Curric_Development Basics

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CURRICULUM DESIGN BASICS

Reference: Harrison, J. M., Blakemore, C. L., & Buck, M. M. (2001). Basic principles of

curriculum design. In Harrison et al., Instructional strategies for secondary school physical

education (5th ed.) (pp. 131-148). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

WHAT Is ACURRICULUM

Jewett, Bain, and Ennis described the physical education curriculum as follows: "Broadly

defined, the school curriculum includes all experiences conducted under school auspices,

from formal classroom instruction to interscholastic athletics. More specifically, the

curriculum is defined as the planned sequence of formal instructional experiences presented

by the teachers to whom the responsibility is assigned."1 The curriculum should reflect the

society and its philosophy. The teacher becomes the intermediary to translate the curriculum

into the instructional strategies that influence student learning. Teachers' personalities and

abilities influence their capacity to transpose curricular content into student learning.

Students' interests and abilities, in turn, influence their input into the instructional system.

Figure 1 demonstrates how this interaction occurs.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

Curriculum design involves the creation of a set of operating principles or criteria, based on

theory, that guide the selection and organization of content and the methodology used to

teach that content. With the accelerated rate of social change, schools are preparing youth for

adulthood in a society not yet envisioned by its members. Hawley's words still ring true: "It's

not a question of whether or not to change, but whether or not we can control the way we are

changing. We are living in an Alice in Wonderlandworld where you have to run just to stay

where you are. To get anywhere you have to run even faster than that. The pieces on the

chess board keep changing and the rules are never the same."2

Progress is impossible without change. Changes in financial resources, facilities and

equipment, student populations, faculty availability and expertise, student needs and

interests, and other environmental and technological changes force curriculum change.

However, all change does not result in improvement. In fact, some changes may be worse

than no change at all. On the other hand, when schools lag behind in curriculum

development, changes are imposed from the outside. The move to national standards for

content areas is an example of the push for accountability from outside of the schools.


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Figure 1

The relationship of curriculum and instruction.

Curriculum change should be based on a well-informed evaluation of past, present, and

future, including the best thinking of professionals who have researched and tested each

proposal. Effective ideas should be retained, ineffective ones discarded. New ideas ought to

be tried on a small scale prior to adoption. Planning and preparation are keys to a successful

and meaningful program. Traditionally, educators make two mistakes with regard to

curriculum design. They either just let things happen or they look around for a good

curriculum and adopt it, whether or not it fits their particular needs. Curriculum designers

must carefully merge cultural elements, old and new into a curriculum that fits the students,

school, and community. The constantly changing American society requires a continuous,

ThePhysicalEducationCurriculum

Instruction(Method)

The Teacher

The Society

Knowledge

AbilitiesPersonality

Philosophy

The Student

InterestsAbilities,background


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systematic process of evaluating and redesigning the curriculum to achieve program

objectives.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: What is a curriculum?

What is curriculum design? Why is it important?

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

An effective curriculum must be built on a solid philosophical foundation that answers the

question of what educational purposes the school should seek to achieve. The classical

model for curriculum design, proposed by Tyler in 1949, asked four questions of curriculum

planners: (1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (2) What

educational experiences can be provided that are likely to help attain these purposes? (3)

How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? and (4) How can we

determine whether these purposes are being attained?3 Tyler's steps for curriculum design

included stating objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing the experiences, and

evaluating results. Tyler's model is most closely aligned with the educational purposes of

preserving the social order and teaching skills and competencies needed to function

effectively in society.

Tyler's model has been criticized for not describing the way curriculum committees

actually proceed. Walker observed curriculum designers and described their actions.4 Their

first step was to establish a platform of beliefs and values to guide the planning process. The

second step was to develop curriculum materials and then review these materials by

identifying facts, generating alternative solutions, determining consequences, weighing

alternatives, and choosing the best solutions. The result was a curriculum "design" or

product. Some of the newer value orientations might fit more effectively into Walker's

model.

THE CURRICULUM DESIGN PROCESS

The steps of the curriculum design process presented here are based primarily upon Tyler'sclassical design for curriculum development.

1. Establish a curriculum committee.

2. Study information needed to make curriculum decisions.

3. Determine the philosophy, aims, and objectives of the school.

4. Determine the program's scope and sequence.

5. Schedule.

6. Implement the program.


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7. Evaluate and revise.

Figure 2 shows a diagram of the curriculum design process. After evaluation, the designers

should follow the feedback loops back to the beginning of the cycle and re-examine the

objectives and instructional programs to determine how to improve them using the new

information gained.

Establish the

Committee

Study the Basic

Foundations

Determine

Goals &

Objectives

Determine

Scope &

Sequence

Schedule Implement

the

Curriculum

Evaluate

&

Revise

Curriculum

Foundations

Information needed

to make curriculumdecisions

National, State,

District, SchoolPlans

Content for each

school level

Yearly Schedule Unit &

LessonPlanning

Evaluate

eachObjective

Sociology

Information

about theenvironment

Skills Preschool &

Kindergarten

Class

Instruction:

Student

Grouping

Class Sizes

Time

Allotments

Staffing

Teaching

Stations

INSTRUCTIONALPRO

CESS

ObjectivesContentLearningActivities-Evaluation

ProgramEvaluation

Community &

School

Resources

Physical

Fitness

Primary

Psychology

Characteristics

, needs, &

interests of

learners

Knowledge

Intermediate

Principles of

learning

Attitudes,

Values,Appreciation

s

Middle or

Junior HighSubject Matter

Senior High

Intramurals

Philosophy

Governmental

Activity

Social Skills

College

Educational

Purposes

Adult

Extramural

s

Philosophical

orientations

National,

State, &

District

Figure 2

The curriculum design process.

REVIEW QUESTION: What are the steps in the curriculum design process?


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Establish aCurriculum Committee

Persons responsible for curriculum decisions include administrators, teachers, students,

parents, and community leaders. Most major innovations in the public schools are introduced

by teachers and administrators. Colleges and universities that train teachers, state boards or

departments of education, and textbook publishers and instructional materials producers

indirectly provide educational leadership.

The Administrator's Role in Curriculum Design

The instructional program is the most important responsibility of school administrators.

They must (1) plan instructional programs that contribute to the intellectual, physical, and

emotional growth and well-being of all young people, and (2) select and assign competentteachers. They provide leadership for curriculum planning, implementation, evaluation, and

revision. Direct leadership occurs when department chairs, principals, or district supervisors

help teachers with curriculum development. Once a decision is made to develop or revise a

curriculum, the administrator selects a curriculum committee and proposes goals and

guidelines for action. This process is more formal at the district level or in a large

department, whereas in a smaller department all teachers might compose such a committee.

Administrators work closely with the committee, providing input, reviewing proposals for

new programs, and providing resources. Administrators are also responsible for helping to

implement approved programs.

Indirectly, all administrators, and especially principals, have the responsibility to provide

a climate for personal and group growth. This requires effective communication, time and

resources for personal and group study, opportunities to attend conferences or visit inno-

vative schools, and freedom to experiment with new ideas. Teachers with time and resources

to study and experiment with new ideas and practices generally are more innovative.

The Teachers' Role in Curriculum Design

Although instructional supervision is an administrative responsibility, teachers' insights are

critical for developing a successful curriculum. Teachers are the first to notice a need for

change. Their intimate knowledge of learners, classrooms, and the school environment puts

them in a position to make and implement practical curriculum changes. In fact, many

changes occur, almost unnoticed, as teachers work together to revise course content and


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schedules. Many schools assign curriculum leaders, master teachers with additional training

in curriculum development and leadership skills to help teachers make curriculum decisions.

Physical educators have more flexibility for curriculum development than other teachers

because of their unique facilities. Students can be grouped and regrouped by ability levels or

interests more easily than in intact classrooms, and class sizes can be altered to fit the activ-

ity to be taught and the facilities available. Sound curriculum development principles and

practices will prevent the curriculum from "just happening." Teachers who attend

conventions and in-service meetings, visit other schools, read professional journals, serve on

school or district committees, and discuss ideas with other teachers are able to keep abreast

of changes in physical education curriculum.

The Curriculum Committee

The number and kinds of curriculum committees depend on the extent of the curriculum

project. A school curriculum project might include a coordinating committee, with

subcommittees for each grade level. On a smaller level, each member of the physical

education staff might serve on the committee. The coordinating committee acts as a

clearinghouse for ideas and suggestions. The coordinating committee or the smaller

committee establishes the overall physical education philosophy for the district or school,

explores satisfactions and dissatisfactions with the present program, and schedules meetings

and establishes the work sequence.

Although program development can be a product of individual teachers, administrators,

or supervisors, experience shows that a curriculum cooperatively planned by all those

involved in its implementation yields the best results.

Administrators provide insights into time schedules, budgets, facilities, resources, and

other administrative details.

Teachers, both men and women, work daily with students and know what will or will

not work.

Students provide information regarding their own interests, learning obstacles,

relevance of learning experiences, and recommended extra-class programs.

Parents and community leaders provide varied, fresh ideas based on their experiences

with school and life and their aspirations for children. They can be influential in

promoting curriculum change if they are consulted during the planning stages.

Recent graduates can be especially helpful in evaluating the curriculum's relevance to

real life.


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Curriculum specialists provide expertise in

curriculum design and ideas that have worked well in other schools.

Clerical assistants can record, type, copy, collate, and distribute information.

Persons chosen to serve on curriculum committees should represent and have the respect and

support of their peers and the administration. Small committees can achieve consensus and

get the work done more effectively. Periodically rotating committee memberships avoids

fatigue and promotes a fresh attack on the problems at hand. When several people from

various back- grounds join together in a group effort, synergy occurs; that is, the result is

greater than the sum of its members. Since curriculum development is a time-consuming

process, released time or pay for extra work should be considered for committee members.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: Who should serve on a curriculum committee?What is the role of each of these persons?

Resources for the Curriculum Committee

Persons responsible for curriculum design should be aware of the resources available, which

include people and organizations, publications, curriculum guides, facilities, and media.

Collaborative arrangements in which teachers work with curriculum and instruction special-

ists and researchers to identify and investigate problems and solutions make their findings

more applicable to public school settings.

A large number of national associations and societies and government agencies also have

materials or journals of value to physical education. Check your university or local library

for addresses and publications or check the Internet. A few of them include the American

Cancer Society, the American College of Sports Medicine, the American Medical

Association, and the American Heart Association.

Two national organizations with tremendous resources are the American Alliance for

Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD), and the President's

Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. AAHPERD has excellent position papers outlining

guidelines for physical education. It also publishes several journals and a number of other

pertinent publications. The President's Council provides speakers, public relations help,

bulletins, and films on various areas of interest to physical educators. State departments of

education often provide consultants, in-service activities, conferences, clinics, and

workshops. State education associations and state associations of health, physical education,

recreation, and dance can be of inestimable service. The local chamber of commerce can


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provide information about the resources and makeup of the local community. The number

of professional journals relating to physical education has increased dramatically in the past

few years. An excellent list of the scholarly periodicals in physical education appeared in

the Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. 5

State departments of education and local school systems publish curriculum guides

detailing the course of instruction and requirements for specific subject areas. Curriculum

guides generally include some or all of the fo1lowing: (1) philosophy, goals, and objectives;

(2) characteristics and needs of students; (3) program scope and sequence with suggested

units of instruction for each grade level; (4) sample schedules; (5) administrative guidelines;

(6) instructional activities; (7) evaluation techniques; and (8) resources. Teachers who help

write curriculum guides find them more useful than those who merely read them. As school

districts move from traditional programs to more authentic instruction, the guides become

more useful to teachers. Curriculum guides enhance the articulation between programs at

different school levels and assure proper progression and development in the three domains

of learning.

REVIEW QUESTION: What resources are available for curriculum designers?

Study Information Needed to Make Curriculum Decisions

To make effective curriculum decisions, the committee must learn all it can about the

environment, the school, the learners, and the subject matter and how it is learned. Then it

must attempt to integrate this information and its implications with the educational

philosophy espoused by the district and school. Governmental activity also has an influence

on curriculum decisions.

Information about the Environment

A large number of social forces affect students lives. Curriculum developers must consider

local attitudes and values as well as national ones.

Most communities share certain values, attitudes, and beliefs. Local resources and

interests influence the selection of learning activities. The current emphasis on physical

fitness and lifetime sports reflects a general commitment to the ideal of preparing students

for effective adult living. Thus, schools in many areas have adopted Fitness for Life or

similar courses. Local commitments to promote equality of opportunity for all students may

not be strong enough to overcome the value for athletic excellence. Needs and priorities can

be assessed through brainstorming, observation, interviews, questionnaires, surveys,

inventories, public hearings, and available statistics. Asking people to indicate priorities as


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critical, important, or desirable can be helpful, as can asking them to classify needs as long-

range or immediate. A community survey can provide information concerning the following:

The community's historical background

The philosophy of community members and their willingness to support educationand physical education programs

Economic and tax base factors of the community, such as major employers; average

family income; incidence of unemployment; and educational, recreational, health and

other services

Social, cultural, and political factors, such as population and prospective changes in

population, age distribution, ethnic and racial makeup of the population, social and

cultural attitudes, religious orientation, educational background, crime, politicalpressures, and form of government

Geographical and location factors, including such regional factors as climate,

altitude, and the availability of lakes, mountains, and seashores, that affect students'

activity interests and the time that can be spent out-of-doors; and the environment

(urban, suburban, or rural), which affects personal and family income and the

activities students can engage in outside of school

Community resources, including colleges and universities, private and parochial

schools, public libraries, parks and playgrounds, swimming pools, cultural

programs, government agencies, citizens, groups, and commercial ski resorts,

bowling lanes, and equestrian clubs

Learning more about the community increases one's understanding of its organization and

lifestyle. The analysis of social forces leads to implications for curricular needs. Hass listed

curriculum criteria to consider when dealing with social forces.

1. What social or cultural factors contribute to the individual differences of the learners?

2. How can the curriculum and the teaching take into account these differences?

3. What values are we teaching?

4. What values do we wish to teach?

5. What can the curriculum do to assist learners in their goals of social self-understanding and

self-realization ?

6. How can the curriculum and teaching be planned and organized so that learners are

assisted in confronting personal and social problems?


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7. How can learners be helped to develop the skills needed to solve problems?6

Information about the School

School resources that influence the physical education curriculum include finances, facilities

and equipment, staff, school and department policies, and the total school curriculum. Most

school monies are spent for building construction and maintenance and salaries. When fi-

nances are low, teachers may be left without essential facilities and instructional materials.

School facilities can be supplemented by community resources such as bowling centers,

skating rinks, ski slopes, and gymnastic studios. State and national parks and forests provide

resources for adventure and outdoor education activities. Government, community, business,

and philanthropic agencies often aid schools in obtaining resources. The school's

organizational structure and school policies stifle or encourage creativity in curriculum

planning. Administrators' values, attitudes, and policies toward learning, student behavior,

and faculty freedom affect student and teacher morale and cohesiveness. The number, age,

gender, socioeconomic background, interests, and expertise of physical educators directly

affect what is taught. The school curriculum pattern and schedule dictate the limits within

which the physical education program must operate.

Information about the Learners

Educational goals and curricular objectives arise from student needs, which are generally of

two types. The first kind arises from needs within the organism itself. To achieve physical

and psychological safety, students need self-efficacy and skill in basic movement skills and a

safe progression of curricular activities. Consideration of differences in skill level and

readiness yield security to try new activities and activities requiring higher skill levels.

Social approval increases when activities are structured so low-skilled individuals and stu-

dents experiencing social rejection are not disadvantaged. Using cooperative activities,

adapting activities so students with a wide range of abilities experience success and

enjoyment, and counseling students to select those activities best suited to their individual

needs and interests increase student self-esteem. According to Maslow, the school

environment should help students satisfy their basic needs so they will be free to move on

to self-actualization. To develop self-actualization in physical education, students need to

learn how movement affects their health and well-being in adulthood and how to take

responsibility for their decisions.7

The second type of needs is determined by comparing the learner's current status with the

status expected by society. The gap between these two levels defines an educational need.


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For example, if a society expects its members to be able to swim and students cannot swim,

then a need exists. Some educational needs are common to children or adolescents of a

particular age level, no matter where they live, while other needs are specific to the local

environment. Assuming, for example, that all seventh graders need instruction in team sports

and all twelfth graders need to develop skills in individual and dual sports for use in their

leisure time negates the fact that students vary considerably within a single grade level in

both age and intellectual, physical, social, and emotional development. Youth in Hawaii may

need to be adept at swimming and surfing, while children in Colorado may need to be good

snow skiers.

Students who differ dramatically from group norms, including potential dropouts,

bilingual students, the mentally and physically disabled, and the gifted also should be

considered. In fact, the courts have ruled that schools must meet the needs ofalllearners.

Programs must be flexible enough to adapt to learners' individual differences. Students'

interests and purposes for enrolling in physical education must be considered. Curriculum

designers should plan for a variety of learning modes to accommodate students' individual

personalities and learning styles.

Data concerning both the whole student population and individual students are essential.

Curriculum designers must consider the nature of the student body- the number of students,

their ages, gender, grade levels, socioeconomic levels, racial composition and ethnic

background, personal and family characteristics, interests, achievements, talents, and goals.

Data from physical fitness, knowledge, skill, and attitude tests can describe students' past

achievements. Health assessments provide essential information about students. Question-

naires to determine student interests can help determine readiness for learning specific

activities. Other methods for studying learners include observations, questionnaires,

interviews, and school and community records concerning attendance, delinquency, health,

social status, discipline, and participation in extracurricular and recreation activities. Hass

listed questions curriculum planners can ask to test how well programs have been planned to

meet students needs:

1. Does the planned curriculum provide for the developmental differences of the learners

being taught?

2. Does the planned curriculum include provisions so that learning may start for each learner

where he or she is?8


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Data about students are compared with desirable norms and deviations noted as possible

concerns for school attention. The curriculum committee must decide which needs can be

appropriately met by the school and which are best met by coordination with other social

agencies.

The Subject Matter and How It Is Learned

The trend toward outcome-and standards-based education at the national and state levels

makes it imperative for physical educators to design curriculum that help students achieve

the specified outcomes. The Goals 2000: Educate America Actin March 1994 established a

national council to help professional organizations develop standards specifying what

students should know and be able to do. These content standards describe the knowledge

and skills of each discipline, while the performance standards stipulate "how good is good

enough." Once assessments of student work or performance have been accumulated over

time, performance benchmarks can be used to describe the students progress toward the

performance standards. Table 1 lists the content standards for physical education.9

Table 1. Physical Education Content Standards

A physically educated student:

1. Demonstrates competency in many movement forms and proficiency in a few movement

forms.

2. Applies movement concepts and principles to the learning and development of motor

skills.

3. Exhibits a physically active lifestyle.

4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.

5. Demonstrates responsible personal and social behavior in physical activity settings.

6. Demonstrates understanding and respect for differences among people in physical activity

settings.

7. Understands that physical activity provides opportunities for enjoyment, challenge, self-

expression, and social interactions.

Source: From National Association for Sport and Physical Education:Moving in the

Future: National Physical Education Standards: A Guide to Content and Assessment(St.

Louis, MO: Mosby, 1995)

All students should be expected and helped to meet the content standards of physical

education before graduating from high school. This can only occur when the curriculum is

carefully planned and instruction carried out at each level to lead toward the standards. Thus,


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the outcomes or objectives at each level (elementary, middle, junior and senior high school)

should form a hierarchy or taxonomy in which achievement of the lower objectives leads to

achievement of the objectives higher up until the final standard is achieved. Unit objectives

should fit into the outcomes for each level and lesson objectives are derived from the unit

objectives.

Curriculum designers must consider each of the standards and the learning domains-

cognitive, psychomotor, and affective-that relate to those standards. Students should be

helped to discover how physical education relates to them and how they can use the informa-

tion gained to solve their own problems. Some questions to consider when planning the

subject matter and instructional methodology include the following:

What does a physically educated student know? Do? See Moving in the Future:

National Physical Education Standards: A Guide to Content and Assessmentto

review the characteristics of a physically educated person (what s/he has, is, does,

knows, and values).

What should students know and be able to do at the high school level, the junior high

school level, the middle school level, or the elementary level? (These are called

benchmarks.)

What should students know and be able to do at the specific grade level to meet the

school level outcomes?

What instructional units will help students achieve these objectives?

What lesson objectives will help students achieve the unit objectives?

The curriculum should allow students to develop at all levels in each learning domain and

help learners to identify and organize the key concepts and principles of physical education

and use them to solve personal problems, now and in the future. To accommodate individual

learning styles, it should also provide alternative approaches to learning:

Research in educational psychology and motor learning, in exercise physiology, and in

other areas of education also have implications for curriculum development. A knowledge of

educational psychology and adolescent development helps educators select objectives that

are attainable at certain age levels and the conditions and amount of time necessary for

learning. Time greatly influences achievement of the objectives. It is better to have fewer

objectives and teach them well than to have a large number of unattained objectives. Re-


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search indicates that learning that is applied or integrated with other learning is retained

longer than isolated or compartmentalized learning.

Governmental Activity

Federal and state legislation; judicial decisions such as those on legal liability, integration,

and busing; and government regulations and supervision, including the power to allot or

withdraw funds, plays a major role in the educational process. Federal laws that have had a

tremendous effect on school programs include PL 94-142 (The Education for All

Handicapped Children Act) and its sequel, The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

of 1990 (PL 101-476); Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act; and Title IX. Policy

constraints often dictate what can be done, leaving little latitude for innovation. The National

Association for Sport and Physical Education (1999) has prepared the Sport and Physical

Education Advocacy Kit (SPEAK) II to help physical educators change public opinion and

influence political decisions that affect physical education. l0

Philosophies of Education and Physical Education

The philosophical orientation of persons responsible for curriculum decisions is undoubtedly

the greatest variable influencing the selection of school goals and objectives. Progressive

philosophers study the learner and select curricular purposes and content in terms of student

needs and interests. Essentialists derive goals and subject matter from the body of

knowledge that has been handed down over thousands of years. Sociologists view the school

as a means to help people deal with contemporary problems. Educational philosophies

attempt to answer questions such as whether to educate persons to adjust to the culture or to

improve the culture, and whether to provide a general education for all students or vocational

training for those who wish to leave early or immediately after high school to go to work.

The board of education is generally responsible for establishing the overall philosophy

and goals of the schools within its jurisdiction. District goals should be divided into sub-

goals and performance objectives consistent with educational goals and standards. Physical

education goals and objectives are formulated in the same manner.

To form a philosophical base on which to build a meaningful program, teachers must

become aware of their own philosophies. To accomplish this, they should wrestle with

questions like the following:

1. What is the purpose of education?

2. What is the purpose of physical education? To teach concepts, sport skills, fitness?

Personal and social skills?


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d. subject matter

e. trends, innovations, research

f. governmental activity

g. philosophy

Educational Purposes, Value Orientations,

and Curriculum Patterns

Local social and environmental forces and the philosophies of educators and physical

educators directly influence the purposes of education and the value orientations that are

selected as the bases for local curricula. As social forces change, the demands placed on

schools also change. Decisions about social implications must take into account the following

purposes of education:

1. to preserve and maintain desirable social features by transmitting them to the young;

2. to teach skills and competencies needed to function effectively as an adult member of

society;

3. to help the individual function within society to the fullest extent possible, both now and

in the future, through intelligent self -direction, group deliberation, and action; and

4. to teach the individual to constructively evaluate social issues and influence the social

order by contributing to ordered, purposeful change.

Jewett, Bain, and Ennis described five value orientations for curriculum development

that match the purposes described above.12 They are disciplinary mastery, social

reconstruction, learning process, self-actualization, and ecological integration. The chosen

value orientation should be stated in the philosophy of the curriculum guide.

Disciplinary mastery emphasizes the transmission "of the cultural heritage from one

generation to the next." The "back to the basics" movement reflects this emphasis, as does

the traditional emphasis on physical fitness and mastery of basic movement and sport skills

in physical education.

Social reconstruction stresses instruction for "creating a better society," and emphasizes

interpersonal and problem-solving skills. Social reconstructionists include nontraditional

activities such as outdoor and adventure education and "new games," with emphasis on

cooperation rather than competition, in an attempt to broaden community recreational

interests.


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The learning process emphasizes learning how to learn and the importance of learning

the skills needed to deal with rapid changes in knowledge and technology. Content includes

basic physical education knowledge, as well as learning how to acquire sport skills.

Advocates ofself-actualization provide opportunities for students to explore many

activities and then develop expertise in one or more chosen activities. Experiences that lend

themselves to each student's quest for personal excellence and satisfaction include outdoor

pursuits and adventure activities.

In the fifth orientation, ecological integration, self-actualization is sought as a means

toward a holistic interaction between the individual and the environment. This orientation

focuses on the global interdependent society and emphasizes health-related fitness, skillful

movement, self-confidence, creativity, outdoor education, and leadership skills designed for

optimum personal development.

For learners to achieve curriculum goals and objectives, learning experiences must be

selected and organized to reinforce concepts, values, and skills. Common school organizing

structures include the separate subjects curriculum, the broad fields curriculum, and the core

curriculum. Elementary school curricula generally follow the broad fields pattern, including

such areas as language arts, social studies, and natural science. Middle schools often use a

core curriculum, combining classes such as English, history, and science, with separate

classes in physical education, art, music, and other subjects, using teacher specialists in those

areas. The most common secondary school organizational pattern is the separate subjects

curriculum in which a different subject is encountered by the learner during each period of

the school day. No attempt is made to relate principles learned in courses such as chemistry,

biology, and health to each other. The broad fields curriculum tends to be more learner-

centered and promotes greater integration of concepts learned, while the specific subject

pattern tends to be primarily subject-centered.

No one curriculum pattern is adequate to serve the varied populations of all schools.

Curriculum designers must study curriculum patterns as a basis for intelligent action and

then select and combine elements from several patterns to form a curriculum pattern that

suits the needs of the particular school or system within which they are working. This

requires knowing the elements of each pattern and possessing the creativity to adapt them to

the needs of the situation.

In physical education, curriculum patterns have evolved from either a subject-centered or

a student-centered approach. Subject-centered curriculum patterns include the traditional


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activity-based and the more recent movement-based and concepts-based curriculum pat-

terns. They are generally chosen to promote the purposes of transmitting the culture to young

people to prepare them for effective living in society. They emphasize disciplinary mastery

and learning how to learn. Student-centered patterns include the developmental- needs and

the student-centered curriculum patterns. These patterns tend to reinforce the purposes of

self-actualization and social change, along with their respective value orientations.

Activity-Based Curriculum Patterns

In the most common pattern, the activity-based curriculum is organized around activity

units, including dance, fitness, and sports. Participation in activities is the goal. Since all

activities cannot be included, a percentage of the total time is established for each activity

category. Local considerations influence specific selections within each category.

Progression is from basic skills in the elementary grades to specialization in a few selected

activities at the high school level. Although the multi-activity pattern is easy to administer,

many programs are inadequately planned and implemented resulting in boredom, repetition,

and failure to develop skills beyond the basic level. Students fail to develop the concepts

necessary to understand the purpose of physical education throughout life. These programs

are difficult to justify to administrators and taxpayers.

The foremost advocate of play for its own sake is Siedentop. He stated that "physical

education derives from play, is best understood in reference to play and best defined as

playful motor activity, and in its mature form is institutionalized in culture as sport and

dance."13 Play is seen as an important part of human existence. Students need instruction to

develop the fundamental motor patterns needed for participation in all activities and

counseling to help them match their interests and abilities to suitable activities. Sport

education is an activity-based approach that stresses learning to be competent, literate,

enthusiastic sportspersons. Instruction mirrors sport in society, with modifications to fit the

educational setting, and includes six features; (1) sport seasons (rather than units),

sufficiently long to achieve the objectives; (2) team affiliation; (3) formal competitions in-

terspersed with practice sessions; (4) a culminating event (tournament, meet, etc.); (5) record

keeping/statistics, which provide feedback to players and coaches; and (6) festivities and

rituals, such as team names, colors, logos, banners, opening ceremonies, and throwing out

the first ball. Students participate in formal competitive schedules with preseason instruction,

team practice sessions, a culminating event, and publicized records and standings. Games

progress in difficulty, with modified games such as one-on-one, two-on-two, and three-on-


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three, helping all students become competent and confident in their skills and strategies. All

students are involved in playing, refereeing, and scorekeeping, with roles such as coach,

manager, trainer, statistician, and sports information person rotated among students. Fair

play points are awarded to lead students toward appropriate personal and social behaviors.

Sports education may occur in single classes, with competition between classes scheduled

during the same class period or other class periods, or during intramural activity time.

Guests, such as parents, grandparents, teachers, and community members may serve as

spectators or event managers. Sports education teaches skills, rules, strategies, appreciation

for play in our society, and proper ethical principles involved in goodsport.14 Research has

shown that students in the sport education model improve in the use of strategy, participation

levels, and team play, while students in traditional models often do not.15

Another activity-oriented curriculum approach is wilderness sports. Wilderness sports

include activities conducted in wilderness settings, such as backpacking, canoeing, and

scuba diving. While physical skill is the primary objective of wilderness activities, group or

individual problem solving under stress is the major purpose of adventure education, which

uses contrived obstacles or environments as problems or challenges for students to solve.

Although instruction is included in physical education classes, weekend or overnight outings

are essential for skill application in wilderness settings.16

Movement-Based Curriculum Patterns

The movement-based curriculum is based on the work of Laban and is used primarily in

elementary school programs. 17 The curriculum is organized around themes involving the

body and its interrelationship with space, time, effort, and flow. Exploration of movement

concepts and a variety of movement skills in dance, gymnastics, and sports are included.

Students use problem solving or discovery learning to create new ways of using their bodies

to achieve specified goals with various pieces of equipment. Although movement-based

curriculum patterns are primari1y used in elementary schools, effective programs have also

been implemented in middle schools and high schools.

Concepts-Based Curriculum Patterns

Concepts approaches based on the body of knowledge about human movement are organized

around key ideas or principles, broad enough to permit instruction in a wide variety of

activities and meaningful enough to justify the time and effort expended. The goal is to help

students understand the what, why, and how of physical education through problem solving

in laboratory and activity settings. Sport and movement skills can be used to teach concepts.


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Progression is from simple to more complex knowledge. Concepts approaches are based on

two assumptions: (1) that concepts transfer to new skills and situations and (2) that students

learn concepts better if the teacher emphasizes the concept (e.g., force production) rather than

teaching the concept within an activity unit.

Concepts-based curricula are more easily justified in an academic sense and may help

physical education achieve a more respected place in the school curriculum. They adapt

readily to individual student differences and to different locales. Students who do not excel

in physical education activities often like the concepts approach. Another advantage may be

the carryover of basic concepts about health and fitness to real life. Two disadvantages are

that students may not learn the skills needed to participate ineach activity and that concepts

may transfer to new skills and situations only when the application is made clear inthe new

situation.

Inthe late 1960s and 1970s, a group at Loughborough University inEngland devised a

teaching model to overcome the deficiencies of the traditional activity model. 19 Their

approach, which focuses on student understanding of game strategies and solving problems

unique to game forms, became known as the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU)

Approach. Theoretically, it agrees with the premise that the learner must move toward

cognitive dissonance to create a desire to seek solutions to problems.20 The Games for

Understanding Model involves a classification of games into types, such as invasion games

(basketball, soccer, etc., target games (golf, archery), net/wall games (volleyball,

racquetball), and field games (softball). Games are taught using a cycle of six steps. 21

1. Introduction of the game form and the problems unique to that game. For example,

volleyball is a net game that requires the use of strategic angles for placing the ball into

spaces on the opponent's court and for defending spaces on one' s own court. Game forms are

modified games such as 3-on-3 or 2-on-3 which contain the essential elements of the official

game, with adaptations to meet the needs of the learners and to ensure safety .

2. Games appreciation. The emphasis is on students understanding the rules of the game.

Players learn that rules affect the skills and strategies needed. Rules generally include the

number of players on a team, the playing area, the type of equipment (modified balls, lower

nets), and ways of scoring.

3. Tactical awareness. Game components are exaggerated to increase student awareness of

the need for certain game strategies such as creating space when attacking or denying space

when defending and recognizing opponents' weaknesses. The teacher's role is to observe


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the outcome, assess the situations that arise and the players' solutions, and then pose

questions to individuals or groups that stimulate possible answers or challenge further

thought. "Questions may concern the objective of the game, the selection and execution of

particular tactics or techniques, [such as] What are you trying to do? What are the

alternatives? How could you best achieve it? How can other team members help? How will

you adjust to the opponents' play? etc."22

4. Decision making. Students gain experience in recognizing cues from game situations and

predicting possible outcomes, then choosing the best outcome for the situation. Decisions

include "What to do" and "How to do it."

5. Skill execution. Once students see the need to improve skills to accomplish their tactical

goals, they are better prepared to work on skill development under the guidance of the

teacher. Both skill efficiency and appropriateness in the game are considered.

6. Performance. Appropriate response selection and efficient technique execution ultimately

result in effective game performance. In this phase, the students' abilities are assessed and

the cycle returns to the beginning.

The TGFU model takes into account both learning and motivation theory, helps students see

relationships and differences between games, and fosters both cognitive development and

skill development. However, it requires teachers to be truly knowledgeable about game

structures and to select developmentally appropriate game forms and modify games to help

students understand the activities without violating the basic principles on which the games

are based. Teachers must be helped to develop the pedagogical content knowledge required

to implement this approach.23

In the subdiscipline approach to physical education, units are based on the subdisciplines

traditionally associated with physical education--exercise physiology, kinesiology, motor

development, motor learning, sport sociology and psychology, and sport history, philosophy,

and art. An example of a concept-oriented instructional unit for biomechanics using the

subdiscipline approach might include:

Week 1: Center of gravity and base of support

Week 2: Balance

Week 3: Spin and angle of rebound

Week 4: Newton's laws of motion

Week 5: Force production

Week 6: Summary of the use of biomechanics in


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sport 24

Several variations of the concepts-based curriculum pattern include ( 1) integrating concepts

with the traditional activity-based curriculum, (2) teaching a separate unit on concepts along

with the traditional activity units, and (3) teaching concepts on special occasions such as

rainy days and shortened periods.

With the current emphasis on physical fitness, wellness, and healthy lifestyles, it is no

surprise that physical educators have created a fitness-based curriculum approach. Most

programs emphasize fitness concepts, as well as activity skills for developing healthy

lifestyles. A number of textbooks for teaching fitness concepts to secondary school students

has been published. Most programs are supplemented with activity units designed to

encourage participation in physical activity throughout life.

Developmental-Needs Curriculum Patterns

The student needs curriculum is based on the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective

developmental stages and growth patterns of children and youth. Basic skills are taught in

elementary school programs; team sports are emphasized in middle and junior high school

programs; and lifetime activities are taught in senior high school and college curricula, along

with appropriate cognitive and affective objectives for students' developmental levels. The

curriculum is often divided into activity or theme units chosen by the faculty to meet student

needs.

This curriculum pattern is primarily based on the assumption that students go through

the same developmental stages at the same rate, although some programs attempt to provide

a variety of learning experiences to provide for individual variation in developmental levels.

In a survey of professionals, researchers concluded that developmentally appropriate practice

involves "experiences which are adapted to the individual learner's needs, interests, skill, and

confidence levels."25 The developmental-needs curriculum is widely accepted and often

combined with the activity-based curriculum under the assumption that development will

occur automatically through participation in motor activities.

Student-Centered Curriculum Patterns

Student-centered curriculum patterns are based on students' purposes for enrolling in

physical education activities, including social interaction, adventure, emotional release,

physical fitness, self-discipline, or personal expression. The assumption is that students are

capable of assessing their own purposes and making appropriate choices, although

counseling helps students with these choices. A wide variety of activities with beginning, in-


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termediate, and advanced levels of instruction are required to meet student needs.

Attendance, cooperation, and learning increase when students are allowed to concentrate on

activities in which they have real interest and develop competence in activities in which they

will participate outside of school. Some teachers may need to learn to teach new activities

that are of interest to students. If students continually shift from one teacher to another,

teachers may not get to know students. Some students can get lost in such a system.

Humanistic physical education stresses the unique-ness of each individual. It uses

physical activity to assist students in their search for personal meaning, self-understanding,

self-actualization, and interpersonal relations. Subject matter mastery is de-emphasized.

Humanistic physical education requires a caring, authentic teacher who can establish a close

teacher-student relationship and facilitate student learning.

Hellison developed a personal and social responsibility model for physical education. Its

focus is on teaching and empowering students to take more responsibility for themselves and

to be socially responsible and sensitive to the rights, feelings, and well-being of others. He

identified the five goals shown in Table 4 and then placed these goals into a hierarchy of

levels for developing responsibility: (0) irresponsibility, (1) respect, (2) participation, (3)

self-direction, and (4) caring. Hellison proposed strategies to help youth progress through the

five stages, including awareness talks, group and individual reflection, time to try out or

experience the levels, group problem-solving meetings, individual counseling, and

individual choice.26

Table 4. Levels in Hellisons Personal and Social Responsibility Model

1. Respect for the rights and feelings of others

a. Maintaining self-control

b. Respecting everyones right to be included

c. Respecting everyones right to a peaceful conflict resolution

2. Participation and effort

a. Exploring effort

b. Trying new things

c. Developing a personal definition of success

3. Self-direction

a. Demonstrating on-task independence

b. Developing a sound knowledge base

c. Developing, carrying-out, and evaluating a personal plan


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d. Balancing current and future needs

e. Striving against external forces

4. Sensitivity and responsiveness to the well-being of others

a. Developing prerequisite interpersonal skills

b. Becoming sensitive and compassionate

c. Contributing to the community and beyond

d. Helping others without rewards

5. Outside the gym

a. Trying out the levels in the classroom, on the playground and street, and at home

b. Making decisions about the usefulness on the levels outside the gym

Adventure education involves group or individual problem solving under stress using

contrived obstacles or environments as problems or challenges for students to solve.

Robinson proposed the risk-sport process as an alternative approach for humanistic physical

education. His approach focuses on five phases: (1) initial involvement to meet individual

needs for various levels of stimulation and autonomy within various social environments, (2)

cognitive appraisal of the participant's perceived competency compared with the risk of the

situation, (3) making decisions on which risks to accept or reject, (4) exploration of the

nature of the performance and interpersonal experiences, and (5) reflection to understand thefactors underlying their sport experience. Since risk-sport activities are not suitable for or

attractive to all students, this model is recommended as an elective unit within the physical

education curriculum.27

Another student-centered curriculum pattern is the personal meaning approach, in which

the focus is upon the satisfaction gained from participation in the movement experience or

from the use of movement activities to achieve personal goals. The purpose-process

curriculum framework (PPCF), defined by Jewett and Mullan consists of seven groups of

movement purposes- physiological efficiency, psychic equilibrium, spacial orientation,

object manipulation, communication, group interaction, and cultural involvement.28 It is

assumed that students have the same purposes, but the emphasis may change from school to

school depending on the students. The curriculum content can be arranged within activity or

concept units emphasizing one or more selected purposes. An example of the PPCF is the

program developed for tenth graders in a Canadian school district. Students take one unit

each in fitness, personal development, and dance; two goal-type games; two net games; and


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one target game or combative activity. Adventure activities fit in well with the personal

meaning curriculum. The major problem with the PPCF is that it is difficult to use for

persons not familiar with the framework.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: Define each of the following curriculum patterns:

Subject-centered

a. Activity-based

1) Sport education

2) Wilderness sports

b. Movement-based

c. Concepts-based

1) Teaching games for understanding

2) Subdiscipline; fitness

d. Developmental needs

Student-centered

a. Humanistic

b. Adventure education/risk sports

c. Personal meaning

Building aProgram from Curriculum Patterns

Curriculum design involves choosing one or more curriculum patterns that meet the goals and

objectives of the school or district for which the curriculum is being designed. For example, a

movement approach may be chosen for the elementary schools, with activity-based programs

dominating the secondary programs. Fitness-oriented concept units could be taught in the

middle, junior, and senior high schools, with other concepts integrated with the appropriate

activity units. The important thing to remember is that programs and patterns must be

compatible with school and community philosophies and have internal consistency. Hellison

and Templin suggested using the 51 percent rule, meaning that the program should be built

primarily around one curriculum model, integrating components of other models where

appropriate.30 In this way, teachers might integrate aspects of some of their favorite models,

while still having compatibility and defensibility with the program's values and beliefs.

Annarino and his colleagues listed the following practical considerations for designing or

selecting curriculum patterns and programs:

Needs and interests of students


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Number and type of students

Pre-entry skills of the students

Terminal objectives to be achieved

Type, expertise, and number of instructional personnel

Grouping of students

Availability of equipment and supplies

Number of teaching stations

Time allotments

School and state requirements

Type of instructional strategy to be employed

Availability and types of instructional aids

Seasonality 31

Siedentop and his colleagues suggested the following considerations :

How adequate are the school facilities? How adequate are the community

opportunities? How easy is it for students to get from school to the community sites?

Do students have to catch buses right after school? Is the school district willing to

provide supplementary compensation for faculty leadership in intramurals, clubs,

and drop-in recreation? What is the state law regarding physical education? What

support is there for going beyond the requirements of the state law with an elective

program? How motivated are the physical education teachers to build a program that

really counts? The answers to these questions will provide the background information

for making decisions about how much a program can accomplish.32

Whatever program is selected, do it well. It may be worthwhile to implement program

components in small steps and work with that portion until success is achieved before

starting another part.

Curric_Development Basics

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