Data Analysis Report

ENERGY USE STUDY REPORT

December 2003 to

November 2004

May 2006

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Disclaimer

This report is distributed by the Department of Housing and the Department of Public Works as an information source only.

The State of Queensland (Department of Housing and Department of Public Works) makes no statements, representations or warranties about the accuracy or completeness of any information contained in this report. Despite their best efforts, the State of Queensland (Department of Housing and Department of Public Works) makes no warranties that the information in this report is free from infection by computer viruses or other contamination.

The Queensland Government disclaims all responsibility and liability (including, without limitation, liability in negligence) for all expenses, losses, damages, and costs you might incur as a result of the information being inaccurate or incomplete in any way or through any other cause. The Queensland Government does not endorse the companies or products and materials referred to in this report.

Copyright

The Queensland Government supports and encourages the dissemination and exchange of information. However, copyright protects this material. The State of Queensland asserts the right to be recognized as author of this material and the right to have its material preserved and not altered.

Use of material published by the Department of Housing and Department of Public Works should only be in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968.

Built Environment Research Unit, Works Division, Department of Public Works prepared this report on Research House.

Further information regarding the Built Environment Research Unit and Research House can be found on these websites:

Queensland Government Smart Housing

Queensland Government Works Division

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1.0 Abstract ........................................................................................................1

2.0 Background..................................................................................................2

3.0 Introduction..................................................................................................2

3.0 Scope 4

3.1 Passive Design .....................................................................................4

3.2 Waste Avoidance ..................................................................................4

3.3 Minimisation of Non­renewable Energy Consumption .........................3

4.0 Methodology ................................................................................................3

4.1 Test Methodology .................................................................................3

4.2 Equipment Installation and Testing .......................................................3

4.3 Applied Research..................................................................................3

5.0 Rationale.......................................................................................................4

6.0 Findings and Discussion ...........................................................................6 6.0 Findings and Discussion ............................................................................7

6.1 Total Energy Use (Electricity and Gas) .................................................7

6.1.1 Energy Sources ....................................................................................8

6.2 Entertainment, Small Appliances, Lighting, Fans and Standby Power 12 6.2 Entertainment, Small Appliances, Lighting, Fans & Standby Power ...13

6.3 Whitegoods ................................................................................................14 6.3 Whitegoods.........................................................................................15

WHITEGOODS.................................................................................................................................17

ENERGY LABEL..............................................................................................................................17 6.4 Hot Water System ......................................................................................19

6.4.3 Principles of Operation......................................................................21

6.4.6 Financial Evaluation of Hot Water Systems ......................................26

6.5 Photovoltaic Energy System ....................................................................28 Flat­Plate Photovoltaic Array .......................................................................29

6.5.4 Results and Discussion.....................................................................29

6.5.5 The Future of Photovoltaic Energy Devices........................................32

6.6 Daylighting and Artificial Lighting............................................................33 6.7 Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG)..........................................................36

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6.7.2 Hot Water Systems .............................................................................40

7.0 Conclusions ...............................................................................................42

8.0 Further Research .......................................................................................44

9.0 Glossary .....................................................................................................45

Appendix 1 – Relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards....................54 Appendix 2­ Background Statistical Information............................................55 Appendix 3 ­ User Patterns of Hot Water Systems .........................................56 Impact on solar ..................................................................................................56 Appendix 4 ­ Energy Efficient Hot Water System............................................57 Appendix 5 – Climate Zones for Performance of Solar Water Heaters .........58 Appendix 6 – Electrical Layout: Location of Sensors ....................................59 Appendix 7 – Residential Energy Use Audit Guide.........................................60

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1.0 Abstract

Research House, a sustainable housing project, jointly sponsored by the Department of Housing and the Department of Public Works, demonstrates energy efficiency and conservation principles (reduced waste) and ‘aims to communicate’ these values to the building industry and the wider community. Research House already embraces the new energy efficiency measures in the BCA and its energy performance is being benchmarked against a typical Queensland household.

To conserve energy, the home is fitted with '3.5 to 4 star' energy rated dishwasher, refrigerator and clothes washer, gas oven, solar­electric hot water system, energy efficient lighting and a solar photovoltaic array (PV) energy system. The energy use in the home is measured by five (5) sensors and recorded by a PC based data logging system. This energy use study report is for the second year of data analysis and covers measured recordings on energy use for water heating and whitegoods with the same tenants as the first year’s data report (i.e. same user patterns – refer details page 9).

In 2004, the total energy saved was 1206 kWh per year compared to a typical Queensland household. This is approximately $135.00 per annum based on Ergon energy tariffs. The overall energy use distribution was 27 percent total refrigeration (i.e. new energy rated whitegoods and tenant owned), 16% other whitegoods, 14% entertainment, 11% cooking, 10% small appliances, 10% hot water use, 5% lights, 3.5% fans, 3.5% standby energy. The PV array energy system generated approximately 2843 kWh of sustainable electrical energy from solar radiation.

The tenant's use of appliances in the home is responsible for 8048 kg of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, per year. The efficient use of energy is responsible for a reduction in GHG emissions of 1833 kg (i.e.18%) per year compared to a typical Queensland household. The solar­electric hot water system in comparison to an electric storage system in a typical Queensland household reduced annual energy consumption, running costs and GHG emissions by 3287 kWh of electricity, $150.00 and 1166 kg respectively.

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2.0 Background

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principal component of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that significantly contributes to ‘global warming’ (AGO 1998). The energy used in Australian households is one of the largest sources of CO2, from the combustion of fossil fuels (hydrocarbon) (ABS 2001). The average Australian household is responsible for the generation of approximately 8 tonnes of carbon dioxide each year (about 3077kg per person for a 2.6 person household ­ equivalent to the weight of five average sized family cars) (AGO 2004b).

Energy drives our modern industrial economy and currently Queensland’s electricity generation sector is dominated by non­renewable coal­fired power stations, although gas will be used increasingly in the future (EPA 2004d). Burning fossil fuels such as coal has a major impact on our air quality and the key pollutants are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (i.e. smoke, dust and vapour). (National Safety Council 2006)

Around one­fifth of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions (105 million tonnes annually) come from households, a figure which could be significantly reduced by improving the energy efficiency of homes and appliances (Queensland Treasury [Office of Energy] 2004). Green (environmentally friendly) and sustainable energy sources are essential contributors to the abatement of GHG emissions and although some sources are now competitive (e.g. wind turbines) most will not become more competitive and readily available to the wider community until 2020 (NREL 2002b). It is vital to encourage a greater awareness to conserve our non­renewable energy resources and encourage consumers to choose more energy efficient appliances and conserve energy in the day­to­day operation of their home. These initiatives will help to stem the rise in national energy demand.

3.0 Introduction Australian regulators have taken an appropriate response by legislating that newly built homes are to meet energy efficiency measures. The Australian Building Code has acted by including new energy efficiency measures in the Class 1 building housing provisions of the Building Code of Australia (BCA) Volume 2, as of September 2003. The BCA energy efficiency measures relate only to the building fabric and its aim is to increase the energy efficiency (heating and cooling) by means of insulating and sealing the house. The aim of the BCA is to reduce the need to resort to the use of mechanical heating and cooling technologies or where required, to allow mechanical measures to operate efficiently.

BCA sets energy efficiency standard for new homes at around 3½ ­ 4 stars, (on the scale of 1 to 5 stars) as defined by the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB) Protocol for House Energy Rating Software (BCA 2005, Volume 2, page 76). These measures, as estimated by the Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO), will reduce the principal GHG emissions by a cumulative total of 1.51 million tonnes of CO2 gas in the period to 2010 (ABCB 2003). BCA

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identifies current compliant software as NatHERS TM version 2.32, First Rate TM version 3.5 and BERS TM version 3.2.

Research House, a sustainable housing project, jointly sponsored by the Department of Housing and the Department of Public Works, ‘demonstrates’ energy efficiency and conservation principles (reduced waste) and ‘aims to communicate’ these values to the building industry and the wider community.

Research House already embraces the energy efficient measures in the BCA. These solar­ efficient and energy efficient measures are:

Building fabric (insulation to roof and walls, roof space ventilation and eaves)

Building sealing (restrict air infiltration)

External glazing (limitation on effective window area and R­values)

Air movement (maximise living space air ventilation)

Energy efficient hot water system

Further, Research House includes energy efficient appliances and lighting.

This is the report for the second year of data analysis and covers measured data on energy use for water heating and whitegoods (refrigerator, diswasher and clothes washer) and photvoltaic arrays (Housing 2003b). Refer to Energy Use Report 1 December 2002 to 30 November 2003 for the first year’s analysis.

Energy use values for other small appliances, lighting, fans and standby energy are estimated based on the rated power and usage patterns provided by the tenants and this is compared to available Queensland data.

The principal factors which determine energy consumption in Research House are:

Building design and construction (fly ash blocks, wider eaves and site orientation)

Response to natural breezes

Appliance selection and operation (energy star rating)

Choice of fuels (grid electricity, gas, solar energy)

Choice of water heating

Insulation and ventilation

User behaviour

No matter how energy efficient the design and appliances are, total energy use still depends on user patterns and their behaviour. (AGO 2002)

As part of Queensland Government’s Towards Healthy and Sustainable Housing Research Project, Research House, which is based in Rockhampton, demonstrates and tests ways that energy use can be reduced in a household. The project encompasses the design and construction of a family home incorporating the elements of the Department of Housing’s

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Smart Housing initiative and tests these in a living environment. A Smart House is one that incorporates the elements of:

Social Sustainability: A Smart House has been designed with people in mind. It is safe, secure and universally designed.

Environmental Sustainability: A Smart House is resource efficient in water, waste and energy.

Economic Sustainability: A Smart House is cost­ efficient over time.

For further information about Smart Housing please refer Queensland Government Smart Housing (Housing 2003a).

3.0 Scope To minimise the impact on the environment, the materials, products and design of Research House were selected to be ecologically sustainable and to reduce the household’s energy use.

Research House incorporates a number of strategies to reduce energy use. These strategies are: passive design, waste avoidance and minimization of non­renewable energy consumption.

3.1 Passive Design

Research House incorporates passive design which according to the Sustainable Building Source Book (2003) achieves energy conservation through the selection of appropriate building materials (fly ash building blocks), utilizing natural topography, house site orientation, use of natural light, solar glazing, insulation and ventilation of the roof space. The combination of ventilation and insulation of external walls and landscaping reduces the need for artificial heating and cooling of the house, thus reducing the energy demands. Research House was evaluated to have a 5 star energy rating, under the Building Energy Rating Scheme (BERS) (ABCB 2003).

3.2 Waste Avoidance

Products and fittings that provide flexible options for use and avoid energy wastage are installed in Research House. (Refer to Energy Use Report 1 December 2002 to 30 November 2003).

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3.3 Minimisation of Non­renewable Energy Consumption

The use of non­renewable energy (burning fossil fuels e.g. coal­fired power stations) has been minimised in Research House by generation of solar electricity (photovoltaic array), and the use of energy efficient water heaters (heat pump and solar) and use of passive design.

Solar panels contribute green energy back into the mains grid, whilst the energy efficient heat pump and solar water heaters greatly reduce GHG emissions (note: an instantaneous gas water heating system was installed in February 2006, for a further 1 year trial and reporting on energy performance). The house’s design provides natural lighting and ventilation, reducing the need for air­conditioning and artificial lighting, which use large amounts of energy from fossil fuels and produce high GHG emissions.

4.0 Methodology

4.1 Test Methodology

Research House is being monitored for a period of five years from December 2002 to November 2007, while being occupied, initially by a family of two adults and three teenagers. During this time the effectiveness of the energy conservation strategies employed in Research House are being measured.

There are three sources of energy being used in Research House and the consumption measured– electricity, solar and gas 1 (AGO 2004b). Energy consumption from whitegoods appliances and water heating is being tabulated over each quarter (summer, autumn, winter and spring) and reported annually to show the total energy use and cost. Trends in energy consumption and costs will be documented to evaluate the effectiveness of the energy conservation strategies and identify cost savings (AGO 1999).

4.2 Equipment Installation and Testing

The Faculty of Engineering and Physical Systems at Central Queensland University (CQU) in Rockhampton implemented the data communication system using hardware and software (LabVIEW TM Run­Time Version 6.0.2) from National Instruments TM The energy use data for a range of small appliances could not be collected due to a limit on the number of computer input ports. BERU is analyzing and presenting the data with the support of researchers from CQU.

There are five meters installed in Research House to record the total energy use for the household, including the hot water system and export energy from the photovoltaic (solar panels) array. The data for the total household energy use (including water heating) is cross­ referenced with the tenant’s electricity accounts (CQU 2003).

4.3 Applied Research

Honorary Professor Steven V. Szokolay AM, PhD, MArch, DipArch, (Honorary Reader in Architectural Science and Architecture at The University of Queensland) has independently reviewed this report. Dr Szokolay is the retired Head of the Department of Architecture

1 Please note that this research project is not investigating energy use from fuel sources such as petroleum products used in vehicles and lawnmowers.

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(Queensland University) and ex­Director of the Architectural Science Unit. The University has retained him as an advisor of PhD students. Dr Szokolay is a prominent energy and environmental consultant.

5.0 Rationale

Various retrofits of water heating systems ( heat pump, solar, instantaneous gas) will occur during the research period to identify variations in energy use and efficiencies due to their different operating principles.

For the period, 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004, an electrically boosted solar hot water system (Solahart model series K) was installed in Research House. (This replaced the heat pump hot water system installed for the first year of data collection), in the year ending 2007 a report will be published on the outcomes of the three hot water systems.

The energy use is being recorded for the following appliances in Research House:

o the solar hot water system (Solahart),

o dishwasher (Westinghouse ‘3.5’ star energy rating­model DX450W global series),

o front­loader clothes washer (Westinghouse ‘4’ star energy rating ­ model LF708B),

o 532 litre refrigerator ­ (Westinghouse ‘3.5’ star energy rating ­ model RJ532S­R)

o Hot/cold drinking dispenser (Zip hydrotap model ABC 10 FX) all­in­one instant boiling and chilled filtered water system.

The appliances are being benchmarked against the manufacturer’s specifications and the following Australian Standards:

Ø (AS 4234:1996) for Solar Water Heaters – Domestic and Heat Pump – Calculation of Energy Consumption and AS/NZ 4474.1­1997, 2040.1­1998 and 2007.1­1998.

Ø AS/NZS 4474.1: 2001 Performance of Household Electrical Appliances – Refrigerating Appliances.

Ø AS/NZS 2040.1: 1998 Performance of Household Electrical Appliances – Clothes Washing Machines.

Ø AS/NZS 2007.1: 2003 Performance of Household Electrical Appliances – Dishwashers.

Ø Comparisons with state and national averages will be given as a guide only where credible data is available (Australian/New Zealand Standards).

It should be noted that the actual energy consumption could be higher than the value shown on the manufacturers ‘energy label’ due to user patterns and other environmental issues i.e. air temperature. The annual energy consumption of the refrigerator as shown on the energy label is based on an average of a series of tests with no door openings.

The energy use for small appliances (the personal property of the tenants), is not being measured. Their energy consumption is calculated from the appliances’ power rating, (Country Energy, 2004), together with an estimate of their time of use as provided in the

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tenant’s daily feedback diary. A comparison has also been carried out between the tenant’s previous water heating costs at another home and the cost of running the heat pump and the solar system in Research House.

The green energy generated from the photovoltaic (PV) array is recorded daily and the energy produced over the year has been compared as a percentage of the total grid energy consumed based on electricity accounts.

Reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have been calculated from actual consumption data in Research House and a comparison made with Queensland state data. It should be noted that over the data collection period, the adult tenants are at home during normal daytime hours and 4.67 people were living in Research House over the year based on a time weighted average (TWA) which allows for siblings moving in and out of the household. This family unit consisted of 2 adults and 3 teenage siblings, one of which moved out for part of the year. Research House data and comparative data has been calculated and presented on a per person basis.

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6.0 Findings and Discussion

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6.0 Findings and Discussion

6.1 Total Energy Use (Electricity and Gas)

The total amount of energy used in Research House in the period 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004, is 8779kWh (4.67­ person household). The distribution of this energy is depicted in Figure1:

Figure 1: Total Energy Use 2003 – 2004

Note: Percentage figures in the chart may not be the same as quoted numerical values due to rounding.

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Table 1 shows the breakdown of estimated figures on energy use that has not been recorded in Research House. The tabulated figures shown are derived from estimated figures according to Country Energy (2004).

Table 1 – Entertainment, Small Appliances, Lighting & Fans

Note

1. The estimated energy use of entertainment, small appliances, lights and fans is 36.0 per cent (3166kWh) of total energy use.

6.1.1 Energy Sources

The consumption of three sources of energy used in Research House is being measured– grid electricity, solar and natural gas (cooking). The following discussion will systematically explore energy use in Research House starting with the appliance group, which is the greatest consumer of energy (including entertainment). A net metering arrangement for solar energy exported to the supply utility (Ergon Energy) is in place. (Refer to Energy Use Report 2002 – 2003 ­ photovoltaic section for full details)

Data is presented in the tables as energy units in kilowatt­hours (kWh). The total final (end use) energy consumption data shown in table 2 is based on energy use per person per year.

In Table 2 below, natural gas is used only for cooking whilst electricity is used for hot water, appliances, space heating, cooling and lighting.

Power rating Estimated energy use Appliance Watts kWh/year

Iron 1000 227 Vacuum cleaner 1100 160 Hair dryer 1200 92 Coffee grinder 75 63 Food processor 500 81 Juicer 300 45 Fish tank filter 10 73 Grinder 75 39 Sander 100 36 Drill 500 50 Television 200 350 VCR 50 110 Play station c/w TV 275 140 Radio clock 60 45 Stereo 100 185 PC (Private) 400 405 Lighting 18 460 Fans 75 305 Standby Energy 300 Total 3166

Source: (Country Energy, NSW 2004)

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Table 2 – Comparison of Energy Consumption

Average Energy Consumption (kWh) – Per Person Per Household Per Year

Place Electricity Natural Gas (cooking) Total Energy

Research House Yr 1 1837 102 1939

Queensland 2009 129 2138

Australia 2057 145 2202

Research House Yr 2 1757 123 1880

Source: Australian Greenhouse Office, Australian Residential Building Sector

Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990­2010 Final Report – and Office of Economic and

Statistical Research (OESR), Queensland Government, Information Brief Regional

Population Growth 2002­03 (AGO 1999;OESR 2004).

Disclaimer: Australia and Queensland comparison figures provided as a guide only.

Notes:

1. Queensland and national energy statistical data are ‘best estimates’ based on the analysis of the research literature data, which has been modeled by AGO to give projected figures for 2003 to 2010.

2. Electricity use is for hot water, appliances, space heating and cooling and lighting, whereas natural gas is for cooking only.

3. No deduction has been made for energy generated by the photovoltaic array that exports electricity to the mains grid.

Research House is a 4.67­person household whereas national and state energy consumption statistical data is based on total population. When the mathematics is done, the national and state household sizes work out to be approximately a 2.60­person household.

Research House total energy consumption per household is approximately 8779 kWh per year, (i.e. 3% better than 2003) whereas for a similar sized household, Queensland and Australian total energy consumption is estimated at 9985 kWh and 10284 kWh per year respectively. The annual energy consumption at Research House is approximately 12 percent (i.e. 1206 kWh) lower when compared to a typical Queensland home.

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Figure 2 below shows a comparison of Research House total energy use for 2003 and 2004 respectively with a similar sized Queensland home.

Figure 2: Comparison of Total Energy Use 2003 – 2004

6.1.2 Residential Energy Consumption Statistical Data

The report titled ‘Australian residential building sector greenhouse gas emissions 1990­2010’ by the Australian Greenhouse Office covers energy consumption from the following building classifications of the Building Code of Australia:

§ Class 1a (i) – detached houses § Class 1a (ii) – attached dwellings (including town houses, terrace houses and villas) § Class 2 – buildings containing two or more sole occupancy units (flats).

“These buildings types constitute the vast majority of residential building types in Australia” (AGO 1999). Although the report covers rural and urban residential housing, it still provides the best available statistics on energy data that is a suitable guide for comparisons.

The statistical data as represented in the AGO report is not suitable for a direct comparison with Research House energy consumption data. The main reasons why this statistical data can’t be directly compared are:

Statistical data are for total population, not per capita

Statistical data include various different residential fuels such as: electricity, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and wood fuel. Wood fuel is not used at Research House and LPG fuel use is not included in energy consumption data at Research House.

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Statistical data include final energy consumption for products by fuel not used at Research House (e.g. natural gas and wood fuel for space heating is commonly used in cold regions in states such as Victoria and Tasmania respectively).

Statistical data include energy consumption for all residential building types. Research House is a single detached building.

Statistical data are given in energy units of petajoules (PJ), not in kilowatt­hours (kWh).

The figures suggest Research House consumes between 10 percent and 12 percent less energy than a typical Queensland home. The average cost saving is around $135.00 per annum when compared to a typical Queensland home electricity bill. The cost saving does not take into account the deductions made for energy generated by the photovoltaic system which is exported to the mains grid but does include water heating costs.

6.1.3 Energy Intensity

The maximum annual energy load for climate zone 2 (Rockhampton) with a solar hot water system is 150MJ/m 2 per annum in accordance with BCA. The total annual energy consumption in Research House is 8779kWh (31,604MJ) excluding the photovoltaic array (renewable energy technology) and the estimated total floor area including garage and store is 227.4m 2 .

The calculated energy intensity of Research House (including heat pump) as per BCA provisions is about 139.0MJ/m 2 per annum, which satisfies the new mandatory energy efficiency requirements of 150MJ/m 2 per annum in accordance with BCA provisions.

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6.2 Entertainment, Small Appliances, Lighting, Fans and Standby Power

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6.2 Entertainment, Small Appliances, Lighting, Fans & Standby Power

The actual energy use of this appliance group is not being measured as it falls outside the project scope. There is a range of small electrical appliances and entertainment equipment, which are the personal belongings of the tenants, which consume energy in Research House. These are commonly used appliances such as an iron, vacuum cleaner, hair dryer, plug­in lamps, drill, sander, television, radio, clock, portable CD player and personal computer.

There is no mandatory requirement for entertainment and small appliances to be rated for their energy efficiency unlike some other electrical goods. The energy use of electrical appliances is influenced by a number of general factors including use patterns and how well the appliances are maintained.

It is estimated that entertainment, small appliances, lighting, fans and standby power consumed 678kWh of energy per person for the period December 2003 to November 2004. This figure was calculated based on the rated power consumed by these appliances and on tenant feedback regarding patterns of energy use (Country Energy 2004).

This appliance group is the greatest consumer of energy in Research House, responsible for 36 percent of the total energy used for the period. The extent of appliances used in the home, the age of these appliances and the pattern of use of these appliances will influence the total energy consumed in this sector. For example by switching off appliances, such as computer screens, when not in use or by setting timers to appliances such as heaters, energy use can be reduced. According to the Australian Greenhouse Office (2004b) the electronic appliances estimated standby energy consumption is over 6 percent of the total energy use in a household.

Figure 3: Entertainment, Small Appliances, Lighting and Fans Energy Use Note Standby energy use (3.5 per cent of total energy use) included. Percentage figures in the chart may not be the same as quoted numerical values due to rounding.

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6.3 Whitegoods

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Table 3 ­ Tenant’s Personal Whitegoods Electricity Use

Chest Freezer 963 kWh/yr

Clothes Dryer 250 kWh/yr

Microwave Oven 148 kWh/yr

Total 1361 kWh/yr

6.3 Whitegoods

In Australia, it is mandatory for refrigerators, freezers, clothes washers, clothes dryers and dishwashers to carry an energy­rating label to indicate the ‘energy consumption’ based on tests carried out under standard laboratory conditions in accordance with Australian Standard AS/NZS4474 for each product. The comparative energy consumption (CEC) from AS/NZS 4474 is based on the average projected annual energy consumption (PAEC) where PAEC is an estimate of energy (kWh) used by a single unit during one year’s use. PAEC is calculated from a one­off laboratory test of daily energy consumption that is simply multiplied by 365 to get the ‘projected’ annual energy consumption for each appliance.

It should be noted that the Australian Standard (AS/NZS 4474) does not take into account use patterns (e.g. refrigerator – no door openings) or that the actual energy consumption will vary from household to household.

The new six­level star rating assigns a greater number of stars to a product according to its tested daily energy consumption, which is then projected over a year to give the annual energy consumption. An energy star label is assigned based on this ‘projected’ annual energy consumption. The energy rating of whitegoods was one of the selection criteria used to assess the suitability of a product for use in Research House (AGO 2003a).

It is important to note that electricity consumption of the tenant’s personal whitegoods (refer table 3) is not being measured, but has been calculated based on the rated power consumed

by these appliances (Country Energy 2004) and on the tenant’s feedback regarding patterns of electricity use. Table 3 (left) shows the calculated values. The personal whitegoods used by the tenants consume approximately 1361kWh (15.5 percent) of the total energy (8779kWh) in Research House. All products selected for use in this project underwent an extensive decision

making process based on outcomes that were reasonable and achievable in most homes, or which had the potential to influence the future direction of sustainable housing. A range of sustainable housing projects are undertaken by the Department of Public Works. An overview of these projects can be studied under the ’sustainable technology program’ on the Building Division web site: www.build.qld.gov.au (Public Works 2003).

Whitegoods used in Research House were selected to be water and energy efficient while being affordable in price and suitable to the basic needs of a family.

The energy use of the following whitegoods is being measured under the national 5 star energy rating system that was in place at the time of installation (a new 6 star system was introduced in 2003):

§ Refrigerator (Westinghouse – 3.5 stars) (AGO 2003a, Electrolux Australia 2004) § Front­loader clothes washer (Westinghouse ­ 4 stars) (Electrolux Australia 2004). § Dishwasher (Dishlex ­ 4 stars ­ Electrolux Australia 2004).

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§ Drinking water dispenser (Zip hydrotap ­ not required to be rated) (Zip Heaters 2003) (AGO 2003a).

The electricity consumption of the electric oven has not been recorded, but again it has been calculated based on the rated power and on the tenant’s feedback regarding their pattern of use. The yearly electricity consumption has been estimated at 394 kWh (4.5 per cent of total energy use).

The total yearly energy used by the whitegoods (excluding the tenant’s personal whitegoods) is 3383 kWh (39.0 per cent of total energy use).

The total energy used by whitegoods (including tenant’s personal whitegoods) for the period 1 December 2002 to 30 November 2003 was 4744 kWh (approximately 54.0 per cent of total energy use).

Whitegoods that allow flexible control options that are efficient in operation were installed in Research House to avoid energy wastage. For example, the clothes washer is able to vary the duration of the wash and the amount of water used based on the weight and degree of soiling of each load.

The total whitegoods energy use of household is depicted in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4: Whitegoods Energy Use 2003 – 2004 Note: Percentage figures in the chart may not be the same as quoted numerical values due to rounding. The ‘Other’ category includes the use of entertainment, hot water, lights, fans and small appliances.

The whitegoods annual energy use exceeds the energy use figure on the energy label due to local environmental conditions and user patterns.

Accordingly, the energy label shown on a new appliance is a consumer’s guide only and should not be taken as the maximum energy use expected in a household.

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The whitegoods in Research House did perform very well under ‘real world’ family conditions in a sub­tropical region as shown in the table below. The recorded figures show that the energy label scheme is a good guide for consumers when purchasing a new appliance.

Table 4 ­ Whitegoods Actual Energy Consumption and Manufacturers’ Energy Label Consumption

Average Annual Energy Consumption (kWh)

Whitegoods Energy Label Research House

2003 Research House

2004 Refrigerator 875 kWh 1278 kWh 1273 kWh Dishwasher 256 kWh 307 kWh 310 kWh Clothes washer 225 kWh 205 kWh 220 kWh Drinking water dispenser N/A 610 kWh

Note: The manufacturers annual energy use is based on projected daily figures achieved under ideal minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) (AGO 2003a). The manufacturer provides energy labels to new appliances.

The new whitegoods (excludes tenant’s personal whitegoods) consumed about 3383kWh (39.0 per cent) of the total energy and that makes this appliance group the largest in energy consumption in Research House for the year. Together, the new whitegoods, and the tenant’s personal whitegoods consume about 4744kWh or more than 54 percent of the total energy used in this period.

Figure 5: Whitegoods Recorded Energy Use 2003 ­ 2004

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Refrigerator

Figure 4 shows that the refrigerator used 1273kWh (14.5 percent of total energy) of electricity over the year and it is the appliance that uses the greatest amount of electricity. It has the highest running cost ($145.00/yr) within the whitegoods group. Its electricity consumption is influenced substantially by user pattern and its climate dependency. For example, in a hot, sub tropical climate such as Rockhampton and Brisbane the refrigerator’s energy consumption is much higher than it would be in a cool temperate climate like Hobart.

At the time of purchase (2001) under the existing five star energy­rating scheme, the selected refrigerator was rated 3.5 stars, a high rating for refrigerators at that time. With the introduction of a 6 star energy­rating scheme, the refrigerator in Research House would now be rated as 2.5 stars (AGO 2003a).

As the refrigerator is a significant contributor to the total energy used in the household, there is potential to achieve energy savings through efficient user patterns.

Hot / Cold Drinking

Figure 5 shows that the ‘hydrotap’ hot/cold drinking water dispenser used 614kWh of energy over the year and it is the second highest consumer of electricity in this group. Running cost s were $70.00/yr. However, some of this energy is offset because the user is not opening and closing the refrigerator for cold drinking water and the electric kettle is not being used to boil water.

Dishwasher

Figure 5 shows that the dishwasher used 310kWh of energy over the year and its annual running cost is $35.00.

Clothes Washer

Figure 5 shows that the clothes washer used 220kWh of energy over the year and its annual running cost is $25.00.

Gas Cook Top & Electric Oven

Figure 4 shows that the gas cook top and electric oven used approximately 11 per cent (966 kWh) of the total energy over the year and the annual running costs are:

Gas cook top $97.00

Electric Oven $45.00

There are both economic and environmental benefits associated with the selection and use of energy efficient products. Cost savings are achievable in the home by selecting products that are more energy efficient. While the up front costs of purchasing whitegoods will vary, higher levels of energy efficiency will reduce the lifetime cost of the product.

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6.4 Hot Water System

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6.4.1 Background

In accordance with the Alternative Technology Association (ATA, 2003) water heating in Queensland homes is approximately 20 to 30 per cent of their total energy consumption. According to a study of household energy and greenhouse issues, Australian homes are more likely to have an electric hot water system (62 percent) than a gas (34 percent) or solar (5 percent). Due to the widespread use of electric hot water systems in Queensland, it is essential that environmentally friendly options are available to consumers (ATA 2003 and AGO 2003b).

The Research House project is investigating and reporting the potential energy and cost savings of three hot water systems: an electric heat pump, electric­boosted solar and an instantaneous natural gas system. The study will report on the energy efficiency and the running costs over time (SEDA 2002).

6.4.2 System Types

The hot water system retrofitted and operational from 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004) was a 300­litre solar electric (Solahart model 302K series) which uses solar energy to heat the water. It features a controlled electric booster (fully integrated timer), which is connected to the mains grid on domestic tariff 33 (7.722¢/kWh – recommended for a 4 person household) , to assist in boosting the water heater during times of low solar radiation Nevertheless, domestic tariff 11 (11.407¢/kWh) is recommended for a 2­person household by Solahart.. The storage tank is located on the roof adjacent to the top of the two­panel collector. Data has been collected for the solar hot water system since December 2003.

Solahart provides an option called ‘Streamline’ where the storage tank can be located at ground level. The on­ground storage tank option uses a small circulator pump, which uses small amounts of electricity to circulate the water (Solahart 2004a).

A 270­litre air­sourced heat pump hot water system (Quantum model 270­T2­EC) which is a mains pressure storage system was previously used in Research House from 1 December 2002 to 30 November 2003 (Quantum 2004a).

The heat pump is an energy efficient hot water system which uses a small amount of grid electricity (Tariff 33 economy – 7.722¢/kWh) to run an electric motor­driven compressor that uses R134a refrigerant gas as the working fluid. The air­sourced model has the evaporator installed in the top of the storage tank that is located at ground level. (Quantum 2004b). For more information, refer to the Data Analysis Report Energy Use 1 December 2002 – 30 November 2003 available on http://www.build.qld.gov.au/research/library/index.asp

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The instantaneous natural gas (high flow) water heater is a Bosch model 22E (domestic tariff ­ 1.7211¢/MJ or 6.196¢/kWh) that requires no storage tank and heats the water on demand (Bosch 2004). This system was installed in March 2006.

6.4.3 Principles of Operation

Solar Thermal System

The solar domestic hot water (SDHW) system takes absolute advantage of the free strong solar energy of the Queensland summer days. ‘Free’ energy from sunshine (solar energy) is absorbed by the 35 steel collector tubes called risers which transfer the captured heat by conduction to the natural circulating colder water in the flat plate collectors (2 panels) located on the roof adjacent to the storage tank.

The circulation of fluid through the 'flat plate collector' is caused by a 'natural process' by changes in water pressure due to a variation in density water as its heated (i.e. hot water has a lower density than cold water) plus assistance from gravity (i.e. tank located 300mm in vertical height above collector). This process is called the 'thermosiphon effect' which naturally circulates the heated water through a heat exchanger in the tank to the stored water. During days where the strength of the solar energy is reduced, an electric booster element is used to assist in heating the water. At Research House the electric booster is on a time clock with a manual override switch (Solahart 2004b; Morrison and Wood 1997) and is connected to tariff 33.

6.4.4 Performance of Different Water Heaters

Due to their different operating principles, solar and heat pump water heaters achieved their maximum efficiency under different climatic and load (daily energy use) conditions. The most useful method to rank different hot water systems which Morrison and Tran (Morrison and Tran 1992) have described, “with respect to a measure of primary energy is to use the level of CO2 produced”. From the results of their analysis, the following ranking out of 10 (10 highest, 1 lowest) would apply:

Ranking System

8 Solar with gas boosting 7 Solar boosted heat pump 6 High efficiency gas 5 Solar with electric boosting and heat pump (air­sourced) 4 Standard gas 2 Electric storage water heater

Picture 2: Solahart Solar hot water heater at Research House

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The solar water heater’s performance is affected by variations solar radiation, which reduces significantly on heavy cloudy days or during cold winter days. Morrison and Tran (Morrison and Tran 1992) have shown that the solar system performance is slightly better than the heat pump in climate zone 1 (e.g. Research House) and on par with the heat pump in climate zone 3 (e.g. Brisbane). However, they have clearly shown that the solar system under performs against the heat pump in climate zone 4 (e.g. Southern Victoria and Tasmania) due to the lower average annual solar irradiation (MJ/m 2 ).

Finally, the right choice for consumers may depend on cost (running and maintenance) over time, climate and local topography.

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6.4.5 Results and Discussion

Table 5 shows total energy used by the Research House solar hot water system for the period 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004 is 850kWh (10% of total energy use). By comparison the running cost of the tenant’s off­peak electric storage system for the same period in 2001 was 2882kWh. The energy consumption is reduced by 2032kWh per year, which amounts to an energy saving of approximately 70 percent. The energy use data from Research House supports the manufacturers’ claim that energy savings of around 60 to 70 percent can be achieved compared to an electric storage system, with the disclaimer that there may be some variance in the research data due to demography and user patterns when comparisons are made elsewhere. Nevertheless, the results mean cost savings and environmental benefits (i.e. much lower GHG emissions) are achieved.

Although the hot water system is the third highest consumer of energy within Research House for this period, it consumes only 10 percent of the total energy used in the home. In comparison, the breakdown of energy used in typical homes in Queensland, indicates that hot water systems generally consume 30 percent of the total energy used (ATA 2003).

Table 5: Tenant’s Hot Water Consumption Yearly Outcomes

Location Period kWh $/yr

Previous Address (5 person household)

(Off peak electric storage ­ Tariff 31) Aug 01 – Aug 02 2882 $159.32

Research House (4.67 person household) (Quantum heat pump ­ Tariff 33) Dec 02 – Nov 03 1224 $94.52

Research House (4.67 person household) (Solarhart Model 302K Series ­ Tariff 33) Dec 03 – Nov 04 850 $65.64

Savings (Solarhart against electric storage) 2032 $93.68

Source: Ergon Energy Electricity Accounts (Ergon Energy 2004)

Table 5 shows that the operating cost for the solar hot water system for the period was $65.64. By comparison the running cost of the tenant’s off­peak electric storage system at their previous address for the twelve­month period in 2001 was $159.32. The running cost of the solar hot water system amounts to approximately 10 percent of the total electricity bill for the year.

By comparison the running cost of the off­peak electric storage system at the tenant’s previous address amounted to 21 percent of the total electricity bill for that year. The results show that by selecting an appropriately sized energy efficient water heater and the most suitable tariff, the tenants didn’t run out of hot water and were able to achieve a cost saving of $93.68 for the twelve months.

Table 6 below shows a comparison guide of the average hot water system operating cost between the two systems’ types. From table 6, the average monthly (30 day month) running cost of a solar system is approximately $5.47. By comparison the average monthly running cost of an electric storage is approximately $12.90. The benefit each month is approximately $7.43.

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Table 6 shows the tenant’s storage system averaged 7.9 kWh per day and by comparison the solar l system averaged 2.33 kWh per day (based on an average 140L per day).

Table 6 – Water Heating Unit Energy Cost Account

Note: The figures are based on 140 litres of daily hot water use at 60 o C.

In general, the cost of running a hot water system will depend on a number of key operational factors such as, size, type, fuel source (i.e. electric, gas or solar), climate, local topography, family size, age of appliance, efficiency of appliance and pattern of use (Morrison et al. 2001).

By comparison figure 5 shows the energy use of hot water systems at a typical Brisbane household, Research House heat pump and solar electric used 4137kWh, 1224kWh and 850kWh of electricity over the year respectively.

Figure 5 – Water Heating Electricity Use

By comparison, over a twelve­month period a typical Brisbane households’ additional energy consumption is over 385 percent more than Research House (i.e. solar electric).

System type ¢/day ¢/litre kWh/day Solar Electric Boosted (tariff 33 –7.722 ¢/kWh) 18.0 0.13 2.33 Electric Storage (tariff 31 – 5.288 ¢/kWh) 43.4 0.31 7.90

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Figure 6 – Hot Water Electricity Operating Costs

The annual running cost of the typical Brisbane household using an electric storage off peak hot water system is around $217.00. By comparison Figure 6 shows that the running cost of hot water systems in the tenant’s previous Rockhampton household was $159.00 and now in Research House (solar) is $66.00 respectively (The heat pump system running cost was $95.00/year).

The annual electricity cost for hot water in a typical Brisbane household is between 30 to 40 percent of the total electricity bill. By comparison the annual cost of Research House hot water is about 10 percent of the total electricity bill.

The typical Brisbane household electricity cost is 59¢/day and 0.39¢/litre under Energex’s super economy Tariff 31 and the average daily electricity use is about 11.3kWh. By comparison table 6 shows that the solar electric boosted electricity costs (18¢/day and 0.13¢/litre) for both is cheaper by 58 percent and the average daily electricity use for the solar hot water system is approximately 2.331kWh.

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6.4.6 Financial Evaluation of Hot Water Systems

A study by the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (2003) concludes that energy efficient water heaters such as a solar thermal system can reduce running cost by up to $1800 over a 10­year lifetime when compared to standard electric storage hot water systems.

With water heating accounting for about 30 percent of the electricity bill in the average Queensland home (ATA 2003), prior to the purchase of a domestic hot water system (DHW), it may be advisable to economically evaluate the alternatives. To do this effectively, alternatives must be evaluated using a common proven financial method. A cash flow (CF) forecast can be prepared for each alternative. The final decision will be dependent on the quality of the cash flow estimates on which that decision is based. A detailed cash flow evaluation can capture all present value (PV) costs (future dollars discounted to today’s dollars) associated with the purchase, operation, maintenance and replacement of the hot water systems over the project evaluation term (years). A simpler cash flow method based on today’s dollars, with no discounting of future values gives an approximation of the pay­ back period, and it may be used as a cost ‘guideline’ for water heating alternatives (Woods 2004).

There are two common financial evaluation methods used today. They include:

Simple Payback Period (T); and

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF)

Simple Payback Period (T) method is an approximate technique of assessing the economic justification of a project, a hot water system in this case. The payback period calculates the time (years) it takes to recover the initial capital outlay for the purchase of the hot water system based on energy savings (benefits) in the first year. The simple payback period (T) is given by:

benefit annual t capital T cos

=

The method is quick and simple to calculate and can be used where there are two or more alternatives with similar savings and costs, but differ mainly in the initial capital outlay (This method does not consider the timing of future cash flows or time value of money) (Woods 2004).

The Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) analysis allows the consideration of the timing of cost outlays and benefits over the life of the project using the net present value (NPV) technique. It takes into account time value of today’s and future dollars, which vary due to inflation and interest rates. Future dollars are discounted back to a present value in today’s dollars. This DCF takes into account future inflation and compound interest rates. It generally will indicate a longer payback period than the simple payback period method (Woods 2004; Szokolay 2004b, 314).

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Table 7 shown below gives the payback period (years) for the Quantum heat pump and the Solahart solar hot water systems based on the recommended retail price.

Table 7 – Hot Water Systems Payback Period

The pay­back period (T) method has been chosen for its simplicity with the objective of showing how long before you pay off your investment and start to get a return on your dollar. Payback period may vary from consumer to consumer – the period is dependent on hot water usage and the initial purchase price. The payback period shown for the Research House ‘Quantum’ heat pump and ‘Solahart’ solar water systems (timeline ­ 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004), are compared to an average Queensland home fitted with a new 315L off­peak electric storage water heater. Further, a minimum of 140L per day to a maximum of 180L per day of hot water is used as a reference in the calculations. The average payback period calculated should be used as a ‘guideline’ only when buying a new heat pump or solar water heater.

The payback period calculation takes into account renewable energy certificates (RECs) and solar rebates provided in the first year.

Simple Pay­back Period (T) pay­back (years)

Type of System Capital Cost RECs QLD Solar

Rebate 140L/day 180l/day Quantum heat pump $3090 $1000 $250 6.8 5.5 Solahart solar $2950 $1152 $320 5.8 5.0

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6.5 Photovoltaic Energy System

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6.5 Photovoltaic Energy System

Flat­Plate Photovoltaic Array

Research House uses a ‘BP Solarex’ (poly­crystalline silicon module) model MSP­49, a roof mounted, 24­module flat­plate, photovoltaic (PV) array. Stanwell Corporation Ltd, an industry partner and a large power generator located west of Rockhampton were sponsors of the project by supplying the PV array (BP Solar 2004). Stanwell Corporation Ltd is involved in renewable energy generation such as the 12MW ‘Windy Hill’ wind farm on the Atherton Tableland in far North Queensland (Stanwell Corporation 2004). The industry sponsor Choice Electric Co (Aust) Pty Ltd who is an import/export ‘wholesaler’ and ‘distributor’ in the design and supply of green solar products, installed the roof mounted photovoltaic array and wall­mounted inverter. The photo (below) shows one of the roof­mounted flat­plate photovoltaic arrays at Research House (Choice Electric Co. 2004).

Each photovoltaic module has a rating of 82 watts peak (82Wpeak) with the array having a nominal rating of 2000W. The output capacity is specified as 1,968 watts peak (WP) at 24­volts direct current (24V DC) with efficiency around 12%. A Fronius ‘Sunrise Mini’ 1500W grid­interactive inverter converts the 24V DC output to mains 240­volts alternating current (240V AC) with phase matching (synchronisation). The PV array is grid­ connected to Ergon Energy under a scheme known as ‘Net Metering’ where the ‘grid’ provides power during periods of low or no sunshine. Electricity is electrical energy and the

electricity generated by the PV array under ‘net metering’ is called export energy.

Electricity used from the grid under net metering is called import energy. Electricity generated by the PV system flows back into the Ergon grid system and a monetary credit is given for the export energy.

The electricity used by the householder from the grid and the electricity from the PV are both metered separately. The two (2) meter readings are subtracted from each other and the electricity account (net billing) rendered to the consumer is for the balance under the net metering arrangement.

6.5.4 Results and Discussion

The total electrical energy exported to the grid by the photovoltaic array for the period 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004 is 2843 kWh. The average daily energy exported was around 7.79 kWh giving a net daily import from the grid of approximately 18.0 kWh, which is the net electricity billed by Ergon Energy to the tenant. Table 8 below shows an annual summary of the household electricity balance.

Picture 3: Photovoltaic Array

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Table 8 ­ Electricity Balance ­ Grid and PV

Annual Electricity (kWh)

Import Export Net 9374 2843 6531

Note: Total grid electricity consumption is 9374 kWh per year (364 day period). The values shown are the actual energy figures from Research House, which is a 4.67 person household. The figure in table 8 excludes gas consumption.

The photovoltaic ‘grid­tied’ array generates sufficient electricity to run the refrigerator, lights, fans, dishwasher, clothes washer, microwave and clothes dryer all year round. The ‘green electricity’ saves about $336.00 per year on the electricity bill ­ a reduction in the electricity account by approximately 30 percent over the year.

Table 9 ­ PV Electricity Price

Table 9 shows the price paid by the electricity retailer (Ergon Energy) to the tenant under tariff 11 domestic for the electricity exported by the photovoltaic array to the grid. The first 100 kWh per month are priced at 18.81¢/kWh, the next 300kWh per month priced at 12.77¢/kWh and the remainder per month priced at 11.41¢/kWh over the billing period of 91days. The first 400kWh works out at a flat rate of 14.28¢/kWh.

Costs Paid by Ergon Energy First 100 kWh (per month)

Next 300 kWh (per month)

Remainder (per month)

18.81¢/kWh 12.77¢/kWh 11.41¢/kWh

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Figure 8 gives a graphical view of the interrelated net metering data of the photovoltaic array.

Figure 8: Solar PV and Grid Annual Electricity 2003­ 04

Note: The values shown are the actual energy figures from Research House, which is a 4.67­person household.

The PV array output is 8.287 kilowatt­hours (kWh) per day with 93 percent inverter efficiency. The average daily electricity exported to the grid is 7.707kWh, which gives an average yearly useful output of 2843 kWh. Photovoltaic modules are rated by peak watt, which is the amount of power generated when the solar module is exposed to 1000 watts per square metre of solar radiation. It should be noted that the 1500W inverter limits the PV array average yearly useful output to 2843 kWh.

For more information on the PV arrays, please refer to the Data Analysis Report – Energy Use 1 December 2002 – 30 November 2003.

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6.5.5 The Future of Photovoltaic Energy Devices

The future market outlook for off­grid solar PV’s in Australia remains healthy and off­grid domestic PVs are currently growing at about 30 per cent per year. The current economic trend for PV modules is showing further reduction in real dollar terms as a direct response to new technology developments and greater manufacturing production due to market demand (Szokolay 2004a, 211).

6.6 Daylighting and Artificial Lighting

6.6 Daylighting and Artificial Lighting

The daylighting technology from SkyDome used a special new angularly selective laser cut acrylic panel in the main skylight in the family room. The standard circular skylights which employ conventional technology are installed in the hallway. Energy efficient fluorescent artificial lighting is used throughout the house. The findings from both these technologies are presented and discussed in the 2003 Energy Use Study Report. Readers are referred to the report hosted online at the Department of Public Works website:

Queensland Government Works Division

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6.7 Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG)

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6.7 Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG)

6.7.1 Evaluation and Discussion

Table 12 shows a comparison of GHG emissions (carbon dioxide gas) between Research House and a typical Queensland Home. The table shows that Research House saved about 1833kg per year (18 percent) compared to a typical Queensland home when adjusted to a 4.67­ person per household.

Table 12: Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Research House

Notes: The above greenhouse gas emission figures are based on a 4.67­person

household. The Queensland GHG emission household figures (per capita) have been

adjusted by a factor of 4.67 to allow a comparison between the two homes in terms of

total greenhouse gas emissions. The CO2 emission of 2050kg in the table for water

heating in a Queensland home is the minimum figure. 1kWh produced from burning black

Queensland coal produces approximately 1.04kg of carbon dioxide emissions.

Research House generates approximately 1723kg (1.7 tonnes) of GHG for each person and by comparison to a typical Queensland household generates 2116kg (2.1 tonnes) of GHG for each person.

These greenhouse gas emissions are equivalent in weight ranging from a large family car (e.g. such as Ford Falcon) to a large all wheel drive vehicle (e.g. such as Ford Territory Sports Utility Vehicle).

Research House is responsible for GHG savings of approximately 392kg per person (excludes the hot/cold drinking dispenser and PV array) over the year. Substantial GHG savings of about 1020kg (approximately 1 tonne) per person is achieved where the photovoltaic array is included in calculations for greenhouse gas abatement at Research House.

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Table 13 shows a summary of GHG emissions (carbon dioxide gas) between Research House in year 2003 and 2004. The table shows that Research House in 2004 saved an additional 339kg per year (4 percent) compared to the previous year.

Table 13: Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Research House Comparison

Figure 9 shows a column chart of the GHG emissions savings made in comparison to a typical Queensland home over the last two years.

Figure 9: GHG Savings Comparison with a Typical Queensland Home

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Figure 10 shows a pie chart of the distribution of GHG emissions from various appliances at Research House in 2004.

Figure 10: Greenhouse Gas Emissions due to Research House

Figure 11 shows a pie chart of GHG emissions due to various appliances in a typical Queensland home.

Figure 11: Greenhouse Gas Emissions due to Typical QLD Home Research House uses a natural gas cook top and natural gas for cooking is one of the preferred fuel choices in GHG abatement. For every kilowatt­hour (kWh) of natural gas (NG) burnt, it emits into the environment about 0.204kg of CO2 gas. Whereas for every kilowatt­

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hour (kWh) of electricity used, it emits into the environment about 1.04kg of CO2 gas (AIE 2003). .

6.7.2 Hot Water Systems

The solar­electric hot water system is responsible for 890kg of GHG emissions (11 percent of household total GHG emissions) per year and by comparison an electric hot water system in a typical Queensland household is responsible for an average 2550kg of GHG emissions per year. The solar­electric HWS shows a substantial saving of 1660kg (65 %) of carbon dioxide (CO2) in comparison to a typical Queensland electric storage system.

Figure 11 shows the GHG emissions from various hot water systems based on average figures for climate zone 1 (Refer Figure 12 – Appendix 3C).

Figure 11: Hot Water System Greenhouse Gas Production (Climate Zone 1) Note: Greenhouse gas emissions are based on climate zone 1(warm to hot climate) and vary subject to use patterns. Electric storage chart bar shows the range (min/max) of GHG emission for Queensland’s climate. Sources: Queensland Conservation Council (2004), Morrison and Tran (1992)

Figure 11 shows GHG emissions for hot water systems powered by different fuels (e.g. gas, electric and solar).applicable to climate zone 1 (warm to hot climate). The climate zone is applicable to the eastern coast of Queensland, from the far northern tip across to the far northern end of the Northern Territory of Australia, down to the south end of Queensland within a distance of approximately one hundred and fifty kilometres from Brisbane.

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Energy efficient water heaters such as heat pump or solar can reduce carbon dioxide GHG emissions by around 25,000 kg over a 10­year lifetime (SEDA 2004). Australian household water heating GHG emissions per year are around 15 million tonnes (15,000 million kg), which accounts for approximately 16 percent of all household GHG emissions (AGO 2003e).

The Sustainable Energy Development Authority (2002, p.7) of NSW puts out a greenhouse score­rating scheme that rates appliances on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 poor, 5 excellent). The heat pump and solar water heaters score a greenhouse rating of 4 and by comparison off­peak electric systems receive a score of 1.

Key factors such as, energy source (electric, gas or solar), size, climate, efficiency of appliance, pattern of use, family size and age of appliance all impact on energy consumption, which in turn determines the level of GHG being emitted into the atmosphere (McLennan Magasanik 2002).

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7.0 Conclusions

Analysis of the energy use data from Research House (from 1 December 2003 to 30 November 2004) in comparison to a typical Queensland household shows that significant energy and greenhouse gas savings can be achieved through solar efficient design and use of energy efficient appliances (e.g. both whitegoods and hot water systems).

The main conclusions from the energy study at Research House include:

1. Annual total energy consumption reduced by approximately 12 percent (1206kWh) compared to a typical Queensland household.

2. Annual total estimated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduced by approximately 18 percent (1833 kg) compared to a typical Queensland household.

3. Solar­electric HWS savings compared to the a typical Brisbane household were:

Ø Ø Ø $150.00 on the electricity bill per annum

Ø Ø Ø 3287 kWh units of electricity per annum

Ø Ø Ø 1166 kg of GHG emissions per annum

4. Solar­electric HWS energy efficiency and GHG emissions reduction compared to a typical Brisbane household were:

Ø Ø Ø Energy efficiency higher by 80 percent

Ø Ø Ø GHG emissions reduced by 80 percent

5. The total energy and GHG emission savings compared to the a typical Queensland household were:

Ø Ø Ø Annual electricity bill (PV excluded): $135.00

Ø Ø Ø Annual electricity bill (PV included): $455.00

Ø Ø Ø Annual energy consumption (PV excluded): 1206 kWh

Ø Ø Ø Annual energy consumption (PV included): 3454 kWh

Ø Ø Ø Greenhouse gases (PV excluded): 1833 kg

Ø Ø Ø Greenhouse gases (PV included): 4759 kg

6. The use of energy efficient whitegoods (e.g. dishwasher and clothes washer) with a minimum 3­4 energy star label has shown that:

• Whitegoods used less than 6 percent of the total household energy use

• Whitegoods were responsible for less than 6 percent of total household GHG emissions.

• Savings of 208 kg (10 percent) of GHG emissions were made compared to a typical Queensland household.

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7. The biggest electricity consuming appliance groups are:

Ø Ø Ø Entertainment, small appliances, lights, fans and standby (36%)

Ø Ø Ø Refrigeration and clothes dryer (30%)

8. The energy rating labels for whitegoods:

• Do not necessarily reflect actual household appliance energy consumption (eg refrigerator). There are variances in appliance energy use in the home due to user patterns, compared to the energy labels. The results from Research House showed:

i. The refrigerator used 45% more energy than stated on the energy­ rating label.

ii. The dishwasher used 21% more energy than stated on the energy­ rating label.

iii. The clothes washer used 2% less energy than stated on the energy­ rating label.

9. Solar photovoltaic arrays (i.e. energy generator) performance:

Ø Ø Ø Significant reduction in electricity use from power grid by 2843 kWh units (30%).

Ø Ø Ø Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (i.e. CO2) by 2926 kg (36%).

10. Variation in the tenant's energy use patterns over a two year period showed a reduction of 3% (i.e., 278kWh/year) from the previous year which is significant since the total saving is 12% (1206kWh/year).

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8.0 Further Research

It is proposed to demonstrate and report on the energy savings and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the Solahart solar hot water system for the year 2005 as well as record the energy use from the lighting and power circuits which can then be compared to the energy estimates made for those areas back in 2003. New tenants in 2005 provide an opportunity to investigate how different user patterns will impact on the energy use.

Further research will be carried out into sky lighting looking at heat transfer into the house and possible retrofit opportunities.

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9.0 Glossary

Units of Power / Units of Energy / Units of the Environment

Terms Definition

CO2­e Carbon dioxide equivalent for electricity generation. In Queensland, 1.04kg of carbon dioxide is produced for every 1kWh of electricity used.

GHG Greenhouse gas. Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, which occur naturally and occur through human activity.

W Watt, a unit of power. A typical household light bulb uses between 20 and 100 watts of power. (Power measures the rate of energy consumption. One watt equals one joule per second.)

kW Kilowatt, a unit of power, equal to 1,000 (10 3 ) watts.

MW Megawatt, a unit of power, equal to 1 million (10 6 ) watts.

GW Gigawatt, a unit of power, equal to 1,000 million (10 9 ) watts.

Wh Watt­hour, a unit of energy. A 20­watt light bulb switched on for one hour will use 20 watt­hours of electricity.

kWh Kilowatt­hour, a unit of energy, equal to 1000 watt­hours. A kilowatt­hour of electricity typically costs between 11 cents and 15 cents in Queensland.

MWh Megawatt­hour, a unit of energy, equal to 1 million (10 6 ) watt­hours. Electricity consumption for billing purposes is usually measured in kWh or MWh.

GWh Gigawatt­hour, a unit of energy, equal to 1,000 million (10 9 ) watt­hours.

J Joule, a unit of energy. One watt­hour equals 3600 joules. (There are 3600 seconds in an hour.)

kJ Kilojoule, a unit of energy, equal to 1 thousand (10 3 ) joules.

MJ Megajoule, a unit of energy, equal to 1 million (10 6 ) joules. The energy content of natural gas is usually measured in megajoules or gigajoules. One kilowatt­hour equals 3.6 megajoules

GJ Gigajoule, a unit of energy, equal to 1,000 million (10 9 ) joules.

TJ Terajoule, a unit of energy, equal to 1,000 billion (10 12 ) joules.

PJ Petajoule, a unit of energy, equal to 1 million billion (10 15 ) joules.

cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a give direction, of a source that emits a specific monochromatic radiation frequency (540 x 10 12 Hz) and that has a specific radiant intensity in that direction (1/683 watt per steradian). A steradian in SI unit is the solid angle, equal to the angle at the centre of a sphere subtended by a part of the surface equal in area to the square of the radius).

lm Lumen, a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The average amount of light emitted from a lamp. E.g. a 36 watt fluorescent lamp emits about 3000 lm.

lx Lux, a unit of lighting for illumination. The luminous flux (lm) incident on a surface area. E.g. one lux is the illumination on 1 m 2 surface area uniformly lit by 1 lumen of luminous flux.

PSH Peak Sun Hours. The equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1,000 W/m 2 . For example, six peak sun hours (PSH) means that the energy received during total daylight hours equals the energy that would have been received had the irradiance for six hours been 1,000 W/m 2 .

VAC Voltage Alternating Current. In Australian the local domestic supply is 240VAC.

VDC Voltage Direct Current. A photovoltaic module output is from 12VDC to 48VDC. Modules are connected in series (array) to raise the VDC much closer to 240VDC which must then be inverted to 240VAC.

Source: Courtesy of Queensland Government Department of Housing, Smart Housing Group and the US Department of Energy

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9.0 Glossary (continued)

Energy and the Environment Glossary

Terms Definition

Abatement The reduction of greenhouse gases in the environment.

Alternating current (AC) The type of electric current used by household appliances, which reverses its direction many times a second at regular intervals or cycles. In Australia, the standard is 100 reversals or 50Hz.

Direct Current (DC) The type of electric current provided by a battery or solar cell, which flows in one direction only. In Australia, direct current must be converted to alternating current for it to be used in 240­volt household appliances.

Efficiency (Energy) The ratio of the energy output to the energy input in any given energy conversion process.

Emissions (GHG) The release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over a period of time.

Energy The capacity to do work. Stored energy becomes work when we use it. Work is the product of a force (N) and the distance (m) through which it moves a body in the direction of that force; ‘work equals force times distance’. The unit of energy is the joule (J), which is equal to one Newton metre (N.m).

Energy Intensity The ratio of energy consumption to a measure of the demand for services (e.g., number of buildings, total floor space, floor space­hours, number of employees, or constant dollar value of Gross Domestic Product for services). Usually expressed in units Megajoules per metre squared (MJ/m 2 ).

Fossil Fuel A natural fuel source derived from decomposed organic matter containing hydrocarbons. In general terms it refers to oil, coal and natural gas fuels.

Global Warming Greenhouse gases are responsible for the earth's rise in temperature over time, mainly due to the greenhouse effect. Human activity increases the amount of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, trapping more heat than usual, and it raises the average global temperature.

Greenhouse Effect The atmosphere acts like a greenhouse, which is a naturally occurring event. Greenhouse gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) build up in the atmosphere and prevent heat escaping into space, creating a livable environment on earth.

Grid Transmission line network used to distribute electricity to homes and industry.

Heat Pump A mechanical device that transfers and upgrades heat from one medium to another, thereby cooling the first and warming the second.

Illuminance The density of the light flow incident on a surface. The unit of illumination in SI system is lux (lx).

Luminous Flux Luminous flux is the quantity of the energy of the light emitted per second in all directions. The unit of luminous flux in SI system is lumen (lm).

Luminous Intensity Luminous intensity is the ability to emit light into a given direction. The unit of luminous intensity in SI system is candela (cd).

Luminance Luminance (L) is the luminous intensity of the surface of a light source. The unit of luminance is cd per m 2 .

Inverter A device that converts direct current electricity to alternating current either for stand­alone systems or to supply power to an electricity grid.

Irradiance The direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation that strikes a surface. It is the rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area of surface. Usually expressed in watts per square metre (average value 1000W/m 2 at sea level).

Passive Solar System A solar heating or cooling system that uses no external mechanical power to move the collected solar heat.

Photovoltaic Array A number of photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected together, which collect solar energy to give a single direct current electrical output. Residential grid connected PV arrays comes in sizes from 480 watts peak up to 2000 watts peak or more.

47

Energy and the Environment Glossary

Terms Definition

Photovoltaic Module A number of photovoltaic cells electrically connected together, which collect solar energy to give a single direct current electrical output. A module comes in various sizes starting from 1 watt peak up to 185 watts peak.

Power The rate of doing work. The rate of use of unit energy in unit time (1 second). The unit of power is a watt, which is one joule per second (J/s).

Renewable Energy Any energy resource that can be used continuously without depleting its reserves. Renewable energy includes: solar, wind, hydro, biofuels, ocean, wave and tidal and geothermal.

Solar Cell A small single photovoltaic device that generates electricity when exposed to sunlight.

Solar Collector A device that collects solar radiation and converts it to heat. A collector uses liquid (solar water heaters) or air as the heat transfer medium. The sun (solar energy) heats the liquid flowing through collector pipes placed on or within the absorber, which is the black surface that soaks up solar energy.

Sources: Courtesy of US Department of Energy, Go Solar Company, BP Solar and Solar Buzz.

48

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53

Appendices

54

Appendix 1 – Relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards

AS1680.1: 1990 – Interior Lighting, Part 1: General principles and recommendations

AS1680.2.1: 1993 – Interior Lighting, Part 2.1: Circulation spaces and other general areas

AS/NZS 2007.1:2003 ­ ‘Performance of household electrical appliances ­ Dishwashers, Part 1: Energy consumption and performance standard requirements.

AS/NZS 2040.1:1998 ­ ‘Performance of household electrical appliances ­ Clothes washing

machines, Part 1: Energy consumption and performance standard requirements.

AS/NZS 2535.1:1999 – ‘Test Methods for Solar Collectors –Thermal Performance of Glazed Liquid

Heating Collectors Including Pressure Drop

AS/NZS 3598: 2000 – Energy Audits

AS 4234­ 1994 Solar Water Heaters ­ Domestic and Heat Pump ­ Calculation of Energy

Consumption

AS/NZS 4445.1:1997 Solar Heating –Domestic Water Heating System – Performance Rating

Procedure using indoor test method

AS/NZS 4474.2­2001 ­ ‘Performance of household electrical appliances ­ Clothes washing

machines, Part: Energy labelling and minimum energy performance standard requirements.

AS/NZS 4474.2­2001 ­ ‘Performance of household electrical appliances ­ Dishwasher, Part 2:

Energy labeling and minimum energy performance standard requirements.

AS/NZS 4474.1­1997­ ‘Performance of household electrical appliances ­ Refrigerating appliances,

Part 1: Energy consumption and performance

AS/NZS 4474.2­2001 ­ ‘Performance of household electrical appliances ­ Refrigerating appliances,

Part 2: Energy labeling and minimum energy performance standard requirements.

55

Appendix 2­ Background Statistical Information

Besides including energy consumption statistical data on a single detached residential building (Research House), the report includes energy data all other residential building types. The uncertainty (statistical error) in the national and state energy consumption statistical data may not be significant. The difference in energy consumption from different residential building types lies in the use pattern (e.g. young couples with no children will have different use patterns to older couples with children). Research House (use pattern) is one statistical sample, which will be different from another household (use pattern) sample. A very large sample such as the population of Australia or the states will reduce the statistical uncertainty in use patterns.

The total final (end use) energy consumption statistical data is given for year ending 1998 in the source report. The AGO then models projected energy consumption for future years to 2010 based on the report by Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics (ABARE 2004). The relevant key highlights in the summary of the ABARE report are that the estimated electricity and gas demand growth is 2.4 per cent a year and 4.8 per cent a year respectively.

The relative contributions of the modelled energy consumption data are converted to a more useful and meaningful form on a per capita basis in energy units of kilowatt­hours (kWh). The energy consumption data is now in a usable form that allows suitable comparisons. Needless to say, due to the number of steps in the energy consumption data conversion process, statistical errors are compounded and the best estimate of the statistical errors aggregate is about ± 5 percent, which is within an acceptable tolerance.

56

Appendix 3 ­ User Patterns of Hot Water Systems

Impact on solar

Cole (2004) explains that use patterns have a big impact on energy consumption and GHG emissions of hot water systems. In summary, according to Cole (2004) there are two likely categories that use patterns for domestic water heaters fall into:

mainly used at night and

mainly used during the morning

The first use pattern scenario maximises grid energy and GHG emissions. The assumptions made are that the storage tank is emptied during the evening and refills with cold water and the electric booster operates at night. The booster cuts in and reheats the water during the night ready for the next day. “The solar hot water panels do little except keep the water hot during the day”. Incidentally, heat pumps operate night and day.

The second use pattern scenario minimises grid energy and GHG emissions. The assumptions made are that the storage tank is emptied during the morning and refills with cold water and the solar collector does all the work to heat the water during the day. The booster cuts in only as required to keep the water hot during the night ready for the solar to heat the water the next day. (This assumes off­peak, overnight electric heating)

According to Cole (2004), the research concludes that the cost of running a water heater and the GHG emissions from water heaters are variables that rise and fall from day to day and those two vital variables are influenced by the choice of water heater type which should be selected on key factors such as, fuel source (electric, gas or solar), climate, efficiency of appliance, pattern of use, family size and age of appliance.

57

Appendix 4 ­ Energy Efficient Hot Water System

Solar Hot Water System (Solahart) environmentally friendly ­ very low GHG emissions (hot sunny climate);

reduction of GHG by up to 3 tonnes per year;

it works very well in hot sunny climates;

it works in colder climates (may need some boosting);

tank on ground option;

low to zero noise level;

high co­efficient of performance (efficiency) – 3 to 4

energy savings up to 80% over off­peak storage system highly reliable good ‘pay­back’ period 5­7 years (SEAV 2002, p.17)

58

Appendix 5 – Climate Zones for Performance of Solar Water Heaters

Figure 13: Climate Zones for Residential Solar Water Heaters

(Source: AS2984 – 1987: Solar Water Heaters – Method of Test for Thermal Performance Outdoor Test Method)

59

Appendix 6 – Electrical Layout: Location of Sensors

Figure 14: Research House Layout – Location of Sensors for Monitoring

60

Appendix 7 – Residential Energy Use Audit Guide

Table 16: Energy Use Audit Guide

Energy Use Audit Guide

Energy Activity Group Review Energy Group When Plan of Action

Electricity or Gas Account

Review energy consumption. Compare current account with account this time last year. Reconciliation of energy accounts with loads.

Quarterly Identify group where consumption may have increased. Prepare plan to reduce energy use in identified group. For example, plan can be as simple as turning lights off when not in use or getting rid of old redundant fridge that sees very little use.

Lighting Check lamps. Common lamps are incandescent (GLS).

Yearly Switch interior lights off when not in use. Replace old GLS lamps with fluorescent lamps (15 watts or higher)

Hot Water System

Check the condition of the hot water system. Review the fuel source for water heating. Choices are solar, heat pump, gas or electric

Yearly Replace old leaky systems ­ choose gas, solar or heat pump. Check thermostat setting ­ set as per manufacturer (normal 60 0 C). Reduce bath water volume. Minimise shower time. Check hot taps for drips.

Install ceiling fans (preferred choice) Yearly Cheapest cooling option. Choose fans with electronic controllers.

Space Cooling

Install high efficient air­conditioning systems (second choice)

High­energy use. Choose higher efficient and intelligent digital inverter AC systems. Intelligent systems are better at energy management and are more efficient in energy use. They detect and analysis heat loads more precisely and adjusts room temperatures accordingly.

Space Heating

Review the fuel source and condition of any old heaters. Options are electric, gas (natural gas or LPG) or kerosene.

Yearly Consider a gas unit ventilated to outdoors as preferred choice. Cheapest on running cost. Consider the health (nitrogen oxides) and safety of fuel choice.

61

Energy Use Audit Guide

Energy Activity Group Review Energy Group When Plan of Action

Reverse cycle air­conditioning Yearly Most expensive option. Set control to minimum.

Appliances (Group A) Electric jug, toaster, frying pan etc Yearly High­energy use group. Use these units sparingly and thoughtfully

Appliances (Group B) Dishwasher, clothes washer and dryer Yearly Buy appliances with 4 stars or higher energy label.

Appliances (Group C)

Refrigerator and freezer Yearly High­energy use group. Buy appliances with 4 stars or higher energy label. Install in cool part of kitchen away from cooking area. Minimise opening and closing door on hot days and set temperature control as per manufacturer, but adjust to suit summer and winter indoor temperatures.

Appliances (Group D) PC, TV, DVD, VCR, play station, stereo and radio

Yearly Switch off at wall socket. Don’t use standby feature for long periods.

Cooking Electric or gas cook tops and ovens Yearly High­energy use. Use efficiently

Note: Australian/New Zealand Standard 3598:2000 refers