Democracy Movements Toward Independence and · 2020. 3. 28. · Movements Toward Independence and...

Movements Toward Independence andDemocracyHow have emerging nations fared in their quest for political stability, economicgrowth, and democracy?

Vocabulary

Glossary Vocabulary Cards

al Qaeda

Taliban

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Solidarity

European Union

UN trust territory

African Union

gross domestic product (GDP)

GDP per capita

apartheid

Introduction

M O V E M E N T S T O W A R D I N D...

© 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A

Tradition and modernity coexist inSeoul, the capital city of SouthKorea.

South Korea had a tough start as a nation. Two years after establishing its firstindependent government in 1948, it went to war with its neighbor, North Korea.During the ensuing war, at least 2.5 million lives were lost. Although an armisticewas brokered in 1953, no resolution to the essential conflict has ever beenreached. After the fighting ended, tensions with North Korea remained high.

In the years that followed the Korean War, South Korea struggled to gain politicalstability. In 1961, the military seized power in a coup d’état. It ruled for the nextthree decades, restricting political freedoms and cracking down on its opponents.But the military also developed the economy, turning South Korea into anindustrial powerhouse. During this period, the nation’s economy grew at anaverage of nearly 9 percent a year. South Korea became one of the Asian Tigers,a group of four rapidly growing economies that included Singapore, Taiwan, andHong Kong.

In 1992, democratic elections returned South Korea to civilian rule. The newleaders continued to emphasize economic growth. However, the economystumbled during a financial crisis in the late 1990s. Despite this setback, it later


Level: A © 2020 Teachers' Curriculum Institute

rebounded and has continued to prosper.

South Korea now has one of the largest economies in the world. Its population ishighly educated and enjoys good social and economic conditions. The countryhas developed and modernized while retaining its cultural traditions. It has alsoremained democratic. Overall, South Korea is one of the great success storiesamong the world’s postcolonial states. But, few emerging nations have fared aswell as South Korea.

This lesson presents case studies of nine countries that have sought politicalstability and economic development in the past half-century. Most have had mixedsuccess in their efforts to achieve autonomy, democracy, and economic growth.

1. Indonesia: A Nation of IslandsIndonesia is a large country made up of thousands of islands. It has the fourthlargest population in the world. Today, it is a relatively stable and prosperousnation. However, it has experienced great upheaval in its path to nationaldevelopment.

Independence Under Sukarno In the 19th and early 20th centuries, what isnow Indonesia was a Dutch colony known as the Dutch East Indies. Indonesiadeclared independence from the Netherlands in 1945 at the end of World War II,but the Dutch fought to hold on to their colony. They sent troops to defeat arevolution led by the nationalist leader Sukarno. In 1949, after a series of bloodybattles, the Dutch finally agreed to leave.

Indonesia established a democratic government with Sukarno as president. Thenew government faced many challenges. Indonesia is an archipelago of morethan 18,000 islands, and its population includes many different ethnic andreligious groups. As a result, the country was hard to unify, and rebellions brokeout on several islands. The government was also unstable, with many differentpolitical parties vying for power and control.

By the late 1950s, Indonesia was in crisis. At that point, Sukarno moved to assertcontrol. He declared martial law to quell unrest. He then established a system hecalled “guided democracy,” which gave more power to the president andweakened the national parliament. In effect, Sukarno became a dictator. He builtlarge monuments to glorify the state and restore national pride. He also became a



leader of the nonaligned movement, a group of independent countries that tried toremain neutral during the Cold War. Although Sukarno refused to declareallegiance to the Eastern or Western power blocs, he was a vocal critic ofWestern imperialism and interference.

To stay in power, Sukarno relied on support from two key forces in the country:the military and the Communist Party. Sukarno’s reliance on the communistsraised fears among the military, though, and eventually led to his downfall.

Sukarno led Indonesia toindependence from theNetherlands and became thenation’s first president. Later, heestablished dictatorial controlover the country. Here, Sukarnois shown visiting the UnitedStates in 1956.

On October 1, 1965, a group of communists kidnapped and killed six armygenerals. Chaos spread across Indonesia, as the military and its right-wingsupporters waged a brutal crackdown on the left. An estimated half a millionpeople died in violent attacks over the next year. Meanwhile, the military arrestedSukarno and took control of the government. In 1967, a top general, GeneralSuharto, became president.

Suharto’s New Order Suharto promised to bring about a “New Order” inIndonesian politics. He reversed many of Sukarno’s policies. He banned theCommunist Party and allied Indonesia with the West. He also encouraged foreigninvestment to help expand trade and industry.



For the next 30 years, Suharto directed an authoritarian regime. This regime wasnot a typical military dictatorship. It allowed some political rights, including theright to vote in controlled elections. Most freedoms were restricted, however,including any actions that could threaten the military’s hold on power. Humanrights abuses were widespread. This was especially true in East Timor, a regionthat sought independence.

Suharto also allowed rampant corruption. He rewarded fellow officers, familymembers, and political allies with lucrative business deals. Bribery waswidespread. Critics called this scheme “crony capitalism,” or the unfair practice ofa powerful person or group favoring their own personal allies. At the same time,the country’s economy also grew. Like South Korea, Indonesia became aneconomic success story.

In 1997, however, a financial crisis swept across East Asia. Indonesia’s economysuffered, causing widespread civil unrest. In 1998, Suharto resigned, and acivilian president took over.

The Democratic Era Since Suharto’s resignation, Indonesia has worked tostrengthen its democracy. It has held democratic elections for local and nationaloffice, including the first direct presidential election in 2004. Voter turnout forthese elections has been high.



Coastal areas of the Aceh region were destroyed by a devastating tsunami thatstruck on December 26, 2004. More than 160,000 people were killed throughoutIndonesia.

Indonesia’s leaders still face many problems, however. Separatist movementshave continued to test the nation’s unity. In 2002, East Timor won itsindependence after decades of violent conflict. The region of Aceh, on the islandof Sumatra, also gained substantial political autonomy after years of struggle.

Natural disasters have also plagued Indonesia. In 2004, an earthquake off ofSumatra caused a great tsunami that destroyed coastal areas of Aceh and killedmore than 160,000 people. In 2010, a volcanic eruption on Sumatra forced amass evacuation. In 2018, another major earthquake and tsunami devastated theisland of Sulawesi, leaving thousands dead and displacing hundreds of thousandsof people.

Islamic extremism is another issue affecting the nation. Indonesia has the world’slargest Muslim population. For the most part, Indonesians are moderate Muslims,but the rise of terrorism by Islamic radicals has also affected Indonesia. In 2002, abombing in a resort town on the island of Bali killed 202 people. Other terroristattacks followed. The government has sought to identify and prosecute extremistgroups. It has also sought to bolster Indonesia’s tradition of religious moderation.



However, political violence remains a major concern.

2. Pakistan: Dictatorship andDemocracyLike Indonesia, Pakistan is an important developing country with a large Muslimpopulation. It occupies a strategic location in South Asia between India andAfghanistan. Since independence, it has tried to build a stable democracy;however, it has spent much of its history under military rule.

After the Partition Pakistan won its independence in 1947, when the British leftIndia. Under the partition agreement, Pakistan and India, which had both beenpart of British India, became separate nations. One of the main reasons forpartition was the fact that India’s population was largely Hindu and Pakistan’spopulation was largely Muslim. The founders of Pakistan wanted to establish anindependent Muslim state. However, partition caused many problems. Millions ofMuslims living in India fled for Pakistan, while an equal number of Hindus andSikhs living in the area of Pakistan moved to India. This mass migration—and theviolence that accompanied it—left deep scars on both nations.

Another problem was the division of Pakistan into two parts: East Pakistan andWest Pakistan. More than a thousand miles of Indian territory separated the twosections of the country, and this posed a major obstacle to national unity.



When Pakistan gained itsindependence from Britain in1947, its territory was divided intoEast and West Pakistan. The tworegions were separated by a vastexpanse of Indian territory. EastPakistan broke off to form thenation of Bangladesh in 1971.

Ethnic and cultural differences also divided Pakistan. West Pakistan included fivemajor ethnic groups, along with several minor ones. Punjabis were the largestgroup. East Pakistan, the more populous part of the region, was mostly Bengali.No common language, except English, united these various groups.

In addition, most of the wealth and resources of British India remained in India.Pakistan expected India to share some of this wealth after partition, but Indiarefused. As a result, Pakistan faced great economic and political challenges.

Civilian and Military Rule Given these problems, it was unclear whetherPakistan could survive as a nation. Its first leader, Mohammed Ali Jinnah—theFather of the Nation—managed to hold the nation together for a short time, but hedied after a year in office. The leaders who followed were less successful.

Conflict with India added to Pakistan’s problems. In 1947, forces supported by



Pakistan invaded Kashmir, a largely Muslim region claimed by both Pakistan andIndia. In response, the Hindu ruler of Kashmir ceded the region to India andasked for Indian support. Pakistani troops entered the war the next year, but thetwo sides fought to a stalemate. In 1949, the United Nations negotiated aceasefire. Kashmir was divided along a ceasefire line, called the Line of Control.India kept most of the territory, and tensions with Pakistan continued. Two morewars followed in 1965 and 1999. Today, Kashmir remains a conflict zone.

At the same time that Pakistan was engaged in conflict with India, the Pakistanistate itself was becoming increasingly unstable. Disputes broke out between Eastand West Pakistan. In 1958, the president declared martial law. Soon after, themilitary took over and established a dictatorship.

The military ruled Pakistan for more than a decade. At first, many Pakistaniswelcomed military rule. They hoped the army would bring order and stability. TheUnited States also backed the Pakistani military as an ally in the Cold War. U.S.aid helped bolster the military’s strength and keep it in power.

During this time, tensions between East and West Pakistan continued to grow. In1971, East Pakistan declared independence as the new nation of Bangladesh.Civil war broke out, and India sent troops to support Bangladesh. Pakistan soonsurrendered. By this time, the military regime had lost public support. It handedover power to a new civilian government, led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

Benazir Bhutto was the firstwoman in modern history to leada Muslim nation. In this photo,Bhutto is surrounded bysupporters as she campaigns tobecome prime minister.



Bhutto governed Pakistan for the next six years. His policies, which combinedelements of socialism and populism, initially won him popular support. Theeconomy eventually suffered, however, giving rise to more unrest. Bhutto wasalso accused of crimes against his political opponents. In 1977, the army tookover again. Bhutto was arrested for his alleged crimes and later executed.

Over the next three decades, Pakistan continued its pattern of political instability.Rule shifted between military and civilian hands. During this time, Benazir Bhutto—the former leader’s daughter—held power twice. She was the first woman inmodern history to lead a Muslim nation. In the 1990s, however, she was chargedwith corruption and went into exile. She returned in 2007 to take part in elections.Two months later, while campaigning for office, she was assassinated.

Ongoing Tensions In 2008, the military handed over power to civilians oncemore. The new government faced many pressing issues. Chief among them wasPakistan’s role in the fight against terrorism. Pakistan took on this role afterSeptember 11, 2001, when al Qaeda launched its brutal attacks against theUnited States that killed nearly 3,000 people at the World Trade Center, thePentagon, and in western Pennsylvania.



On September 11, 2001, al Qaeda terrorists hijacked airplanes and flew theminto the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Two morehijacked planes crashed into the Pentagon and in rural Pennsylvania. Inresponse, Pakistan pledge to support efforts to combat terrorism, crack down onextremist groups, and cease aid to the Taliban.

In response to 9/11, Pakistan pledged support for efforts to combat terrorism. Itpromised to end aid to the Taliban in Afghanistan, and to crack down on extremistgroups at home. This policy sparked a violent reaction from Islamic militants.Terrorist attacks increased in Pakistan. Many Pakistanis criticized theirgovernment for helping the United States and other Western powers in thestruggle against militant Islam. At the same time, the United States questionedwhether Pakistan was truly committed to that struggle. Tensions between thecountries were further strained in 2011 when U.S. military forces located andkilled Osama bin Laden, the leader of al Qaeda, in Pakistan.

Terrorism poses serious risks to the stability of Pakistan and all of South Asia. Sodoes the ongoing conflict with India. Pakistan has been linked to several terroristattacks in India, including a bloody assault in the city of Mumbai in 2008.Tensions between the two nations remain high. To make matters worse, both



countries possess nuclear weapons. In the past, escalating conflict has raised thethreat of nuclear war. Both India and Pakistan have tried to resolve their problemsthrough diplomacy, but a long-term solution is still not in sight.

3. Mexico: Stability and ChangeMexico has been an independent nation for two centuries. It has a large economywith a strong industrial base. It also has a well-established political system. Yet,Mexico still faces many of the problems of a developing country, includingwidespread poverty and corruption.



One problem Mexico has faced isa wide gap in the standards ofliving between its wealthiest andpoorest citizens. The homespictured here are both in theMexico City area. Shacks madeof scrap wood and metal arelocated in slums on the outskirtsof the city. In contrast, others areable to live in very comfortable,affluent conditions.

Stability Under the PRI Mexico’s modern history began with the MexicanRevolution of the early 1900s. This revolution overturned the old elitist and oftenrepressive political order, but it also left the country in chaos. To restore order,Mexico’s leaders created a new political system based on one-party rule. In 1946,this party became known as the PRI: the Institutional Revolutionary Party. ThePRI brought decades of political stability to Mexico.

The PRI established what some political analysts called the “perfect dictatorship.”It exercised absolute power while preserving the rituals of democracy. Every sixyears, Mexico held presidential elections in which various parties took part, butthe PRI always won, usually by lopsided margins. The government controlled thepolitical process through bribery, fraud, and violence. In 1968, when studentsstaged a mass protest in Mexico City in support of greater freedom anddemocracy, security forces gunned them down. Several hundred people lost theirlives.

At the same time, the PRI presided over decades of steady economic growth.Analysts called it the Mexican Miracle. The government built roads, dams,schools, and power plants. It funded social welfare programs and developed the



tourist industry. However, corruption also grew. PRI officials enriched themselvesat the public expense, and most presidents left office as wealthy men. No oneseemed to mind as long as the economy kept growing.

However, the benefits of growth were poorly distributed. The upper and middleclasses profited, while most Mexicans did not. The wealthy lived like their affluentcounterparts in developed countries, whereas the poor barely survived on smallfarms or in urban slums. Many Mexicans chose to immigrate illegally to the UnitedStates in search of jobs and a better life.

In the 1970s, the Mexican economy got a big boost from huge oil discoveries. Bythe early 1980s, Mexico became the world’s fifth largest oil producer. Suddenly,the country was awash in oil money. Banking on future revenues, it took out largeforeign loans to finance major construction projects. Prosperity and growth lookedlike permanent conditions in Mexico.

In 1981, however, world oil prices collapsed, throwing Mexico into a financialcrisis. It could not repay its debts to foreign banks. Building projects stalled andcompanies went bankrupt. The economy crashed. Mexico got bailout moneyfrom the United States and other international lenders, but the boom years wereover. As one reporter wrote, “The greatest economic surge in modern Mexicanhistory had turned into the worst economic crisis in six decades.”



The Zapatistas staged a rebellion in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, in 1994. Therebels fought in protest of economic policies that they believed hurt Mexico’sindigenous population.

Changes in the System Mexico gradually recovered. However, in the yearsthat followed, Mexicans grew more critical of their government.

Criticism increased after a massive earthquake struck Mexico City in 1985. Thequake leveled large parts of the city and killed at least 10,000 people. When thegovernment was slow to respond, citizen groups formed to carry out much of therelief work. This effort planted the idea of citizen action.

Mexico’s political opposition began to play a more active role. In 1988, the PRIcandidate for president—Carlos Salinas de Gortari—barely won office in whatmany saw as a fraudulent election. Opposition candidates won state elections,however. They also won enough seats in congress to challenge the PRI’s longhold on power.

During his presidency, Salinas signed the North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA). This treaty between Mexico, the United States, and



Canada created a free trade zone in North America. It allowed most goods topass freely among the three countries without tariffs or other trade barriers.

In 1994, just after NAFTA went into effect, rebels in the southern state of Chiapasrose up against the government. They called themselves the Zapatistas after oneof the leaders of the 1910 Mexican Revolution, Emiliano Zapata. They demandedland and rights for Mexico’s indigenous population. The government agreed tomeet with the rebels, and the rebellion died down. However, the group hadshaken the political structure of the country.

Meanwhile, the political opposition was continuing to organize. In 1997,opposition parties won enough seats in congress to deny the PRI majority controlfor the first time since its founding in 1929. A far greater shock occurred in 2000,however, when an opposition candidate—Vicente Fox Quesada—won thepresidential election. The PRI honored the results and gave up power, endingseven decades of control by the official party.

The New Millennium Since Fox’s 2000 election, Mexico has continued on itsdemocratic path. The PRI remains an important political force, but it mustcompete for power with other political parties.



Mexico City is one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world.Manufacturing, tourism, and finance are some of the most important industries inthis bustling capital. Like Mexico as a whole, Mexico City faces its share ofproblems. But it also reflects Mexico’s enormous potential for futuredevelopment.

The Mexican economy has also continued to grow, although the gap between richand poor remains great. Poverty in Mexico still spurs illegal immigration to theUnited States. However, this migration has decreased in recent years due toMexico’s improved social and economic conditions and declining birth rate. Anincrease in the cost and risk of migrating illegally to the United States has alsohelped decrease migration rates.

One alarming trend, however, has been rising crime and violence related to thedrug trade. For decades, Mexico has supplied illegal drugs to the U.S. market.More recently, the powerful drug cartels that control the trade have threatenedsecurity in Mexico. The cartels battle each other for control of the trade, as well asbribe and intimidate officials. In 2006, the government declared war on the cartels.It called in the army to crack down on the drug trade, but this only led to adramatic increase in violence.



Despite these problems, Mexico is a strong developing country. It has a highlyskilled population and deep cultural traditions. Although it faces many challenges,Mexico has enormous potential for future growth and development.

4. Poland: An Emerging EuropeanStateDuring the Cold War, Poland was an ally of the Soviet Union and a key memberof the Eastern bloc. At the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s, it freed itselffrom communist rule. Today, Poland is a democratic state with a growing marketeconomy.

A Difficult History For much of its history, Poland was occupied or controlledby foreign powers. Poland is located along vital land routes between WesternEurope, the Eurasian plains to the east, and the Baltic Sea to the north. Invadingarmies often overran Polish territory, as its central location and geography madePoland vulnerable.

Poland enjoyed a golden age in the 1400s and 1500s. It became a powerfulkingdom—the largest in Europe—with a strong Catholic culture. However, it waslater carved up by Prussia, Austria, and Russia. For more than a century, Polandceased to exist as a nation.

The 1900s brought new problems. The two world wars ravaged Poland. DuringWorld War II, the invasion and occupation of the country by Nazi Germany wasespecially devastating. The war decimated Poland’s population and destroyed itseconomy. After the war, Poland came under Soviet control.

The Rise and Fall of Communism The Soviets had promised to let Polanddecide its fate after the war. Instead, they manipulated elections to make sure thatPolish communists gained power. By 1947, a pro-Soviet government was incharge.

Poland’s communist leaders adopted many features of Soviet rule. They built alarge secret police force to control the population. They also established acommand economy run by the state, which emphasized heavy industry andcollective farming. These economic policies had limited success, however.Poland’s state-run factories and farms were inefficient and unproductive. Most



Polish farmers resisted collective agriculture. By the 1960s, the government hadreversed its farm policy and allowed land to revert to private ownership.

Both world wars ravaged Poland, and Warsaw was completely destroyed duringWorld War II. This is what Warsaw looked like when Soviet and Polish troopsliberated it in 1945.

Additionally, Poland’s communist government sought to suppress religion bycracking down on the Catholic Church. Despite official persecution, most Polesremained faithful Catholics. The Catholic Church, for its part, helped keep Polishtraditions alive.

Two major events further weakened communism in Poland. One was theselection in 1978 of Polish cardinal, Karol Wojtyla, to become Pope John Paul II.The pope’s visit to Poland the following year prompted an outpouring of popularsupport that undermined communist rule. The pope reminded Poles of theirnational heritage and their right to basic freedoms. As one historian noted:

When John Paul II kissed the ground at Warsaw airport on June 2,1979, he began the process by which communism in Poland—andultimately everywhere else in Europe—would come to an end.



—John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War, 2007

The second major event was the birth of the Solidarity trade union movement in1980. That year, workers at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk went on strike,demanding the right to form unions independent of communist control. The strikesoon spread to other factories and gained national support. Under intensepressure, the government bowed to the strikers’ demands and legalized free andindependent unions. The strike leader, Lech Walesa, became a national hero andthe head of the newly formed Solidarity trade union federation.

Although the government had legalized Solidarity, it still regarded the unionmovement as a threat. A year later, it declared martial law. The governmentarrested Walesa and other union leaders. It reversed its course and bannedSolidarity. However, Solidarity continued to exist and organize strikes as anunderground organization. In 1983, Walesa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.Eventually, the government lifted martial law and released opposition leadersfrom jail. It also began talks with Solidarity.



In 1978, the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla became Pope John Paul II. He was aPolish nationalist, and his activism contributed to the peaceful dissolution of theSoviet Union. He also traveled widely and worked for understanding amongdifferent religions. Here, the pope greets a stadium of admirers during a 1979tour of the United States.



Lech Walesa was the charismaticleader of the Solidarity tradeunion movement in Poland. Hiswork helped weaken communistcontrol in Poland, and he becamea national hero. He was electedpresident of Poland in 1990.

In 1989, the government agreed to hold elections for seats in a new nationalparliament. Although these elections were restricted, opposition candidatesbacked by Solidarity won nearly all of the seats open to them.

After the election, the communists tried to reassert control, but they could not holdon to power. Solidarity’s leaders convinced some communists to support aSolidarity-led coalition government. A non-communist was named prime minister,and helped lead the country from communism to democracy. The following year,Lech Walesa was elected president in Poland’s first direct presidential election.

The Polish Republic The new democratic government overhauled Poland’spolitical and economic structures. It declared itself a republic and replaced central



planning with a market economy.

At first, Poland’s transition to capitalism was difficult. The new government tried tomove quickly toward a free market. It froze wages and removed price controls onconsumer goods. It also ended government subsidies to industries and turnedmany businesses over to private hands. However, these policies caused a severerecession, high inflation, and rising unemployment. Many Poles criticized thegovernment for sacrificing social needs in the rush to capitalism.

Within a few years, however, the economy had turned around. By the mid-1990s,Poland boasted one of the highest economic growth rates in Europe. However,not all regions and sectors of the economy benefited equally, and the gapbetween rich and poor increased. Nevertheless, the growth itself was a testamentto Poland’s post-communist success.

Poland has also continued to strengthen its democratic system. It has heldregular, free elections in which various parties compete for power. It has alsobecome more integrated into Europe. Poland joined NATO, the Western militaryalliance, in 1999. In 2004, it became a full member of the European Union (EU).These steps were another sign of Poland’s emergence as a strong, independentnation.

5. Tanzania: The Struggle forDevelopmentThe East African country of Tanzania became an independent state in the 1960s,along with many other African nations. Its first leader had a strong vision for thecountry. However, like most African nations, Tanzania struggled to develop.

Independence and Self-Rule The modern country of Tanzania was formed bythe union of the territories of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Tanganyika was thelarger and more populous of the two. It was colonized by Germany in the late1800s where the Germans established plantations to grow export crops such asrubber, cotton, and coffee.

After World War I, Britain took over Tanganyika under a League of Nationsmandate. When the League dissolved after World War II, the colony became aUN trust territory administered by the United Nations and supervised by the



British. In 1961, Tanganyika gained independence in a peaceful transfer ofpower. The leader of the independence movement, Julius Nyerere, becamepresident in 1963.

Zanzibar—a group of islands off the East African coast—became a Britishprotectorate in the late 1800s. Before that, Arab sultans had ruled the islands.The sultans continued to act as formal rulers, even after the British established aprotectorate over Zanzibar. Zanzibar was famed for its spices, especially cloves.In fact, the scent of cloves was said to be so strong that sailors on the IndianOcean could smell it far out at sea.

Julius Nyerere led the movementfor Tanzanian independence. Hebecame the country’s firstpresident in 1962. Nyerere was arespected and effective politicalleader. On the other hand, hissocialist economic policiesproved to be disastrous for theTanzanian economy.

Zanzibar gained independence from Britain in 1963. A year later, it joined with



Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanzania. Zanzibar retainedsubstantial autonomy, however. Although it took part in the national government,it also had its own president and legislature.

Socialism Under Nyerere Tanzania’s first president after independence, JuliusNyerere, played a crucial role in the country’s development. He was an honestand respected leader who tried to serve his country’s interests. Unlike manyAfrican leaders, he did not use his power for personal gain. However, as heacknowledged himself, he made many mistakes along the way.

Nyerere wanted to build a socialist society in Tanzania. He established free publiceducation and carried out literacy campaigns. He nationalized industries andplaced farmland under collective ownership. In pursuing his socialist policies,Nyerere made Tanzania a one-party state, though he allowed democratic rightswithin that system. He called his socialist program ujamaa, a Swahili word for“familyhood.” He hoped it would ensure equality for all.

Nyerere also pursued an active foreign policy. He became a leader of thenonaligned movement during the Cold War. He also helped found theOrganization of African Unity, now known as the African Union. Nyereresupported the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa and the struggle forindependence in Zimbabwe. He also worked to oust the brutal dictator, Idi Amin,in neighboring Uganda.



On August 7, 1998, the Islamic militant group al Qaeda bombed the U.S.embassy in Tanzania. In this photo, an FBI investigator speaks with U.S. Marineoutside the destroyed embassy building. The attack in Dar es Salaam wasaccompanied by a simultaneous attack by al Qaeda on the U.S. embassy inNairobi, Kenya.

Nyerere’s political leadership earned him widespread praise, both at home andabroad. His social policies helped overcome ethnic and regional differences andunite the country, but his economic policies were a disaster. Tanzania remainedone of the poorest countries in the world. Its state-owned industries wereinefficient and corrupt. In addition, most farmers opposed Nyerere’s policy ofcollective agriculture. Individual incentive and productivity declined, and farmproduction collapsed. In the end, Nyerere was forced to abandon the scheme.

Despite his economic failures, Nyerere’s rule helped make Tanzania one of themost politically stable countries in Africa. He was elected to four full terms inoffice. Eventually, he voluntarily stepped down in 1985, when he handed powerover to another elected leader.

Tanzania Today Nyerere’s successors moved Tanzania toward a free marketeconomic system. They turned many state-owned companies over to privatehands. These policies helped promote economic growth. During the 2000s, the



country’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew by around 6 percent a year. Still,Tanzania remains a poor, developing country. Living standards have notimproved much for most Tanzanians.

Nyerere’s successors also reformed Tanzania’s political system. They allowedvarious political parties to take part in elections. In general, the electoral processhas been peaceful and orderly. The country has had some problems with politicalviolence, however. In 1998, al Qaeda militants bombed the U.S. embassy in themain city of Dar es Salaam. Zanzibar has also seen a rise in Islamic extremism.Though for the most part, Tanzania has maintained its political stability.



After the independent DemocraticRepublic of Congo’s first primeminister was removed from office,competing groups fought forcontrol of the government. Unrestand rebellion plagued the countryuntil 1965, when Mobutu SeseSeko, the leader of the army, tookover the country in a coup. Anauthoritarian ruler, Mobutuamassed a vast personal fortuneduring his nearly 32 years inpower.

6. Further Upheaval in AfricaIn addition to Tanzania, 44 African countries gained their independence between1956 and 1976. Not all countries were as successful as Tanzania in transitioningfrom colonial rule to independence. These countries carried the legacy of decadesof European imperialism.



Africa’s Colonial Legacy When European powers divided Africa in the late1800s, they paid little attention to the traditional homelands of African peoples.Europeans drew borders that cut across these homelands, dividing ethnic andcultural groups and putting different groups in the same territory. Sinceindependence, most of these borders have remained.

The newly independent countries that emerged lacked cultural and social unity. Insome cases, power struggles occurred along ethnic or religious lines. Thesedivisions destabilized some countries, with insurgent movements, civil wars, andcoups d’état occurring within a decade of independence.

Other nations were able to develop stable governments, but stability came at acost for many. To maintain order, some leaders became authoritarian dictatorsand sought to limit the power of, or even ban, opposing political parties.Throughout the continent, political parties and governments aligned themselveswith the Cold War superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union—to gainpolitical and economic support.

The new African nations also faced severe economic problems. European powershad exploited the colonies for their resources and labor. They built mines andplantations to produce raw materials for export. They rarely established industriesor infrastructure that would benefit the nations themselves.

In general, European powers failed to prepare Africans for independence. In mostcountries, education levels remained low. There was a shortage of trainedprofessionals—managers, doctors, engineers, and political leaders—to build thenew nations.

This colonial legacy made it hard for African nations to advance. Their economieswere weak and their governments unstable, making them prone to social andpolitical upheaval. In many cases, governments relied on repression to maintainstability. Moreover, European countries continued to exercise considerablepolitical and economic influence over their former colonies, challenging theautonomy of these states.

Changing Standards of Living in Africa In post-colonial Africa, manyeconomies struggled. Most emerging African nations remained dependent onexporting a few agricultural products or minerals. This made their economieshighly unstable. Widespread economic downturns resulted from events such asfluctuations in commodity prices and droughts that limited agricultural productivity.



In the first decades after independence, especially between 1960 and 1980,some countries tried to develop industrially. However, these attempts often did notsucceed. Markets for goods produced in Africa were limited and frequentlydifficult to reach. Production itself was ultimately very costly because countriestook on foreign debt to support industrial growth. These economic difficulties werefurther complicated by political instability and rapid population growth.

This resulted in limited access to resources for most Africans, which in turnaffected life expectancy and living standards. In the early 1960s, life expectancyin sub-Saharan Africa was around 41 years. Today, that number has onlyimproved to just over 60 years. These figures are the lowest of any region of theworld.

Since the 1980s, AIDS has further lowered life expectancy in Africa. Deaths fromAIDS have taken a massive toll on African society. Unlike other diseases, HIV, theunderlying cause of AIDS, develops slowly. People may have the disease foryears without knowing. In 2000, more than one-third of adults in sub-SaharanAfrica were living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS was also the number one cause of deathin Africa that year. The human costs have been devastating.



A billboard promotes HIV testingalong a road in Uganda, wheresocial stigmas prevent men fromgetting tested.

Over time, the AIDS epidemic has taken its toll on countries in a variety ways.Deaths caused by the disease have left millions of children orphaned. To protectthese vulnerable children, governments have supported programs to ensure thatthey stay in school and remain HIV-free. Additionally, most individuals with thedisease are working-age adults. High levels of death and disability can affect acountry’s economic health. For example, in the worst years of the epidemic,exports decreased in some countries, and dependence on imports increased.

While countries were dealing with the economic effects of HIV/AIDS, they alsospent resources on treatment and prevention programs. Fortunately, with moreaccessible treatments and greater knowledge about prevention, people are nowliving longer. New HIV infections rates are declining in sub-Saharan Africa.

These social and economic challenges are just some of the issues African nationshave faced since decolonization. Four countries—Botswana, Ghana, Nigeria, andSouth Africa—serve as case studies for the development of independent African



nations.

Rising Standard of Living in Botswana Botswana is considered an examplefor African countries to follow. From independence in 1966 to 2014, it had one ofthe world’s fastest growing economies. Its GDP per capita, a measure ofstandard of living, is nearly 100 times what it was in 1966, with diamonds servingas a major source of income. Government revenue has supported thedevelopment of rural infrastructure and welfare services. Moreover, despite theAIDS epidemic, life expectancy is higher there than in the rest of sub-SaharanAfrica.

Botswana is also one of Africa’s most stable democracies. Since independence, ithas held free elections every five years, and corruption in government is limited.Voting rates tend to be between 60 and 70 percent, and citizens participate incommunity meetings at a similar rate. Although Botswana has a multipartysystem, one party has held power since independence.

In recent years, other African countries have also experienced economic growth.Between 1999 and 2008, the poverty rates in many African countries declined.Since 2005, GDP per capita has increased by more than 20 percent in sub-Saharan Africa. In the same period, GDP per capita has also increased in NorthAfrica—by around 40 percent in Morocco, 13 percent in Algeria, and 32 percent inEgypt. Six countries—Algeria, Egypt, Mauritius, Morocco, Seychelles, and Tunisia—have nearly eliminated extreme poverty.

With vast natural resources, such as oil, cobalt, and copper, many countries havethe potential to develop economically. However, these countries may also have todiversify their economies so they do not depend on a small number of exports.Furthermore, some countries will need to address issues related to governmentstability and corruption, as well as income inequality, to ensure that benefits reachall of society.



Although he was forced out of thecountry and died in exile, KwameNkrumah is respected by many inGhana today. Many consider himthe founding father of the nation.In 1992, the Kwame NkrumahMemorial Park was established inGhana’s capital, Accra. Thisstatue of Nkrumah sits in front ofthe mausoleum where he isburied.

Ghana After Independence Ghana was the first sub-Saharan country to gainindependence in the 20th century. Kwame Nkrumah became the country’s firstleader in 1957. Within in a year, he implemented authoritarian policies. However,he remained popular due to his efforts to develop Ghana’s infrastructure. Asforeign debt to fund development crippled the country, this popularity faded. Asthe economy began to fail, Nkrumah increased his political control and sought aidfrom communist countries. In 1964, constitutional amendments increasedNkrumah’s power by naming him president for life and establishing one-party rule.

With the economy weakening, the army staged a coup in 1966 and implementedmore conservative economic policies. Nkrumah went into exile. During the nextdecades, a series of military and civilian governments ruled Ghana. The economyremained weak with foreign debt and little income from exports.

In 1979, Jerry Rawlings, an air force officer, overthrew the government andhelped return Ghana to civilian rule. He hoped new leadership would rid thecountry of corruption and improve the economy. Disappointed with weak civilianrule, he staged another coup in 1981.



The city of Lagos in western Nigeria was the country’s first capital. In 1991, thecapital moved to Abuja (pictured), which is in the center of the country. Manypeople hoped the move would help to unite this diverse country.

Rawlings successfully employed free market strategies, such as privatizingcompanies and devaluing the currency to increase exports, to bolster theeconomy. By the early 1990s, Ghana had the highest economic growth rates inAfrica. In 1992, the first presidential election was held since 1979. Despite someviewing Rawlings as an authoritarian, he won the presidency and, in 1996, did soagain. In 2001, he stepped down, and power was peacefully transferred to thenew democratically elected government. Ghana’s government remains stable anddemocratically elected. However, economic growth and corruption continue to betop concerns.

Nigeria’s Search for Stability Nigeria further illustrates some of the challengesthat faced African nations. A former British colony, Nigeria gained independencein 1960. At first, its prospects looked good as it was one of the largest and richestcountries in Africa. However, ethnic problems soon divided the nation.

Nigeria is home to three main ethnic groups. The Hausa-Fulani, a mostly Muslimgroup, live in the north. The Yoruba, half of whom are Christian and half of whomare Muslim, live in the southwest. The Igbo, a mostly Catholic group, live in the



southeast. After independence, these groups shared power in a federal system ofgovernment. Each group tried to gain advantage, fearing domination by theothers.

The political system soon broke down. In 1966, a group of army officers—mostlyIgbos—overthrew the government. A few months later, Hausa officers staged acounter-coup and toppled the new regime. Rioting erupted against the Igbos, andthousands were killed.

In 1967, the Igbo region seceded from Nigeria. It called itself the Republic ofBiafra. Civil war broke out and more than a million people died, mostly fromstarvation. In 1970, Biafra was defeated and forcibly reincorporated back intoNigeria.

After the war, the army kept control over Nigeria for most of the next threedecades. It claimed that military rule was necessary to ensure peace andprosperity. Although the army promised to return power to civilians, it repeatedlywent back on that pledge.

Signs designating “whites only”areas were common underapartheid in South Africa.

In 1999, however, democracy was finally restored. By this time, Nigeria hadbecome one of the world’s leading oil producers. The government hoped to useoil income to develop the country, but the results were mixed. Oil revenuesbrought great wealth to Nigeria, but corruption also increased. Meanwhile, othersectors of the economy—including farming and manufacturing—suffered fromneglect. Most Nigerians remained desperately poor. Two-thirds of the populationlived on less than $1 per day. Oil also led to conflict, as residents of the Niger



Delta—the country’s main oil region—demanded a fair share of the oil wealth.Armed groups kidnapped oil workers and attacked oil facilities.

Ethnic and religious conflicts also increased under democratic rule. Violenceerupted between Muslims and Christians, especially in northern Nigeria.Thousands of people died in these riots.

Nevertheless, Nigeria has managed to remain democratic. Several free electionshave taken place since the end of military rule. This record of democracy and therule of law offers hope that Nigeria can maintain stability and move beyond thetroubles of the past.

South Africa’s Struggle for Democracy South Africa also faced greatobstacles in its path to democratic rule. It won independence from the UnitedKingdom in 1910, long before most African nations. However, the end of colonialrule did not bring freedom for most South Africans.

After independence, South Africa remained under the control of its white minority.The state passed laws to deny basic rights to blacks, Asians, and mixed-racepeoples, all of whom made up four-fifths of the population. This policy continuedunder the Afrikaner-led National Party, which gained power in 1948. TheAfrikaners are people descended from the first Dutch colonists in South Africa.

As the majority party in government, the National Party instituted a policy ofapartheid, or racial separation. It imposed segregation throughout society—inschools, offices, parks, restaurants, and theaters. It also set up a system of tenAfrican homelands, or separate regions of the country where blacks were meantto live. Under apartheid, everyone was classified by race. Only whites wereallowed to vote in national elections or hold public office at the national level. Thepolice could arrest and detain people without trial, including anyone who opposedthe government.

Many South Africans, including some whites, resisted apartheid. The strongestopposition came from the African National Congress (ANC), a group formed in1912 to promote black rights. The ANC organized marches, strikes, and otherprotests. The government cracked down on these actions, killing many protestersand putting others in jail. One of those jailed in 1964 was the ANC leader NelsonMandela.

South Africa’s repressive policies sparked criticism around the world. The UnitedNations condemned apartheid and placed an arms embargo on the country.



Various countries also imposed economic sanctions on South Africa, restrictingtrade and investment. The United States was slow to join the antiapartheidmovement, but eventually it too called for change.

Under mounting pressure, South Africa finally agreed to reforms. The processbegan slowly but picked up speed under a new president, F.W. de Klerk. In 1990,de Klerk released Nelson Mandela from prison. Over the next two years, thegovernment struck down most apartheid laws. It also announced that free,democratic elections would be held in 1994. The ANC won the elections, andNelson Mandela became the country’s first black president. He promised topromote national unity and equal rights for all. In 1996, the South Africanparliament passed a new constitution that enshrined those principles in law,establishing a democratic state.

Like Mandela, South Africa’s subsequent leaders have tried to address thecountry’ many economic and social problems. They have launched programs ineducation, housing, and other public services. Nevertheless, poverty hasremained a serious problem. Many South Africans have struggled to meet theirbasic needs. Other concerns included high crime rates, HIV/AIDS, and corruption.Despite these challenges, South Africa’s successful transition to democracy hasgiven hope to many for the future.

SummaryThis lesson presented case studies of emerging nations. Each country has faceddistinct challenges, and all work to maintain economic growth and politicalstability.

Cultural Interaction In some countries, ethnic and cultural diversity has provedan obstacle to national unity. For example, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Nigeria havefound it difficult to unite their various peoples and regions in a single nation.However, this problem is not universal. In Tanzania, strong leadership and wisesocial policy helped bring diverse peoples together.

Political Structures Emerging nations often struggle to gain political stability.Most of the countries covered in this lesson have relied on authoritarian rule atone time or another, but they have also sought to build democracy. Althoughchallenges such as corruption still exist, the democratic outcomes in countriessuch as Mexico, Ghana, and South Africa offer hope for the future.



Economic Structures Building a strong economy is a challenge for mostcountries. In the past, many of the nations described here used state controls topromote economic growth. More recently, they have moved toward free marketpolicies. The results have been generally positive, though poverty and incomeinequality remain serious problems.

Politics and Economics in IndiaIndia is currently the world’s largest democracy, as well as one of its largesteconomies. India’s industrial economy began to develop in 1947 after the end ofBritish rule. Following independence from Britain, the Indian economy had beendecimated—with low literacy rates and high poverty. For the first forty-five yearsafter independence, India’s economy was divided into private and publicsegments. The private sector owned and operated small and medium sizedbusinesses. The government managed everything else, including consumerservices such as airlines, railroads, the postal service, and televisionbroadcasting. India developed a series of five-year plans to help the developmentof the public segments of the economy. However, initial progress was slow. Thefirst five-year plan in 1951 led to a 3.6% growth in GDP, as well as an 8%increase in per capita income. The second and third five-year plans, in 1956 and1961 respectively, were not as successful. The second five-year plan failed tomeet a target growth rate of 4.5%. The third five-year plan failed to meet thetarget growth rate of 5.6%, the actual growth rate only average 2.4%.

India’s economy then encountered another crisis in the mid-1970s during the timeof Indira Gandhi. Gandhi and her administration paid little attention to economicimprovement, instead choosing to focus on increasing her power and influence.Events such as the arrest of opposition leader, censorship, and suspendedelections led corruption to become a part of Indian government before Gandhieventually declared a general election in 1977. Gandhi lost the election, thoughshe came back to power years later before her assasination in 1984. Her son,Rajiv, then took over as prime minister, though he too ignored India's economyinto the 1990s.

Following Rajiv’s assasination in 1991, India’s economy began to worsen withgrowing inflation, higher unemployment rates, and increasing poverty rates. Thecollapse of the Soviet Union further impacted the economy, as the Soviet Unionhad been a major trading partner and supplier of oil to India. India’s foriegnexchange reserve then fell dramatically to $240 million. The International



Monetary Fund and the World Bank offered to help India in exchange foreconomic reforms. This led India to change its economic policies in 1991.

Prime Minister Narasiha Rao took steps towards liberalization and privatization toreform the Indian economy. Tariff levels were lowered, industrial licensing policieswere liberalized, and India’s foreign direct investment policy was revised. Thisallowed multinational corporations to begin to invest in India.

There were three main factors behind India’s economic growth following thesereforms. These included increased foreign direct investment, India’s focus oninformation technologies, and increased consumerism at home due to a growingmiddle class. India, especially, became a place of information technology andknowledge. As a result, many western firm brought their research anddevelopment departments to India. This opened a job market to many Indians,thus increasing the size of the workforce and the middle class. Today, India’seconomy is still strongly supported by its information technology industry.



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