D Pollution

8/12/2019 D Pollution

1/22

State of Environment Report on Waste Management and Pollution ControlAppendix D - Pollution August 2001

APPENDIX D POLLUTION

1 !"R#D$C"#! 2

2 DESCRP"#! #% "&PES #% P#''$"#! 2

( P#''$"#! #% S$R%ACE WA"ER C#$RSES #R )R#$!DWA"ER 2(*1 #vervie+ of Water Pollution in !ami,ia 2(*2 Water Pollution 'egislation from revie+ ,. Ena/t 1 ((*( )eneral Water Pollution ((* Water Pollution from Spe/ifi/ 'o/al Sour/es 3(*3 Asso/iation of Water Pollution and Soil Pollution 4(*5 Current Management Pra/ti/es 6

(*5*1Met7ods of /ontrol permit s.stems8 inspe/tion8 ot7er 6(*5*2A/tors involved in +ater pollution prevention and /ontrol

(*5*2*1 Pu,li/ se/tor (*5*2*2 Private se/tor

(*5*(#perational and investment /osts 10(*4 Criti/al Defi/ien/ies 10(*6 Re/ommendations for Cir/umventing Defi/ien/ies 11(* Re/ommendations for mprovements 11

P#''$"#! #% C#AS"A' AREAS 12*1 #vervie+ of Marine Pollution in !ami,ia 12*2 Marine Pollution 'egislation 12*( )eneral Marine Pollution 12* Marine Pollution from Spe/ifi/ 'o/al Sour/es 12

*3 Current Management Pra/ti/es 1(*3*1 Pu,li/ Se/tor nvolvement 1(3 AR P#''$"#! 1(

3*1 #vervie+ of Air Pollution 1(3*2 Air Pollution 'egislation 13*( )eneral Air Pollution 13* Air Pollution from Spe/ifi/ 'o/al Sour/es 133*3 Climate C7ange 15

3*3*1Spe/ifi/ Pro,lems in !ami,ia Caused ,. Climate C7ange 153*3*2#9one Depleting Su,stan/es 153*3*(Climate gas emissions from spe/ifi/ sour/es 15

3*5 Current Management Pra/ti/es 143*5*1Met7ods of /ontrol permit s.stems8 inspe/tion8 ot7er 163*5*2Private se/tor involvement 16

5 !#SE P#''$"#! 15*1 !oise Pollution in $r,an Areas 15*2 Current Management Pra/ti/es 205*( Criti/al Defi/ien/ies 205* Re/ommendations for Cir/umventing Defi/ien/ies 205*3 Re/ommendations for mprovements 20

4 '!:A)ES ;E"WEE! P#''$"#! A!D "


2/22


E!=R#!ME!" 204*1 Model of lin>ages 20

2


3/22


1 INTRODUCTION

Pollution is defined in t7e Draft Environmental Management A/t as ? the direct orindirect introduction, as a result of human activity, of substances, vibrations,heat, radiation or noise into the air, water or land which may be harmful to

human health or well-being or the quality of the environment, or impair orinterfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment*@

=er. fe+ uantitative data are availa,le regarding t7e su,Be/t of pollution in!ami,ia* ;e/ause of t7is limitation8 t7is appendix is mostl. des/riptive*

2 DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF POLLUTION

n t7is appendix8 pollution is des/ri,ed a//ording to t7e medium into +7i/7 it isintrodu/ed* "7us t7e appendix is ,ro>en up into +ater pollution8 marine pollution8air pollution8 and noise pollution*

Water pollution /overs an. pollution +7i/7 enters !ami,ia@s inland +ater ,odies*"7ese in/lude t7e os7anas8 ep7emeral rivers8 s7ared rivers8 and undergroundauifers* ;e/ause of t7e /lose asso/iation ,et+een +ater pollution and soilpollution8 soil pollution is also /overed 7ere*

Marine pollution des/ri,es an. pollution t7at enters !ami,ia@s /oastal +aterseit7er dire/tl. e*g* dire/t dis/7arge of effluent into t7e o/ean or indire/tl.polluted +ater from rivers +as7ing into t7e o/ean*

Air pollution is an. t.pe of pollution +7i/7 enters t7e atmosp7ere*

!oise pollution +7i/7 te/7ni/all. /ould fall under air pollution is given a se/tionof its o+n ,e/ause t7is t.pe of pollution is ver. different in nature from most ot7erforms of pollution*

3 POLLUTION OF SURFACE WATER COURSES AND GROUNDWATER

(*1 #vervie+ of Water Pollution in !ami,ia

Pollution of fres7+ater is t7e most serious form of pollution in !ami,ia it is t7emost +idespread and poses t7e most severe 7ealt7 ris>s* Additionall.8 !ami,iais a ver. arid /ountr. and /an ill afford to let an. of its potentiall. drin>a,le +ater,e/ome unusa,le*

(*2 Water Pollution 'egislation from revie+ ,. Ena/t 1

"7e 135 Sout7 Afri/an Water A/t /overs all aspe/ts of +ater management andis administered ,. t7e Ministr. of Agri/ulture8 Water and Rural Development*"7e Water A/t is generall. /onsidered inadeuate as t7e provisions relating topollution /ontrol are diffi/ult to enfor/e* A definition of pollution is missing and

3


4/22


t7e a/t reuires proof of pollution rat7er t7an /ontrol of listed su,stan/es t7at are/apa,le of /ausing pollution*

"7e Sout7 Afri/an Pu,li/


5/22


and fae/al pollution* Run-off +it7in a /at/7ment area +ill al+a.s /ontri,ute todung ,eing +as7ed do+n t7e river to t7e nearest dam-site*

Alt7oug7 not as large a pro,lem as livesto/> +aste8 7uman se+age is also a/ontri,utor to +ater pollution* "7is is mainl. due to inadeuate fa/ilities andKor

poor management pra/ti/es* n t7e nort7 of t7e /ountr.8 man. se+age pondsi*e* oxidation ponds and evaporation ponds eit7er 7ave lea>s t7at let se+ageseep into t7e ground or 7ave pro,lems +it7 flooding over +7en it rains* "7isdumps se+age and all t7e asso/iated 7ealt7 ris>s dire/tl. into t7e surroundings*

A surve. of se+age treatment fa/ilities in t7e nort7ern regions8 done ,. offi/ialsof t7e ME"8 revealed t7at onl. fe+ are properl. maintained and operating* "7emaBorit. +as not operating8 ,ro>en do+n8 poorl. operated or maintained*

%ae/al +aste tends to introdu/e t+o main t.pes of /7emi/al pollution into +ater8nitrates and sulp7ates* !itrates are dangerous to infants under one .ear of age*

Ex/ess levels of sulp7ates /ause diarr7oea and de7.dration* E. coli is alsopresent in fae/al +aste8 and /an also lead to diarr7oea and d.sentr.*

(*(*2 Solid +aste disposal sites

mproper lo/ation of solid +aste disposal sites is also a maBor /ontri,utor to +aterpollution in !ami,ia* Water t7at seeps t7roug7 a landfill +ill pi/> up variousimpurities8 depending on t7e +aste it passes t7roug7* A landfill s7ould ,e pla/edon an area t7at +ill not allo+ penetration ,. +ater t7at flo+s t7roug7 t7e +aste*

At t7e ver. least8 /are s7ould ,e ta>en to ensure t7at +ater seeping t7roug7 t7elandfill never enters an. sour/es of drin>ing +ater* deall.8 7a9ardous +astes7ould ,e separated from ot7er +aste8 and pla/ed in a spe/iall. lined /ell toprevent +ater from passing t7roug7* Wind7oe> 7as su/7 a 7a9ardous /ell8 ,utt7e previous dumpsite for 7a9ardous +aste at !u,aumis on t7e nort7ern side oft7e to+n ma. still ,e /onsidered as a potential sour/e of pollution* "7e CoWmonitors t7e site ,. anal.sis of ,ore7ole +ater ta>en from strategi/ sites aroundt7e ,ore7ole* Walvis ;a. 7as t7e onl. ot7er 7a9ardous /ell in t7e /ountr.* Su/7expensive fa/ilities are presentl. not found in an. ot7er to+ns in !ami,ia* "7is isdue to a /om,ination of la/> of a+areness among t7e persons responsi,le8 andla/> of mone. to pa. for su/7 measures* Similar pollution pro,lems are /aused+7en individuals dump t7eir +aste in river,eds or ,ur. it near a +ater sour/e*

(*(*( Pesti/ides and ot7er agro-/7emi/als

rrigation of fields /an /ause +ater pollution* "7is mainl. o//urs +7en farmersput agro-/7emi/als e*g* pesti/ides8 fertiliser into t7e irrigation +ater* )enerall.people do not reall. >no+ +7at 7appens to t7is +ater after it passes t7roug7 t7eir/ropsI

it ma. evaporate leaving t7e /7emi/als in t7e field ideall.J

it ma. penetrate t7roug7 t7e soilJ

or it ma. flo+ off t7e fields into near,. +ater /ourses*

5


6/22


Aussen>e7r near t7e #range River is an example +7ere irrigation +ater ma>esits +a. into t7e river /ourse*

Pesti/ides are a serious sour/e of pollution even +7en t7e. are not put dire/tl.into irrigation +ater* A /ommon pra/ti/e in t7e nort7ern areas is to mix DD" +it7

diesel fuel and spra. t7is mixture onto 7uts and >raals to >ill t7e inse/ts andve/tors* t is also reported t7at people mix small amounts of DD" +it7 t7emilletKma7ango in t7e grain storage ,as>ets* "7is is done to >eep ratsKverminfrom devouring t7e /rop* DD" is a residual poison8 and +ill a//umulate inpeople@s and animals ,odies in t7eir fat tissues eventuall. rea/7ing 7armful orpossi,l. fatal levels* t 7as also ,een reported t7at people use old DD"/ontainers to store and /arr. drin>ing +ater* A stud. /ondu/ted ,. ME" man..ears ago revealed t7at DD" affe/ts t7e eggs7ell t7i/>ness of ,irds in t7emalariaKDD" affe/ted areas* Referen/e

(*(* #t7er mis/ellaneous pollutants

%luorides are almost in all /ases of natural origin8 mainl. in t7e :aras Region ando//asionall. in ot7er isolated spots of t7e /ountr.* #nl. in Warm,ad is t7eretreatment of ,ore7ole +ater to remove un+anted /on/entrations of fluoride*

n some /ases it 7as ,een reported t7at tar from paving roads 7as ,een partiall.suspended in rain+ater /ausing some pollution of +ater ,odies re/eiving t7estorm +ater* "ar /ontains man. toxi/ materials and /ar/inogens* "7is pro,lemis made +orse +7en t7e unused tar is simpl. dis/arded at t7e side of t7e road*

(* Water Pollution from Spe/ifi/ 'o/al Sour/es

"7ere are some sour/es of +ater pollution +7i/7 are parti/ularl. intense in t7espe/ifi/ area in +7i/7 t7e. are lo/ated8 ,ut are not found t7roug7out !ami,ia*%oremost among t7ese are mines* Mines often use /7emi/als to extra/t t7edesired metal from t7e ore* "7e /7emi/als used depend on t7e t.pe of pro/essemplo.ed ,. t7e mineI t7e. in/lude /.anide and sulp7uri/ a/id for extra/tion8and xant7ates for flotation* "7ese /7emi/als are poisonous if ingested8 +7i/7 /aneasil. o//ur ,. drin>ing +ater t7at is /ontaminated +it7 t7em* Su/7 /7emi/alsare often found in t7e tailings or effluent from t7e mine* Lust as +it7 a landfill8improper pla/ement of a tailings dam /an /ause serious pollution pro,lems8 ,ot7for t7e surfa/e +ater and ground+ater* "7is is an espe/iall. severe pro,lem+7ere t7e su,strate allo+s eas. penetration of +ater into an auifer8 su/7 as in>arst areas +7ere t7e ,edro/> is limestone or dolomite* "7ese ro/>s are easil.dissolved ,. a/idi/ su,stan/es +7i/7 t7en allo+s /ontaminants to find t7eir +a.into t7e underground +ater8 +7ere it /an spread far* "7e pro,lem is exa/er,ated+7ere t7e ,edro/> is fra/tured or faulted*

#ne mine in parti/ular8 S>orpion8 +7i/7 is opening near Ros7 Pina78 7as t7epotential to /ontri,ute signifi/antl. to pollution in t7at area* t is expe/ted t7at t7emine +ill ,ring approximatel. 1000 2000 people into Ros7 Pina78 expandingt7e to+n@s population ,. up to (00H* n addition to t7e +aste generated ,. t7e

6


7/22


mine itself8 t7is +ill over,urden t7e to+n@s existing +aste and sanitationinfrastru/ture* f ne+8 +ell designed fa/ilities are not ,uilt8 it is almost /ertain t7att7e area +ill suffer from various forms of pollution*

%ig* (**1I "7e map s7o+s t7e distri,ution of potential pollutants in various parts of!ami,ia* %rom MAWRD8 DWA 2000*

"7e so-/alled bird paradisenear Walvis ;a. o//asionall. re/eives ra+ se+ageand t7is lead to t7e ponds ,eing used to store ex/ess purified se+age8 to t7e

point +7ere t7e. 7ave ,e/ome polluted*

Petrol stations 7ave a 7ig7 potential to pollute t7e environment* "7is is /ausedmainl. ,. lea>ing ,uried petrol storage tan>s* Some auifers are toda. still toopolluted for use ,e/ause of petrol /ontamination t7at o//urred 23 up to 0 .earsago* Anot7er potential ris> asso/iated +it7 petrol stationsKgarages is t7epossi,ilit. t7at t7e. ma. dump t7eir +aste oil dire/tl. into t7e surroundingsinstead of disposing of it properl.*

7


8/22


A,attoirs generate ,iologi/al +aste t7at /an /ause pro,lems if not properl.disposed of* #rgani/ +aste su/7 as ,lood8 offal and ot7er un+anted animalprodu/ts s7ould ,e ,uried under at least 300/m of soil* %or most a,attoirs +7i/7onl. slaug7ter animals8 send t7e s>ins to a tanner. and t7e meat to a pro/essingplant8 t7is is suffi/ient treatment* area t7ere are t7ree tanneries*#ne dis/7arges into t7e reti/ulation s.stem and to date t7e Muni/ipalit. +as

satisfied +it7 t7e effluent ualit.* "7e ot7er t+o dis/7arge into nature and 7ave K7ad t7eir o+n treatment plants* #ne tanner. +as /losed do+n due to suspe/ted/7romium pollution of ground+ater* Sin/e t7e $Bams treatment ponds of t7e CoWare /lose ,. and t7eir /7romium levels are 7ig78 it is not /lear +7ere t7e/7romium originated from in t7e first pla/e* "7e ot7er tanner. appears to 7ave,een t7e /ause of a strong in/rease of salinit. of t7e ground +ater s7ortl. afterstart up*

(*3 Asso/iation ,et+een Water Pollution and Soil Pollution

Soil pollution in !ami,ia is generall. asso/iated +it7 a similar t.pe of pollution in+ater* W7en polluted +ater lea/7es t7roug7 soil8 it leaves ,e7ind some of itspolluting su,stan/es8 +7i/7 /an /ontaminate t7e soil and ma>e it less suita,le tosustain life* "7erefore8 an. of t7e a,ove sour/es of pollution /an /ontaminatesoil* 'ea>ing petrol storage tan>s are espe/iall. 7armful to t7e soil*

#ne t.pe of +ater related pollution t7at is nonet7eless spe/ifi/ to soil is due toirrigation* f t7e +ater used for irrigation /ontains salts and evaporates from t7efields8 t7e salts remain ,e7ind* #ver time t7is leads to t7e a//umulation of 7ig7levels of salts in t7e soil8 even if t7e +ater did not originall. 7ave ver. 7ig7 salt/on/entration*


9/22


(*5 Current Management Pra/ti/es

Most people intervie+ed felt t7at +ater pollution +as not adeuatel. /ontrolleddespite t7eir ,est efforts* "7is is due mainl. to a la/> of resour/es on t7e part of

t7e responsi,le offi/ials and a la/> of a+areness on t7e parts of polluters8 t7epu,li/ and lo/al aut7orities*

"7ere 7as ,een a s7ift of emp7asis in t7e management of pollution* "7eemp7asis used to ,e on enfor/ement8 +7ere,. t7e DWA +ould tr. to monitor t7ea/tivities of ,usinesses8 industr. and lo/al aut7orities* W7en t7e. foundpra/ti/es t7at +ere in /ontravention +it7 t7e la+ t7e. +ould tr. to for/e t7einstitution to /7ange its pra/ti/es or s7ut do+n* $nfortunatel. t7ere +ere anum,er of pro,lems +it7 t7is approa/7* %irst of all it is diffi/ult and /ostl. toeffe/tivel. monitor t7e a/tions of man. different institutions /ountr.+ide8 sopresuma,l. man. illegal a/tivities +ere not dete/ted* Se/ond8 even +7en a

polluter +as /aug7t enfor/ement +as not al+a.s eas.* Sometimes t7e polluter+ould /ontest t7e /7arges in /ourt8 +7en t7is 7as 7appened t7e DWA never +ont7e /ase to date* ;e/ause of t7ese diffi/ulties8 a ne+ approa/7 7as ,een ta>en*

!o+ t7e emp7asis is on a pro-a/tive solution to pollution* "7e DWA tries toma>e polluters a+are of t7e 7ealt7 effe/ts and finan/ial reper/ussions of 7eav.pollution* t is 7oped t7at if people understand t7e /onseuen/es of t7eir a/tions8t7e. +ill ,e7ave responsi,l.* Per7aps8 and t7is idea +as ,riefl. ela,oratedamong staff of t7e relevant division8 staff +ill 7ave to form a team t7at visits ea/7region or maBor to+n and endeavours to explain to relevant people of t7e regiont7e importan/e of effluent /ontrol8 t7e terminolog. used in t7e uestionnaires8et/* Su/7 a/tion +ould t7en in/lude explanations to ,e given in Englis78

Afri>aans8 and t7e maBor verna/ular of t7e region*

(*5*1Met7ods of /ontrol permit s.stems8 inspe/tion8 ot7er

"7e main met7od of /ontrolling +ater pollution is t7roug7 t7e DWA issuingexemption permits to ,usiness and ot7er institutions8 su/7 as lo/al aut7orities8+is7ing to dis/7arge effluent into t7e surroundings* "7ese exemption permitsallo+ institutions to dis/7arge effluent t7at is not in /omplian/e +it7 t7e standardsset fort7 t7e. are exempted from /omplian/e8 7en/e t7e name* "7ere are/urrentl. 120 valid exemption permits in existen/e Ena/t 1*

"7e pro/ess for o,taining an exemption permit is as follo+s* %irst t7e institutionsu,mits an appli/ation to t7e DWA in +7i/7 t7e. respond to uestions dealingspe/ifi/all. +it7 t7e relevant treatment e*g* oxidation ponds8 ,iofilters8 septi/tan>s fren/7 drainsJ t7e a/tivated sludge plants uestionnaire 7as not ,een/ompiled .et* "7en t7e DWA +rites a te/7ni/al report ,ased on t7e informationprovided and8 +7ere possi,le8 p7.si/al inspe/tion of t7e site* "7e p7.si/alinspe/tions are uite expensive and la,orious from a logisti/al point of vie+ andso are not al+a.s possi,le* After t7e te/7ni/al report is +ritten8 it is evaluated ,.t7e DWA and ot7er relevant ministries8 usuall. in/luding Ministr. of


10/22


So/ial Servi/es* ;ased on t7is evaluation t7e permit is eit7er denied8 or atemporar. permit is issued usuall. one .ear8 or a normal five .ear permit isissued*

n t7e opinion of one DWA offi/ial t7e term ?exemption permit@ is a /urse* "7is is

,e/ause some of t7e appli/ants for su/7 a permit a/tuall. treat t7eir effluent sot7at +7en it is dis/7arged8 it is of a 7ig7er ualit. t7an is reuired ,. la+* "7us8t7e. are not reall. ,eing exempted from an.t7ing* Per7aps a s.stem of t+opermits is an ans+er* A dis/7arge permit /ould ,e issued to t7ose appli/ants+7o 7ave t7e resour/es and personnel to ensure t7at t7eir effluent does /ompl.+it7 t7e la+* #t7er institutions8 su/7 as small to+ns and villages8 +7i/7 /annotreasona,l. ,e expe/ted to /ompl. +it7 t7e esta,lis7ed standards8 +ould ,e a,leto appl. for an exemption permit to allo+ t7em to dis/7arge t7eir effluent as is*

Anot7er +ea> point in t7e exemption permit s.stem relates to enfor/ement* "7eDWA does not 7ave t7e a,ilit. to s7ut do+n an operation t7at does not /ompl.

+it7 t7e regulations* %or example8 during t7is stud. it +as learnt t7at !amde,7ad not supplied t7e DWA +it7 t7e effluent samples t7at +ere reuested*;e/ause of t7is t7e. did not 7ave a /urrent exemption permit8 ,ut t7e. are stilla,le to /ontinue operations*

n t7e past t7e DWA +ould anal.se +ater samples from farmer@s ,ore7oles freeof /7arge* "7is 7elped ensure t7at people living on farms 7ad a//ess to safedrin>ing +ater8 and it also provided t7e DWA +it7 an ex/ellent sour/e of +aterualit. data t7at t7e. did not need to /olle/t* $nfortunatel. t7is program provedto ,e too /ostl. and so a fee of !N(00 - !N300 per sample +as introdu/ed tore/over t7e /ost of t7e test* "7is 7as led to far fe+er samples ,eing ,roug7t infor anal.sis*

(*5*2A/tors involved in +ater pollution prevention and /ontrol

(*5*2*1 Pu,li/ se/tor

$ntil re/entl. t7e DWA 7as ,een t7e primar. a/tor involved in t7e prevention and/ontrol of +ater pollution in !ami,ia* +ater pollution8 in/ludingRossing $ranium mine and some fis7 pro/essing fa/tories*


11/22


some industries8 nota,l. Meat/o8 Rossing and !ami,ia ;re+eries8 +7o do anex/ellent Bo, of re/./ling and treating t7eir o+n effluent or part t7ereof*

(*5*(#perational and investment /osts to prevent and /ontrol +aterpollution

"7e a/tual /osts of preventing +ater pollution are un>no+n* 8 and reuire dedi/ated staff to,e /arried out effe/tivel.* Proper training is often la/>ing on all levels*

Anot7er /onstraint reported +as t7at t7e DWA does not 7ave its o+n la,orator.in +7i/7 to /ondu/t tests* nstead it 7as to tender out its anal.ses to relevant,usinesses* n t7e long run t7is is /ostl. and ineffi/ient8 espe/iall. sin/e man.tests /annot ,e performed in !ami,ia and samples need to ,e sent to Sout7

Afri/a or Europe*

(*6 Re/ommendations for Cir/umventing Defi/ien/ies

"o address t7e pro,lem of not >no+ing +7en pollution is ,eing dumped into t7eenvironment8 an offi/ial reported t7at t7e DWA +as +or>ing on /reating a+e,site +7ere people /ould go to anon.mousl. report instan/es of pollution* fpeople8 parti/ularl. s/7ool /7ildren8 are made a+are of t7is site8 t7en illegal

11


12/22


polluters +ould 7ave greater diffi/ult. 7iding t7eir /rimes* A DWA offi/ial alsostated t7at t7e. felt t7at t7ere s7ould ,e more p7.si/al inspe/tions of sites t7atappl. for exemption permits8 and t7at t7ese inspe/tions s7ould ,e made moreeffi/ient*

e it diffi/ult for t7e DWA to fulfill its o,ligations +it7 respe/t topollution prevention*

t is 7oped t7at t7roug7 t7e ,road dissemination of relevant do/uments su/7 ast7is report man. people +ill 7ave t7e information t7e. need to effe/tivel. do t7eir

Bo,s* "raining ma. ,e more diffi/ult and /ostl. to provide t7an information8 ,ut int7e long run it +ill ,e less expensive t7an to allo+ !ami,ia@s environment to ,epoisoned*

(* Re/ommendations for mprovements in nformation ualit. and Availa,ilit.

A /ommon pro,lem is t7at man. institutions 7ave a great deal of ra+ or semi-anal.sed data8 ,ut t7ese data are not availa,le for one reason or anot7er* Man.older re/ords +7i/7 are still relevant and ver. important onl. exist in paperformK7ard /op.* "7is ma>es it time /onsuming and diffi/ult to gain usefulinformation from t7ese data* %or instan/e8 it +ould ,e 7elpful to 7ave all data ona /ertain pla/e availa,le to ,e a,le to tra/> trends in +ater ualit. for drin>ing+ater or to dis/over a degree of slo+-moving pollution ta>ing pla/e* Anot7erdiffi/ult. is t7at even +7en data are /omputerised8 t7e. are often fragmented orina//essi,le to t7ose people +7o need t7em*

"o address t7is situation8 it +as suggested t7at a /entralised data,ase ,eesta,lis7ed t7at +ould /ontain all availa,le national data regarding +ater* "7enan. institution t7at needed su/7 information /ould retrieve t7e relevant dataui/>l. and effi/ientl.* #n a smaller s/ale8 t7e Cit. of Wind7oe> is /urrentl.loo>ing into pur/7asing a la,orator. information management s.stem for t7e)ammams la,*

4 POLLUTION OF COASTAL AREAS

*1 #vervie+ of Marine Pollution in !ami,ia

Marine pollution in !ami,ia is not ver. +idespread* "7e 7ig7est /on/entrationso//ur at Walvis ;a.8 +7i/7 is !ami,ia@s largest s7ipping port8 and t7e near,.to+n of S+a>opmund* Most of !ami,ia@s /oast is virtuall. free from pollution,e/ause it is +it7in t7e S>eleton Coast Par> or t7e !ami,K!au>luft Par>*

*2 Marine Pollution 'egislation

Marine pollution is tou/7ed upon ,. several pie/es of legislation* "7ese in/ludeIt7e Petroleum Exploration and Produ/tion A/t of 118 t7e !ami,ian Ports

Aut7orit. A/t of 1 and t7e Sea %is7eries A/t of 12* "7e ;asel Convention

12


13/22


128 t7e $nited !ations Convention on t7e 'a+ of t7e Sea 1 and t7e'ondon Convention of 142 are also appli/a,le* "7ese provide a fragmentar.and in/omplete frame+or> t7at +ill ,e addressed ,. t7e draft Pollution Controland Waste Management A/t*

*( )eneral Marine Pollution

Most marine pollution in !ami,ia /omes from spe/ifi/ sour/es and is dis/ussedin t7e next se/tion* ;io/ide paints used to >eep off ,arna/les8 et/* /ontainmer/ur.8 /admium8 lead8 /7romium or organotin ";" or some /om,ination oft7ese* "7ese /7emi/als /an ,e released into t7e +ater +7en t7e paint iss/raped or /7ipped off t7e 7ull of a vessel*

* Marine Pollution from Spe/ifi/ 'o/al Sour/es

%is7 fa/tories dis/7arge effluent as a part of t7eir fis7 pro/essing a/tivities*

"7ere are several different pro/esses t7at fis7 fa/tories use8 and ea/7 /an /reatea different t.pe of effluent* "7us it is possi,le for a single plant to /reate four tosix different t.pes of effluent8 ea/7 of +7i/7 ma. need to ,e treated differentl.*

"emperature and densit. pollution are sometimes not /onsidered to ,e pollution,e/ause t7e. are not ?foreign@ materials ,eing introdu/ed into t7e environment8rat7er t7e. are naturall. o//urring su,stan/es t7at are introdu/ed in a differentstate or a different /on/entration* "7e. normall. do not 7ave severe/onseuen/es ,e/ause t7e. dissipate ui/>l. and easil.*


14/22


,e a fa/tor. t7at dis/7arges effluent into t7e sea* "7e Ministr. of Wor>s8"ransport and Communi/ation MW"C is responsi,le for marine pollution t7atarises from s7ipping a/tivities* "7e Ministr. of %is7eries and Marine Resour/esM%MR is responsi,le for pollution t7at is /aused ,. fis7ing a/tivities*

5 AIR POLLUTION

3*1 #vervie+ of Air Pollution

Air pollution remains a t7reat to t7e glo,al /limate and 7uman 7ealt78 and it is animportant environmental pro,lem in Afri/a* t /onsists of numerous 7armfulsu,stan/es8 some of +7i/7 are +ell >no+n for t7eir negative effe/ts on t7eenvironment and on 7uman 7ealt7*

Alt7oug7 Afri/a 7as pla.ed a minor role in t7e ,uild-up of green7ouse gases int7e atmosp7ere over t7e .ears SADC /ontri,utes a,out 2H of glo,al

green7ouse gas emissions8 t7e /ourse of Afri/aOs future energ. /onsumptionand land use pra/ti/es +ill surel. 7ave a greater impa/t in t7e atmosp7ere in t7is/entur.*

3*2 Air Pollution 'egislation

At t7e moment t7ere is no A/t in !ami,ia t7at deals solel. +it7 air pollution*"7ere is t7e Atmosp7eri/ Pollution Prevention #rdinan/e !o* 11 of 1458 +7i/77as ,een repealed* "7e onl. existing la+ regarding air pollution in !ami,ia 7as,een in/luded in t7e ne+l. drafted Pollution Control and Waste Management ;ill8+7i/7 is a+aiting approval from /a,inet*

3*( )eneral Air Pollution

"7ere is relativel. little industr. in !ami,ia8 so generall. air pollution is minimal*#ne form of air pollution is not /aused ,. 7uman a/tivit. at all t7is is t7e mi/adust t7at pervades t7e air in t7e Wind7oe> area around August - #/to,er +7ent7ere are 7ig7 +inds* t is an ideal /arrier for viruses and is responsi,le for man.people getting si/> during +ind. mont7s* "7is8 7o+ever8 is a natural feature of!ami,ia@s environment and /annot pra/ti/all. ,e /om,ated* t s7ould ,e notedt7at tailings dams from mines often /ontri,ute to t7is pro,lem in t7e vi/init. of t7emine and do+n+ind*

Anot7er feature of Wind7oe> ma>es it prone to air pollution* "7e /it. lies in avalle. +7i/7 /an lead to +7at is /alled an inversion la.er in t7e air* f a ,od. of airis /ooler t7an t7e rest of t7e air around it8 it +ill des/end if it /an /ool air is7eavier t7an +arm air or Bust sit in a depression* $nless +inds enter t7edepression to mix t7e air8 t7e air +ill Bust sit t7ere8 a//umulating pollution* During+inter mont7s t7e ground surfa/e is /old8 /ausing t7e air a,ove it to ,e /ool andstationar.8 and not +arm enoug7 to generate t7ermals t7at +ould 7elp to mix t7e

14


15/22


air* "7is effe/t /on/entrates t7e air pollution in Wind7oe>8 ma>ing it more severet7an +7at one +ould expe/t*

A signifi/ant /ause of air pollution is smo>e from /oo>ing fires* "7is is mainl. a/on/ern in rural areas and informal settlements +7ere /oo>ing on +ood fires is

most /ommon* "7is pro,lem tends to ,e +orse in t7e nort7 +7ere mopane +oodis a popular fuel* Mopane ,urns fairl. 7ot +7i/7 is desira,le for /oo>ing8 ,ut t7esmo>e it gives off is more of an irritant t7an man. ot7er +ood smo>es* Smo>efrom /oo>ing fires /auses ,ot7 respirator. pro,lems and e.e pro,lems* Womengenerall. ,ear t7e ,runt of t7ese ill effe/ts sin/e t7e. do most of t7e /oo>ing*Smo>e from fires in :atutura and t7e informal settlements of Wind7oe> /an ,e aparti/ular pro,lem ,e/ause of t7e p7.si/al relief mentioned a,ove*

Anot7er sour/e of general pollution is due to ex7aust emissions from ve7i/les*"7ese gases do /ontri,ute to glo,al +arming and are /ar/inogens8 ,ut on aglo,al s/ale pollution of t7is t.pe is ver. minimal in !ami,ia*

15


16/22


3* Air Pollution from Spe/ifi/ 'o/al Sour/es

"7e follo+ing are sour/es of air pollution +7ose effe/ts are not felt t7roug7out!ami,ia8 ,ut rat7er are /onfined to t7e area surrounding do+n+ind of t7esour/e of pollution

Man. to+ns and settlements ,urn t7eir +aste in order to redu/e t7e volumest7e. need to dispose of and to prevent +ind,lo+n litter from es/aping t7edumpsite* $nfortunatel.8 t7is pra/ti/e releases a lot of smo>e and ot7er/7emi/als into t7e atmosp7ere*

Some signifi/ant point sour/es of air pollution are po+er generating stations t7atare driven ,. /om,ustion* "7e =an E/> /oal fired plant in Wind7oe>8 t7e Paratusdiesel po+ered plant in Walvis ;a. and diesel po+ered plant in :atima Mulilo aret7e onl. maBor examples of t7is t.pe in !ami,ia* "7e =an E/> and Paratuspo+er plants are onl. used in an emergen/. +7en extra po+er is needed*

)enerall.8 most po+er used in !ami,ia originates in Sout7 Afri/a* n fa/t!ami,ia imports 42H of it@s domesti/ ele/tri/it. /onsumption*

"7e produ/tion of ele/tri/it. is one of t7e main +a.s in +7i/7 industrialised/ountries pollute t7eir air* ;. importingele/tri/it.8 !ami,ia is free of t7is pro,lem

+e enBo. t7e ,enefits of a produ/t +7i/7 reuired pollution to produ/e8 .et donot suffer from an. of t7at pollution* A similar situation pertains to oil* !ami,iaimports refined petrol and ot7er oil produ/ts from ot7er /ountries t7at refine t7eoil* "7is >eeps !ami,ia@s atmosp7ere /lean +7ile +e still enBo. t7e ,enefits oft7ese produ/ts* #f /ourse t7e disadvantage to t7is is t7at !ami,ia pa.s 7ig7erpri/es for t7ese produ/ts t7an if t7e. +ere produ/edKrefined domesti/all.*

Mines are sometimes responsi,le for produ/ing signifi/ant air pollution* "7e"sume, mine for example is reported to 7ave pumped a great deal of lead intot7e atmosp7ere until it +as s7ut do+n ,. a stri>e in 1* "7ere +as also some/ontrovers. regarding t7e produ/tion of sulp7uri/ a/id at Rossing mine*


17/22


C7ange

Due to t7e ?green7ouse effe/t@8 glo,al temperatures are graduall. rising onaverage8 and t7e rate of t7is /7ange is in/reasing* f t7is trend /ontinues8 t7ere+ill ,e signifi/ant /limatologi/al /7anges t7at +ill 7ave disastrous effe/ts for

7uman populations*

;eing a /oastal /ountr.8 !ami,ia /an easil. ,e 7armed ,. a rising sea level/aused ,. melting of t7e polar i/e /aps* Additionall.8 !ami,ia is ver. sus/epti,leto /7anges in rainfall patterns and /an ill afford an. signifi/ant drop in rainfall orin/rease in its varia,ilit.*

Climate /7ange is not onl. /on/erned +it7 in/reasing temperatures ,ut ot7erresour/es are also affe/ted8 e*g* rainfall patterns and vegetation* Rainfall inSout7ern Afri/a is /riti/al as most of t7e regionOs population depends onagri/ultural a/tivities for survival* C7anges in t7e /limate regime /ould mean

maBor management /7allenges a7ead in t7e +ater resour/e and land se/tor*

3*3*2#9one Depleting Su,stan/es

Apart from t7e natural gases su/7 as C#28 S#28 !#x and met7ane +7i/7 are/ontri,uting to t7e green7ouse effe/t8 t7ere are also /ertain man-made gases+7i/7 7ave never existed naturall. in t7e atmosp7ere* C7lorofluoro/ar,onsC%Cs are on t7e in/rease* "7e C%Cs deplete o9one in t7e stratosp7ere8 +7i/7+ill /ause dangerous levels of ultraviolet radiation to rea/7 t7e eart7*

3*3*(Climate gas emissions from spe/ifi/ sour/es

"7e maBor sour/e of sulp7ur and nitrogen pollution in Afri/a is from fossil fuel/om,ustion in po+er generation8 smelting industries and mines* Effe/ts of t7esepollutants su/7 as a/id rain 7ave alread. ,een reported in Sout7 Afri/a8 +7i/7is one of t7e most industrialised /ountries in Afri/a*

!ami,ia@s most signifi/ant sour/es of green7ouse gases )J savanna7 ,urningJ and /7anges in+ood. ,iomass*

!ami,ia does not produ/e an. primar. fuels at presentI all fuels are imported*"7us emissions from t7e energ. se/tor /an easil. ,e determined* Statisti/s s7o+t7at imported fuels a//ount for 7ig7 C#2 emissions and t7ese are expe/ted torise +it7 e/onomi/ gro+t7 !ami,iaOs Countr. Stud. on Climate C7angeIEmissions S/enarios and Mitigation #ptions for !ami,ia*

;urning of fossil fuels is not a maBor pro,lem in !ami,ia due to t7e lo+population densit.* %ossil fuels are generall. ,urned in t7e /ourse ofI energ.generation8 industrial pro/esses8 transport8 /ommer/ial and institutionalpurposes8 and residential uses* n !ami,ia a great deal of ,iomass is also

17


18/22


,urned for energ.* "7is is primaril. in t7e form of +ood fires for /oo>ing8 ,utot7er ,iomass fuels are also used*

Enteri/ fermentation /aused ,. ,a/teria in t7e stoma/7s and guts of ruminantsand ot7er 7er,ivores releases signifi/ant uantities of met7ane Cs of )reen7ouse )ases in!ami,ia Mar/7 1 and it is recommended that anyone loo!ing for furtherinformation on this sub"ect refer to that publication.

3*5 Current Management Pra/ti/es

Some of t7e Afri/an industrial and ur,an /entres are lo/ated in ,order areas8 and,e/ause of t7e different +ind patterns8 air pollutants are transported over national,orders* "7erefore8 t7e pro,lem of air pollution /annot ,e solved ,. individual/ountries* "7is fa/t does 7o+ever not prevent individual /ountries from opting for/lean air in t7eir territor.* "7ere is an opportunit. to /7oose an alternativedevelopment pat7+a. to a/7ieve so/ietal goals and avoid some of t7e proBe/tedimpa/ts8 and to learn from t7e mista>es of ot7er /ountries*

%ormulation of environmental poli/ies is 7ig7l. dependant on development8adaptation to /limate /7ange and /limate /7ange a,atement* #n t7e lo/alinternational front t7e Sout7ern Afri/an Development Communit. SADC 7asa/>no+ledged /on/ern a,out air pollution in t7e region8 and t7at its in/rease inSout7ern Afri/a is an issue t7at demands attention* "7e delegates at t7e


19/22


re/ognition in t7e SADC region* SADC-E'MS in /onBun/tion +it7 t7e $nited!ations Environment Program $!EP is /urrentl. +or>ing on an EnvironmentalC7arter for t7e region* "7e C7arter +ill give an overall statement onenvironmental issues in/luding air pollution* "7is development t7erefore openst7e door for AP!A to ,e/ome an important pla.er in t7e region for t7e

development of regional proto/ols on air pollution "7e el."rans,oundar. effe/tsI Septem,er 16 8 alt7oug7 it is one of t7e most industrialised pla/es

in t7e /ountr.8 does not 7ave an. re/ords on air pollution from lo/al industries*e air pollution into /onsideration*

3*5*2Private se/tor involvement in air pollution prevention and /ontrol

Some industries re/ognise t7eir responsi,ilit. to+ards pollution and aim toimprove t7eir environmental management strategies t7at are alread. in pla/e+7ereas ot7ers are starting +it7 EMS implementations* !amPo+er8 t7e solepo+er produ/ing /ompan. in !ami,ia8 7as ta>en t7e step to 7ave t7eirenvironmental impa/ts determined* "7is report on !amPo+er 7as identified airpollution as a 7ig7 priorit. environmental aspe/t* "7e effe/ts of air emissionsfrom t7e =an E/> po+er station on t7e surrounding /ommunit. are un>no+n andno emission rates or estimates of t7e extent of t7e pollution fall-out plume 7as,een monitored Environmental Surve. for !ampo+er8 ,. EnviroSolutions8

August 2000* t +ill ,e in t7e interest of !amPo+er and t7e /ommunit. toimplement flue gas redu/ing euipment at t7is po+er station and to startmonitoring t7eir air emissions8 as t7e ne+ Pollution Control and WasteManagement ;ill demands t7at industries ,e pro-a/tive*

6 NOISE POLLUTION

5*1 !oise Pollution in $r,an Areas

!oise pollution in !ami,ia is generall. not /onsidered to ,e a ver. importantissue* Most areas do not suffer from 7ig7 levels of noise pollution8 and t7ere isno legislation t7at regulates noise pollution* "7e onl. pla/es +7ere noisepollution is li>el. to pose a pro,lem is in ur,an areas8 parti/ularl. Wind7oe>*

Resear/7 done ,. t7e European Environment Agen/. indi/ates t7atI

19


20/22


!oise intensities a,ove 33 d, are 7ig7 enoug7 to /ause anno.an/e8aggressive ,e7avior and sleep distur,an/eJ

Routine exposure to 53 d, /an result in 7.pertensionJ

!oise a,ove 43 d, lead to in/reased stress levels8 in/reased 7eart rates andpotential 7earing loss*

Clearl.8 noise pollution /an ,e a serious pro,lem if un/7e/>ed* %ortunatel.8!ami,ia in general is not fa/ed +it7 su/7 7ig7 noise levels*

Most noise pollution /omes from industr.8 ve7i/le traffi/8 re/reational noise e*g*musi/ and ,ar>ing dogs* "7e negative effe/ts of industrial noise are usuall.limited ,e/ause of t7e fa/t t7at industries are separated from residen/es ,.9oning la+s8 onl. near t7e ,orders of industrial and residential 9ones is t7eremu/7 potential for a pro,lem from t7is se/tor* =e7i/le traffi/ is generall. onl. apro,lem along maBor roads +7ere t7ere is 7eav. traffi/ of fast-moving ve7i/les*"7is 7o+ever8 is a natural /onseuen/e of main roads or so-/alled traffi/arteries* "7e negative effe/ts of t7is /an ,e mitigated ,. not 9oning t7e areas

around su/7 roads for residen/es8 or8 if ne/essar.8 ere/ting noise redu/ing,arriers along t7e sides of t7e road*

Re/reational noise is a more diffi/ult pro,lem to address for t+o reasons* %irst8 itgenerall. o//urs in residential areas as a result of residents enBo.ing t7emselvestoo loudl.8 it is impossi,le to prevent t7is t.pe of distur,an/e t7roug7 9oning*Se/ond8 enfor/ement of an. la+s against su/7 ,e7aviour +ould ,e ver. time/onsuming and diffi/ult* "7is is ,e/ause t7e sporadi/ nature of su/7 noisepollution +ould reuire an offi/ial to investigate t7e /omplaint almost immediatel.after it 7as ,een made8 if one +aited until t7e next da.8 t7en t7e noise +ouldmost li>el. 7ave ,een stopped* t is unli>el. t7at man. muni/ipalities +ould 7ave

t7e personnel availa,le to enfor/e legislation regarding noise of t7is t.pe*

"7e 16 Wind7oe> Customer Surve. identified t7at people per/eive ,ar>ingdogs to ,e a ,ig noise pollution pro,lem* ;ar>ing dogs pose a similar pro,lem tore/reational noise in t7at t7e. are generall. found in residential areas +7ere it ismore important to >eep a lo+ noise level* ing ,e7aviour* "7us8 if a dogregularl. /auses pro,lems8 it +ill pro,a,l. do so +7en an offi/ial goes to t7e siteto investigate a /omplaint*

5*2 Current Management Pra/ti/es

As mentioned earlier8 t7ere is no legislation regarding noise pollution in !ami,ia*"7us to+n /oun/ils are for/ed to deal +it7 /ases of noise pollution on an ad 7o/,asis* "7is seems to ,e suffi/ient for t7e time ,eing8 ,ut as !ami,ia@s population/entres gro+8 a more /ompre7ensive plan +ill need to ,e put in pla/e*

20


21/22


5*( Criti/al Defi/ien/ies

As mentioned a,ove8 t7e la/> of legislation to provide a frame+or> +it7in +7i/7to address /omplaints is /urrentl. a maBor /onstraint in addressing noisepollution* $ntil t7ere are o,Be/tive guidelines8 noise pollution /ontrol /annot

move for+ard*

5* Re/ommendations for Cir/umventing Defi/ien/ies

Wind7oe> is in t7e pro/ess of preparing a noise pollution poli/. for t7e /it.8 ,utt7is +ill not address an. pro,lems in #s7a>ati8 Walvis ;a. or ot7er population/entres*

5*3 Re/ommendations for mprovements in nformation ualit. and Availa,ilit.

Sin/e noise pollution is /urrentl. a minor pro,lem in !ami,ia8 t7ere does not

seem to ,e a serious la/> of information on t7e su,Be/t* "7e main la/> is t7att7ere are not enoug7 personnel availa,le to monitor noise levels* ages

Close lin>ages ,et+een pollution and t7e so/io-e/onomi/ environment are less/lear t7an for solid +aste* )round+ater pollution is more li>el. to ,e /aused ,.enterprises su/7 as mines or tanneries +7ile perennial river pollution is also li>el.to ,e /aused ,. /ommer/ial-s/ale farming rat7er t7an individual small farmers*n t7e rural areas8 effe/ts of +ater pollution are more li>el. to ,e experien/ed ,.lo+ in/ome se/tor of t7e population as t7e. are t7e ones less li>el. to 7avea//ess to pota,le +ater* Parti/ularl. t7ose people in t7e Cuvelai Delta +7o use+ell +ater rat7er t7an piped +ater are li>el. to en/ounter polluted +ater supplies*

Air pollution8 on t7e ot7er 7and8 ma. ,e /aused ,. more and effe/ts more lo+erin/ome 7ouse7olds as t7at is +7ere fuel-+ood and /7ar/oal are mostl. used*People living in ur,an areas8 parti/ularl. Wind7oe>8 are more li>el. to ,esu,Be/ted to general air pollution* Coo>ing over fuel +ood in an en/losed spa/ema. affe/t +omen in rural areas as +ell*

21


22/22


Anot7er signifi/ant point sour/e of pollution is expe/ted* "7e desalination plantto ,e ,uilt outside of S+a>opmund +ill dis/7arge its effluent into t7e sea8 andspe/ifi/ations reuire t7at t7is must ,e undete/ta,le +it7in one metre of t7edis/7arge point* C7emi/als used for /leaning t7e desalination apparatus8 +7i/7ma. ,e potentiall. 7a9ardous8 +ill ,e generated in relativel. small volumes and

disposed of in a manner +7i/7 does not /ause an. t7reat to t7e environment*

22

D Pollution

Documents

Transcript of D Pollution