine, 10' diametercircles on the practice side. The studentsshould be instructed to confine theirwresting activity to the area inside thecircle. Space between circles is a "bufferzone" for safety.

8. If the wrestling unit is taught in aroom with walls close to tie mats, thewall. should be padded up a mini-mum of give feet. Posts, radiators, and

similar protrusiuns must be paddedwith mat material.

EQUIPMENT

The teacher should have knee pads,elbow pads, earguards, and face masksin the equipment room and available forstudents.

An effective and safe teaching methodfor teachers is to assign three studentsto a group. One student will be assistingwith instruction, leading techniquedrills, starting and stopping situations,and officiating matches. Obviously, astudent cannot assume the responsibil-ity of he teacher, but if properly in-structed and supervised, he/she canmake the lc irning environment consid-erably sac . The students will rotateroles from ..dense to defense to official.When preparing and writing lessonplans, the teacher should include state-ments that relate to safety measures.While accidents and injuries may occur,the teacher who emphasizes safety andmakes the students aware of potentially

WRESTLING 189

da- erous situations will have fewerinjuries and accidents as well as a moresuccessful wrestling unit.

CONCLUSION

Many students will enjoy wrestlingbecause of their interest and develop-menta: need for this type of activity.The enjoyment the student receives willrelate directly to the teacher's personal-ity, knowledge, wrestling talent, classdiscipline, experience, and emphasis ofsafety factors.

REFERENCES

Hess, I. (1983). Wrestling. In N.J. Dougherty(Ed ), Physical education and sport for thesecondary school student (pp. 383-396). Re3-ton, VA. The Amencan Alliance forHealth, Physical Education, Recreationand Dance.

Official high school wrestling rules KansasCity, MO. National Federation of StateHigh School Associations.

The winning edge Wrestling by the rules[1-ilra]. Kansas City, MO: National Federa-tion of State High School Associations

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