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DIGITALINFLUENCERSANDVLOGGINGADVERTISING:CALLINGFORAWARENESS,GUIDANCEANDENFORCEMENT

ValerieVerdoodt1andNadiaFeci2

1. INTRODUCTION

Nowadays,peoplecanparticipateonline,createandsharetheirowncontentinallkindsof applications such as blogs, socialmedia and video-sharing platforms. Children andadolescents are increasingly consuming media content online, where their favouritedigitalinfluencersuploadvideosonaregularbasis(e.g.onYouTube).Contentcreatorslikevloggers(i.e.videobloggers)haveovertimebecomeextremelypopularamongsttheyounger audiences and even in some instances gained celebrity status among theirthousandsoffollowers.3Theinfluencethesepeoplemayexertovertheirloyalfollowersis significant and brings with it certain responsibilities, especially when commercialinterestsbecomeinvolved.Thepopularityofthesedigitalinfluencersisalreadyshapingadvertisingandmarketing techniquesandvloggingadvertisingmay takemany forms,such as online marketing by a brand with vlogger collaboration, an advertorial, acommercialbreakwithinavlog,productplacement,thepromotionofthevlogger’sownmerchandise,sponsorshipandfreeitems.4Theseintegratedadvertisingtechniquesforman important sourceof revenue forvloggers.5Professional influencerhasbecome justanotherjobandvloggersmaybetiedtoagentsandproductioncompanies,justlikemovieactors.6

Thispaperanalysesthepersuasivetacticsusedbydigital influencers invlogstargetedtowards children, in light of the existing regulatory framework for commercialcommunication. More specifically, it addresses children’s fundamental rights in this

1ValerieVerdoodtisasseniorresearcherattachedtotheCentreforITandIPLawandKULeuven.ThispaperwasinspiredbyherPhDresearchentitled“Children’srightsandadvertisingliteracyinthedigitalera:Towardsanempoweringregulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunication”.2NadiaFeci isas legal researcherattached to theCentre for ITand IPLawandKULeuven.Thispaperreceived input fromhermaster thesisentitled “Theriseof thevloggers: integratedadvertisingand thecurrentregulatoryframework”.3Forinstance,Industryresearchhasshownthat59%of13year-oldsfollowsYouTubersonsocialmediaversusonly32%following televisionandmoviestars. ‘AcumenReport:YouthVideoDiet’ (DefyMedia)<http://defymedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Acumen_DL_booklet_16_12_04.pdf> accessed 29November2017.4ThislistisnotexhaustiveandstemsfromtheCAPGuidelines,aUKself-regulatoryinitiative,seeinfra.J.Ward,‘CAPGuidanceonVloggingAdvertising’[2016]EntertainmentLaw49.5Vloggersmayberewardedinteraliaonthebasisof‘payperacquisitionordownload’(i.e.earnrewardswheneveraviewerpurchasesaproductorserviceviathelinkwithinthevlog);productcompensation;payperpostorasystemofflatratepricing;payperclick.CommercialcommunicationsorganisedbyYouTubeitself(pre-,mid-andend-rollsduringvideos,bannersetc.)outsidethescopeofthispaper.6 IntheUS,YouTubersevenhaveunitedintheInternetCreatorsGuild,whichprovidesYouTuberswithsupporttohelpthemdeveloparigorousbusinesssenseandavoidexploitation.C.Stokel-Walker,‘VloggersUnite: Youtubers Are Getting Organized after a Decade of Exploitation’ Newsweek (8 October 2016)<http://www.newsweek.com/vloggers-youtube-organized-decade-exploitation-507592> accessed 30October2018.

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specificcontext, itclarifies thescopeoftherelevantEUDirectives(i.e. theAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective(“AVMSDirective”), thee-CommerceDirectiveandtheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective(“UCPDirective”))andtouchesbrieflyuponaninterestingcaseoftheBelgianself-regulatorybodyfortheadvertisingindustry.

2. PERSUASIVETACTICSANDCHILDREN’SFUNDAMENTALRIGHTS

Digitalinfluencersusespecificpersuasivetacticsintheiraudiovisualcontent,whichmaysignificantly impact children’s rights. Viewers or followers seek guidance from thesemediapersonalities,seethemasfriendsorimaginethattheyarepartofaprogramme’ssocialworld.7AccordingtoPERSEandRUBIN,viewers“feelthattheyknowandunderstandtheinfluencerinthesameintimatewaytheyknowandunderstandfleshandbloodfriends”.8Followers will turn to influencers for advice and regard them as a trusted source ofinformation. Children in particular perceive digital influencers asmore relatable thantraditionalcelebritiesandtheycanidentifythemselvesmorewiththeformer.9Asaresult,digital influencers have become an important intermediary between advertisers andconsumer-followers.Thetwo-waycommunicationbetweenthemediapersonality andthe fans is facilitated by social media, which often contains product reviews andinformation.10

Researchhasshownthatuser-generatedcontentgenerallyhasasignificantinfluenceonconsumers’brandperspective,brandchoices11andnewconsumeracquisition12.Vloggingadvertisingallowstargetedexposuretotherightconsumersandrepeatedexposuretoavlogger can elicit enhanced feelings of connectedness with the advertised brands. Ashumans are social creatures, they tend to copy behaviours and beliefs of people theylike.13Inthisregard,LEEandWATKINSrefertosocialcomparisontheory14,whichentailsthatasconsumer-followersviewthemselvesassharingsimilaropinionsandpreferencesasdigitalinfluencers,apositivereviewofabrandfromtheirpreferredvloggermayleadtoapositivereviewfromtheconsumer.15

Consideringtheoftenhiddennatureofvloggingadvertisingandthehighlyentertainingvideos,digitalinfluencerscanhaveadirectimpactonchildren’sconsumptionbehaviour 7 J. E. Lee and B. Watkins, ‘YouTube Vloggers’ Influence on Consumer Luxury Brand Perceptions andIntentions’(2016)69JournalofBusinessResearch5753.8E.M.PerseandR.B.Rubin,‘AttributioninSocialandParasocialRelationships’(1989)16CommunicationResearch59.9‘AcumenReport:YouthVideoDiet’(n3).10LeeandWatkins(n7).11T.W.Gruen,T.OsmonbekovandA.J.Czaplewski,‘EWOM:TheImpactofCustomer-to-CustomerOnlineKnow-HowExchangeonCustomerValueandLoyalty’(2006)59JournalofBusinessResearch449.12M.Trusov,R.E.BucklinandK.Pauwels,‘EffectsofWord-of-MouthversusTraditionalMarketing:FindingsfromanInternetSocialNetworkingSite’(2009)73Journalofmarketing90.13A.R.Bentley,MarkEarlsandMichaelO’brienJ,I’llHaveWhatShe’sHaving-MappingSocialBehavior<https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/ill-have-what-shes-having>accessed29November2017.14Thistheorywasdevelopedinthe1950sbypersonalitytheorists, includingN.E.MillerandJ.Dollard,SocialLearningandImitation(YaleUniversityPress1941);A.BanduraandR.H.Walters,SocialLearningandPersonalityDevelopment(Holt,RinehartandWinston1963).15LeeandWatkins(n7).

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without thembeing aware of the commercial nature of the communications.16 In thisregard, vlogging advertising may have a significant impact on children’s right todevelopment,freedomofthoughtandtherighttoprotectionfromeconomicexploitationundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild.17Thisofcoursemayneedto be offset with the freedom of expression of the digital influencers themselves.18Furthermore,asvloggingformsanimportantpartofpopularyouthculture,italsoenableschildren to participate online and exercise their rights to freedom of expression andculture.

3. DIGITALINFLUENCERSANDTHECURRENTREGULATORYFRAMEWORK

Apreviousmappingofthelegalandself-andco-regulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunicationidentifiedimportantrequirementsthatarealsoapplicableintheonlineenvironment, the key requirement being the identification principle (i.e. commercialcommunicationhastobe identifiableassuch).19 In thecontextofvloggingadvertising,three important directives exist at the EU level: the AVMS Directive, the e-CommerceDirectiveandtheUCPDirective.Forthepurposeofthispaper,itisimportanttoanalysethescopeandrequirementsoftheseinstruments.Furthermore,theresponsibilitiesofthedifferentpartiesinvolvedfortheimplementationoftheserequirementsinpracticeneedtobeclarified.Finally,thispapertouchesuponthespecificguidelinesforvloggersinself-regulation.

3.1 Audiovisualorcommercialcommunication?

3.1.1 Untanglingthevloggingadvertisingchain

A firstquestion thatneeds tobeanswered iswhethervloggingasaservicewould fallunderthedefinitionofanaudiovisualmediaservice(AVMSDirective)oraninformationsocietyservice(e-CommerceDirective)andsubsequentlywhethervloggingadvertisingcouldfallunderthenotion‘audiovisualcommercialcommunication’(AVMSDirective)orratherunder themoregeneral e-Commercenotionof ‘commercial communication’ (e-Commerce Directive).20 The distinction is significant considering the more stringentrequirements for audiovisual commercial communication. As the vlogging advertising 16Forinstance,ariskassessmentofnewadvertisingformatsconductedintheframeoftheAdLitProjectshowedthattheadvertisingliteracylevelforbrandintegration,advertiserfundedprograms,socialmediaadvertising and advergaming is rather low, posing a greater risk for children and teenagers. See I.Vanwesenbeeck and others, ‘Minors’ Advertising Literacy in Relation to New Advertising Formats -IdentificationandAssessmentoftheRisks’(2016)<www.adlit.be>accessed16November2017.17 V. Verdoodt, ‘Children’sRights andAdvertising Literacy in theDigital Era: Towards anEmpoweringRegulatoryFrameworkforCommercialCommunication’(KULeuven,UGent2018).18ForexamplesofcaseswherecommercialspeechisbalancedagainstotherinterestsseeCasadoCocavSpain[1994]ECtHRSeriesA.,No.285;BartholdvGermany[1985]ECtHRAppNo8734/79.19 V.Verdoodt,E.LievensandL.Hellemans, ‘MappingandAnalysisof theCurrentLegalFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReportintheFrameworkoftheAdLitResearchProject.’(2015)<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017;V.Verdoodt,I.LambrechtandE.Lievens,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentSelf-andCo-RegulatoryFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReportintheFrameworkoftheAdLitSBOProject.’<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017.20Thisisasimilarevaluationliketheoneinthecontextofadvergames,supra.

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chainmayconsistofseveralparties, itneedstobeclarifiedwho isresponsible for theimplementationoftherequirementsinpractice.

Firstofall,itisarguedthatvloggingmayqualifyasaninformationsocietyserviceunderthe e-Commerce Directive. These services can be “any service normally provided forremuneration,atadistance,byelectronicmeansandattheindividualrequestofarecipientofservices.”21Theserviceprovidedhereentailstheprovisionofvideosandmakingthemavailabletothepubliconvideo-sharingplatformslikeYouTube.Inreturn,theinfluencerreceivesareward,beitintheformofafinancialremuneration,freeproductsorservices,promotionfortheirownproducts,etc.Asthevideosareuploadedondigitalplatforms,therequirementof‘byelectronicmeans’isalsofulfilled.Lastly,thevideoisshownattheindividualrequestoftheviewer,thereforefulfillingallrequirements.Accordingly,thee-Commerce Directive requires digital influencers engaging in vlogging advertising tocomply with several information requirements as well as with the identificationprinciple.22

Themoredifficultquestion,however,iswhethervloggingandvloggingadvertisingcouldfallwithinthescopeoftheAVMSDirective.ThecentraldefinitiondeterminingthescopeoftheAVMSDirectiveisthenotionofanaudiovisualmediaservice.23Fromthisdefinition,certainelementscanbeextractedthatneedtobepresentforvloggingadvertisingtofallwithinthescopeoftheDirective.

First,theDirectivecompriseseconomicactivities,anelementthatcanonlybefoundwiththe more professional digital influencers, as the rewards they receive for vloggingadvertising may be regarded as remuneration.24 For instance, if digital influencerspromoteproductsorservicesinthestyleofareviewfortheirfollowers,aclearindicatorof a commercial intent can be found if the video is made in return for financialcompensationorifthereareotherfinancialtiesbetweenthevloggerandtheadvertiser(productowner).25Asmentioned,vloggersmayalsobetiedtoagentswhoreceiveapartoftheadvertisingrevenuegeneratedbythevlogger.Conversely,theDirectivedoesnotapplytoactivitiesthatareprimarilynon-economic,includinginteraliatheprovisionofuser-generated content for the sole purpose of sharing and exchanging withincommunitiesof interestor toprivatewebsitesorblogs.26Thus, this first elementwill

21Recital17e-CommerceDirective.22Article6ofthee-CommerceDirectiverequiresdigitalinfluencerstodisclosetheiridentityandincasetheylaunchanypromotionalcompetitionorgametheconditionsforparticipationshallbeeasilyaccessibleandbepresentedclearlyandunambiguously.23Article1(1)(h)AVMSDirective.24ForinstancetheYouTubestarPewDiePie,whostartedwithuploadingsilly(andoftencrude)snippetsofhimselfplayingvideogames,nowhas50millionsubscribersandearnsapproximately$15millionayearofcommercialcollaborations.MadelineBerg,‘TheHighest-PaidYouTubeStars2016:PewDiePieRemainsNo.1With$15Million’(Forbes)<https://www.forbes.com/sites/maddieberg/2016/12/05/the-highest-paid-youtube-stars-2016-pewdiepie-remains-no-1-with-15-million/>accessed15December2017.25Verdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n19).26 R. ChavannesandO. Castendyk, ‘Directive 2007/65/EC “AudiovisualMedia ServicesDirective”’ inO.Castendyk,E.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008).

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depend on the intent of the digital influencer and/or the platform provider and thecommercialinfluenceonorinterferencewiththecontentofthevlogs.

As a second requirement, the commercial communication needs to accompany or beincludedinaprogramme27establishedbyamediaserviceprovider.VALCKEandLIEVENSclarifythatthenotionofaprogrammeneedstobeinterpretedinadynamicway,takingintoaccountthedevelopments in televisionbroadcasting.28 In thisregard, in themostrecentrevisionoftheAVMSDirective,thedefinitionofaprogrammewasbroadenedtoincludevideosirrespectiveoftheirlength.Thischangereflectsthetransformedviewinghabits of children and adolescents,who increasingly consume audiovisual content viatabletsandsmartphones.29Childrenandadolescentsarguablymayfindcertainvlogsorseriesofvlogssimilartotraditionaltelevisionbroadcasting,dependingontheformat30and content of the videos (e.g. episodes in the life of a digital influencer). Theprofessionalism of some of these digital influencers and their ‘channels’, the regularuploadofeditedvlogs(e.g.daily,weekly)andthefactthatthechannelsareaccessibleonthesamescreenastraditionalbroadcastsmaycontributetosuchafinding.TheDirectiverequiresthattheprogrammeshouldbeaimedtoinform,entertainoreducatethegeneralpublicandtheserviceshouldbeprovidedbyelectroniccommunicationsnetworks.Withregardtovlogging,theseelementsmaybepresent,asthevideosofdigitalinfluencersmayhaveanentertaining, informativeoreducativepurpose31andviewersor followerscanaccessthecontentonlineviathevideo-sharingplatform.

The requirement of ‘accompanying or being included in a programme’ also links toanotherelement,namelyeditorialresponsibility,whichrequirestheexerciseofeffectivecontroloverboththeselectionandtheorganisationoftheprogrammes.32Thisentailsthata professionalmedia service provider is responsible for the editorial design and finalcompilation of a programme for broadcasting in accordancewith a fixed programme 27 Article 1 (b) AVMS Directive. Excluded are those serviceswhich are audio-only and not sufficientlytelevision-likeservicessuchasradio,electronicversionsofnewspapersandmagazines,blogs.28P.ValckeandE.Lievens,‘RethinkingEuropeanBroadcastingRegulation:UnravelingEurope’sPolicyforthe DigitalMedia Landscape: Critical Analysis of the AudiovisualMedia Services Directive’ (VUB Press2009).29 For instance, research by Ofcom, the UK media regulator, showed that children are watching lessbroadcasttelevisionastheyturntoonlineactivitiesandservicessuchasYouTube.JasperJackson,‘ChildrenSpending LessTime in Front of the TV as They Turn to OnlineMedia’The Guardian (6 August 2015)<http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/aug/06/children-spending-less-time-in-front-of-tv-ofcom>accessed7December2017.30Inthisregard,themediaregulatoroftheFrench-speakingcommunityinBelgiumunderlinesthatmoreandmorehighqualityshortformsofcontentareappearingonaudiovisualplatformswhichcanhaveahighimpactonthepublicopinionandtheyarecompetingwiththesameaudienceasTVbroadcasts.J.Dheur,‘Belgian CSA Conference - The Platform Is the Message’ (2016)<http://www.csa.be/system/documents_files/2591/original/CI_20160310_The%20Platform%20is%20the%20Message_report.pdf?1458160565>accessed11December2017.31Accordingly,thecaseofdigitalinfluencersdiffersfromthePeugeotDeutschlandcase,inwhichtheCJEUdecided thataYouTubechannelofPeugeotcontainingshortpromotionalvideos fornewpassengercarmodelsdidnothaveasitsprincipalpurposetheprovisionofprogrammesinordertoinform,entertainoreducatethegeneralpublicandthusexcludingitfromthescopeoftheAVMSDirective.PeugeotDeutschlandGmbHvDeutscheUmwelthilfeeV[2018]CJEUC-132/17[28].32Article1(1)(c)AVMSDirective.

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scheduleorforviewingon-demandforacatalogue.33Inotherwords,theAVMSDirectiveprovidesregulatorystandardsforprofessionallycreatedmassmediacontent.34Applyingthiscriterioninavloggingcontextisnotstraightforwardconsideringmanynewplayershaveenteredthevaluechain.First,SCHOEFSunderlinesthatvideo-sharingplatformslikeYouTubeplayacrucialroleinprovidingaccesstouserstobothuser-generatedcontentandeditedprofessionalcontent.YouTubehostsamassiveamountofcontent,which itorganisesintodifferentcategoriesdependingonthetopicoftheuploadedvideo.35WhileitseemedwellestablishedthattheAVMSDirective-priortoitsmostrecentreview-didnot apply to amateur user-generated content36, the same could not be said forprofessionalcontentwhichhasbeenprovidedand/oreditedbytheplatformprovideroraprofessionalthirdpartyproviderbeforetheupload37.Indeed,severalMemberStatesacceptedthatsuchprofessionalcontentandchannelsdidfallwithinthescopeoftheAVMSDirectiveand,assuch,assignedtheresponsibilitywherevertheeditorialpowerrests.38Second,thesegregationofcontentproducedbyprofessionalandamateurvloggersformsamajorborderline case.On theonehand, the content thatsomeof theseprofessionalvloggers create could arguably be considered ‘television-like’ (e.g. reality showswithepisodes airing every week), especially for children and adolescents who watch lesstraditionalbroadcasts.39Furthermore,vloggers’capacity to influencesocial trends, theubiquityof integratedcommercialmessagesand thesignificant financial rewardstheygain in return call formore stringent requirements or even restrictions.On theotherhand,makingsuchadistinctionisextremelycomplicatedandwouldrequireacase-by-caseanalysistakingintoaccountallrelevantcharacteristicsandevidence.40ImportanttonoteisthattherevisedAVMSDirectiveprovidessomeclarityonthematter,withrecital3ofthefinaltextstatingthat:

33Verdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n19).34 W. Closs, S. Nikoltchev and European Audiovisual Observatory (eds), The Regulation of On-DemandAudiovisualServices:ChaosorCoherence?(EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory :CouncilofEurope2011).35R.Schoefs,‘ConnectedTV:EditorialResponsibilityinaConvergedMediaEnvironment’(2014)5Droitdesmédias-Mediarecht346.36ChavannesandCastendyk(n26).37Schoefs(n35);D.CliffordandV.Verdoodt,‘IntegrativeAdvertising:TheMarketing’darkSide’orMerelythe Emperor’s New Clothes?’ (2017) 8 European Journal of Law and Technology<http://ejlt.org/article/view/547>accessed8August2017.38Schoefs(n35).Austria,Belgium,Finland,Italy,TheNetherlandsandSlovenia.Forexample,theauthormentionsBBC’sTopGearYouTubechannel.Videosharingplatformproviderswillbedirectlyresponsiblefor their own placement of commercial communications on the platform (e.g. banners, personalisedadvertising).Hence,theplatformitselfwillberesponsibleforsatisfyingtheidentificationrequirementsinthese situations. However, it is important to note that the platform provider will only be editoriallyresponsibleforitsowncontent.ThismeansthattheproviderofthethirdpartycontentonthatplatformshouldcomplywiththeAVMSDirectiveifheinhisturncanbeheldeditoriallyresponsibleforhiscontent.39ForinstanceresearchbyOfcomshowedthataresupplementingtheirTVviewingbyturningtositessuchasYouTube,VimeoandVine,aswellaswatchingclipspostedonFacebookorTwitterandnewswebsites.Ofcom,‘Children’sContentReview :UpdateAssessingtheCurrentProvisionofChildren’sProgrammesonTV and Online’ (2018) 9 <https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0023/116519/childrens-content-review-update.pdf>accessed2August2018.40Criteriatotakeintoaccountcouldinclude interalia thetypeofvlogsprovided,theamountofvideosuploadedandtheconsistencyofuploads,theeditorialworkperformed,thefinancialrewardsgainedbytheinfluencer.

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“channels or any other audiovisual services under the editorial responsibility of aprovidermayconstituteaudiovisualmediaservicesinthemselves,eveniftheyareofferedintheframeworkofavideo-sharingplatformwhichischaracterisedbytheabsenceofeditorial responsibility. In such cases, it will be up to the providers with editorialresponsibilitytoabidebytheprovisionsofthisDirective.”41

Inotherwords,user-generatedcontentisnolongerexcludedfromthescopeoftheAVMSDirective.Recital3implicitlyrecognisesthepossibilityofuser-generatedcontentbeingsubjecttotheDirective.

Attributingresponsibilitytoplatformprovidersinthecontextofdigitalinfluencerswouldalter thegenerallyaccepted interpretationof ‘selection’asawaytoexercisecontrol.42SeveralEuropeanmediaregulatorsfoundthatinthecaseofvideo-sharingplatformslikeYouTubeorDailyMotion,thereisneitheranyselectionofvideosaseveryonecanuploadthem, nor any organisation of the videos in function of their content by the platformprovider.43Thisissupportedbythe fact that theseprovidersoftenremainoutsidethespecificvloggingadvertisingrevenuechainastheymerely facilitate thedeliveryof thevideostotheinfluencer’saudienceandusuallygenerateanincomethroughotherformsof digital advertising (e.g. banners, personalised pre-rolls)44 accompanying theinfluencer’s videos.45 However, if the platform provider is the one who engages theservices of such professional influencers, the interpretation of editorial responsibility,selectionandeffectivecontrolbecomesevenmorecomplex.46Furthermore,theincreaseduse of automatedmeans of selection and organisation (e.g. algorithmic recommendersystems47)potentiallydecreasestheroleofthedigitalinfluencersuploadingvideosandstrengthensthatoftheplatformprovider,therebyhavingadefactoinfluenceonviewers’choice.48Forthesereasons,theBelgian49andGermanmediaregulatorscalledforaspecial

41Recital3oftheFinalCompromiseText,seeCounciloftheEuropeanUnion,‘ProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilAmendingDirective2010/13/EUontheCoordinationofCertainProvisions Laid down by Law, Regulation or Administrative Action in Member States Concerning theProvisionofAudiovisualMediaServices(AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective)inViewofChangingMarketRealities - Analysis of the Final Compromise Text with a View to Agreement’ (2018)<http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-9817-2018-INIT/en/pdf>accessed25July2018.42CliffordandVerdoodt(n37).43Schoefs(n35).44 L.Hellemans, E. Lievens andP. Valcke, ‘PlayingHide-and-Seek?A Legal Perspective on the ComplexDistinctionbetweenCommercialandEditorialContentinHybridAdvertisingFormats’(2015)17info19.45CliffordandVerdoodt(n37);Schoefs(n35).46YouTuberecentlylaunchedapremiumsubscription-onlyversion.47YouTube’srecommendationssystemhelpsusersdiscoverpersonalisedcontentfromanever-growingcorpusofvideos.Ittakesasinputinteraliauser’swatchhistory,implicitfeedbackofvideowatchesbyusersandexplicit feedbacksuchasathumbsuporathumbsdownandthroughfilteringselectsvideosintherange of hundreds. P. Covington, J. Adams and E. Sargin, ‘Deep Neural Networks for YouTubeRecommendations’(ACMPress2016)<http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2959100.2959190>accessed7December2017.48Schoefs(n36);CliffordandVerdoodt(n38).49 More specifically, the media regulator of the French-speaking Community, Conseil Superieur del’Audiovisuel<http://www.csa.be/>.

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categoryunderEUlawforlargeaudiovisualplatformsthatissubjecttothe(orsomeofthecore50)provisionsoftheAVMSDirective.51

3.1.2 Broadeningtheaudiovisualplaygroundtoincludenewplayers

Inits2016REFITevaluationoftheAVMSDirective,theEuropeanCommissionrecognisesthelackofalevel-playingfieldfortraditionalandnewaudiovisualmediaproviders,aswell as the lack of consumer protection in relation to the latter.52 Furthermore,consideringthatthesenewdigitalprovidersincreasinglyofferaudiovisualcontentonline,and research has shown that video viewing is one of the earliest internet activitiespreferredbyyoungchildren, itmade sense to include them in the scopeof theAVMSDirective,especiallyinrelationtotheprotectionofminors.TherevisedAVMSDirective,therefore,explicitlyreferstoanewcategoryof‘video-sharingplatformservices’(“VSPs”),whichwillbesubjecttospecificrules.Tofallwithinthescopeofthedefinition,severalcumulativeconditionsneedtobefulfilled53:

ü First,itneedstobeaservicenormallyprovidedforremuneration,whichentailsan economic activity, and its principal purpose needs to be of interest to thegeneral public. As mentioned, this may also include services financed byadvertisinglikeavlogger’sYouTubechannel.54

ü Second,theplatformservicemustconsistoftheprovisionofprogrammesoruser-generatedvideos to thegeneralpublic, forwhich theserviceproviderdoesnothave editorial responsibility. However, it is up to the national legislator todeterminetheexactmeaningoftheconceptofeditorialresponsibility.55

ü Third,theserviceprovidermustdeterminetheorganisationofthestoredcontent.Thisincludestheorganisationbyautomaticmeans,suchasdisplaying,taggingandsequencing.Video-sharingplatformslikeYouTubeandDailymotion(orattheveryleast specific parts or sections of these platforms) will most likely fulfil theconditions.

ü Fourth,theprincipalpurposeoftheserviceoradissociablesectionthereoforanessentialfunctionalityoftheservicemustbedevotedtoprovidingprogrammesand

50SCHOEFSforinstancereferstotheobligationsinrelationtocommercialcommunicationandtheprotectionofminorsundertheAVMSDirective.Schoefs(n35).51Dheur(n30).52DGCONNECT,‘REFITEvaluationandImpactAssessmentoftheEUAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective2010/13/EU (AVMSD)’ <http://ec.europa.eu/smart-regulation/roadmaps/docs/2015_cnect_006_cwp_review_avmsd_iia_en.pdf>accessed6December2017.53Art.1(aa)CompromiseTextAVMSDirective.54Conversely,moreprivatewebsiteswherevideo-sharingtakesplacewithincertaincommunitiesorgroups(e.g.awebsiteofthedancingschoolforchildrenwherevideosareuploadedexclusivelyforparents).55Thesamemarginofappreciationhasledinthepasttodifferentinterpretations.Forinstance,HERMANNSandMATZNELLERareoftheopinionthattheextensivecataloguingandcomposingofprogrammeswouldfallundereditorialresponsibilityandthemediaregulatoroftheFrench-speakingCommunityofBelgiumruledthatthesolepossibilityofexercisingcontroloverthecontentofprogrammeswouldbesufficient.OlivierHermanns,PeterMatznellerandSusanneNikoltchev,‘TheRegulationofOn-DemandAudiovisualServices :ChaosorCoherence?’ [2011] IRISSpecial :Theregulationofon-demandaudiovisual services : chaosorcoherence ?

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user-generated videos to the general public, in order to inform, entertain oreducate.

ü Finally,theserviceneedstobemadeavailablethroughelectroniccommunicationsnetworks.

As is clear for these cumulative criteria, the revised Directive aims to overcome thedifficulties described above associated with the interpretation of editorialresponsibility.56

An interesting question that arises is whether or not socialmedia platforms such asFacebookareincludedintheVSPdefinition.TherevisedDirectivestronglyemphasisesthe roleof socialmedia services inyoungpeople’s lives, recognising that they “have aconsiderable impact inthattheyfacilitatethepossibility foruserstoshapeandinfluencetheopinionsofotherusers”.57Furthermore,suchservicesalsocompeteforthesameaudiencesandtherevenuesasaudiovisualmediaservicesand,therefore,areincludedinthescopeoftheDirective.However,socialmediaservicesareonlycoveredbytheDirectiveinsofarastheyfallunderthedefinitionofaVSP.TheDirectiveclarifiesthatsocialmediaservicesare included when the provision of programmes or user-generated videos could beconsideredanessential functionalityof thatservice,meaning ‘notmerelyancillaryoraminorpartofitsactivities’.Therefore,itneedstobeassessedtowhatextentsocialmediaservicesrevolvearoundprovidinguser-generatedaudiovisualcontent.58Thisassessmentwillneedtobedecidedonacase-by-casebasis,andmaychangeovertimewhentheseservices evolve.59 It is up to the European Commission to provide guidelines on thepracticalapplicationofthiscriterionofessentialfunctionality.

The actual impact of the introduction of VSPs into the AVMS Directive on digitalinfluencers and vlogging advertising depends on whether or not the provisions oncommercialcommunicationareapplicabletosuchplatforms.Inthisregard,article28aoftherevisedDirectiverequiresVSPproviderstotakeappropriatemeasurestoprotect:

(a) minors from programmes, user-generated videos and audiovisual commercialcommunications which may impair their physical, mental or moral development inaccordancewithArticle6a(1);

(b) the general public from programmes, user-generated videos and audiovisualcommercial communications containing incitement to violence or hatred directed

56Thesecondandthirdrequirementaimtospecificallycaterfortheseproblemsandtheincreasedusageofautomatedmeansofselectionandorganisationbyplatforms.CliffordandVerdoodt(n38).57Recital3aoftheFinalCompromiseText.58I.Lambrecht,V.VerdoodtandJ.Bellon,‘PlatformsandCommercialCommunicationsAimedatChildren:APlaygroundunderLegislativeReform?’[2018]InternationalReviewofLaw,ComputersandTechnology.59K.Ehle,‘DigitalSingleMarketUpdate:TheEuropeanCommission’sProposaltoRevisetheAudiovisualMedia Services Directive’ (Lexology) <https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=dc9d66d9-f916-4f0b-b0cc-f3b6e2f45de4> accessed 15 December 2017. Facebook, for instance, has been increasinglyinvestinginaudiovisualcontent(e.g.FacebookWatchapplication).J.Costine,‘FacebookLaunchesWatchTab of Original Video Shows’ (Techcrunch, 9 August 2017)<https://techcrunch.com/2017/08/09/facebook-watch/>accessed15December2017.

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againstagroupofpersonsoramemberofagroupbasedonanyofthegroundsreferredtoinArticle21oftheCharteroftheFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion;

(ba) the general public from programmes, user-generated videos and audiovisualcommercialcommunicationscontainingcontentthedisseminationofwhichconstitutesanactivitywhich isacriminaloffenceunderUnionlaw,namelypublicprovocationtocommitaterroristoffencewithinthemeaningofArticle5ofDirective(EU)2017/541,offencesconcerningchildpornographywithinthemeaningofArticle5(4)ofDirective2011/93/EU and offences concerning racism and xenophobia within the meaning ofArticle1ofCouncilFrameworkDecision2008/913/JHAoncombatingcertainformsandexpressionsofracismandxenophobiabymeansofcriminallaw.(Emphasisadded)

Thus, VSP providers are required to take measures to protect minors from harmfulaudiovisual commercial communications and the general public from audiovisualcommercialcommunicationscontaininghatespeechorillegalcontent.Inaddition,VSPprovidersalsohavetoensurecompliancewitharticle9(1)oftheDirective,whichrequiresinteraliathataudiovisualcommercialcommunicationsshouldberecognisableassuch(i.e.theidentificationprinciple)andshouldnotdirectlyexhortminorstobuyorhireaproduct or service by exploiting their inexperience.60However, this requirement onlyapplies to those audiovisual commercial communications that are marketed, sold orarrangedbytheVSPprovider.Incontrast,forthosethatarenot(forinstancevloggingadvertisingarrangedbyadigitalinfluencer),therevisedDirectiverecognisesthelimitedcontrol exercised by VSP providers over such commercials and requires that VSPproviders take appropriate measures. In order to determine what measures areappropriate,VSPprovidershavetotakeintoaccountthe

“nature of the content in question, the harm itmay cause, the characteristics of thecategoryofpersonstobeprotectedaswellastherightsandlegitimateinterestsatstake,including those of the video-sharing platformproviders and the users havingcreatedand/oruploadedthecontentaswellasthepublicinterest.”61

Additionally,themeasureshavetobepracticableandproportionate,inlightoftheactualsizeof the VSP service and the nature thereof. Important to note is that the revised Directiveexplicitlystatesthatsuchmeasuresmaynotleadtoanytypeofex-antecontrolorafilteringofuploadedcontent,asthiswouldnotcomplywitharticle15ofthee-CommerceDirective.62TherevisedDirectivealsoprovidesa listofpotentialmeasures, including interaliaaddingtheidentificationrequirementintheVSPstermsandconditions;installingflagging,age

60Article28(1a)oftheFinalCompromiseText.61Article28(2)oftheFinalCompromiseText.62Article15ofthee-CommerceDirectivestatesthat“MemberStatesshallnotimposeageneralobligationonproviders,whenprovidingtheservicescoveredbyArticles12,13and14,tomonitortheinformationwhichthey transmit or store, nor a general obligation actively to seek facts or circumstances indicating illegalactivity.”

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verification,parentalcontrolandratingmechanisms;andmedialiteracymeasures.63Fortheimplementationofthesemeasures,MemberStatesarerequiredtoencouragetheuseofco-regulation.

3.2 ThesafetynetoftheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective

The UCP Directive is a horizontal Directive, containing rules for commercialcommunicationsregardlessoftheformordeliveryused.Itappliestounfairbusiness-to-consumerpractices,includingcommercialcommunicationsdirectlyconnectedwiththepromotion,saleorsupplyofaproducttoconsumers.Becauseofitsgeneralscope,itwillbeapplicabletomanycommercialpracticesthatarealsoregulatedbyothergeneralorsector-specificEUlegislation.64Inthisregard,themorespecificrequirementslaiddownunderotherEUlegislationusuallyaddtothegeneralrequirementsoftheUCPDirective,thusofferingcomplementaryprotection(unlesstheaspectisspecificallyregulatedbythesector-specificrules).65

3.2.1 Unfaircommercialpracticesbydigitalinfluencersandthird-partytraders

Video-sharing platforms like YouTube have become platforms for commercialcommunication,intheformofadvertising,productplacement,reviews,etc.Inthisregard,digitalinfluencerspromotingbrands,productsorservicesofacompany(ortheirown)couldqualifyastradersundertheUCPDirective.Wehaveseenthatatraderis“anyone(includinglegalpersons)whoisactingforthepurposesrelatingtohistrade,business,craftorprofession,andanyoneactingonbehalfofanothertrader”.66ThismeansthatboththebrandorcompanythatwantstopromotetheirgoodsorservicesandthedigitalinfluencerthatishiredtoengageinthepromotioncouldqualifyastradersundertheUCPDirective.

InthecontextofsocialmediaandVSPs,theEuropeanCommission(2016)haswarnedforincreasedriskstohiddenandmisleadingadvertising,ascommercialelementsareoftenmixed with social and cultural user-generated content.67 Moreover, consumersexperiencetheseplatformsjustasservicesforexchanginginformationorcommunicatingwith other consumers. As such, they are often unaware of traders employing theseplatforms for advertising and marketing purposes. Regulatory authorities of severalMembersfoundthepracticeofcompaniespayingbloggerstopromoteandadvertisetheirproductsonablogaimedatteenagerswithoutdisclosingthecommercialnatureofthe 63 Article 28 (2) of the Final CompromiseText. In relation to the age verification andparental controlmechanisms,theDirectiveprohibitsthatanypersonaldataofminorscollectedinthiscontextisusedorresoldforcommercialpurposes(e.g.behaviouraladvertising,directmarketing).64 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/Application ofDirective 2005/29/EConUnfairCommercial Practices,SWD(2016) 163Final.’ (2016) <http://ec.europa.eu/justice/consumer-marketing/files/ucp_guidance_en.pdf> accessed 9October2017.65Inthisregard,article3(4)oftheUCPDirectiveclarifiesthat“incaseofconflictbetweentheprovisionsofthisDirectiveandotherCommunityrulesregulatingspecificaspectsofunfaircommercialpractices,thelattershallprevailandapplytothosespecificaspects."66Article2(b)UCPDirective.67EuropeanCommission(n64).

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blogs to be a hidden commercial practice.68 By analogy, the same reasoning could beappliedinthecontextofvlogging.Otherexamplesofcommercialpracticesbythirdpartytraders(e.g.brands)and/ordigitalinfluencersinclude:

ü Athirdpartytraderencouragesuserstosharemarketingmaterialwithotherusersbyofferingpricereductionsonitsmarketedproductsasareward.

ü A blogger is given a free vacation by a tour operator in exchange for postingpositivereviewsonthevacationandthetouroperator.

ü Acelebrity(music,sports)isgivenanendorsementdealinexchangeforpostingpicturesofboughtproductssuchassneakers.69

TheUCPDirectivehastackledtheproblemofhiddentraders,byexplicitlyforbiddinginallcircumstancesthepracticesof

“falselyclaimingorcreatingtheimpressionthatthetraderisnotactingforpurposesrelatingtohistrade,business,craftorprofession,orfalselyrepresentingoneselfasaconsumer”.(Emphasisadded)

Forexample,tradersarenotallowedtopostfakereviewsinthenameofconsumersorbyusinge-reputationagencies.Furthermore,digitalinfluencersandtradersshouldrefrainfrom“usingeditorialcontentinthemediatopromoteaproductwhereatraderhaspaidforthe promotionwithoutmaking that clear in the content or by images or sounds clearlyidentifiablebytheconsumer(advertorial)”.Thus,theUCPDirectiveclearlyrequiresthatdigital influencers disclose the commercial nature of their vlogs to their consumer-followers.ImportanttonoteisthattheDirectivedoesnotprovidefurtherdetailsonwhatsuchadisclosureshould looklike.Withregardtoadvertorials,thiscouldbeeither ‘byimagesorsounds’,andithastobe‘clearlyidentifiable’.

Also relevant for digital influencers is article 6 of the UCP Directive which protectsconsumersagainstmisleadingcommercialpracticesinvolvingtheuseofsystemssuchas‘likes’.TheECclarifiesthatbypresentingfake‘likes’toconsumers,adigitalinfluencerorthirdpartytradermaymisleadconsumersaboutitsownreputationorthereputationofitsproductsorservices.Inturn,thiscouldpotentiallyinfluenceconsumers’purchasingbehaviour, causing them to take transactional decisions they would not have takenotherwise.70 Significant tonote in this regard is thepracticeof so-called ‘pods’,whichentail (mostly hidden) collaborations on social media between a group of digitalinfluencers.Members of a pod agree to like and commenton eachother’s videos in aspecificmanner(e.g.usingaminimumamountofwords,usingenoughhashtags),withtheaim of being prioritised by the algorithm of the platform and appear more often in

68 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document: Guidance on theImplementation/Application of Directive 2005/29/Ec on Unfair Commercial Practices’ (2009)<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/consumer-marketing/files/ucp_guidance_2009_en.pdf>accessed16January2018.69EuropeanCommission(n64).70EuropeanCommission(n64).

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consumers’ search results or newsfeeds.71 Considering that these collaborations arelargely unknown to the public, it may constitute a misleading commercial practice.Therefore,itisarguedthatdigitalinfluencersparticipatinginpodsshoulddisclosethistotheirconsumer-followers.

Finally,asmentioned,digitalinfluencersareparticularlypopularamongstchildrenandadolescents.Accordingly,article5(3)oftheUCPDirectivecouldprovidealegalbasisofprotecting“aclearlyidentifiablegroupofconsumerswhoareparticularlyvulnerable”.TheECexplainsthat this legalbasisreinforcesthegeneral identificationrequirements(i.e.clearlyindicatingthemarketingpurpose).72Furthermore,digitalinfluencersneedtokeepinmindthattheirvlogscannotcontainadirectexhortationtochildrentobuyacertainproductorpersuadetheirparentsorotheradultstobuysuchaproduct for them.Forinstance,statementsofvloggerssuchas“Gobuythebooknow”or“Tellyourmomtogetitfromthelocalstore”wouldbeprohibitedundertheUCPDirective.Thisdoesnotimplyan outright ban on advertising, but merely aims at providing protection to childrenagainstdirectexhortationstopurchase.73

3.2.2 Unfaircommercialpracticesbythevideo-sharingplatform

TheVSPprovidercanalsoqualifyasatraderundertheUCPDirective.Inits2016guidancedocumentontheapplicationoftheUCPDirective,theEuropeanCommissionexplainsthatitmustbeassessedonacase-by-casebasiswhetheraplatformserviceproviderisactingasatrader,whetheritisengaginginacommercialpracticeandwhetherthispracticeisaimedtowardsconsumers.74Inparticular,theCommissionstressesthatplatformserviceprovidersmaybeactingastraderswhentheydrawrevenuesfromtargetedadvertising.75Inaddition,theVSPprovidermayputinplacecommercialpracticessuchasfacilitatingandsellingpaid‘likes’andsponsoredreviews,blogsandaccountstothird-partytraders.Conversely,forthird-partyadvertising,theVSPproviderwillnothavedirectobligationsunder the UCP Directive.76 The VSP provider also needs to inform users about anyprocessing of their personal data for commercial purposes, otherwise this could be

71For instance, regardingpicturesorvlogson Instagram, themore likesandcommentsapost receivesshortly after posting, the better it will perform in the algorithm. High initial engagement signals toInstagramthatquality,engagingcontentispostedandasaresult,thepostcanmovehigherupinpeople’sfeeds(andpotentiallygoviralthroughtheInstagramExplorepage).G.Barkho,‘InsideInstagramPods:TheSecret Trick to Increase Your Engagement’ (Later Blog, 23 February 2017)<https://later.com/blog/instagram-pods/>accessed18January2018.72EuropeanCommission(n64).73M.Capello,‘Article13TWFD’inO.Castendyk,E.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008).74EuropeanCommission(n64).75EuropeanCommission(n64)122.AlsosupportedbytheCJEUinthePapasavvascase:SotirisPapasavvasvOFileleftherosDimosiaEtaireiaLtdandOthers[2014]CJEUC-291/13.76Forinstancewithregardtoadvertorials,theCJEUheldthattheprohibitionwasapplicabletothetraderwhoseproductsorserviceswereadvertised,ratherthanforinstancetheproviderofanewspaperviawhichtheadvertisementispublished.Inotherwords,theCourtfoundthattherewasnodirectobligationonthenewspaperinEUlaw.CJEURLvSVerlagsgesellschaftvStuttgarterWochesblatt.RLvSVerlagsgesellschaftmbH v Stuttgarter Wochenblatt GmbH [2013] CJEU C-391/12; G. Howells, C. Twigg-Flesner and T.Wilhelmsson,RethinkingEUConsumerLaw(Routledge2017).

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considered an omission of material information necessary for informed commercialdecision-making.Article7oftheUCPDirectiveprohibitssuchanomissionifitisshownthatitislikelytocausetheaverageconsumertotakeatransactionaldecisionhewouldnothavetakenotherwise.77

3.3 Furtherguidanceforvloggersinself-regulation:thecuriouschainofeventsinBelgium

From the analysis provided above, it can be concluded that the general identificationrequirementisapplicabletodigitalinfluencers.However,theimplementationthereofinpracticeisnotspecifiedinthecurrentEUlegislativeframework.Thesamerequirementcan also be found in self-regulation, for instance in the International Chambers ofCommerceCodeofAdvertisingandMarketingCommunicationPractice(ICCCode)78,butagain,withoutpracticalguidanceonhowtodisclosecommercialrelationshipsinpractice.Recently,however,severalnationalself-regulatoryauthorities,aswellasgroupsofdigitalinfluencersthemselves,haveissuedorpledgedtofollowguidelinesonhowtodisclosecommercialrelationshipsinonlinevideos.79MorespecificallyinBelgium,aremarkablechain of events took place, which caught the attention of the media and the generalpublic.80

First, onMay 15th, 2018, the Belgian Federal Public Service Economy (FPS Economy)provided a set of guidelines for influencermarketing on socialmedia. The guidelinesdedicatedaseperatesubsectiontovloggers,whowererequiredtoaddadisclosuretotheirvideos(i.e.theword‘reclame’inwriting)whenevercommercialstatementsweremade.Thedisclosureshouldbeshownatregularintervalsofatleasteveryfifteensecondsandshouldbevisible forat least threesecondseachtime.Thedisclosurecouldnotbehiddenbetweenhashtagsorattheendofthevideo.Thecompanyorbrandbehindtheadvertisementshouldalsobeidentified.However,immediatelyaftertheirrelease,theFPSEconomywithdrewtheguidelines,astheyhadbeenpublishedbeforebeingvalidated.81

77Again,article5(3)UCPDirectivecouldpresentalegalbasisfortheprotectionofchildreninthisregard,andassuch,reinforcestheinformationrequirementandlowersthethresholdwhenitcomestodefiningwhetherornottheomissionhasinfluencestheconsumer’stransactionaldecision-making(i.e.theaverageconsumerwillbeachild).78 International Chamber of Commerce, ‘Consolidated Code of Advertising and Marketing Practice’<https://cdn.iccwbo.org/content/uploads/sites/3/2011/08/ICC-Consolidated-Code-of-Advertising-and-Marketing-2011-English.pdf>accessed14November2017.79ForinstanceintheUK:CommitteeofAdvertisingPracticeguidelinesforvloggingadvertising,availableat<https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/video-blogs-scenarios.html#.WGZ9DTNF270> accessed 30October 2018; and in the Netherlands: Social Code Youtube, available at <https://www.cvdm.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Social_Code_YouTube.pdf>accessed30October2018.80 D. Deckmyn, ‘ONWETTIGE VERKOOPSPRAKTIJKEN ZIJN VASTE PRIK OP YOUTUBE. DeVlaamseYoutuberAcidroeptzijnminderjarigefansopomzijntruientekopen,endaarvoordecreditcardvanhunouderstestelen.Eenovertredingvandewet,maarniemandkijkteroptoe.’,DeStandaard,21September2018,<http://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20180920_03770634>accessed30October2018.81 X., 'Voorlopig toch geen strengere regels voor influencers’ (De Standaard)<http://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20180515_03513682>accessed2August2018.

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Interestingtonote is that theguidelineswouldhavebeen legallyenforceableandthatnon-compliancecouldleadtofines.

AsecondeventconcernsadecisionbytheJuryforEthicalPracticesinAdvertising(“JEP”)aboutquestionablestatementsmadebyadigitalinfluencer,inandaccompanyingoneofhisvlogs.82Theinitialcomplaint83leadingtothedecisionwassubmittedbeforetheFPSEconomy84,butwasintheendhandledbytheJEP.85Initsdecision,theJEPrequestedtheinfluencerinvolvedtoeitherchangeorremovethecontestedvlog,basedonthenationalimplementation86oftheUCPDirectiveandtheself-regulatoryICCCode.However,upuntilthetimeofwriting,thevloggerinvolveddidnotchangeordeletethecontestedvideo,butonthecontrary,madeavideoridiculingthedecision.Althoughthedecision in itself islaudable,itmissesimpactinpracticeduetotheJEP’slackofrealenforcementpowers.

Followingthisdecision,theJEPhaspublisheditsownguidelinesoncommercialpracticesby digital influencers.87 These guidelines aim to assist digital influencers, advertisingcompanies,agencies,mediaandplatformswithregardtoconsumerprotectionandlegalcertainty. The document is built upon the principles of identification, fairness andtransparency, which have been formed into four concrete guidelines. First, onlineinfluencers have to disclose any commercial relationship with a brand in a visual oraudibleway.88Thisshouldguaranteetransparentcommunication.Second,thewordsorhashtagsdisclosingthecommercialintentofthevlogwillneedtobeadjustedinfunctionof the language of the message or target audience, as social media does not have(linguistic)boundaries(publicité,advertising,promoted,ad,paid,...).Third,thedisclosingwords should be mentioned in such a way and place that the recipient immediatelyunderstandsthecorrectnatureofthemessage.Finally,thewordsshouldnotbehidden:

82Inthecontestedvideo,thevloggeraddresseshisyoungaudiencewhileelaboratlypraisingasweaterthatis for sale on hiswebsite. A number ofquestionable statementsare used inand around the video.Forexample,thetitleofthevlogreads:'GRATISECHTEBROERTRUIEN'(freelytranslated:‘freesweatersforrealfans’).Whilewatchingthevideo,however,itbecomesclearthatthesweatersinfactcost€30.Besidesthis,thevloggercallsuponhis(mostlyunderage)publictostealtheirparents'creditcardincasetheyarenotallowedtobuyhismerchandising.Inaddition,thevloggeralsoregularlyemphasisesthatonlywhenviewersbuyoneofhissweaters,theyareconsideredtobe'realfans'.83Thistestcasewassubmittedbytheauthorsofthispaper,aftertheydiscoveredseriousinfringementsbyvloggersduringtheirresearch.84TheFPSEconomyrespondedsayingitisnotcompetenttodealwiththecomplaintathand,asitspowersaresituatedwithintheframeworkofanumberofwell-definedeconomicregulations(ofacriminalnature).ItaddedthattheJEPcouldbeaddressedbecausetheissueinquestionconcernsacommercialmessage,elementsofwhichmaybeinconflictwiththeapplicablelegislationand/orself-disciplinarycodes.85JEPdecision,‘AcidApparel’,12September2018,<https://www.jep.be/nl/nieuws/acid-apparel-12-09-2018-beslissing-tot-wijzigingstopzetting>accessed29October2018.86‘BoekVI,WetboekEconomischRecht’.87 Aanbevelingen van de Raad voor de Reclame inzake online influencers, October 2018,<https://www.jep.be/sites/default/files/rule_reccommendation/aanbevelingen_van_de_raad_voor_de_reclame_online_influencers_nl.pdf>accessed29October2018.88Thishastobedonebystatingoneofthefollowingwords:“reclame,advertentie,sponsoring,promotie,gesponsorddoor,insamenwerkingmet,...”orhashtags:“#spon,#adv,#prom,#reclame,#recl,#sample,#...”.

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the average consumerwill have to be able to take notice of the disclosure in normalcircumstances.

Importanttonoteisthattheguidelinesonlyapplytodigitalinfluencersiftwoconditionsare fulfilled: (1) a remunerationwas received, (2) the advertising company exercisescontroloverthecommercialcommunication.Thelatterenvisagesthesituationwheretheadvertiser and online influencers have agreed upon guidelines concerning thecommercialmessage. This second condition raises somequestions as it unreasonablylimits the scope of the guidelines by excluding the situation where vloggers decidethemselvesonhowtopromotetheproductorserviceathand.Forexample,caseswhereavloggerwouldreceiveaproductforfreeundertheconditiontomakeavideoaboutthatproduct,willnotbecoveredbytheguidelinesunlesstheadvertiserhasexplicitlyorderedhowthepromotionoftheproductwillhavetotakeplace.Thisisanimportantlacunathatlimitsthepracticalrelevanceoftheguidelines.

4. CONCLUSION

From the analysis, it is clear that digital influencers need to identify commercialcommunicationsthatareintegratedintheirvideos.Althoughtheregulatoryframeworkcurrentlyrequiresthatcertaininformationneedstobemadevisibletotheconsumer,itleavesawideberthforinterpretationandimplementation.Atthenationallevel,thishasled to a number of self-regulatory initiatives, providing guidelines for the labelling ofvlogging advertising (e.g. the UK, the Netherlands, Belgium). These self-regulatoryinstruments contain specific instructions for the implementation of the legalidentification requirement in the context of vlogging, making it easier for digitalinfluencers to comply.However, regarding the guidelines provided inBelgium, itwasconcludedthattheirscopeofapplicationwaslimitedinpractice.Inaddition,thelackofacoordinated approach at the EU level and the resultingdistributed natureof labellingrequirements could raise practical questions regarding enforcement. Furthermore, asdigitalinfluencersarehighlypopularamongstchildren,itcouldbequestionedwhetherthelabellingguidelinesandcurrentindustrypracticesweredevelopedwithachildren’saudienceinmind.Accordingly,itisarguedthatacoordinated,evidence-basedapproachtolabelling,alsotakingintoaccountthespecificneedsofchildren,couldbeusefulfortheproper implementation of the identification principle. The European AdvertisingStandardsAlliancecouldtakeupacoordinatingroleinthisregard.

Aside from digital influencers, VSP providers also have important responsibilities forcommercial communications distributed via their platforms. The legal frameworkdistinguishesbetweenthoseadvertisementsthataremarketed,soldorarrangedbytheplatformandthird-partyadvertisements.Withregardtothefirstcategory,boththeAVMSand the UCP Directive require VSP providers to identify them as commercialcommunications.Furthermore,theVSPproviderhasanumberofotherresponsibilitiesconcerning the protection of minors specifically (e.g. protect them against harmfuladvertising content) and the public in general (i.e. protect them against hate speech,

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illegalcontent).TheVSPprovidermustalsorefrainfromunfaircommercialpracticessuchasfacilitatingandsellingpaid‘likes’andsponsoredreviews,blogsandaccountstothird-party traders.With regard to the secondcategory,both theAVMSandUCPDirectivesrecognise that VSP providers have limited control over content and commercialcommunications uploaded by third parties. Accordingly, rather than having a generalobligationtomonitororfilteruploadedcontentforharmfulcommercialcommunications,therevisedAVMSDirectiverequiresplatformproviderstoforeseeappropriatemeasurestoensuretheprotectionofminorsandthegeneralpublic(e.g.flaggingmechanisms,ageverificationmechanisms,parental control systems). TheEuropeanCommission is alsoencouraged by the revised AVMS Directive to develop co-regulatory mechanisms forappropriatemeasures.Inthisregard,itisarguedthattheECshouldensurethattheytakeinto account social science studies and that these co-regulatory mechanisms areevaluatedandupdatedonaregularbasis.

Finally,theanalysisshowedthatcertainprovisionsoftheUCPDirectivecouldformanimportant layer of protection for consumer-followers against certain types of ‘unfair’vloggingadvertisingpractices.Duetoitsbroadscopeofapplication,theDirectivecanalsocovernewcommercialpracticessuchasfakelikes,hiddentraders,instagrampodsoranyotherpersuasivetacticemerginginthefuture.

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