Definition of Marketing

• the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.

• E.g. Vitasoy

Exchange• a process by

which two or more persons give and receive something of value.

The Marketing Concept -Focus on the Customer

• Market focus

• Customer orientation

• Co-ordinated marketing

• Profit seeking

Drawbacks of Marketing Concept

• ignores public

• influences values & ideas

Recent Development-- Societal Marketing Concept

• Concerns public welfare

and social responsibility

• e.g. CLP

The role of Marketing

• Marketing Analysis

• Marketing Planning

• Marketing Implementation

• Marketing Control

Marketing Research

• Gathering, recordingand analysis of data

• to solve a specificproblem that is tooimportant to be answered by guessing

• an informational input to decisions

What M.R. can tell ?

• How satisfied the consumers are

• How products are perceived

• Evaluate the sales potential

• Determine the effectiveness of ad

• Predict the impact of price changes

Defining the Problem & Research Objectives

Developing the Research Plan

Implementing the Research Plan

Interpreting and Reporting the Findings

The Marketing Research Process

1. Defining the problem and research objectives

• to find out the real problem but not the

symptom

• set the research objectives

• research approaches:

– exploratory

– descriptive

– causal

Examples

ExploratoryResearch

Descriptive Research Causal Research

Our sales aredeclining and wedon’t know why.

What kind of peopleare buying ourproducts?

Will buyers purchasemore of our productin a new package

Would people beinterested in ournew-product idea?

What features dobuyers prefer in ourproduct?

Which of the twoadvertisingcampaigns is moreeffective?

2. Developing research plan

• Determine specific information needs

• Source of information– secondary data

• Internal • External

– primary data

Benefits and Limitations of Secondary Data

Benefits

• Low cost

• Less effort

• Less time

• Sometimes more accurate

• Some information only from secondary sources

Limitations• Collected for other purpose• No control over data collection• Potential accuracy problem• May not be reported in required

form• May be outdated• May not meet requirements• A number of assumptions made

• Planning primary data collection

– research approach

– contact methods

– sampling plan

– research instruments

Research approach

• Observational research

• survey research

• focus group

• experimental research

Contact methods

• Telephone survey

• mail questionnaires

• personal interviews

Sampling plan

• sampling unit

• sampling size

• sampling procedure

Sampling TechniquesProbability Sampling

• All population members have a known probability of being in the sample

Simple Random Sampling

• Each population member, and each possible sample, has equal probability of being selected

Stratified Sampling

• The chosen sample is forced to contain units from each of the segments or strata of the population

Sampling Techniques (Contd.)

Cluster Sampling

• Involves dividing population into subgroups

• Random sample of subgroups/clusters is selected and all members of subgroups are interviewed

• Very cost effective

• Useful when subgroups can be identified that are representative of entire population

Research instrument

The most common instrument is questionnaire

• what questions to ask

• question structure

• wording of question

• order of question

Implementing the research plan

• collecting and analyzi

ng data

Interpreting and reporting the finding• Interpret the findings, draw conclusions and

report to management

• the manager willutilize these findingsto make decisions

Consumer behaviour

• refers to the buying behaviour of final consumers

• it includes the analysis of factors that influences purchase decisions and product use

Definition

Consumer behaviour studies how individuals, groups,and organizations select, buy, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas,or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires.

Buyer’s black box

Buyer’s response

Marketing and other stimuli

Consumer BehaviourConsumer Behaviour

External factors

1. Culture

2. Social factor

- reference groups

3. Family

4. Salesperson

5. Advertising

e.g. Fancl

6. Situation

Internal factors

1. Perception

– the process by which we select organize and interpr

et these stimuli into a meaningful and consistent pict

ure

Esteem Needs

2. Motivation

• to fulfill some kind of need

Self-actualization Needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Security Needs

Physiological Needs

3. Learning

• creates changes in behaviour through experience and practice

4. Attitude

• Consistently favourable or unfavourable evaluation, feelings and tendencies toward an idea.

5. Personality

• refers to the unique psychological characteristics that lead to relatively consistent and lasting responses

E.g. Vita Distilled Water

6. Demographic factors

• such as age, sex, income, education, occupation,….

Industrial Buying behaviour

Industrial market

• Consists of all the individuals and

organizations acquiring goods and services

that enter into the production of other

products and services that are sold, rented,

or supplied to others

Types of buying situations

• Straight rebuy

• modified rebuy

• new task buying

Industrial buying process

• Recognise the problem

• determine product needs and describe

product specifications

• search for suppliers

• assess and select suppliers

• evaluate overall performance

Participants in the industrial buying process

• Users

• influencers

• buyers

• deciders

• gatekeepers

Factors affecting industrial buying behaviour: External factors

• Level of demand• economic outlook• budget constraints• supply conditions• political/legal and competitive environmental

changes• rate of technological change

: internal factors

• Organizational influences

• interpersonal influences

Industrial market• Businesses do not buy

products for final consumption. Instead, they make purchases to be used directly or indirectly in meeting the needs of final consumers.

Consumer market• For direct consumption

Buying motive:

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Industrial market

• Tend to be larger

Consumer market

• Tend to be smaller

Size of purchase:

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Industrial market

• Less frequent

Consumer market

• More frequent

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Frequency of purchase:

Industrial market

• Stable and long term relationship with seller

Consumer market

• Businesses that produce products for sale to final consumers often have little contact with customers

Buyer-seller relationship:

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Industrial market

• More complex, customized; product support is critical.

Consumer market

• Less complex, standardized; product support is important

Product:

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Industrial market

• Competitive bidding and negotiation; list prices on standard products

Consumer market

• List prices

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Price:

Industrial market

• More direct (shorter)

Consumer market

• Less direct (longer)

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Distribution:

Industrial market

• Emphasis on personal selling

Consumer market

• Emphasis on advertising

Differences between consumer market and industrial market

Promotion:

Marketing strategy

• the plan of action for accomplishing the marketing objectives

• consists of– specific strategies for target market– marketing mix– marketing expenditure level

Analyze and select target market

Market• the set of all actual and potential buyers of

a product

• steps of selecting target market–market segmentation–market targeting–market positioning

Step 1

Marketing Segmentation

Market segmentation

• the act of dividing large, heterogeneous (dissimilar) markets into smaller, homogeneous (similar) submarkets.

Advantages of segmentation

• Precise market definition

• better analysis of competition

• rapid response to changing market needs

• effective resources allocation

• effective strategic planning

Dimensions for segmenting consumer markets

• Geographic segmentation– dividing the market into different geographical

units.

Demographic segmentation

• dividing the market into groups based on variables like age, sex, family size, family life cycle, income, occupation, education, religion, race, nationality,…

• popular because of– consumer needs vary closely with demographic

variables– easier to measure

Psychographic segmentation

• based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics

Segmentation by benefits

• base on what a product will do rather than consumer characteristics

Criteria for effective segmentation

• Substantial enough to serve

• Accessible by marketing means

• Differentiable:

– conceptually distinguishable and responding

differently

• Actionable:

– effective programs can be designed for

attracting target customers

• Measurable:

– size of market segment, purchasing power

and profile of target customers

Step 2

Market Targeting

• to reveal the firm market-segment

opportunities

• to evaluate the various segments

– segment size and growth

– segment structural attractiveness

– company objectives and resources

Undifferentiated marketing

• A firm decides to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer. E.g. McDonald

Differentiated marketing

• A firm decides to target several market segments and design separate offers for each– E.g. Giordano: men, ladies

Concentrated marketing

• A firm goes after a large share of one or a few sub-markets.– Selected segments– Specific products– Specific markets

Step 3

MarketPositioning

Market positioning

• to arrange for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive and desirable image relative to competing products in the minds of target consumers.

Purpose:• to reinforce or develop an image concerns

a product in customer mind

Ways of positioning

• Product features

• product benefits

• associating the product with a use or application

• user category

Steps of positioning

1. Identifying a set of possible competitive advantages

2. Selecting the right competitive advantages

3. Communicating and delivering the chosen position to the market

Marketing Mix

• the set of controllable marketing variables that the firm blends to produce the response it wants in the target market

• 4 Ps– product– price– place– promotion

• A product is anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use, or consumption and that might satisfy a want or need

• 3 levels of product– core product– actual product– augmented product

Product Classification

• Convenience goods

• Shopping goods

• Specialty goods

• Unsought goods

Classification of consumer goods

Individual product decisions

• Product attribute decisions

• Brand decisions

• Packaging decisions

• Product-Support decisions

Product Line Decisions

• A product line is a group of products that

are related in function, customer-purchase

needs, or distribution channels.

Product mix decisions

• the set of all product lines and items that a particular seller offers for sale

• 4 dimensions– width– length– depth– consistency

How new is “new”?

• New to the world

• New to the firm

• Product line extensions

• Product improvement

• Product modification

Why does a company need new products?

• Obtain greater profits/ROI• Capture larger market share• Meet customers’ changing needs &

tastes• Shorter product life cycle• Build competitive advantages• Planned obsolescence …

New product development

Steps:• Product idea generation• Product idea screening and product

concept development• Business analysis• Product testing• Market testing• Commercialization

Product life cycle (PLC)

• the course of a product’s sales and profit over its lifetime

• 4 stages:– introduction– growth– maturity– decline

Introduction Growth Maturity Decline

Sales

Profit

Time

Sal

es a

nd

pro

fit

Introduction Stage

• slow sales growth

• profit are nonexistent

• high promotion spending

• a few competitors

• usually focus on high-income groups

Growth Stage

• rapid market acceptance

• new competitors will enter

• introduce new product features

• market will expand

• profit increases

Maturity Stage

• slowdown in sales

• competitors begin marking down prices,…. to find better versions of the product

• drop in profit

• only well-established competitors

Decline Stage

• sales fall off and profits drop

• some firms withdraw from the market

Summary of Product Life-Cycle Characteristics, Objectives, andStrategies

INTRODUCTION GROWTH MATURITY DECLINE

Characteristics

Sales Low sales Rapidly rising sales Peak sales Declining sales

Costs High cost per

customer

Average cost per

customer

Low cost per

customer

Low cost per

customer

Profits Negative Rising profits High profits Declining profits

Competitors Few Growing number Stable number,

beginning to decline

Declining number

Marketing

Objectives

Create product

awareness and trial

Maximize market

share

Maximize profit while

defending market

share

Reduce expenditure

and milk the brand

Strategies

Product Strategy Offer a basic product Offer product

extensions, service,

warranty

Diversify brand and

models

Phase out weak

items

Pricing Strategy High price, unique

product/ cover

introduction costs

Lower price with

passage of time

Price at or below

competitors’

Set price to stay

profitable or

decrease to liquidate

Promotion Strategy Mount sales

promotion for product

awareness

Appeal to mass

market; emphasize

features, brand

Emphasize brand

differences, benefits,

loyalty

Reinforce loyal

customers; reduce

promotion

expenditures

Place Strategy Distribute through

selective outlets

Build intensive

network of outlets

Enlarge distribution

network

Be selective in

distribution; trim

away unprofitable

outlets

Ways to extend PLC

• To increase the frequency of use

• to add new user

• to find new uses

• to change package size, label, or product quality

Factors influencing pricing decisions ---- Internal Factors

1. Business and marketing objectives

• pricing objectives derive directly from

company objectives

2. Marketing mix strategy

• must coordinate with product, design, distribution and promotion decisions

3. Costs

• set the floor for the price

External factors

1. The market and demand

• Pricing in different types of market

• consumer perception of

price and value

2. Competitors’ prices and offers

3. Other external factors

• economic conditions

• reseller conditions

• Government

Pricing Objectives

• Profit maximizing objective

• Market share objective

• Competition objective

• Social objective

• Image objective

General Pricing Approaches

• Cost-based approach

• Buyer-based approach

• Competition-based approach

Pricing Strategies for New Products

• Market-skimming pricing

• Penetration pricing

Price-adjustment strategies

• Discount pricing and allowances

– cash discounts– quantity discounts– functional discounts– seasonal discounts– trade-in allowances– promotional allowances

• Discriminatory pricing

– customer-segment pricing

– product-form pricing

– location pricing

– time pricing

• Psychological pricing

• Promotional pricing– loss leaders– special event pricing– cash rebates

Promotion tools

• advertising

• sales promotion

• public relations

• personal selling

Setting the promotion budget

Affordable method

– ignores the effect of promotion on sales

Percentage-of-sales method

• wrongly view sales as the cause of promotion rather than as the result

Competitive-Parity

method

Objective-and-task method

Five important decisions

1. Setting objectives– to inform,

persuade, or

remind

2. Setting the advertising budget

• stage in the PLC

• market share

• competition

• advertising frequency

• product differentiation

3.Creating the advertising message

• message generation

• message evaluation

• message execution

4.Selecting advertising media

• reach, frequency, impact

• media types

• media vehicles

• media timing

5.Advertising evaluation

• communication effects

• sales effects

Sales promotion

• A wide variety of short-term incentive tools– coupons– premiums– contests– buying allowances

• to stimulate consumers, the trade partners, and the company’s own salesforce

Purposes of sales promotion

• to stimulate consumer trials, to reward loyal customers, to increase repurchase rate, to cement long-term relationship with retailers,……

• used together with advertising or personal selling

Steps of sales promotion

• Setting sales-promotion objectives

• selecting sales-promotion tools

• pretesting and implementing

• evaluating

Public relations

• Building good relations with the company’s various publics obtaining favorable publicity

• building up good “corporate image”

• handling or heading off unfavourable rumors, stories and events

Public relations tools

• Create news• speeches• special events• written materials• audiovisual materials• corporate identity materials • contributing money and time to public-

service activities

Major public relations decisions

• Setting public relations objectives

• choosing public relations messages and vehicles

• implementing the public relations plan

• evaluating public relations results

Steps of sales management

• Setting salesforce objectives• designing salesforce strategy• structure, size and compensation• recruiting and selecting• training• supervising• evaluating

Personal Selling Process

• Prospecting

• Preapproach

• Approaching the prospect

• Making the presentation

• Handling Objections

• Close the sale

• Follow up

Factors affecting the promotion mix

• Type of product/market

• push vs. pull strategy

• buyer readiness state

• PLC stage

• The role of distribution is getting a product to its target market.

• Channels of distribution: the routes followed by products as they change ownership in the movement from production to consumption

Distribution channel functions

• Information

• promotion

• contact

• matching

• Negotiation

• physical distribution

• financing

• risk taking

Designing distribution channel

• Selecting the proper type of distribution channel

• selecting the types of middlemen

• determining the intensity of distribution

Meaning of logistics

• the movement of all materials :– raw materials : from

the sources to the processing point

– finished goods : from the plant to ultimate customers

• concerns with the management of physical flow

Major logistics activities

• Transportation

• inventory maintenance

• order processing

• warehousing

• materials handling

• Protective packaging

• acquisition

• product scheduling

• information maintenance

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            

Definition

• Service is an activity or benefit that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything.

• Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product

• Diamond medical diagnosis

The Servuction system

5 elements influence the service:• Organization and system (invisible)• Environment (visible)• Contact personnel / service provider• Customer A• Customer B

The Servuction System

Characteristics of service

• Intangibility

• inseparability

• heterogeneity

• perishability

– fluctuating demand

Characteristics of Services differing from Goods

Goods Services Resulting Implications Marketing Strategies

tangible intangible Services cannot be inventoried, patented, readily displayed/ communicated

Tangibilize the intangible

The Peninsula

Characteristics of Services differing from Goods

Goods Services Resulting Implications Mkt

Strategies

standardized heterogeneous •Service delivery & customer satisfaction depend on employee actions•Service quality depends on many uncontrollable factors•No sure knowledge that service delivered matches what was planned & promoted

•HRM mgt–recruit

–Train

•Process standardization•empowerment•Service recovery

Characteristics of Services differing from Goods

Goods Services Resulting Implications Mkt

Strategies

Production separate from consumption

Inseparability of production & consumption

(interaction)

•Customers participate in & affect the transaction•Customers affect each other•Employees affect the service outcome•Decentralize may be essential•Mass production is difficult

•isolate technical core•decrease contact level•Increase customer participation

Characteristics of Services differing from Goods

Goods Services Resulting Implications Mkt

Strategies

Non-perishable

Perishable-fluctuate demand

•Difficult to synchronize supply & demand with service•Services cannot be returned / resold•Services cannot be inventoried

•Capacity mgt•Queuing mgt

Marketing Mix for Services

• Product • Price• Promotion• Place

+• People • Process• Physical evidence Singapore air

Product

– Tangiblize the intangible

– core and supplementary services

– customization vs. standardization

– the service mix

Price

Customer being inseparable in the process, outlay by customers include:

• Time• Physical effort• Psychological burdens (mental effort, negative

feelings)• Negative sensory burdens (unpleasant

sensations affecting any of the 5 senses)

Price

• Good understanding of the costs is needed as decrease of above burdens justify higher pricing

• Difficult to define a unit of service, considering:– Visible vs. invisible– Difference in speed– Direct contact vs. impersonal channel

Different from advertising for goods

Intangible nature – ‘vivid information’ that produce a clear impression on the sen

ses, e.g. symbols– Services are harder for customer to evaluate

Use tangible cues, e.g. high calibre personnel (DHL)

• Strong organizational image• Use personal information source, e.g. celebrit

y endorsements 成功個案• Engaging in post-purchase communication

Promotion

Place

• Identify core services• Reduce contact of low contact element e.g.

download application forms• Use of technology to create new channels:

– e.g. Octopus for ticketing, online shopping

• Convenience• Number of outlets• Location• scheduling

Fluctuating Demand

Supply side• Cross training• Use part time staff• Rent or share facilities &

equipment• Schedule down time during

period of low capacity (take vacation)

• Extra service hours• Use technology• Use price

Demand side• Price discrimination• Reservation• Overbook• Queuing (make the waiting

more tolerable)• Shift demand • Change the salesperson’s

assignment• Create promotional events

People

• Importance of customer contact personnel– Internal marketing (customer focus philosophy, bo

nus, awards, recognition as incentive)

• Ritzcarlton

Internal Marketing

Process

• Customer involvement in production– Educate customers in using technology or self-

service

• Develop service oriented internal process• Logistic support• Empowerment of staff for service recovery

Physical Evidence

Intangible nature makes service difficult to evaluate

• Communicate through corporate image, word of mouth, pricing physical evidence, warranty, awards

• ritzcarlton

• Judge by process, post-purchase information search – needs re-assurance

Meaning of CRM

• the process of creating,

maintaining, and

enhancing strong, value-

laden relationships with

customers and other

stakeholders.

Rationale behind CRM

• to retain current customers vs. to attract new customers

• new Marketing view: the science and art of finding, retaining and growing profitable customers

• challenges– changing demographics– more sophisticated competitors– overcapacity

• customer lifetime value

Key concepts in relationship building• Customer satisfaction

– perceived performance > expectations

• Customer loyalty and retention– create emotional affinity, not just rational

preference

• share of customer– cross-selling

Tools to build lasting customers

• Frequency marketing programs

• affinity program

• co-marketing and co-branding

• customisation and prompt response

• create long term contract

• Frequency marketing programs

• affinity program

• co-marketing

• Co-marketing

http://www4.mercedes-benz.com/amgiwc/index.html?loc=en

• Co-branding

Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications was established in 2001 by telecommunications leader Ericsson and consumer electronics powerhouse Sony Corporation. The company is owned equally by Ericsson and Sony.

Meaning of consumerism

• a movement that put pressure on businesses to consider consumer needs and interests

• consumer rights– right to be informed– right to be heard– right to safety– right to choose

Why consumers need protection?

• Manufacturer may be unfair to consumers

• consumers may be unable to judge the

quality

• insufficient information to evaluate service

• advertisements are exaggerating

• concern about health

Consumer protection in Hong Kong

• Legislation

• Consumer Council

Responses of businesses to consumerism

• Provide more and better information

• improve product safety

• quicker response to consumer complaints

• provide customers with a wide range of products and services

International marketing

• The process of focusing the resources and objectives on global market opportunities

Environmental forces in International Markets

• Cultural environment

• economic environment

• political and legal environment

Standardization vs. adaptation

Arguments for standardization

• reduce costs

• moving to a world living style

• international brand

Arguments for adaptation

• most exported goods needed adaptation

• take care of environmental differences

• max. sales and profits through customization

• favours local management inputs

Methods of entering overseas market

• Exporting• contract manufacturing• licensing• franchising• joint venture• strategic alliance• direct investment• countertrade

Factors affecting the choice of entry strategy

• desired speed

• firm expertise

• costs

• flexibility

• resources

• profit objectives

Marketing in the case of economic downturn

• moving down-market

• lowering price

• promoting image of good quality and durable

• find new markets

此項製作由「優質教育基金」贊助This production is sponsored by the

Contents of a Marketing Plan

• Situational analysis

• Marketing Objectives

• Selecting the Target Market

• Developing marketing mix

• Budget

• Controls

Product attribute decisions

• Product quality

• Product features

• Product design

Brand decisions

• To brand or not to brand

• Brand sponsor– manufacturer’s brand– private brand– Licensed brands– Co-brands

• Brand equity• High level of consumer awareness, loyalty

• Lower marketing costs

• Consumer expect stores to carry the brand• The company has more bargaining power

in channeling

• High credibility• Easily launch brand extensions

• Powerful brand• Defense against fierce price competition

Brand Strategy / Brand Development

– line extensions

– brand extensions

– Multi-brands

– new brands

Product

Existing New

Brand Existing Line

Extension

Brand

Extension

New Multi-

Brands

New

Brands

• Brand Positioning– Attributes– Benefits– Beliefs /values

• Create surprise, passion excitement

• Brand Re-positioning• Competitor’s close positioning cutting market s

hare• Customers’ wants may shift• Technology• www.euyansang.com

Brand Name selection

• Suggest benefits and qualities

• Easy to pronounce, recognize

• Distinctive, extendable

• Capable of registration and legal protection

Packaging decisions

• to create benefits: protection, economy,

convenience and promotion

• Major decisions:

– the main functions

– specific elements of package

– selecting the package design

Product-Support Services Decisions

• deciding which product-support services

to offer

• how to deliver the services to customers

Cost-based approach

• Cost-plus Pricing– to add a standard mark-up to the cost

• Breakeven analysis and Target Profit Pricing

Buyer-based Pricing

• base on the product’s perceived value

Competition-based pricing

• Going rate pricing– base on competitors’ price

Market-skimming pricing

• Set an initial high price

• after initial sales slow down, it lowers the price to draw in the next price-sensitive layer of customers and so on

Penetration pricing

• set an initial low price

• seek to generate consumer interest and stimulate trial purchase

Types of distribution channel

1.producer

customer

2. manufacturer

retailer

consumer

3. manufacturer

wholesaler

retailer

consumer

4.manufacturer

wholesaler

retailer

consumer

agent

5.manufacturer

agent

retailer

consumer

Factors affecting choice of distribution channel

• Industrial goods vs. consumer goods

• no. of customers

• importance of control

• characteristics of products

• services

Determining the types of middlemen

Wholesalers

• full-service merchant wholesalers

• limited service merchant wholesalers

• manufacturer-owned wholesaler

• agent

Retailers

• store retailing

• nonstore retailing

Factors affecting the choice of middlemen

• Manufacturer requirement

• costs

Determining the intensity of distribution

• Intensive distribution

• exclusive distribution

• selective distribution

Observational Research

• Observing relevant people, actions and situations

• unwilling or unable to provide

• limitations:– feelings, attitudes and motives, or personal

behaviour

– long-run or infrequent behaviour

Survey

• Find out people knowledge, attitude,

preference, or buying behaviour

• gather descriptive information

• structure or unstructured

• Flexibility

• however:

– cannot remember

– privacy

– time pressure

– appear to be smart

– pleasing answer

Focus Groups

• Small group of people, led by a moderator

• opened discussion of a product/service or

buyer behaviour

• focus on specific problems or market

opportunities

Experimental Research

• Explain cause-and-effect relationships

between experimental (independent)

variables and dependent variables

• Weights & Measure 度量衡條例

• Sale of Goods 貨品售賣條例

• Trade Descriptions 商品說明條例

• Control of Exemption Clauses管制免責條款條例

• Toys & Children Products Safety玩具及兒童產品安全條例

• Consumer Goods Safety消費品安全條例

Legislation - Ordinances