Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

54
www.agilent.com/find/backtobasic Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics

Transcript of Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Page 1: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

www.agilent.com/find/backtobasics

Back to Basics - 2008

Power Measurement Basics

Page 2: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Objectives

On completion of this module, you will be able to understand:•the importance of power measurements

•Three basic types of power measurements

•Power meter/sensor measurement method

•Two most prevalent sensor technologies

•Advanced measurements used for the latest RF & microwave applications

•Calculate power measurement uncertainty

•Outline Agilent’s broad range of power

measurement solutions

Page 3: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 4: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Signal Power Levels are Critical

Too low:

Too high:

...Or even worse!

Signal buried in noise

Nonlinear distortion...

Page 5: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

DC

VInc

VRef

ZO

ZS R

L

VRL

ZS

I

Why Not Measure Voltage?

RL

ZS

V

I

Low Frequency

P = IV = V2/R

High Frequency• I and V vary with position• Power is constant

Amplitude

t

P

I

V

DC component of power

AC component of power

Page 6: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Agenda

Page 7: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

•Basic power unit is the watt (W)

• 1 W = 1 A x 1 V

Units and Definitions

•Power = energy transferred per unit time

• A logarithmic (decibel) scale is often used to compare

two power levels•Relative power in decibels (dB):

•Absolute power is expressed by assigning a reference

level to Pref in dBm:

refP

PdBP log10)(

mW

PdBmP

1log10)(

Page 8: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

t

Average over many modulation cycles

AM

Pulsed

Average over many pulse repetitions

Average Power

Page 9: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Pulse Power

Power

Time

A(pulse width) Duty Cycle =AB

(pulse repetition interval)

B

Pulse Power = Average Power/Duty Cycle

• Rectangular pulse

• Constant duty cyclePulse power

Page 10: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

• Maximum power in the envelope of a signal

Peak Envelope Power

For pulses that are not rectangular

Page 11: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Average Power

Pulse Power

Peak Envelope Power

Summary: Types of Power Measurement

Pulse power

Average power

EPM power meter

EPM power meter

EPM-P or P-Series

Average power

Page 12: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 13: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Instruments That Measure RF & Microwave Power

Spectrum Analyzer

Network AnalyzerPower Meter and Sensor

Vector Signal Analyzer

• ± 0. 0X dB

• ± 0. X dB or greater • Traceability • Frequency selective

• Broadband

Page 14: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

The Power Meter and Sensor Method

DC or low-frequency equivalent

RF power

Power SensorPower Meter

Display

(dBm or W)

ThermistorThermocouple

Diode Detector

Page 15: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 16: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Thermistors

•One of the earliest types of power sensors

•Have been replaced in most applications by

thermocouples and diode detectors

•Still used for power transfer standards in

metrology applications

Thermistor mount

Thermistor : Semiconductor that changes resistance due to change in temperature

Page 17: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Cc

Thermocouples•A junction of two dissimilar metals generates a

voltage related to temperature

•Junction temperature is directly related to RF power

RF Power

Cb

RF Input

Hot Junction

Hot

Cold

Cold Junction

To DC Voltmeter

Thin-Film Thermocouples

Page 18: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Diode Detectors

CbRmatchingVo

+

-

RsVs

Depend on the rectifying characteristics of non-linear microwave detection curve

50 dB

Page 19: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Power Sensor Technologies Comparison

Power Sensor Advantage 优点 Disadvantage 缺点

Thermistor Directly traceable to NIST Slow, Low sensitivity

Thermocouple Accurate, good linearity Slow, Low sensitivity

Diode Detector Fast, wide dynamic range Easily overloaded

848xA/B/H thermocouple

sensor

848xD, E441x, E9300, E9320, N1920 diode

sensor

478A/8478B thermistor

sensor

(30dB)

(50dB)

(up to 90dB)

Page 20: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Power Sensor

ChopperDiodeDetector

Power MeterSynchrono

usDetector

LPF ADCRanging

BPF

SquarewaveGenerator

µProcessor

AC

220 Hz

DC

RF

DAC

AUTOZERO

Power Sensor and Meter Signal Path

Page 21: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Wide Dynamic Range CW Power Sensors – 70 to + 20

dBm= 90 dB Dynamic Range

Calibration Data

Contain Input power level vs freq vs temperature

Page 22: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 23: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agilent Power Meters Product Portfolio Power Meters

(11 models)

P-Series(2 models)

30MHz Video

Bandwidth

• N1911A (US$7,501)

• N1912A (US$10,547)

EPM-P Series

(2 models)

5MHz Video

Bandwidth

• E4416A (US$4,523)

• E4417A (US$7,111)

EPM Series

(2 models)

Broadband, for all signal types

• E4418B (US$3,550)

• E4419B (US$6,092)

432AP-Series

LXI(1 model)

30MHz Video

Bandwidth

• N8262A (US$11,784)

Broadband, for all

signal types

U2000 Series

(4 models)

•U2000A ($3,087)

•U2001A ($2,371)

•U2002A ($3, 807)

•U2004A ($2,675)

Peak & Average Power Meters Average Power Meters

Performance / Price

Page 24: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

CCDF statistical analysis

Pulse parameters analysis Max/Min Limit TestData logging for 7 Days

N1911/12A P-Series

N8262A LXI power meter

N1918A-100 Power

Analysis Software

U2000 USB power sensor

Compatible with

Power Analysis Manager Software N1918A-100

Multichannel measurements display

Page 25: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

U2000 Series USB Power Sensors Display Power Measurement on a PC or other Agilent instruments

Work with laptopWork with N9340A HHSA

Page 26: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Instrument Compatibility with USB Sensor

N9020A MXA Vector Signal Analyzer

N5242A PNA-X Vector Network Analyzer

N9340 Hand Held Spectrum Analyzer

E506x & E507X ENA Vector Network Analyzer

E836xB PNA Vector Network Analyzer

N5182A MXG Vector Signal Generator

Now!

Now!Now!

Soon!!

Soon!!

Page 27: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

U2000 USB Sensor Target Applications

Key Advantages

Lower cost solution with equivalent bench power meter performance

Simplified your measurement setup with USB plug & play

Optimize you test rack space by going powermeter-less

Ideal for manufacturing testsIdeal for long distance antenna test Key

Advantages Simplified setup Hassle-free

calibration – internal zeroing

Long distance measurements with USB-to-LAN hub

Design for field applications Key Advantages Light weight and small

size, plug and play. Easy to carry for field applications

Design for satellite receiver tests Support long distance, multi-channel operations

E5813A

Multi-list view & channel mathematics

Page 28: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agilent Power Sensor Families

8480 Series Power Sensors Average power measurements using diode and thermocouple technology

E-Series Power Sensors E441XA Wide Dynamic Range CW SensorE9300 Wide Dynamic Range

Average Power SensorE9320 Peak and Average Sensor (<5MHz)

P-Series Power Sensors Peak & Average power measurements of wide bandwidth modulated signal using diode technology

Page 29: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Average/CW Power SensorsPOWER

FREQUENCY

848X B-Series0 to +44 dBm

848X H-Series-10 to +35 dBm

848X A-Series

-30 to + 20 dBm

848X D-Series

-70 to -20 dBm

8481B8482B

8481H8482H

8487AQ8486A W8486A

R8486A

8485A

8481A

8482A

8483A

8487D

Q8486D

R8486D8485D

8481D

100 kHz

10 MHz

50 MHz

2 GHz

4.2 GHz

18 GHz

26.5 GHz

33 GHz

40 GHz

50 GHz

75 GHz

110 GHz

OPT 33

V

V

V8486A

9 kHz

6 GHz

E9304A

E9301A

E9300A

OPT -H18

-70 to +20 dBm

E441X Series

-60 to +20 dBmE930X Series

E9301HE9300H

-50 to +30 dBmE930X A/H-Series

E9301B

E9300B

-30 to +44 dBmE930X B-Series

OPT 33

E4413A

E4412A

848X Average Diode Sensor

848X Average Thermocouple Sensor

E441X 1-Path Diode CW-only Sensor

E930X 2-Path Diode True-Average sensor

OPT –H24

E9300A OPT –H25

OPT -H19E9304A

Compatible with EPM, EPM-P and P-series power meters

Page 30: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

E9323A (5MHz BW)

E9322A (1.5MHz BW)

Peak & Average/CW & Wideband Power SensorsPOWER

FREQUENCY

-35 to + 20 dBm

100 kHz

10 MHz

50 MHz

2 GHz

4.2 GHz

18 GHz

26.5 GHz

33 GHz

40 GHz

50 GHz

75 GHz

110 GHz

V

V

9 kHz

6 GHz

-65 to +20 dBm

-60 to +20 dBm

N192X Peak, Average, rise time, fall time, pulse width sensor

E932X Peak and Average/CW sensor

N1922A (30MHz BW)

N1921A (30MHz BW)

E9327A (5MHz BW)

E9326A (1.5MHz BW)

E9325A (300kHz BW)

E9321A (300kHz BW)

N192X A-Series

E932X A-Series

E932X A-Series

Compatible with P-series

Compatible with EPM-P & P-Series

Page 31: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

P-Series Power Sensors Internal Zero and CalInternal zero and calibration within the N1921A/22A sensors

N1921/22A Wideband Power Sensor Block Diagram

RF Input

To wideband amplifier and 100 MHz Sampler

Voltage Reference

From CAL DAC

Zero and Cal Path Switching

Diode Detectors

Minimizing set up and calibration timeEliminates multiple connections with external calibration source Reduce measurement uncertainties

Page 32: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 33: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Time-Gated Power MeasurementsEDGE signal (GSM)

Peak, average and peak-to-

average ratio of a single burst

Optimize for ‘burst’ type of signals such as EDGE, WiMAX, WLAN

Page 34: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Sensors for Time-Gated Measurements• Sensor rise/fall time requirements

•For characterizing overshoot: < 1/8 signal rise time

•For average power: same as signal rise time

• E9320 peak/average sensors•200 ns rise time (typical), up to

5MHz VBW•TDMA, CDMA and W-CDMA wireless formats

• P-Series wideband power sensors•< 13 ns rise time and fall time,

30MHz VBW•Radar and pulsed component test, WiMAX, WLAN wireless formats

Page 35: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Length 1

Length 4

Length 3

Length 2

Start 1

Start 2Start 3

Ext TriggerStart 4

Delay

Triggering and Measurement CapabilitiesEPM-P and P-Series Power

Meters

Triggers

Average

Peak

• Level = Internal• External• GPIB

Page 36: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 37: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

GSM (0.3 GMSK) cdma2000

• Digital Wireless Communications

Technology Drivers• Aerospace and Defence (Radar)

• TDMA system

• Time-gated average power• Fast measurements

• 3G technology

• Peak-to-average ratio• CCDF

WiMAX

• Broadband communications• Burst power measurements• CCDF

Page 38: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

P-Series Power Meters and Sensors

• Key Measurements

• Peak, average, peak-to-average ratio• rise time, fall time, pulse width, pulse period,

duty cycle; time-gated and free-run measurements

• CCDF statistical analysis

Page 39: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

P-Series Measurement Display •Graphical trace setup •Marker measurements and analysis

MKR 1 MKR 2

Page 40: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Statistical Analysis

Allows 4 trace – Ch 1, Ch 2, Gaussian, Reference

2 Markers reading, delta reading

User settable input

Tabular form

Graphical form

CCDF curve shows how many % of time the signal power is at or above a given power level.Sample cdmaOne signal

Page 41: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Agenda

Importance of Power Measurements

Average, Peak and Pulse Power

Power Meter & Sensor Measurement Method

Sensor Technologies Agilent Power Measurement

Solutions Time-Gated Power

Measurements Advanced Power

Measurements Measurement Uncertainty,

Standards and Traceability Agilent Power Sensor

Selection Guides (Appendix)

Page 42: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Sources of Power Measurement Uncertainty

•Sensor and Source Mismatch Errors

•Power Sensor Errors•Power Meter Errors

Mismatch

Sensor

Meter

Page 43: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Sensor and Source Mismatch

Signal Source

Power Sensor Power Meter

Ideal impedance = Z0

Impedance Z0

VSWR

Page 44: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Calculation of Mismatch Uncertainty

Signal Source(1 GHz, 0 dBm)

Power MeterN1921A

= ± 2 x 0.115 x 0.091 x 100% = ± 2.09%

Mismatch Uncertainty = ± 2 x x x 100%

SOURCE SENSOR

VSWR = 1.26

VSWR = 1.2

SENSOR

= 0.091

= 0.115SOURCE

VSWR 1

VSWR 1=

Power Sensor

Page 45: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Power Sensor Cal Factor Uncertainties Various sensor

losses - heat

DC

Power Sensor

Power Meter Power Meter

Pr

Sensing Element

Pi Pgl

Cal Factor : e

PKb=

glPi

e = Effective Efficiency)

• Printed on sensor label (8480 series)• Stored in EEPROM (E-series and P-series)

Calibration factor, Kb, takes into account the imperfect efficiency of the sensor and the mismatch loss

Page 46: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Power Meter Instrumentation Uncertainties

Zero Set

Noise

DriftPower

Reference Uncertainty

0.4 % (25 10degC)

Instrumentation Uncertainty

0.8 %

Page 47: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Calculating Power Measurement Uncertainty

• Mismatch uncertainty: ± 2.09%

• Power linearity: ± 2.0% 1

• Cal factor uncertainty: ± 1.8% 1

• Power reference uncertainty: ± 0.4% 1

• Instrumentation uncertainty: ± 0.8%

1 Specifications apply for an E9301A sensor and Agilent power meter over a temperature range of 25 ±10 degrees C.

1. Identify significant uncertainties

2. Combine uncertainties • Worst-case or Root Sum of the Squares (RSS) method

Page 48: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Worst-Case Uncertainty

• All sources of error at their extreme values• Errors add constructively

• Worst-case situation is assumed

• In our example measurement:2.09% + 2.0% + 1.8% + 0.4% + 0.8% = ± 7.09%

Or, in log terms:+ 7.09% = 10 log (1 + 0.0709) = + 0.30 dB– 7.09% = 10 log (1 - 0.0709) = – 0.32 dB

• Extremely conservative

Page 49: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

RSS (Root Sum of the Squares) Uncertainty*

Source of Uncertainty

Value

(± %) Probability

Distribution Divisor

Standard Uncertainty

u

i

(k=1) Source/Sensor

Mismatch at 2 GHz 2.09

U-shaped

1.414

1.48

Calibration Factor Uncertainty at 2 GHz 2.0

Normal

2

1.0

Linearity at 0 dBm 1.8 Normal 2 0.9 Power Reference Uncertainty

0.4 Normal 2 0.2

Instrumentation Uncertainty

0.8 Normal 2 0.4

Combined Standard Uncertainty = uc = RSS of ui * In accordance to guidelines published in the ISO Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty

in Measurement and ANSI/NCSL Z540-2-1996, US Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement.

Page 50: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Combined Standard Uncertainty (uc)•In our example:

= (1.48) + (1.0) + (0.9) + (0.2) + (0.4) 2 2 2 2 2uc

•Expanded uncertainty (k = 2)

= 1.99%

= k x uc =

3.98% = 10 log (1 + 0.0398) = + 0.17 dB10 log (1 0.0398) = – 0.18

dB

Worst-case+ 0.17 dB– 0.18 dB

•Agilent AN 1449-3 covers uncertainty calculations

Confidence level of 95.45%

Page 51: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

National Standards and Traceability

NIST (USA), NPL (UK)

NIST (USA), NPL (UK)

Commercial Standards LaboratoryManufacturing Facility

User

Rising Costs, Better

Accuracy

National ReferenceStandard

(Microcalorimeter)

Working Standards

MeasurementReference Standard

Transfer Standard

General TestEquipment

Thermistors are used for metrology

applications

Page 52: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Summary

•Accurate power measurements (made with a power meter/sensor combination) are crucial in RF and microwave applications.•The three fundamental power measurements are average, peak and pulse.

•Modern wireless and radar technologies require time-gated and advanced measurements.

•Measurement uncertainty is often calculated using the RSS method.

•The accuracy of Agilent power sensors is traceable to national standards.

•Agilent provides solutions for basic and advanced measurements.

Page 53: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

For More Information

• Agilent Website

• URL: http://www.agilent.com/find/powermeters

• Agilent Literature

• Application Note AN 1449–1, 2, 3 and 4, Fundamentals of RF and Microwave Power Measurements (Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4).

• Product Note, Choosing the Right Power Meter and Sensor (Lit. No. 5968-7150E).

• Application Note AN 64-4D, 4 steps for making better power measurements (Lit. No. 5965-8167E)

Page 54: Back to Basics - 2008 Power Measurement Basics.

Power Measurement Basics www.agilent.com/find/

backtobasics

Questions and Answers