DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY REVISION...
Transcript of DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY REVISION...
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
Name:_____________________________________Date:______________________________________
DEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOLOGYREVISIONPACK
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
Learningobjective:-Understandearlybraindevelopment,includingthedevelopmentofthe:
a) Forebrainb) Midbrainc) Hindbraind) Cerebellume) Medulla
• Hindbrain-sleeppatterns,senseofequilibrium(emotionalbalance)• Midbrain-sensoryinformation,sleep,simplemovement• Forebrain–cognitive,auditory,sensory.
Thesedevelopinthepre-natalstage.
3or4weeksofpregnancy
• Alongtubedevelopsinthebrainwhichthendividesfromthefrontinto3distinctroundsections(forebrain,midbrain,hindbrain).
5weeks
• Forebrain&hindbrainsplitagain.• Forebrainsplitsintoanterior(front)andposterior(behind)• Thehindbrainsplitsthroughthemiddle• Themidbraindoesnotdivide.
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6weeks-Cerebellum
• Thecerebellumdevelopsandafter1yr.thecerebellumgrows3timesbigger.
• Thecerebellumcontrolsphysicalskillswhichdevelopalotoverthistime,possiblyaccountingforthegrowth.
• Cerebellumisinvolvedinresponsessuchasfearandprocessingsenseinformation.
20weeks–Medulla
• Locatedinthehindbraininfrontofthecerebellum.Controlsinvoluntaryresponsessuchassneezing,breathing,heartrateandbloodpressure.Italsoconnectstherestofthebraintothespinalcord.
BuildingNeuralconnections
• Akeypartofababy’sbraindevelopmentisthehugeincreaseinthenumberofneuralconnectionsfrombirthto3yrsold.
• 700-1000connectionsformeverysecond!• Thisallowsfastcommunicationbetweendifferentareasofthebrain.• Thebraindoublesinsizeinthefirstyear.• Andreaches80%ofitssizebyage3.
Learningcheck!
• Howmanybrainregionsarethere?• Whataretheycalled?• Whattwoareasarealsopartofthehindbrain?• Whyareneuralconnectionsimportant?
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
LearningObjective:Understandtheroleofeducationandintelligence,includingPiaget’sTheoryofCognitivedevelopment,andthefourstagesofcognitivedevelopment,includingstrengthsandweaknessesofthetheory:
a) Sensorimotore)Schemab) Pre-operationalf)Assimilationc) Concreteoperationalg)Accommodationd) Formaloperationalh)Equilibrium
Definitions
• Education:theprocessofreceivingorgivingsystematicinstructions,especiallyataschooloruniversity.
• Intelligence:theabilitytoacquireandapplyknowledgeandskills.• Cognitive:thementalactionorprocessofacquiringknowledgeand
understandingthroughthought,experience,andthesenses.
Leaningcheck!Checkthenextpageandanswerthefollowingquestions:-Sensorimotorstage
• Whatagedoesthesensorimotorstagehappen?• Whathappensat4months?• Whatisobjectpermanence?
Pre-operationalstage
• Whatagedoesthepre-operationalstagehappen?• Whatageisthesymbolicfunctionstage?• Whatagedoestheintuitivethoughtstage
happen?• Whatissymbolicplay?• Whatisegocentrism?• Whatisanimism?• Whatiscentration?• Whatisirreversibility?
ConcreteOperationalstage
• Whatagedoestheconcreteoperationalstage?
• Whatisreversibility?• Whatisconservation?• Whatisdecentration?
Formal-operationalstage
• Whatagedoestheformaloperationalstagehappen?
• Whathappensinthisstage?
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Learningobjective:-UnderstandhowPiaget’sstagesofdevelopmentareappliedineducation.
• Piaget’stheoryhasbeenappliedtoclassroompractices.• Histheorysuggeststhatchildren’sactionsandinteractionsaffecttheir
thinking,andthattheycannotdocertainthingsuntiltheyreachtheappropriatestageofdevelopment
Example:
• Youngchildrenareegocentricandcannotunderstandtheteacher’sviewpointsomightnotdoastheyaretoldbecauseoflackofunderstandingnotbecausetheyarebeingnaughty.
• Childrenbuildtheirownschemas(representationsoftheworld)fromtheirownexperiencesandsotheyindividuallybuildtheirownknowledgeandunderstanding.
Tohelpsensorimotordevelopment(birth–2yrs)
• Theyneedlotsofstimulationandmaterialstopracticeskillsandbuildschema’s
• Colourisimportantandtheuseofbrightcoloursisusedtohelpchildrenknowthedifferencesbetweenthem
• Singingandrhythmcanstimulatechildren'slanguageanddevelopment• Hearingdifferentsounds,touchingdifferencetexturesisbeneficial• Stimulationhelpschildrenengagewiththeworldandbuildschema’sor
ideaswhichishowtheylearn.
Tohelppre-operationaldevelopment(2-7yrs)
• Childrenmust‘do’thingstolearnandtokeepbuildingschema’s,ratherthanwatchsomeoneelseperformactions.
• Theyneedlotsofexperiencestoextendtheirunderstanding.• Seenas‘littlescientists’,buildingideasthroughexperimenting.• Learnthroughdiscoverybyinteractingwiththeenvironment,notby
beingtold.• Theirindividuallearningmustbeencouragedanddeveloped.• Usingmodels,objects,visualaids,suchasdrawinganddiagramscan
helplearningwhilstkeepinginstructionsshort.
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Tohelpconcreteoperationaldevelopment(7-12yrs)
• Teacherscanaskchildrentoconcentrateonmorethanoneaspectofanissue.
• Teacherscanassumechildrencanunderstanddifferentviewpointsontheirownsoteacherscanstructuretasksaccordingly.
TohelpFormalOperationaldevelopment(12+yrs)
• Childrencandiscussabstractconceptsandcanbeaskedcomplexquestionsinvolvingmentalreasoning.
• E.g.learningdifferentsubjectsatschoolandbeingabletorelatebiologytopsychologyorhistorytogeography.
Leaningcheck!
• Howwouldyouhelpachildinthesensorimotorstageofdevelopment?• Whatthingswouldstimulatetheirthinking?• Howwouldyouhelpachildinthepre-operationalstageofdevelopment?• Whatthingswouldstimulatetheirthinking?• Howwouldyouhelpachildintheconcreteoperationalstageofdevelopment?• Whatthingswouldstimulatetheirthinking?
ExamStylequestion–Answerinyourexampackpage7.
FredaandSimoncandodifferentthings.Simoncanputpensintosizeorder.
Fredacanworkoutwhichistheslowestandwhichisthefastestifsheknowsthatahorsecanrunfasterthanadogandadogcanrunfasterthanahedgehog.
ExplainwhichstageeachchildisinaccordingtoPiaget’sstagesofdevelopment.
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LearningObjective:Understandhowchildrendevelopmentalprocessingforlearningsothatchildrendevelopintelligence.
Thedevelopmentofintelligence
• Piagetheldthatchildrendevelopthroughadaptation-theyadjusttotheworldastheyexperiencenewthings.
• Thedevelopmentofintelligenceisaboutbuildingknowledgeandskills.• Intelligenceisdevelopedthroughbuildingschemasviaadaptationsand
throughthefourstagesofcognitivedevelopment.
Leaningcheck!Whatstageisit?Achildseeingazebraforthefirsttimeandcallingitahorse-AssimilationAchildsees3motorssidebyside,atruck,abikeandanormalcarandpointingtothetruckandsaying‘truck’-EquilibriumAchildpointingtoadogandsaying‘dog’-Accommodation
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
EvaluationofPiaget’sTheoryofcognitiveDevelopment
Strengths
Practicalimplications
• OnestrengthofPiaget’stheoryisthatithaspracticalimplications,meaningwecanuseitintherealworld.
• Piaget’stheoryfocussesoneachindividualstagesodiscoverylearningcanbecateredtoeachagegroup.
• Whenchildrenlearnattheirownpace,theyareabletobuildknowledgeusingschema’sandcanworkaccordingtotheirstageofdevelopment.
Generatedmoreresearch
• AnotherstrengthofPiaget’stheoryisthatithasgeneratedalotofresearchintodevelopmentincludingexperimentstoshowtheexistenceofthestagesandhowchildrenbuildknowledgethroughschemas.
• Researchhasoftensupportedhisideas.
Weaknesses
Socialinteractions/culturalsettings
• OneweaknessofPiaget’stheoryisthathedidnotlookattheinfluenceofsocialinteractionsortheculturalsettings,whichcanaffectthedevelopmentofpatternsofthought.
Subjective
• Themethodsusedtogatherevidenceforthetheorycamefromhisinterviewsandobservationswithchildren.Asaresult,hisinterpretationsmayhavebeensubjective,leadingtosomebiasinhisfindings.
LackofValidity
• Otherstudiesusingsimilarmethodsbutinmorerealisticsettingsproduceddifferentfindings,suggestinghistheorylacksvalidity.
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StudyOne
PiagetandInhelder(1956)Threemountainstask.
Aim(s)
Tostudytheperspectivesofchildrenandinvestigaterelationshipsbetweenthechild’sviewpointandtheirperceptionoftheviewpointofothers.
Procedure
Sample–100childrenwereused:
21wereagedbetween4and6years’old
30wereagedbetween6and8years’old
33wereagedbetween8and9years’old
16wereagedbetween9and12yearsold.
Ametersquaremodelwasmadetorepresentthreemountains.Therearefourdifferentviewpoints–A,B,CandD–andadollismovedaroundthemountainmodeltoeachofthepositions.
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Thechildisgiven10picturesofthemountainstakenfromvariouspositionsaroundthemodel.Theyalsohavethreepiecesofboard,shapedandcoloredtomatcheachmountaininthemodelofthethreemountains,whichtheycanmoveandarrangetorepresentthemodel.
Intrialone,thechildisseatedinpositionAandaskedtoarrangetheboardstorepresentthemountainstheycanseeinthemodelfrompositionA.NextthedollisplacedinpositionCandthechildisaskedtoarrangetheboardstorepresentwhatthedollcansee.TheprocedureisrepeatedwiththedollbeingmovedtopositionBandthenD.
ThisprocedureisagainrepeatedwiththechildmovingtopositionB,andthedollbeingplacedinpositionsA,CandD.Theprocedurecontinuesuntilthechildhasviewedthemodelfromallfourofthepositions–A,B,CandD.
Inthesetests,thechildisalsoaskedtoreconstructtheirboardsfromoneoftheirpreviousviewpoints;forexample,whenseatedinpositionCtheymaybeaskedtorecreatewhattheycouldseewhentheywereinpositionA.
Followingthistest,asecondtrialisconducted.Thechildanddollareagainmovedaroundthemountainsinthesamemanner,butthechildisaskedtoselecttheviewpointofthedollfromtenphotographspresentedtothematthesametime.
Finally,athirdtrialisconductedwherebythechildselectsapictureanddecideswheretoplacethedollonthemodelinordertobeabletoseetheviewthatmatchesthepicture.
Results
4to6yearolds
Trialone:thechildrenrearrangetheboardsbuttheoutcomeistheirownviewpointofthethreemountains.Childrentowards6yearsoldshowanattempttorepresentthedolls,butoftenreverttotheirownperspective.Thechildrenwereusuallyabletorecollectandreproducetheirpreviousviewpointsfrommemory.
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Trialtwo:thechildrenselectthepicturethatrepresentstheirownviewpointofthethreemountains,orappeartorandomlyselectanyimageofthemodel.
Trialthree:thedollismostlyplacedanywhereonthemodel,ornotmovedfromwhereitisalreadyplaced.
7to12yearolds
Thechildrenaged7to9yearsattempttoreflecttheviewpointofthedoll,butthisisnotconsistent.
Between9and12yearsold,thechildrendemonstrateamasteryintheskillofviewingthemodelfromtheviewpointofthedoll.
Conclusions
Childreninstage2(pre-operational)failtoseetheviewpointofthedoll,insteadregardingtheirownpointofviewastheonlyonepossible.PiagetandInheldersuggestthatthisisduetotheegocentrismofchildreninstage2.
Whilethechildrenareabletoreplicatetheirpreviousviewpointsfrommemory,theyappearunabletopredictotherviewpointsofthemountains.PiagetandInheldersuggestthatthisisduetothereasoningskillsofchildreninstage2.
Childreninstage3(concreteoperational)begintoshowunderstandingofotherpeople’sviewpoints.Attheyoungerage,thechildrenwereseentoselectapicturefromtheirownperspectivebuttoturnthistowardsthedollsothattheimagecouldbeseenbythedoll.Thisindicatedthestartofanabilitytounderstandthatthedollhasadifferentviewpoint.
Bytheendofthisstage,childrencouldaltertheirboardsandselectpicturesthatrepresentedthedoll,demonstratingthategocentrismhassubsided.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
EvaluationofPiagetandInhelderStudy(1956)
Strengths
Theyprovidedagreatdealofdetailaboutwhatwasdoneandtheresults.
Qualitativedata-richindetailandindepth.• Theylookedindetailattheerrorsandwhateachchilddid.Thismeant
theycouldshowthatasachildnearedthenextstageofdevelopment,theycouldachieveelementsofthatnextstage.
Theyusedexperimentalmethods.
• Carefulcontrolswereinplace,suchasthesamemodelandquestions.Thisallowedcomparisonstobemadebetweentheresultsfromdifferentchildren.
Reliability• Repeatingthestudywithmanychildren,movingthedollandusing
differentwaysofgettingthechildtoshowwhattheysaworwhattheythoughtthedollsaw
Weaknesses
HelenBroke(1975)
• ChangedPiagetandInhelder’stasktomakeitmoreappropriateforyoungerchildren.UsedthepuppetGroverfromSesameStreetandletchildrenturnthemodelofmountainsbyusingaturntable.
• Shefound3yearoldscouldgivethepuppetviewpointcorrectlymorethan79%ofthetime.4-yearOld’sdidthis93%ofthetime.
• Shesuggestedthe‘threemountainstask’wastoohard,notbecausetheywereegocentric.
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Willingham
• UsedRepacholiandGopnik’s(1977)studytocriticisePiaget’sstagesofdevelopment.
• Inastudyofthe‘threemountainstask’theyfoundthatchildrenof18monthscouldshownon-egocentricbehaviour.
• Intheirstudy,childrentastedcrackers,whichtheyliked,andbroccoli,whichtheydidnotlike.Thentheysawtheexperimentershowdislikeofthecrackertasteandlikingofthebroccoli.Later,theexperimenterplacedabowlofcrackersandoneofbroccolionthetableandaskedthechildtopassoneofthebowls.
• The14-montholdpassedthefoodtheylikedthemselves,indicatingegocentrism.
• Childrenaged18months,passedthebroccolibecausethatiswhattheybelievedtheexperimenterliked;theycouldappreciatetheexperimenter’sview.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
LearningObjective:UnderstandtheeffectsoflearningondevelopmentusingCarolDweck’sMindsetTheory
• Mindset–Asetofbeliefssomeone'shasthatguideshowsomeonerespondstoorinterpretsasituation
• FixedMindset–Believingyourabilitiesarefixedandunchangeable• GrowthMindset–Believingpracticeandeffortcanimproveyourabilities• Ability–Whatsomeonecando.• Effort–Whenyoutryanddobetterusingdetermination
KeyPointsofDweck’sMindsettheory
• Childrencandevelopafixedmindsetaboutaparticularabilitytheythinktheydonothaveandgiveup,fearingtheywillnotbesuccessfulbecausetheabilityisnot‘inthem’.
• Theystoptakingonchallenges.Withafixedmindset,apersoncanbecomedepressedandstoptrying.
• Agrowthmindsetallowsfortheideaofeffortbringingsuccess.Challengesbecomeworthwhileandfeedbackistakennoticeof.
• Teachersalsohaveafixedorgrowthmindset,whichaffectshowtheyrespondtoachild.Ateacherwithafixedmindsetcanseechildrenaslackingaparticularability,whereasateacherwithagrowthmindsetseesthatachildcanimprovewithperseverance.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
EvaluationofCarolDweck’sGrowthmindset
Strengths
PracticalImplications
• AstrengthofDweck’stheoryisthatithaspracticalapplications.Teachersorparentscanfocusonpraisingeffort,ratherthanability,inordertoencouragechildren.Thetheoryitselfispositive–itshowsthatchangeispossible,whichhelpssociety.
YeagerandDweck(2012)Growthmindset=betterschoolperformance
• Furthermore,thereisevidencetosupportmindsettheory.Forexample,YeagerandDweck(2012)studyfoundthatadolescentscoulddealbetterwithnotfittinginiftheyhadagrowthmindset.Believing(orbeingtaught)thatpeoplecanchangeledtobetterschoolperformance.
Weaknesses
Artificial,asexperiments
• Manyofthestudiesthatlookintomindsethavebeenexperimentsandsohaveartificialsettings.Thisisaweaknessbecausetheresultsmaynothaverepresentedreallife.Thismeansthatthedatamaylackvalidity.OneexceptionisGundersonet.Al.(2013),whousedanaturalenvironmentwhengatheringtheirdataonparentpraise,givingthefindingsvalidity.
Toofocusedonchildnotonqualityofwhatisbeingtaught
• Studyingthemindsetofachildmayresultinthechildbecomingthefocusifthereareproblemswiththeirprogress,ratherthanthequalityofwhatisbeingtaughtandhowteachingisdone.Thiscanaffecttheusefulnessofthetheory.
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Ignoreeffectsofgivingfeedback
• Similarly,studiestestingmindsettheorytendtoignoretheeffectsofgivingfeedbackwithoutanyjudgmentaboutthechildortheirability,suchastellingachildto‘addaconclusion’toanessay.Thewaymanystudiesaredoneleadstothe‘typeofpraise’beingseenasanimportantvariable,butthereisaneedtoconsiderbehaviorwherepraisedoesnotfeature.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
LearningObjective:ToexplainWillingham’slearningtheory
• Short-termmemory:ourinitialmemorystorethatistemporaryandlimited.
• Rehearse:whenwerepeatinformationoverandoveragaintomakeitstick.
• Long-termmemory:amemorystorethatholdspotentiallylimitlessamountsofinformationforuptoalifetime.
• Motorskill:anactionthatinvolvesmusclesandbrainprocesses,resultinginmovement.
DanielWillinghamisacognitivescientistwhostudiesthinkingandbrainactivity.Hisworkcanbeappliedtotheclassroomandtoothersituations.Inhiswork,heexplainsnotonlyhisownideasbutalsoproblemswiththeideasofothers,includingPiagetandhis‘Threemountains’task.
• Canteachersincreasestudent’sself-control?• Doespracticemakeperfect?• Whatwillimproveastudent’smemory?
(somequestionsWillinghamasksontheeffectsoflearningondevelopment)
Thereare2mainconceptsthathesuggests
• FactualKnowledgecomesbeforeskill• Theimportanceofpracticeandeffort
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
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Factualknowledgecomesbeforeskill
• Knowledgefactshelpwhenbuildingtheskillsofproblem-solvingandreasoning.
• Anissuewithlearninganddevelopingskillsisthatpreviousknowledgeisneeded.
• Forexample,ifachildreads‘shehasmorelikesthanme’,theywouldneedpreviousknowledgeabouttheideaof‘likes’tounderstandwhatwasbeingsaid.
• Onceyouknowit,youcanfreespaceinyourworkingmemorytoallowustousementalskillssuchasproblemsolving.
• Willinghamsuggeststhatwhatsomeonealreadyknowsleavesthemmoreprocessingpowertosolveaproblemandaidsunderstanding.
• Forexample,factualknowledgeunderstandingthedistancebetween2countries.YoufirstneedtoknowwhereThailandisonthemap,thenyoucanunderstandhowfaritmaybefromQatar.
Theimportanceofpracticeandeffort
• Willinghamemphasisesthatpracticeandeffortenableustomasterknowledgeandskills.
• Itisimportanttopracticeenoughtobeabletodothingsautomatically.• Thisisnecessaryinordertoleaveenoughworkingmemoryforlearning
newthings.Practiceisnottheonlythingthat’simportant• askillmustberepeatedmanytimesandkeptup.
Importanceofbuildingknowledge
u WhenyoupracticesomethingitgoesintoyourShorttermmemory,ifyoucontinuouslyrehearseit,thentheinformationwillgotoyourlongtermmemorywhereitwillstayforlongerandrequirelessprocessing.
Importanceofbuildingskills
u Themorepracticeyoudo,themoreskillsyoudevelop,suchasproblemsolvingandcreativethinking.Onceyoudeveloptheseskills,theybecomeautomaticanduselessspaceinyourworkingmemory.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
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LearningObjective-ToexplainWillingham’slearningtheoryandtheeffectsoflearningondevelopmentincludingunderstandingstrategiestosupport:
• Cognitive(memory)development• Physicaldevelopment• SocialDevelopment
Definitions
• Decentration:beingabletoseparateselffromtheworld,sonotbeingegocentric.Takingindifferentaspectsofonesituation.
• Sociallearning:atheorythatwelearnbyobservingandcopyingothers.Self-regulation:limitingandcontrollingyourselfwithoutinfluencefromothers.
• Nature:theideathathowwedevelopcomesfromourgenes.• Nurture:theideathathowwedevelopcomesfromourexperiencesand
environment.
CognitiveDevelopment
Hesuggestedthatteachersshould:
• useproblemsthatarenewandwithinastudent’sabilitybutthatalsorequiresomeeffort
• understandastudent’slikelystageofdevelopmentwhenplanningactivities
• rememberthatastudent’sabilitiesarevariableandcanchangefromdaytoday
• considerfactorsotherthandevelopmentallevel.Forexample,thestudentmightnotunderstandthetask.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
PhysicalDevelopment
Willinghamalsobelievedthatpracticeandeffortwouldimprovephysicaldevelopment,suchasmusclemovements(motorskills).Herelatedmusclemovementstobrainprocessing,suggestingthatinordertoimprovetheseskills,youshould:
• focusonwhatmovementswillbesuitableandinwhatordertheyneedtobecarriedout
• practicethemovementsinthatorderandenoughtimestomakethemusclecommandsautomatic(tobuildonaskillset)
• useconsciouseffort.Forexample,makechangesinordertodevelopthemotorskill,suchasraisingthebarwhendevelopingjumpingskills.SocialDevelopment
• Willingham’s focusonpractice,effortanddevelopmentgaverise to ideasthat teachers can use to help improve social development. Teachersshould:
• Willinghambelieved children can showegocentrismnearer to 18monthscomparedtoPiaget’sabout7yrs.
• Demonstrateappropriatesocialbehavior.Thechildwillusesociallearning,wherechildrenimitatethebehaviorofothersincertaincircumstances.
• Helpa child to stop impulsivebehaviour. Impulsivebehaviour isbehavingwithoutconsideringconsequencesandmainlywithoutthought.
• Encouragepracticewhichrequiresself-regulation.• Delaygivingarewardforatasktoencourageachildtokeepworkingatit,
whichrequiresthemtohaveself-control.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
EvaluationofWillingham’sLearningtheory
Strengths
Positiveapplicationtostudents
• Willingham’sworkcanbeappliedtoeducationandothersituationstopromoteachild’sdevelopmentinapositiveway.Thesepracticalapplicationsofthetheoryareoneofitsstrengths.
Supportingresearch
• RepacholiandAlisonGopnik’s(1997)studyprovidesexperimentalsupport,showingthatyoungchildrenwerenotasegocentricasPiagetthought.
• Experimentalevidenceisthereforeastrengthbecauseexperimentsarecarriedoutinacontrolledway;however,theymightnotreflectreality,sotheresultsmaylackvalidity
Weaknesses
Ignoresindividualdifferences
• OneweaknessisthatWillinghamdidnotreallyemphasisetheimportanceofindividualdifferencesforlearning,thoughsomefeaturesofhistheoryrelatetogenes.
• Forexample,hesuggestedthatself-regulationandimpulsivityare,tosomeextent,inherited.
Geneticinheritanceisdifficulttochange.
• Thoughthetheorygivesstrategiestohelpdevelopment,suchaschildrengettingemotionalandcognitivesupportfromtheirparents,whatisinsomeone’sgenescannotbechangedeasilyusingstrategies.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
StudyTwo
Gundersonetal.(2013)ParentPraiseto1-to3-Year-OldsPredictsChildren'sMotivationalFrameworks5YearsLater.
Aim(s)
Gundersonetal.investigatedtheuseofpraisebyparentsofchildrenaged14monthsto48monthsold.Theylookedatthecategoryofpraisethatparentsgavetheirchildrenandwhattypeofpraisewasmostused.Theyalsolookedatwhetherpersonpraiseorprocesspraisecanbeapredictorofmotivationalframeworksfiveyearslater.
Procedure
Sample:53childrenfromChicago(29boys,24girls)takenfromalargersampleof63familieswhohadbeentakingpartinastudyoflanguagedevelopment.ThesamplerepresentedthedemographicsofChicago(income,race,ethnicity).
Participants(childrenandparents)werevisitedathomeeveryfourmonthsfromwhenthechildwas14monthsoldaspartoftheoriginalstudy.Thismeantthatthedatagatheredwasdouble-blindasneitherthefamiliesnorresearcherortranscriberatthetimewereawarethattheirinteractionswouldlaterbestudiedforpraise.
Thevideorecordingsfromthelanguagestudylasted90minutes,andGundersonetal.usedtheinteractionsrecordedat14months,26monthsand38monthsold.Thespeechfromthevideorecordingwasalsotranscribedbytheoriginalresearchers.
Parentpraisewasmeasuredbycodingthetranscriptsoftheinteractions.Distinctionsweremadebetweenexplicitpraise(wordssuchas‘good’,‘nice’,‘great’)orimplicitpraise(byaffirmingactions‘yougotit’).ThesewerethencategorisedinoneofthreetypesofpraiseasshowninTable1.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
Thecodingwastestedforreliabilityon20%ofthetranscribedscripts,wherethecodingwasalsocompletedindependentlybyaminimumoftwofurthercoders.Therewasakappavalueof.81indicatinghighagreementbetweencoders,sointer-coderreliabilityisconsideredhigh.
Whenthechildrenreached7to8yearsold,theytookpartintwoverbalquestionnairesabouttheirmotivationalframework,whichwerecompleted3monthsapart.Eachofthesequestionnaireswaspartofalargercognitiveassessmentlasting2hours.
Thequestionnaireseachhadsimilarcontentandconsistedof11and13itemsrespectively.Theresultswerecombinedtogiveanoverallscoreforeachchild.Theyaimedtotestthedomainsofintelligence(18items)andsociomoralattributes(6items).ThesequestionnaireswereadaptedfromHeymanandDweck(1998).
Intelligencedomainitemsincluded5pointLikert-scaledquestionssuchas:
“Imagineakidwhothinksthatapersonisacertainamountofsmart,andtheystayprettymuchthesame.Howmuchdoyouagreewiththiskid?”
Sociomoraldomainitemsincludedyes/noquestionssuchas:“Imagineagirlwhogetsintroublealotatschool.Somepeoplethinkshewillkeepgettingintoalotoftroubleevenwhensheisinhighschool.Doyouthinkthisisright?”
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
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Parentsofthechildrenalsocompletedan8-itemquestionnairetotesthowmalleabletheyconsideredcognitiveabilitytobe.Itemsincludedquestionsaboutfixedintelligence,fixedmath’sabilityandothercognitiveskills.Thiswasalsoadministeredaspartofalargerquestionnaireassessingtheirbeliefsaboutacademicdevelopment.
Result(s)
Useofpraise
TheresultsofthecodingofpraiseutterancesareshowninTable2.Praisewasmeasuredcumulativelyusingallthreevisits.Themeanpercentagescoreforeachcategoryofpraiseisshownasapercentageofallutterancesbytheparent,andasapercentageofallpraisecommentsmadebytheparents.
Overall,praiseofanytypewas,onaverage,3%ofallutterancesbyparents.
Personpraiseasapercentageofallpraisewassignificantlylessat38monthsoldthanitwasat14monthsold,whereasprocesspraiseshowednosignificantchangeandotherpraisewassignificantlyhigherat38monthsoldthan14monthsold.
Boysreceivedmoreprocesspraisethangirls,andgirlsreceivedmorepersonandotherpraisethanboys.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
Motivationalframeworksdata
Averagesociomoralscorescorrelatedwithaverageintelligencescores.
Boysreportedmarginallymoreincrementalmotivationalframeworksthangirlsand,whenbrokendown,thiswassignificantlyhigherfortheintelligencedomainbutnotforthesociomoraldomain.
Therewerefewsignificantcorrelationsbetweenparentalscoresandthepraisetypeorfrequencytheyusedwiththechildren.However,ahigherscoreformalleablecognitivedevelopmentcorrelatedwithhigheruseofpersonpraise.
Relationshipsbetweenpraisestyleandmotivationalframeworks
Therewasasignificantcorrelationbetweenprocesspraise(asa%oftotalpraise)whenchildrenwere14monthsto38monthsoldandchildren’sincremental(malleable)motivationalframeworkscoresat7to8yearsold.
Therewasnosignificantcorrelationbetweenpersonpraiseandchildren’sentity(fixedability)motivationalframeworkscoresat7to8yearsold.
Conclusions
Theamountofprocesspraise(effortofthechild)thatparentsgavetheirchildrenbetween14and38monthsoldwasapredictorofchildren’sincremental(cognitivetraitsaremalleable;effortisimportant)motivationalframeworksat7to8yearsold.
Childrenwhoseparentsusedmoreprocesspraiseweremorelikelytohavebeliefsandbehavioursassociatedwithanincrementalmotivationalframework,measuredinthesociomoralandintelligencedomains.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
Gundersonetal.alsofoundagenderdifferenceinthetypesofpraisechildrenreceived.Boysreceivedsignificantlymoreprocesspraisethangirls,eventhough,overall,boysandgirlsreceivedthesameamountofpraise.Thiscouldexplainwhyexistingresearchhighlightsthatgirlstendtoattributefailurestolackofabilityandshowdecreasedpersistenceandmotivationafterfailure.
Finally,parentswithstrongerincrementaltheoriesweremorelikelytogivepersonpraise.Thiscouldbeexplainedasparentswhobelievethatintelligenceismalleablebelievethatthewaytomaketheirchildsmarteristoincreasethechild’sself-esteembysayinghowsmarttheyareusingpersonpraise.
EvaluationofGundersonetal(2013)Study
Strengths
Naturalenvironment
• Gundersonetal(2013)representedthenaturalenvironmentbyrecordingtypesofpraiseinthechild’shomewhiletheywentabouttheirtypicalday.
• Findingsfromthetwodifferentmethods-experimentandobservation–givesthestudymorevalidity.
Researcherbiasnotpresent
• Anotherstrengthisthattheresearcherwhovideotapedandtranscribedthedatadidnotknowthatparentalpraisewasthepointofinterest.Thishelpedtoavoidthebiasinthegatheringofthequalitativedata.
• Ifsomeoneknowswhytheyarebeingwatched,andifthepersonwatchingalsoknowswhatoutcomeisexpected,thatknowledgecanaffectthedatagathered.
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
Weaknesses
Deception
• Theethicsofthestudycouldbecriticized,andthisisaweakness.Theparticipantsweredeceived.Theyweretoldthestudywasaboutchilddevelopment,butintruthitwasabouttypesofpraiseandtheeffectsthishasonachild.Forethicalreasons,theremustbeaslittledeceitaspossibleinastudy.Iftherewasadebriefthismaybeseenasethicallyacceptable.
Observationcanchangebehavior
• Anotherweaknessisthattheparentsmayhavechangedtheirstyleofpraisebecausetheywerebeingobserved,eventhoughtheydidnotknowwhataspectoftheirbehaviorwasbeingobserved.Thedata,therefore,mightnotbenatural,andsomaylackvalidity.
Generalisability
• Forthisstudy,only53parent/childpairsinChicagowereused.Thissamplemaynotberepresentativeofawiderpopulation,whichlimitsthegeneralisabilityofthefindings.Thisisafurtherweaknessofthestudy.
Learningcheck!
• Whyisbeinginanaturalenvironmentastrengthofthestudy?• Whatdoesresearchersbiasmean?• Whyisresearcherbiasastrengthofthestudy?• Whyisdeceptionaweakness?• Whycanobservationchangebehavior?• Wastheexperimentgeneralisable?Whynot?
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
LearningObjective:Understandmoralityissuesinpsychologyandtheindividual,includingtheterms‘morality’and‘moral(s)’
• Morals–Standardsofrightandwrongbehaviourthatcandifferbetweenculturesandcandependonthesituation.
• Moraldevelopment–Children’sgrowingunderstandingaboutrightandwrong
• Heteronomous–rulesputintoplacebyothers(e.g.parents,teachers)• Autonomous–Rulescanbedecidedbytheindividualperson
Piaget’s(1932)TheoryofMoralDevelopment
• Fromaboutage5-10years,achildbelievesrulescannotbechanged.• Theirideasofmoralitycomefromothersaroundthem,suchasparentsand
teachers.Atthisstage,theytendtofocusonanaction’sconsequences.E.g.breakingrulesleadstopunishment.Thisstageisheteronomous(directedbyothers).
• Fromabout10yearsold,achildknowsthattheintentionsoftheactionareimportant.Anactionwithbadconsequencecanbeagoodactioniftheintentionwasgood.E.g.jumpinginthepoolfullyclothedwhentheyseeanotherchilddrowning,evenwhentheywereaskednottogobackinside.
• Moralsareseenasagreedbetweenpeopleandthechildknowsthatfollowingrulesismoreabouttheconsequenceofnotfollowingthem(punishment).Thisstageisautonomous(theindividualdecides)
Issuesanddebates
ALMAHAACADEMYGIRLSPSYCHOLOGYDEPARTMENT
2018-19
KolbergTheoryofMoralDevelopment
A01
• Moralsrefertowhatisrightandwronginhumanbehavior.Somethingthatismoraliswhatmostpeopleagreeisrightandgood.
• Moralityrefersto‘properbehaviour’.Peopleshouldbehaveaccordingtoprinciplesofwhatisrightandwrong.Moralitymeansseparatinggoodbehaviourfrombadbehaviour.
• Moraldevelopmentreferstohowchildrenreasonaboutwhatisrightandwrong,andhowtheymakemoraldecisions.
• Piagetsuggeststhatmoralunderstandingdevelops,aswithcognitivedevelopment,throughstages.
• Kolbergsuggeststhatthereare3levelsofmoralreasoning,pre-conventional,conventionalandpost-conventional
****Which3A01marksyouwillusedependonthequestion***
A03
• BothPiagetandKohlbergusedstoriesthatwereartificialandmightnotrepresentrealthinking
• Boththeoriesalsolackecologicalvalidity.Therewerenorealconsequencesinthestoriesfromthedecisionsthatweremade.
• CarolGilligan(1977)criticisedKohlberg,sayinghismale-onlysamplemeanthistheorywasaboutmalemorality.