DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written...

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is the genetic material. The tructions for making and “opera organism are written in DNA. is divided into sections calle es. Basic genetics terminology

Transcript of DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written...

Page 1: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

DNA is the genetic material. Theinstructions for making and “operating”an organism are written in DNA.

DNA is divided into sections called genes.

Basic genetics terminology

Page 2: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

What a gene does

Each gene codes for a single protein. The gene specifies the sequence of amino acids that should be joined together to make a protein.

Together the genes determine the characteristics of an organism.

Page 3: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Alleles and genes

Alleles are different versions of a

gene.

If a single gene codes for flower color, white and blue flowers would be coded for by 2 different alleles.

Page 4: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Number of copies of genesYou possess two copies of each gene in

your body*.

One copy is inherited from each parent.

For a given gene you may have two different alleles or two copies of the same allele.

(* excluding genes on sex chromosomesin males).

Page 5: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Homozygous vs heterozygous

A homozygous individual has two copies of a particular allele. (AA)

A heterozygous individual has two different alleles. (Aa)

Page 6: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Genotype and phenotype

An organism’s genes (its genotype) play a large role in determining its physical appearance (its phenotype).

But remember an organism’s phenotype is also affected by the environment.

Page 7: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

The relationship between genes and evolution

We express evolutionary ideas in terms of genes because genes are the only thing that are passed from one generation to the next.

Page 8: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Process of Natural Selection

In the process of natural selection, genes

that help organisms to survive and reproduce become more common.

Genes that help less or are harmful

gradually are eliminated from the population.

Page 9: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Process of Natural Selection

Individuals that are the best adapted to their environments (the best camouflaged, best at finding food, etc.) will generally be more successful at breeding than less well adapted individuals.

As a result, their genes (which make them well adapted) will be commoner in the next generation than the genes of less well adapted individuals.

Page 10: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Chapter 23. The Evolution of Populations

Remember individual organisms do not evolve. Individuals are selected, but it is populations that evolve.

Because evolution occurs when gene pools change from one generation to the next, understanding evolution require us to understand population genetics.

Page 11: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Some terminology

Population: All the members of one species living in single area.

Gene pool: the collection of genes in a population. It includes all the alleles of all genes in the population.

Page 12: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Some terminology

If all individuals in a population all have the same allele for a particular gene that allele is said to be fixed in the population.

If there are 2 or more alleles for a given gene in the population then individuals may be either homozygous or heterozygous (i.e. have two copies of one allele or have two different alleles)

Page 13: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Detecting evolution in nature

Evolution is defined as changes in the structure of gene pools from one generation to the next.

How can we tell if the gene pool changes from one generation to the next?

We can make use of a simple calculation called the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Page 14: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg EquilibriumBefore discussing Hardy-Weinberg need to review some basic facts about Mendelian Inheritance.

In Mendelian Inheritance alleles are shuffled each generation into new bodies in a way similar to which cards are shuffled into hands in different rounds of a card game.

The process of Mendelian Inheritance preserves genetic diversity from one generation to the next. A recessive allele may not be visible because it is hidden by the presence of a dominant allele, but it is still present.

Page 15: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

The shuffling process occurs because an individual has two copies of any given gene (one inherited from father and one from mother), but can put only one or the other copy into a particular sperm or egg. E.g. for an individual who is heterozygous Aa 50% of sperm will contain A and 50% will contain a.

Page 16: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Individuals alleles thus go through a process where they are sorted into gametes (sperm or egg) which combine to form a zygote which will one day again sort alleles into gametes.

See Chapter 14 to review Mendelian Inheritance

Page 17: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.
Page 18: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Consider a population of 100 individuals. This population will contain 200 copies of any given gene because each individual has two copies.

Gene we are interested in has two alleles A and a.

Page 19: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

If 80% of the alleles in the gene pool are A and 20% are a, we can predict the genotypes in the next generation.

Basic probability: To determine the probability of two independent events both occurring, you should multiply the probabilities of the individual events together.

Page 20: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Probability of an AA individual is 0.8*0.8 = 0.64Probability of an aa individual is 0.2*0.2 = 0.04Probability of an Aa individuals is 0.2*0.8 = 0.16, but there are two ways to produce an Aa individual so 0.16*2= 0.32. Note these probabilities sum to 1.

Page 21: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.
Page 22: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

General formula for Hardy-Weinberg is

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, where p is frequency of allele 1 and q is frequency of allele 2.

p + q = 1.

Page 23: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can be used to estimate allele frequencies from information about phenotypes and genotypes.

Page 24: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

E.g. approx 1 in 10,000 babies are born with phenylketonuria (PKU) (causes retardation if diet is not kept free of amino acid phenylalanine).

Disease due to individual being homozygous for a recessive allele k. i.e., the babies’ genotype is kk.

Page 25: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg EquilibriumWhat is frequency of k allele in population?q2 = frequency of PKU in population = 0.0001.q = square root of q2 or 0.01. Frequency of allele kTherefore p the frequency of the K allele = 1 - 0.01 = 0.99Frequency of carriers (heterozygotes) in population is 2pq =

2*0.99*0.01 = 0.0198 or almost 2% of population. Much greater than frequency of PKU.

Page 26: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Working with the H-W equation

You need to be able to work with the Hardy-Weinberg equation.

For example, if 9 of 100 individuals in a population suffer from a homozygous recessive disorder can you calculate the frequency of the disease-causing allele? Can you calculate how many heterozygotes are in the population?

Page 27: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Working with the H-W equationp2 + 2pq + q2 = 1. The terms in the equation represent the frequencies of individual genotypes. [A genotype is possessed by an individual organism so there are two alleles present in each case.]

P and q are allele frequencies. Allele frequencies are estimates of how common alleles are in the whole population.

It is vital that you understand the difference between allele and genotye frequencies.

Page 28: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Working with the H-W equation

9 of 100 (frequency = 0.09) of individuals are homozygous for the recessive allele. What term in the H-W equation is that equal to?

Page 29: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Working with the H-W equationIt’s q2.

If q2 = 0.09, what’s q? Get square root of q2, which is 0.3, which is the frequency of the allele a.

If q=0.3 then p=0.7. Now plug p and q into equation to calculate frequencies of other genotypes.

Page 30: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Working with the H-W equation

p2 = (0.7)(0.7) = 0.49 -- frequency of AA

2pq = 2 (0.3)(0.7) = 0.42 – frequency of Aa.

To calculate the actual number of heterozygotes simply multiply 0.42 by the population size = (0.42)(100) = 42.

Page 31: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Other examples of working with HW equilibrium: is a population in HW equilibrium?

In a population there are 100 birds with the following genotypes: 44 AA32 Aa24 aaHow would you demonstrate that this population is not in Hardy Weinberg equilibrium

Page 32: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Three steps

Step 1: Calculate the allele frequencies.Step 2: Calculate expected numbers of each genotype (i.e. figure out how many homozygotes and heterozygotes you would expect.)Step 3: Compare your expected and observed data.

Page 33: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Step 1 allele frequencies

Step 1. How many “A” alleles are there in total?

44 AA individuals = 88 “A” alleles (because each individual has two copies of the “A” allele)

32 Aa individuals = 32 “A” alleles (each individual one A allele)

Total “A” alleles is 88+32 =120.

Page 34: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Step 1 allele frequencies

Total number of “a” alleles is similarly calculated as 2*24 + 32 = 80What are allele frequencies?Total number of alleles in population is 120 + 80 = 200 (or you could calculate it by multiplying the number of individuals in the population by two 100*2 =200)

Page 35: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Step 1 allele frequencies

Allele frequencies are:

A = 120/200= 0.6. Let p = 0.6

a = 80/200 = 0.4. Let q = 0.4

Page 36: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Step 2 Calculate expected number of each genotype

Use the Hardy_Weinberg equationp2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 to calculate what expected genotypes we

should have given these observed frequencies of “A” and “a”

Expected frequency of AA = p2 = 0.6 * 0.6 = 0.36

Expected frequency of aa = q2 = 0.4*0 .4 =0.16

Expected frequency of Aa = 2pq = 2*.6*.4 = 0.48

Page 37: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Step 2 Calculate expected number of each genotype

Convert genotype frequencies to actual numbers by multiplying by population size of 100

AA = 0.36*100 = 36

aa = 0.16*100 = 16

Aa = 0.48*100 = 48

Page 38: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Step 3 Compare Observed and Expected valuesObserved population is:

44 AA 32 Aa 24 aaExpected population is:

36AA 48Aa 16aa

These numbers are not the same so the population is not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. An assumption of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is being violated. What are those assumptions?

Page 39: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Remember that the Hardy-Weinberg equation tells us what we would expect to find if alleles are simply randomly assorted into gametes and gametes come together randomly to produce new genotypes.

If a population is found to depart significantly from H-W equilibrium this is strong evidence that evolution is taking place, i.e., the gene pool of the population is changing.

Page 40: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Five Conditions under which Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium holds:

No gene flow – no migration.

Random mating – no inbreeding.

No mutations.

Large population size – reduces effects of chance events

No natural selection.

Page 41: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Gene flow

Movement of individuals between populations can alter gene frequencies in both populations.

Frequent migration may cause populations’ gene pools to become more similar to each other.

Page 42: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Non-random mating

Mating preferentially with others that are phenotypically similar to you [in extreme cases inbreeding (mating with relatives)] can prevent random mixing of genes

Homozygotes are common in inbred populations.

Page 43: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

Because inbreeding produces an excess of homozygotes in a population, deviations from Hardy-Weinberg expectations can be used to detect such inbreeding in wild populations.

Page 44: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

Sea otters, once abundant along the west coast of the U.S., were almost wiped out by fur hunters in the 18th and 19th centuries.

photo: www.turtletrack.org

Page 45: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

• California population reached a low of 50 individuals (now over 1,500). As a result of this bottleneck, the population has less genetic diversity than it once had.

Page 46: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

Population is still at a low density and Lidicker and McCollum (1997) investigated whether this resulted in inbreeding.

They determined genotypes of 33 otters for PAP locus, which has two alleles S (slow) and F (fast)

Page 47: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

The genotypes of the 33 otters were:SS 16

SF 7

FF 10

This gives approximate allele frequencies of S= 0.6 and F = 0.4

Page 48: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

If otter population in H-W equilibrium, genotype frequencies should be

SS = 0.6* 0.6 = 0.36

SF =2*0.6*0.4 = 0.48

FF = 0.4*0.4 = 0.16

However actual frequencies were: SS= 0.485, SF= 0.212, FF =0.303

Page 49: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Inbreeding in California Sea Otters

There are more homozygotes and fewer heterozygotes than expected for a random mating population.

Having considered alternative explanations for deficit of heterozygotes, Lidicker and McCollum (1997) concluded that sea otter populations show evidence of inbreedng.

Page 50: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Mutation

Mutation adds new genes, but generally so slowly that H-W equilibrium not affected.

However, mutation and sexual recombination ultimately responsible for the variation that natural selection depends on.

Page 51: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

MutationsMutations are randomly occurring changes in the DNA.

Only mutations that occur in cell lines that produce gametes [i.e. the sex cells – sperm and egg] can be passed on.

Simplest mutation is a point mutation in which one base is changed or a base is inserted or deleted.

Page 52: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Mutations

Changing a base may have no effect if the base change does not change the amino acid coded for or if the change occurs in a non-coding section of the gene.

However, some changes alter the amino acid coded for and hence the protein produced (e.g. as occurs in sickle cell anemia), which can have severe effects.

Page 53: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Insertion/deletion mutations

In insertion/deletion mutations a base is added or deleted, which because bases are read in groups of three shifts the “reading frame” so that all sequences after the mutation are misread, being off by one base.

This almost always produces a non-functional protein

Page 54: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Mutations that alter gene number or sequence

Gene duplication is an important source of variation.

In gene duplication a section of DNA may be copied and inserted elsewhere in the genome. Often these cause major problems, but sometimes they do not and the overall number of genes is increased. And the new genes can take on novel functions through mutation and selection

Page 55: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Mutations that alter gene number or sequence

Humans have about 1,000 olfactory receptor genes and mice about 1,300. These appear all to have been derived from a single ancestral gene.

In humans about 60% of these are turned off, but in mice only about 20% are turned off.

Page 56: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Sexual Recombination

In the process of meiosis alleles are reshuffled as parental chromosomes exchange portions. This process produces new combinations of alleles in the sex cells produced in meiosis. In addition, the combining of sperm and egg also produces new combinations of alleles.

Page 57: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

How populations’ gene pools are altered

Natural Selection: as discussed previously selection for or against allele can cause its frequency to change quickly from one generation to the next.

However, natural selection is not the only way allele frequencies can change. Chance often plays a role.

Page 58: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Genetic drift

Fluctuations in allele frequencies that result from chance are referred to as genetic drift.

Chance effects are strongest when populations are small. In a small population it is easy for alleles to be lost or become fixed as a result of chance events.

Page 59: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Large population size

If populations are small, chance events can have a large effect on allele frequencies.

These chance events can cause the genetic structure to randomly change from one generation to the next. This random change is called Genetic Drift.

Page 60: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.
Page 61: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Genetic Drift: events that reduce population size

Genetic drift is most likely to affect populations after events that greatly reduce population size.

Two of the most common are Bottleneck Events and Founder Events

Page 62: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Bottleneck Effect

A bottleneck effect occurs when some disaster causes a dramatic reduction in population size.

As a result, by chance certain alleles may be overrepresented in the survivors, while others are underrepresented or eliminated. Genetic drift while the population is small may lead to further loss or fixation of alleles.

Page 63: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Bottleneck EffectHumans have been responsible for many bottlenecks by driving species close to extinction.

For example, the Northern Elephant seal population was reduced to about 20 individuals in the 1890’s. Population now >30,000, but an examination of 24 genes found no variation, i.e. in each case there was only one allele. Southern Elephant Seals in contrast show lots of genetic variation.

Page 64: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

23.8

Page 65: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Founder Effect

When populations are founded by only a few individuals (as island communities often are) the gene pool is unlikely to be as diverse as the source pool from which it was derived.

Page 66: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Founder Effect

Founder effect coupled with inbreeding explains the high incidence of certain recessive diseases among humans in many isolated communities.

For example, polydactylism (having extra fingers) is quite common among the Amish and retinitis pigmentosa a progressive form of blindness is common among the residents of Tristan da Cunha.

Page 67: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Natural Selection

Natural selection is generally the main reason populations will deviate from H-W equilibrium.

With natural selection certain alleles are selected against or for and so are are rarer or more common than would otherwise be expected in the next generation.

Page 68: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Natural Selection the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution

Terms such as “survival of the fittest” and “struggle for existence” do not necessarily mean there is actual fighting for resources.Competition is generally more subtle and success in producing offspring and thus contributing genes to the next generation (i.e. fitness) may depend on differences in ability to gather food, hide from predators, or tolerate extreme temperatures, which all may enhance survival and ultimately reproduction

Page 69: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Natural Selection the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution

Three major forms of natural selection: Directional

Disruptive

Stabilizing

Page 70: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.
Page 71: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Directional Selection

Favors one extreme in the population

Average value in population moves in that direction

E.g. Selection for darker fur color in an area where the background rocks are dark

Page 72: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Disruptive selection

Intermediate forms are selected against. Extremes are favoredE.g. Pipilo dardanus butterflies. Different forms of the species mimic the coloration of different distasteful butterflies. Crosses between forms are poor mimics and so are selected against by being eaten by birds.

Page 73: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Stabilizing Selection

Commonest formExtreme forms are selected againstBirth weights in human babies. Highest survival is at intermediate birth weights. Babies that are too large cannot fit through the birth canal, babies that are born too small are not well developed enough to survive

Page 74: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.
Page 75: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Natural selection acts on individuals, but its effects accumulate in populations

Individuals live or die during a the selection event.

But change occurs in the characteristics of the population, not in individuals.

Page 76: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Natural selection acts on individuals, its effects accumulate in populations

During a drought on the Galapagos individual ground finch’s beaks did not change, but the populations’ average beak dimensions changed because more small-beaked birds died than large-beaked birds.

Page 77: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Natural selection does not plan ahead.

Each generation is result of selection by environmental conditions of the previous generation.

Evolution always one generation behind environmental changes.

Page 78: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

New traits evolve even though selection acts on existing traits.

This occurs because:

1. mutation produces new alleles.

2. In sexually reproducing organisms meiosis and fertilization recombine existing alleles to produce new genotypes.

Page 79: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

New traits evolve even though selection acts on existing traits.

Artificial selection for oil content in corn.

After 60 generations oil levels were well above starting values.

Page 80: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Fig 3.12

Page 81: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Important points about evolution and natural selection

The fundamental unit of natural selection is the gene.

Only genes are passed on from one generation to the next.

Page 82: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Important points about evolution and natural selection

Nothing in nature happens for “the good of the species.”

Alleles that sacrifice themselves would disappear from the gene pool.

Page 83: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Important points about evolution and natural selection

Organs must be useful at all stages of their evolutionary history

Structures cannot pass through intermediate stages where they make an organism less well adapted.

Page 84: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Important points about evolution and natural selection

Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms for several reasons

1. Evolution is limited by historical constraints. Birds cannot run around on four legs because their forelimbs have evolved into wings.

Page 85: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Important points about evolution and natural selection

Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms for several reasons

2. Adaptations are often compromises.

Auks (a group of seabirds that includes puffins) can fly and use their wings to swim underwater, but the shape and size of the wing is a compromise between the demands of flight and swimming.

Page 86: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

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Razorbill polar.alaskapacific.edu/aharding/images/Littl...

Little Auk

Page 87: DNA is the genetic material. The instructions for making and “operating” an organism are written in DNA. DNA is divided into sections called genes. Basic.

Important points about evolution and natural selection

Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms for several reasons

3. Selection can only make use of the material that is available. New alleles do not arise on demand.