Cultural policy in Indonesia - UNESCOunesdoc.unesco.org/images/0006/000630/063036eo.pdf · Cultural...

Cultural policy in

Indonesia ----a4 al

Haryati Soebadio

Baaed on Annual Reports of the Department of Education and Culture and material of the Centres and Directorates of the Directorate- General of Culture

Unesco

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Studies and documents on cultural policies

Recent titles in this series:

Cultural policy in Australia, by Jean Battersby Cultural policy in Guatemala, by Edna Nuñez de Rodas Some aspects of cultural policies in Austria, by Harald Gardos and Manfred Wagner Cultural policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by Muhammad Abdullah al-Mani and

Cultural policy in Jordan, by Hani Al-Amad Cultural policy in the Sudan, by Mohamed Abdel Hai Cultural policy in the United Kingdom, by Nigel Abercrombie Cultural policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic, a study prepared under the auspices

Cultural policy in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, by G. Shevchuk Cultural policy in the Yemen Arab Republic, by Abdul-Rahman Al-Haddad Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, by Shaphalya Amatya Cultural policy in the People’s Republic of China, by Bai Liu

For a complete list of titles see page 61

Abd ur-Rahman Sbit as-Sbit

of the Mongolian National Commission for Unesco

Published in 1985 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed by Imprimerie des Presses Universitaires de France, Vendame

ISBN 92-3-102246-6

(8 Unesco 1985 Printed in France

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Preface

The purpose of this series is to show h o w cultural policies are planned and implemented in various Member States.

As cultures differ, so does the approach to them. It is for each Member State to determine its cultural policy and methods according to its o w n conception of culture, its socio-economic system, political ideology and technical development. However, the methods of cultural policy (like those of general development policy) have certain c o m m o n problems; these are largely institutional, administrative and financial in nature, and the need has increasingly been stressed for exchanging experiences and information about them. This series, each issue of which follows as far as possible a similar pattern so as to make comparison easier, is mainly concerned with these technical aspects of cultural policy.

In general, the studies deal with the principles and methods of cultural policy, the evaluation of cultural needs, administrative structures and management, planning and financing, the organization of resources, legis- lation, budgeting, public and private institutions, cultural content in education, cultural autonomy and decentralization, the training of personnel, institutional infrastructures for meeting specific cultural needs, the safeguarding of the cultural heritage, institutions for the dissemination of the arts, international cultural co-operation and other related subjects.

The studies, which cover countries belonging to differing social and economic systems, geographical areas and levels of development, present, therefore, a wide variety of approaches and methods in cultural policy. Taken as a whole, they can provide guidelines to countries that have yet to establish cultural policies, while all countries, especially those seeking new formulations of such policies, can profit by the experience already gained.

This study was prepared for Unesco by Professor Haryati Soebadio, Director-General of Culture of the Department of Education and Culture of Indonesia.

The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of Unesco and do not commit the Organization.

Contents

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33

46

48

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59

Introduction

Historical synopsis of cultural administration

General direction of cultural policy

Administration and financial structures of cultural activities

Programmes of cultural development

Laws and regulations for cultural development

Aid to creativity and cultural dissemination

International co-operation in the field of culture

Medium- and long-term policy of cultural development

Introduction

Indonesia is an archipelago of continental dimensions, consisting of 13,667 islands, large and small, of which some 6,000 are inhabitable, the others being either too small or too inhospitable. A m o n g the inhabited islands are some of the largest in the world, such as Kalimantan (Borneo) with an area measuring 539,640 km2, Sumatra with 437,606 km2, Sulawesi (Celebes) with 189,216 km2 and Java (onits o w n approximately 120,000 km2, or seen as one unit together with Madura measuring 132,187 km2). Some fifty other islands are of average size, such as the well-known island of Bali, with an area of 5,561 km2. The remainder are very small and sometimes only occasionally occupied, such as the small islands in the Bay of Jakarta known as Pulau Seribu (the Thousand Islands), which are used as recrea- tion and week-end resorts.

This large archipelago stretches on both sides of the Equator, from latitude 60 North to 110 South over a breadth of 1,888 km, whereas in length it measures around 5,110 k m , from longitude 950 to 1410 East. This is approximately the distance from Ireland to the Urals.

The population is dense-147 million according to the 1980 census; a large increase on the 61 million mentioned in the 1930 census of the Dutch East Indies. The 1900 estimate was 35 million, and it is thought that in 1800 the population cannot have exceeded 10 million.

It is evident that over a long period many groups, scattered over the area of nearly 10 million km2, were living very m u c h apart and even completely isolated. T o this day w e m a y still find areas that are not easily accessible, although the government has in recent years built m a n y new roads and air bases, and also organized new ferry and shipping connections all over the country. The inland seas have for a long time hampered direct communication. Thus w e still find areas of almost complete isolation next to those which have had considerable interaction with the outside world since the earliest times. This means that in the early days marriage outside the group was virtually impossible in some groups, but in others it

9

Introduction

was relatively easy. Thus, inbreeding was the rule in some groups, which resulted in certain types and physical characteristics becoming dominant over an entire area, although in other areas there was virtually a complete mixture of physical characteristics. The same could be said of cultural customs. This situation may well be one of the most important reasons why Indonesia’s population consists of so many groups that seem to be ethnically divergent in physiognomy, customs and kinship systems.

However, modern socio-cultural research has long since established a basic similarity, even a common root, for the languages and dialects spoken in the archipelago. From the point of view of language ‘families’, the Indonesians are Austronesians or, to use another name, Malayo- Polynesians. This language family stretches from Madagascar to Oceanic Polynesia. However, probably also as a consequence of long isolation, many sub-languages and sub-dialects were formed. Recent research done by the Centre for Language Development, Indonesia, has registered over 400 languages and dialects, and it is expected that hundreds more will be added to this list. These languages range from such widely spoken languages as Javanese, spoken by some 60 million or more Javanese, to some dialects and languages that are spoken by very small groups, sometimes not exceeding a few thousand individuals. Parallel to the languages and dialects, we find a corresponding number of ethnic groups and sub-groups.

However, divergency was not the only result of ethnic development in various degrees of isolation dwing ancient times. Due to its geographical situation between two oceans (the Pacific and the Indian Oceans) and between two continents (Asia and Australia), Indonesia has also been subject to influence from foreign countries since relatively early times. Owing to the enormous distances involved, this foreign influence differed from area to area and from island to island. Thus we find islands and inland areas of the larger islands that were virtually untouched by outside influence and remained, until recent times, next to areas where continuous communication with the outside world resulted in the creation of a culture that became a mixture of various elements, blending and absorbing foreign ideas into the original structure. In this way Chinese, Indian (Hindu-Buddhist), Arabic (Muslim) and European (Christian) influences have been integrated in various degrees into the local cultures which are very varied and may be divided very roughly into the following categories: 1. Those that have remained relatively archaic until very recent times,

such as the cultures of the people in the small islands to the west of Sumatra (Nias, Enggano or the Mentawais), the culture of some Bataks in Central Sumatra, the Dayaks of Kalimantan, the Torajas of South Sulawesi, some groups inhabiting the smaller islands and groups of islands in the east of Indonesia and Irian Jaya (West Inan).

10

Introduction

2. Those that have received a strong Indian influence and where both Hinduism and Buddhism were able to take root especially as in Central and East Java, where powerful Hindu- Javanese kingdoms were established existing until the coming of Islam in the fifteenth century A.D. and where to this day that influence is felt, despite the spread of Islam; Bali, where the population has largely remained Hindu; and various other areas that were influenced by the former Hindu- Javanese kingdoms.

3. Those that were almost completely Islamized, such as Sumatra (except the Batak area in Central Sumatra), where Islam first arrived and where Marco Polo found concrete evidence of an indigenous Muslim community in 1292, when he passed through on his way back from China to Europe; the coastal areas of the larger islands; and smaller islands like Madura, Lombok and others.

4. Those that received Western and Christian influence more or less directly on their former archaic cultural structures, such as many Bataks, Torajas and other areas in the east of Indonesia.

It will be obvious that such a categorization cannot Ise maintained as strictly as the division presented here suggests. As already mentioned, the inland seas dividing the islands were at the same time also a means of communication. The coastal areas have, through trade, also received Chinese and other foreign influence from early times. Moreover, as was previously suggested, there must have existed much inter-island trading since early times.

It should be noted that, on one hand, the various aspects of foreign influence have been the cause of deepening inter-ethnic differences where these existed, while on the other hand they were the means of bringing diver gent groups to gether.

None the less, the basic roots remain apparent, for the Indonesians have shown a remarkable ability to adapt foreign influence in such a way that something new is created that is found nowhere else and differs considerably from the original influence. This ability has been called ‘local genius’ by foreign scholars and may be seen, for instance, in the creation of the temple of Borobudur which is unique in the Buddhist world.

The basic common roots and the variety of local customs that have developed in the course of time are acknowledged in the coat of arms of the Republic of Indonesia with its motto Bhinneku Tunggul Ilia, taken from sn Old Javanese manuscript of possibly the eleventh century A.D., the Sutusoma. Literally, the motto’s meaning is ‘[Although] divided it is [nevertheless] one’, which usually is translated as ‘Unity in Diversity’. The many ethnic groups may vary in their local cultures and languages or adaptations, but nevertheless have one and the same basis which is still obvious today. Therefore it was never a problem for Indonesians to find the right basis for a policy in which to develop national culture. The state Constitution drawn up in 1945 when Indonesia proclaimed its independence

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Introduction

states that the government has the task of developing national culture, with local customs and traditions forming the basis from which to develop this culture. Thus, national culture m a y be expected to develop through its o w n specific identity.

A policy for developing national culture on the basis of which the national identity m a y be strengthened has to be aware therefore of those values remaining from ancient times. Influence from foreign cultures and the positive effects of modernization m a y then be absorbed harmoniously with this national identity and the general principles of culture.

Indonesia’s basic philosophy of culture is contained in the five principles of the national ideology, Pancasila, sometimes translated as ‘five pillars’. These are: (a) belief in God; (b) tolerance; (c) humanity; (d) democracy; (e) social justice.

This state ideology should be seen, and has to be implemented, in relation to the composition of the country’s population. A basic ideology or philosophy is necessary in order to contain the needs of such a variety of groups with their o w n local customs, traditions, local beliefs and religions. The Constitution, including the Pancasila, which upholds national ideology, guarantees legal acknowledgement and equality of rights for all groups.

Furthermore, in formulating its cultural policy, Indonesia needs to take into account the national policy of development in general, for culture is not the only aspect. An interrelation has to be acknowledged between culture and development, and likewise between the development of culture, cultural identity and the country’s material development; because, in the formulation of its cultural policy, Indonesia, as a still developing country, has to remain aware of the cultural dangers and consequences as well as the side-effects of development for its people. On one hand, development needs a culturally congruent environment to be successful, while on the other, it also tends to bring negative side-effects in its wake, which m a y only be solved through cultural measures.

In short, Indonesia’s cultural policy should aim at enhancing development through a dynamic type of national culture-a culture that is able to cope and agree with the specific needs of a country in the process of development and which also has a strong personal identity, able to withstand negative external influence as well as internal conflicts as a result of development. At the same time, it should be able to recognize and absorb positive influence and change in both the material and the spiritual sense.

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Although w e have seen in the ancient Indonesian manuscripts such as old Javanese historiography some sort of cultural administration, this only started in the modern sense with colonialism. In the early days of the Netherlands East Indies, cultural policy was not a government matter and cultural affairs were left very much to private persons and organizations until the end of the nineteenth century. It was scholarly interest in the life and manners of people in the colonies, the so-called ‘oriental studies’, that started a whole new branch of scientific study, which developed during the nineteenth century, but which had started much earlier. This interest in ‘eastern’ people’s life (specifically languages and customs), had previously led to the establishment of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences in 1778 through the initiative of Dutch scholars. The society started a museum and a library devoted to the cultures of the archipelago. It became the Royal Batavian Society in 1925 and was reorganized as a centre of ‘all cultural sciences’, such as ‘linguistics, philology, historiography, ethnography, social anthropology, prehistory, archaeology, Islamology, customary law, jurisprudence, economics and sociology’ in Indonesia-in fact, ‘oriental studies’ as they were then conceived. Despite its large scope, the society has contributed much to the study of Indonesian life and culture. The museum is at present the National Museum in Jakarta, and the library attached to it, with its well-known collection of indigenous manuscripts, is n o w a part of the National Library, likewise situated in Jakarta.

Another name connected with oriental studies is that of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. As Lieutenant-General during the British interregnum (1811-16) in Indonesia, he was the first to recognize the importance of the temple of Borobudur, which at the time was in ruins, the Indonesians living around it having been converted to Islam three centuries earlier. Raffles’s two-volume History of Java, written in 1817, is a monumental standard work for its time and is still worth reading.

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Oriental studies at their best produced some pioneering work in the research of language and local customs. They were conducted by a scholarly international community including a German, W. von Humboldt, who in 1861 in his book Die Kawìsprache detected that Old Javanese (which he called Kawi) was linguistically an Indonesian language and not related to Sanskrit, despite the occurrence of many words derived or borrowed from it. Von Humboldt’s work was in fact very advanced, but it took more than half a century before it was universally acknowledged that the study of Old Javanese need not be done through Sansluit studies as it had previously at universities in the Netherlands until the 1950s, although as recently as the 1970s an amateur of Old Javanese in Indonesia called it a ‘language derived from Sanskrit’.

The government’s interest in Indonesian cultural studies started at the beginning of the twentieth century. Primarily it commenced with the preservation of historical remains. In 1901 a commission was set up for archaeological research (Commissie in Nederlandsch-Indië voor Oudheid- kundig Onderzoek van Java en Madoera), mainly concerned with Java and Madura. D r J. L. A. Brandes, himself an astute scholar of Indonesian archaeology, was its first Head. In 1913, the commission was changed into the more effective Archaeological Service (Oudheidkundige Dienst) under the leadership of Professor Dr N. J. Krom, another scholar of Indonesian culture, whose book on Hindu- Javanese history (Hindoe- Javaansche Geschiedenis) is still considered an important work.

Linguistic research into the languages of Indonesian was also considered important enough to justify the establishment of a government-sponsored publishing house, Balai Poestaka, in 1918. Balai Poestaka has produced many important publications containing indigenous works of literary value in Malay and other vernacular tongues. At present, it is still government-sponsored and has retained its former name, though under the new spelling system it is written ‘Balai Pustaka’. It is engaged in the publication of books for schools and other institutions of education and socio-cultural research, especially those that are considered important but m a y be difficult to sell because they are too specialized. Balai Pustaka has to date produced several publications in co-operation with international study programmes.

The Netherlands Government’s interest in the culture and languages of Indonesia extended to colonial services as well. Prospective civil servants, for instance, were required to familiarize themselves with the languages and customs of the region in which they were to work. Training in the languages and adat (customary law) of Indonesia together with more thorough studies of its culture were provided at Leyden University. In later years, not only were Dutch civil servants educated in Leyden, but also Indonesians, including future political leaders such as, for example, M o h a m m a d Hatta, one-time Vice-president of the Republic of Indonesia.

At the same time, in Indonesia, as in the rest of Asia, the realization of

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the importance of national culture came in the wake of nationalism. Indonesian nationalism, crystallized in 1908 with the establishment of Boedi Oetomo, followed in 1922 by T a m a n Siswa, which as national educational centres, stressed the importance of national identity. These, in the initial stages, took shape in regional cultural manifestations. National awakening culminated in the Sumpah Penuda (Youth Pledge) of 28 October 1928, which proclaimed it would work to achieve ‘One Nation, One Language and One Country, Indonesia’.

The Japanese occupation (1942-45) indirectly stimulated Indonesian cultural life. In the first place, Dutch was completely eliminated as the language of official communication and replaced by Malay which had been chosen in 1928 by Indonesian youth as a basis for the development of Indonesian. T o this end, a commission for language study was established, the Komisi Bahasa, which was given the task of selecting new words so as to make basic Malay capabIe of becoming the national language of Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia. W h e n at a later stage in their occupation the Japanese started to make their o w n language obligatory, Indonesian had already firmly taken root and was nationally accepted at all educational levels.

The Japanese also created a cultural centre, Keimin Bunka Sidhosho, to promote Indonesian art and culture, whereas Poetera, headed by national leaders, provided opportunities for exhibitions, performances and other activities. With Independence gained in 1945, the Indonesian Government

established the Ministry of Education and Culture (at present called the Department of Education and Culture) as a consequence of Article 31 and Article 32 on education and culture in the state Constitution. Within this Ministry, there was a Cultural Department consisting of three separate divisions, Archaeology, Art and Languages.

The Division for Archaeology contained, and was the successor of, the Dutch East Indies Archaeological Service which was established in 1913.

The Division for Art was responsible for the establishment of various education institutes for art, such as the Indonesian Academy of Fine Arts (Akademi Seni Rupa, shortened ASRI), the Indonesian Academy of Music (Akademi Seni Musik, or ASMI), both in Yogyakarta, and the Conservatorium of Traditional Music (Akademi Seni Karawitan, or ASKI) in Surakarta, Central Java.

The Division for Languages consisted of two parts in 1952. One was the former (Dutch) Institute for Literature (Instituut voor Taal en Cultuur Onderzoek) in the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia, Jakarta. The other was the Language Division in the Cultural Department of the Ministry of Education and Culture. In the same year the Cultural Depart- ment opened branches in the provinces: Medan (North Sumatra), Bukit Tinggi (West Sumatra), Palembang (South Sumatra), Jakarta, Bandung

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(West Java), Surabaya (East Java), Denpasar (Bali), Makassar (Ujung- pandang, in South Sulawesi) and A m b o n (Moluccas).

In 1956 the following changes took place: (a) the Division for Archae- ology became the autonomous Institute of Archaeology; (b) one part of the Division for Languages became the Sub-Division of Customs and Tra- ditions within the Cultural Department of the Ministry of Education and Culture; (c) the other part was incorporated into the Language Division of the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia; and (d) the Cultural Department was given a further responsibility: museum management with a brand new Museum Section.

An extensive ministerial reorganization took place in 1960. As a result the Cultural Department was incorporated into the Directorate of Culture, while the Museum Section became autonomous as the National Museum Institute. Consequently, the Ministry of Education and Culture dealing with cultural management one Directorate (for Culture) and four institutes: Archaeology, Languages and Literature, the National Museum, and History and Anthropology. Cultural branch offices were set up in the provinces under the auspices of the Inspectorate of Provincial Culture.

Further changes were made in 1966. The ministry, n o w called the Depart- ment of Education and Culture, was divided into five directorates-general, among which was included a Directorate-General of Culture, although, in 1969, the number of directorates-general was reduced to three: Education, Culture and Youth and Sports. However, since 1975 the Department of Education and Culture has been further divided into seven divisions: 1. Secretariat-General. 2. Inspectorate-General. 3. Directorate-General of Primary and Secondary Education. 4. Directorate-General of Higher Education. 5. Directorate-General of Non-formal Education, Youth and Sports. 6. Directorate-General of Culture. 7. Research and Development Centre for Education and Culture. The Directorate-General for Culture, which is responsible for cultural matters, is divided into the following sections: 1. Secretariat. 2. Directorate of History and Traditional Values. 3. Directorate of Arts. 4. Directorate of Museums. 5. Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical and

Archaeological Monuments. 6. Directorate of Local Beliefs. In addition, the Directorate-General for Culture has three centres under its aegis-Centre for Library Development, Centre for Language Devel- opment, National Centre for Archaeological Research-and nine provincial branches throughout Indonesia as follows:

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‘Tari Serimpi’. Serimpi dance from Yogyakarta (Java). This is a dance of welcome.

‘Tarii,Golek‘. Golek dance from Yogyakarta.

Indonesian youth displays a lively interest in the visual arts.

Sculpture frieze on one of the temples of the Prambanan complex. The frieze tells the story of Rama’s search for Sita, kidnapped by King Ravana. [Photo: Unesco/David Davies.]

A Unesco expert helps direct the Bandung Teaching Aids Centre, where, among other methods, marionettes are used to explain and illustrate simple stories. [Photo: Unesco/David D avies .]


1. The National Museum (Jakarta). 2. The National Library (Jakarta). 3. T w o documentation centres for history and traditional values

(Yogyakarta and Ujungpandang). 4. Thirteen cultural centres in thirteen provinces, but the aim is to build

one in every provincial capital. The thirteen in use at the moment are: Sumatra-Banda Aceh, Medan, Padang and Lampung; Kalimantan -Pontianak, Banjarmasin and Samarinda; Sulawesi-Manado and Ujungpandang; Java-Yogyakarta, Surakarta and Surabaya; Bali- Denpasar.

5. Twelve state museums, but throughout Indonesia there are 133 museums with various collections.

6. Five preservation centres for history and archaeology: Yogyakarta, Surakarta, Mojokerto (Java), Denpasar (Bali) and Ujungpandang (Sulawesi).

7. Three research centres for languages and literature: Yogyakarta, Singaraja (Bali) and Ujungpandang.

8. Provincial libraries in all twenty-seven provinces. 9. TWO research centres for archaeology: Bali and Sulawesi.

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As outlined in the Introduction, the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, as drawn up in 1945, and incorporating the Pancasila (state ideology), forms the basis of cultural activities.

In Article 32 of the Constitution it is explicitly stated that ‘the Government shall develop the National Culture of Indonesia’. Further examination of this article reveals that ‘the National Culture of Indonesia’ consists of the following:

National culture is the culture that emerges as a product of the minds of all the Indonesian peoples. Earlier and indigenous cultures as represented by the local cultures all over Indonesia are a definite part of national culture. Cultural endeavours shall be aimed at developing civilization, culture and (national) unity, without denying novel elements from foreign cultures which may develop or enrich national culture as such and improve the human dignity of the Indonesian nation.

Article 32 of the Constitution therefore shows that the Indonesian national culture represents the realization of all the Indonesian people’s active reaction to their environment and to the challenges of history. Endeavours to develop national culture require the participation of all sectors of the Indonesian community as well as that of the government. The government’s part is to give overall directives and to provide for incentives as implied by the Constitution and other state laws and regulations that are connected with cultural life and development.

Taking the local cultures into consideration, this means that existing values, basic conceptions and convictions found throughout Indonesia provide additional impetus to the development of national culture. On this basis, Indonesia’s cultural policy m a y be said to consist of: Preservation of what are considered to be the ‘highlights’ of local cultures.

This includes preservation of the nation’s cultural heritage, both material and spiritual. Therefore, the cultural policy includes protection,

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preservation, conservation and restoration in the field of archaeology and history as well as museology. Preservation and protection of the spiritual cultural heritage is likewise included in the field of traditional music, dance and other arts and crafts, which when no longer relevant to modern Indonesian life will be documented for the sake of scientific study and research, and if still considered important will be taught in both formal and informal education.

Encouragement of new creations based on traditional elements, particularly the development of traditional music and dance for modern art purposes with the building of modern houses, etc., in the traditional style.

Encouragement of completely new creations, outside the nation’s heritage. This is important, as Indonesia does not intend to remain a country merely living on ancient traditions, but wishes to be one of the modern and technologically advanced nations of the world.

Foreign influence is encouraged, as this m a y mean enrichment and development of national culture. As it is, foreign classical, as well as modern, music has already gained an important place in Indonesian cultural life. As was already mentioned in the introduction in the history of the Indonesian peoples, foreign influence has always been integrated into the local cultures of the country.

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As outlined in the historical synopsis, at present the Department (Ministry) of Education and Culture, and more specifically its Directorate-General of Culture through all the centres, directorates and provincial institutes, is the one institution responsible for cultural activities. However, from a national viewpoint, the development of national culture and cultural activities as a whole is implemented through various departments (minis- tries), directorates-general and other institutions, both of the state as well as private.

W h e n seen in its provincial context (i.e. activities in the provinces), it is clear that, not only the Department of Education and Culture is involved, but also the Department of Internal Affairs through the local governments, the Department of Information through its representatives in the provinces as well as the various mass media (radio, television and film), the Department of Communication, especially its Directorate- General for Tourism, the Department of Industries with specifically its Directorate-General for Small Industries and the Department of Foreign Affairs where dealing with foreign relations is involved.

The various connections can be clearly seen in Figure 1. First, there is the Department of Education and Culture, where art and craft education, for instance, is not monitored through the Directorate-General of Culture, but is implemented through the directorates-general (three) concerned with education in general.

Schools, academies and informal courses in arts and crafts are co- ordinated by the three directorates-general concerned with primary and secondary education, higher education, and non-formal education, youth and sports. These also include private establishments, many of which are government-subsidized and provided with government-employed teachers. Government co-ordination controls the level of education with the Directorate of Arts involved with the Directorate-General of Culture which has close relations with the artistic world, which it supports and helps

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Administration and hancial structures of cultural activities

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National Mureum \- a National Library

FIG. 1.

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TABLE 1. State art and craft schools (1981/82)

Type of establishment/location Duration Number Number (Y -1 of teachers of pupils

Music schools Medan Yogyakarta

3-4 28 78 4 52 100

Traditional dance and music schools Yogyakarta 4 63 356

Bandung 4 36 385 Surakarta 3-4 43 570 Surabaya 3-4 42 230 Denpasar 4 56 309

Padangpanjang 4 40 3 39

Ujungpandang 3-4 27 99

Visual art schools Y ogyakarta Padang Denpasar

3-4 48 410 3 51 580 3 48 412

Craft schoozs Yogyakarta 3 68 732 Japara 3 28 304 Tasikmalaya 3 15 489 Pacitan 3 27 356 Guang (Bali) 3 28 217

to promote in many cases. Educational material, such as textbooks and equipment (musical instruments, craft equipment, etc.), are partly provided by the Directorate-General of Culture and purchased under its supervision. A close relationship and co-operation exists between the directorates- general involved.

In comparison with Indonesia’s large population, the number of art and craft schools is very small (see Table 1). There are: two schools for contemporary and Western classical music education in Medan (North Sumatra) and Yogyakarta (Java); three fine arts schools, in Padang (West Sumatra), Yogyakarta and Denpasar (Bali); seven traditional dance and music schools, in Padangpanjang (West Sumatra), Bandung (West Java), Yogyakarta and Surakarta (Central Java), Surabaya (East Java), Denpasar and Ujungpandang (South Sulawesi); five craft schools in Tasikmalaya (West Java), Yogyakarta, Japara (on the North coast of Central Java), Pacitan (East Java) and Guang (Bali).

It should be observed that the traditional art schools and some craft schools are situated locally, giving education only in the arts and crafts of the area involved. The dance and music school in Padangpanjang,

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West Sumatra, for instance, concentrates solely on West Sumatran (Minangkabau) dances and music. The same can be said of the craft school in Japara, which concentrates exclusively on the fine woodcarving for which Japara has been famous for centuries.

However, the art academies have a wider orientation, providing formal education in both the national (mainly traditional) as well as the international and specifically Western imported arts.

There are seven state academies of art, co-ordinated by the Institute of Arts at the Directorate-General of Higher Education, Department of Education and Culture. Of these seven academies of art, only one is concerned with visual arts. However, at the Institute of Technology in Bandung, West Java, there is a Faculty of Fine Arts, specializing mainly in modern painting and sculpture.

Mention may also be made of the Academy of Jakarta, an academy of music, dance and visual arts (including film and photography), sponsored by the local administration of Jakarta, situated at the Jakarta Art Centre (Taman Ismael Marzuki), of which the traditional dance and music group is especially outstanding.

In addition to these schools and academies, there are privately owned schools and informal courses, some of which have a high reputation, specifically in the traditional types of art and crafts, such as the education centres for traditional dance and music situated in and sponsored by the princely houses of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. These centres are considered to be preservation centres of the traditional dances and music formerly only allowed at the princely palaces. As such, they also attract interets from foreign pupils. Another popular centre for dance and music in Yogyakarta is Bagong Kussudiardjo’s, whose training centre is built along

TABLE 2. State Art Academies (1981/82)l

Number of Number of Name and type staff students

Art Academy of Padangpanjang (music and dance) 20 224

Academy for Dance and Choreography, Bandung 47 424

Academy of Fine Arts, Yogyakarta 63 789 Academy of Traditional Performing Arts, Yogyakarta 34 348

Conservatorium, Yogyakarta 21 137 Academy for Dance and Choreography, Surakarta 32 684

Academy for Dance and Choreography, Denpasar 27 236

1. Academies follow a four-year course.

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the lines of a traditional village where pupils are resident. This centre has become a focus of very interesting innovations based on traditional themes. Bagong Kussudiardjo’s special groups perform on national as well as international stages.

Some well-known painters, such as Amri Yahya of international repute, have also opened private centres where painting, especially batik painting, is taught.

The schools and academies cited in Table 2, as well as some private organizations, cater mainly for future artists and/or teaching staffs of the arts, those that want to make art their profession. However, in most school systems art education is also given, to disseminate and improve art appreciation. Courses m a y be given within the regular curriculum. Drawing, singing and reading music m a y come under this category. Extracurricular art subjects are traditional music and dance, folk drama and others.

The Directorate-General of Culture shown in Figure 1 has the following divisions and responsibilities:

Directorate of Arts

The Directorate of Arts is concerned with the conservation, preservation and development of visual and performing arts, both traditional and contemporary. Programmes are developed in which the various types of art from all over the country, from the most traditional to the more modern and the truly contemporary, are exhibited, performed and discussed. The aim is to introduce them nationwide and make these art forms more widely known, thus giving the population a basis for the development of national art without sacrificing the local arts and cultures as the main source of reference.

At the provincial level, the directorate is assisted by officials in charge of the arts attached to the Provincial Representative of the Department of Education and Culture (see Fig. 2). The directorate is also responsible for various cultural centres in the provinces mentioned in the historical synopsis. One of the main functions of these centres is promotion and development of local, as well as national culture, through art festivals and inter-provincial exchange of art activities. These programmes always have the full co-operation of both the local administration as well as the provincial representative of the Department of Education and Culture. Co-operation consista very often of budgetary assistance or facilities. Figure 2 shows the co-ordination in the provinces.

International co-operation in the field of the arts is also conducted through the Directorate of Arts. International art activities m a y be chan- nelled through multilateral co-operation agencies, such as Unesco, COCI, SEAMEO or A S E A N , as well as through bilateral arrangements.

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Department of Education and Culture

Directorate-General of Culture

Secretariat-General T Provincial representative of the Department of

Branch institutions Education and Culture in the provinces __-- - _-- Í

..--- -____- - - - - I I I

Cultural Institutes

Provincial representatives of the Departments of Information, Communication (Tourism) and Industries (Small Industries)

Department of Internal Affairs

FIG. 2.

However, special mention should be made of commercial art arrangements, organized by entrepreneurs and co-ordinated by an interdepart- mental commission.

Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical and Archaeological Monuments

This directorate is responsible for the preservation, restoration, rehabili- tation and protection of historical and archaeological remains in the form of both permanent and moving objects that are considered ‘monuments’. Indonesia recognizes two types of monument: Gdead’ (no longer functioning at the time of discovery) and ‘living’ (still functioning). Dead monuments are, for instance, the old Hindu or Buddhist temples and shrines in central and east Java which were mostly in ruins at the time of discovery, because

25


the local people had changed religion, an example being the Temple of Borobudur, which is considered a general national monument and was restored as such. Living monuments are, for instance, the old mosques, churches and palaces or buildings in various areas that are still functioning as before. The directorate deals with both types.

The protection and conservation of monuments aims not only to maintain and preserve, but also to promote knowledge and cultural consciousness about such monuments as a part of the Indonesian national cultural heritage. The monuments m a y be used as sources for inspiration and stimulation for innovative creativity in cultural developm.ent while preserving the cultural identity of the Indonesians as a nation.

The directorate deals, in its responsibilities, with organs on the national as well as the provincial level, being directly responsible for five cultural preserves for archaeology and history mentioned in the historical synopsis in Central Java, the Yogyakarta area, East Java, Bali and South Sulawesi.

International relations are also the concern of the directorate. In the field of archaeology and preservation of monuments, Indonesia has co-operation programmes through Spafa, Icomos and other multilateral organizations, although with some countries it has bilateral arrangements, as will be discussed below.

Directorate of Museums

The Directorate of Museums is concerned with the promotion and development of museums as a means of disseminating information on cultural heritage, in particular through displays of material objects. The activities of the directorate are not limited to one type of museum only, but include general and specialized museums. It is also actively involved in the protection of moving objects of historical and general cultural value. The Directorate of Museums is responsible for the National Museum, the provincial (state) museums, a number of state-owned specialized museums, a planetarium and an oceanorium. It is also available to assist and advise privately owned museums.

At the provincial level, the directorate has specialists in charge of museums, and a Provincial Representative of the Department of Education and Culture (Fig. 2) in charge of historical and archaeological affairs.

Full advantage is taken of international co-operation, through such bodies as ICOM, for the development of museums, personnel and mobile exhibitions abroad and within the country.

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Directorate of History and Traditional Values

This directorate is responsible for the promotion of the awareness of history among the Indonesian peoples as a nation. It is also responsible for the promotion and promulgation of national culture in relation to national unity and integrity, within the existing historical, cultural, religious and educational backgrounds.

T o this end, the Directorate of History and Traditional Values collects data and information from all over the country as a basis for the formulation of its policy. It also advises on Indonesian culture for the further enrichment and development of national culture.

The directorate conducts studies and research on national and local history together with the ideas of national and local figures, both orally and in writing. It also deals with oral traditions, such as legends, myths and fairy tales, containing information on culture, games, popular sports as activities and other cultural pursuits.

The Directorate of History and Traditional Values is mainly concerned with the intangible aspects of culture; it therefore co-operates with both domestic and foreign institutions of cultural research.

Directorate of Local Beliefs

The establishment of a special directorate concerned with local religious beliefs, as opposed to the great international religions (which come under the jurisdiction of the Department of Religious Affairs), was deemed necessary by Decree of Parliament in 1978.

It was recognized that these beliefs are very much part of Indonesian culture, and thus the new directorate was placed in the Department of Education and Culture, with the Directorate-General of Culture.

The n e w directorate deals with these various beliefs, which to a certain extent dominate the social behaviour patterns of their believers. However, the directorate is more concerned with the believers than with the systems themselves. The directorate is relatively new and therefore its activities of documenting what seems to be important for these people is at an early stage. Even so, as part of the cultural heritage and values of Indonesia, it is necessary to have adequate knowledge of these ideas and convictions.

The directorate reaches the provinces through seminars and inventory programmes assisted by staff of the Provincial Representative of the Department of Education and Culture.

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The National Museum

The National Museum was formerly the Central Museum established by the Dutch Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences in 1778. As the National Museum, which it became by Minister’s decree in 1980, it has two main functions. First, it is a technical unit on the national level of the Directorate- General of Culture and therefore expected to present the national image of Indonesia with its richness in cultural heritage and traditional values for which the museum’s collection is already well known. Second, it is an institution where information on culture in general, and on material culture in particular, is made available to the public, at the same time, supporting cultural education in the school system.

Further development of the National Museum will be carried out in three phases, based on priorities and needs, as follows: (a) development of the museum building (further enlargement is urgently required) and development of public services; (b) development of technical staff; (c) development of research.

The National Library

The National Library, situated in Jakarta, has recently been established. At the time of writing, it has no building of its own, though plans are envisaged.

The main bulk of the National Library’s collection consists of the contents of the former library of the National Museum, the basis of which was founded by the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences in 1778, at the same time as the museum.

A s heir to the former library of the National Museum, which the United Nations suggested should become Indonesia’s deposit library, the National Library is at the moment fulfilling this role. Therefore, a larger area has been allocated for its building.

The National Library enjoys international co-operation between many of the most important libraries in South-East Asia as well as in other areas. It it also a member of various international associations of libraries.

For administrative purposes the Centres for Library and Language Development and the National Centre for Archaeological Research come under the Secretariat-General. However, to all intents and purposes they are co-ordinated by the Directorate-General of Culture.

CENTRE FOR LIBRARY DEVELOPMENT

The responsibilities of the Centre for Library Development include the formulation of a policy with regard to library development, co-ordination

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of the provincial libraries and development of libraries in general, especially the public libraries and school libraries.

Library development policy is aimed at establishing a national system of libraries capable of stimulating and promoting reading interest and reading habits (still a problem in Indonesia where total literacy has not yet been completely attained), promoting the development of existing libraries and the provision of library material (specifically books and other reading material written in Indonesian for the rural community) and assistance in the establishment of new libraries.

The organization network of the Centre for Library Development covers also the National Library in Jakarta and twenty- six provincial libraries outside Jakarta.

Centre for Language Development

The Centre for Language Development is initially concerned with the development of Indonesian as both the national and the state language of Indonesia in accordance with Article 36 of the Constitution of 1945. The development of Indonesian is aimed at making it an efficient language of administration, a medium of instruction in the school system, the means of national communication and a symbol of national pride and identity. It is likewise aimed at making it an efficient language for science and technology.

The centre also deals with the development of national literature and local languages and their literatures. Recording of, and research on, national literature includes manuscripts and books written in the past in Malay, the basis of the national language, Indonesian. The local languages and their literature, both oral and written, are recorded, researched and will be translated into Indonesian for publication. Part of the results of such recording have been published. Language maps, general and specialized dictionaries (including dictionaries of technical terms), handbooks and scientific essays on language and literature are part of the centre’s activities.

The centre also promotes and takes part in national co-operation with Indonesian institutions of higher learning and other relevant bodies. It conducts international co-operation programmes with the relevant institutions in such countries as Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, the Netherlands and France, as well as with international agencies such as A S E A N , Unesco and others.

On the provincial level, the centre is supported by three offices of linguistic research in Yogyakarta, Ujungpandang (South Sulawesi) and Singaraj a (Bali).

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National Centre for Archaeological Research

In 1975, the functions of the former Institute of Archaeology, which was the successor of the Dutch Oudheidkundige Dienst (see the historical synopsis), were divided into two: (a) preservation and conservation, and (b) research.

The Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical and Archaeological Monuments took over preservation and conservation, whilst research is n o w the responsibility of the National Centre for Archae- ological Research. Archaeological research activities are concerned with Indonesian cultures of all periods of history, from prehistory onwards. For practical reasons, the programme of activities is divided into four fields: prehistory, classical archaeology, archaeology of the Islamic period and archaeometrics.

The objectives are not merely to reconstruct Indonesian cultural history and to develop new concepts and theories, but also to exhibit ancient and indigenous cultures to the public, to stimulate creativity and provide a solid basis for the search for cultural identity.

The centre is also conducting excavations in various sites all over Indonesia. At the provincial level, it is assisted by two offices of archaeological research, in Yogyakarta and Bali.

A s Figure 2 shows, all the branches, directorates and centres already cited maintain close co-operation with various departments, directorates- general and other institutions at the provincial level with the local administration having general responsibility for everything in its area. Good relations with the provincial administration are therefore a necessity for all departments with activities in the provinces. It is here that the various provincial representatives of the departments have a role to play, with the provincial branches of the technical directorates-general responsible for the implementation of their policies and programmes. The representative of the Department of Education and Culture is also responsible for co- ordination between all the offices and institutions operating in his province which come under the aegis of the department.

Close co-operation also exists between offices and institutions of the Department of Education and Culture and representatives of other departments in the provinces. Almost every department is represented in the provinces. In some cases, directorates-general have their o w n representation as well, as those of the Directorates-General of Tourism and Small Industries (see Fig. 2).

Co-operation between those representatives consists, for instance, of joint programmes in arts and crafts exhibitions, dance and music festivals and organization of cultural contests.

In promotion of cultural sites and monuments for tourism there is always close co-operation between the Directorates-General of Tourism and of Culture, thus ameliorating, the negative effects of tourism on

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cultural values and heritage. Indonesia believes that tourism need not necessarily be considered a negative influence on cultural life and development. For example, the popular notion that the souvenir industry is a threat to maintaining quality in arts and crafts m a y in fact be offset by measures to promote the use of cheaper material and the production of smaller objects, without lowering the standard of technique and crafts- manship. In the same vein, theatrical performances for tourists m a y still be maintained at a high level of professional skill, even though the performance itself m a y be shortened and the contents popularized. It is in this field particularly that the institutions for cultural development and those for the promotion of tourism and craft industries m a y work together and thus preserve the quality of Indonesian art and crafts.

Figure 3 shows the co-ordination between the institutions concerned with cultural life and those dealing with foreign relations.

Technically, foreign co-operation programmes have to be conducted

Department of Foreign Affairs

Cepanment of Education and Culture

Multilateral corporations u FIG. 3.

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via the Department of Foreign Affairs and its relevant directorates-general and directorates, though this m a y be done through the Indonesian embassies and legations abroad, or through the foreign equivalents in Indonesia. Multilateral agencies have the option of contacting their o w n representatives in Indonesia or likewise approaching the Indonesian embassies and legations.

In Indonesia, when programmes of scientific research are an area of study, contact should also be made with the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, which will then approach relevant or interested institutions in Indonesia for co-operation. This is especially relevant with research in the provinces, where an introduction from the Institute of Sciences is mandatory.

Financial support

Practically all of the funding needed for the development of national culture comes from the Government of Indonesia through routine as well as development budgets of the Department of Education and Culture. Joint programmes with other departments, however, m a y be partially financed by the relevant departments, directorates-general, directorates and the local administration.

The development budget (which also takes into account priority programmes of cultural development) has been made available for the last two periods of the five-year development programmes of Indonesia, which are n o w approaching the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth periods.

In international programmes, bilateral as well as multilateral, foreign- funded assistance is very often provided. Nevertheless, the largest part of cultural financing remains the responsibility of the Indonesian Government.

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Restoratioii work at the National Centre for Archaeological Research (PUSPAN).

Carvings on the front of the Shiva Temple at Prambanan. [Photo: Unesco/David Davies.]

The Temple of Sari (ninth to tenth centuries). [Photo: Unesco/Mireille Vautier.]


Having established a set of principles and the relevant administration for cultural development on a national level, Indonesia still faces problems in bringing these principles into practice in its multi-ethnic and also (as far as education is concerned) multi-layered population. These problems have a definite influence on the flow or mainstream of cultural policy. In outline, the problems faced by Indonesia consist of the following: Basically, national development represents the process of change in all

sectors of life, which n o w occurs much more rapidly than ever before. Indonesia’s multi-ethnic community, with its varied historical and cultural

backgrounds, therefore undergoes corresponding changes in its systems of values as a result of national development.

The rapid flow of present-day foreign cultural influences due to the development of modern technology, especially in the field of communication and transportation, has immensely facilitated intercultural contacts.

The enormous growth in population requires a corresponding increase in the quality, quantity and variety of the means of life.

Indonesia’s multi-ethnic background was, of necessity, a direct reason for considering national culture to be the guideline for patterns of social behaviour of the nation. This, as previously mentioned, was the aim of the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia. However, while national culture is still in the process of development there still remains at present diverse ethnic as well as local cultures as regards specific social environments.

Indonesia has also to consider that material development has initiated various changes in value much faster than in the old days when communication was more difficult. It is this rapid change that creates the problems, for cultural adaptation to foreign influence is slow and inconsistent. This strong foreign cultural influence has led to a weakening of the people’s capacity to select and filter with the consequent loss of the ability to choose correctly what is needed in accordance with the existing values

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and ideals. Unqualified adoption of foreign cultural influence could result in the elimination of earlier, more dominant values and ideals, which in the end could weaken cultural identity and lead to frustration.

Social pressures and restlessness are increasingly expressed in the mass media. Various forms of violence, crime and juvenile delinquency occur more frequently every day, clearly indicating the existence of inconsist- encies in the institutions which regulate social behaviour and intercourse. This situation m a y be overcome by adequate cultural development.

It is the Indonesian Government’s policy to develop national culture by means of increasing opportunities or socialization, in which knowledge of the values and principal ideals that make up the national customs are promoted.

These ideals are considered highly important among Indonesia’s population with its multi-ethnic cultural background. But until Indonesians consider their customs within the total framework of a national culture and until this becomes fully developed interethnic relations m a y undergo disguised or visible problems of understanding, despite the c o m m o n national aim.

Socialization m a y be effected through formal education within the school system. However, formal cultural education seems to be a fairly new tradition in developing countries such as Indonesia. The school system is used more to promote skills and attitudes aimed at certain objectives. Much that is necessary in social life cannot be obtained at school. One example in Indonesia is the lack of social intercourse between the various sectors of the community, which would help the child in his behaviour and social life out of school. There is also no school subject dealing with the etiquette relevant to social relations among members of society. Organ- izations and institutions are therefore needed to assist children to widen their behaviour patterns relevant to life outside the school system.

As elsewhere, Indonesia possesses various youth organizations with these aims. There are organizations such as the Boy Scout Movement, art centres, sport centres, organizations for nature lovers, mountain climbers and so on. However, most of them accommodate only members having special interests and are thus limited in scope. Even organizations of a more general character, such as those set up in cities for the local youth living in that particular area, are insufficient to satisfy the need for skills and attitudes necessary for the development of national culture.

The Department of Education and Culture, through the Directorate- General of Culture, has therefore established programmes of activities incorporating the values and ideals which form the basis of Indonesian culture. These values and ideals are promoted and offered as variations or alternatives in the customs of Indonesian national social life and behaviour. These programmes aim at introducing values and ideals that have hitherto been known, or relevant, to certain closed ethnic societies or regions,

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although they may be in keeping with the national values and ideals as outlined in the Constitution. Of the various alternatives offered, those that are ultimately accepted m a y be expected to become part of, and enrich, the national culture, providing it with the nuances of colour needed to appeal to the Indonesian nation.

In this way, every group and individual m a y be said to be given the opportunity to play a significant role in the relevant original community, and at the same time to be actively involved in the preservation of national cultural identity and the development of national culture. For, in all the policies and programmes of culture, it is the preservation of cultural identity and the development of national culture through cultural identity that is necessary.

The programmes executed by the Directorate-General of Culture through its directorates, centres and branches in the provinces, and in close co-operation with other institutions connected with cultural development, are grouped under five headings: 1. Programme of history, archaeology and museum development. 2. Development of the arts. 3. Development of language, literature, books and libraries. 4. Cultural inventory. 5. Local religious beliefs.

History, archaeology and museum development

The programme is executed through three directorates-History and Traditional Values, Preservation and Restoration of Historical and Archaeological Monuments, Museums-with their respective branches in the provinces, and in co-operation with the National Centre- for Archae- ological Research.

In general the programme is aimed at promoting historical awareness, specifically in relation to: (a) Indonesian history as the history of the Indonesian people as members of one nation; (b) encouraging innovation and creativity by studying history and archaeological remains, taking into consideration cultural roots represented by cultural heritage.

HISTORY

The history programme not only records past events, but also studies socio-cultural background. Take, for example, one item in this programme: the study of the lives of national figures, war heroes and independence movements, etc. The aim is not just to relate their deeds or the events of the time but to place them in the context of the lives and the socio- cultural environment of the people of the relevant time, and place. In this

35


way it is hoped to be able to give a more critical view of historical events of local or provincial relevance which m a y encourage people of all levels to study their history.

The results of such studies are then made known. The subjects m a y be used for books and articles aimed at various levels of education. Through this programme material is acquired for writing textbooks and reading matter for schools, youth libraries, and literacy programmes, both for adults and children. The more scientific reports are dealt with in the relevant journals and other suitable publications.

Through thk programme, a six-volume National History of Indonesia has been written, which has already been reprinted three times. It is n o w considered to need re-editing, which is being done at present.

Included among the results achieved in this programme to date (1981/82) are the following items: 1. Recording of: (a) historical events in connection with national move-

ments in the provinces; (b) samples of local education; (c) youth movements; (d) local struggles against the colonial government.

2. Publication of: (a) lives of various national heroes of the struggle for Independence; (b) local histories in various fields; (c) lives of local heroes in the W a r of Independence.

3. Consultations in the field of historical films: (a) the life of Kartini (national hero of women’s liberation); (b) local struggle against the colonial government in West Sumatra, and others.

The programme also includes scientific seminars on history. T w o seminars were held in 1981/82: one on national history, convened in Jakarta, and the other on local history, held at Denpasar, Bali. Historians from all over Indonesia were invited. The seminar on local history was divided into two parts: local history as such, and local history in relation to the national movement for Independence.

The provincial offices of the Directorate of History and Traditional Values are also very active. The oftice in Yogyakarta, for instance, in the same fiscal year (1981/82) finished a manuscript on the history of national development programmes in the villages around Yogyakarta and its impact on the population. The branch in Ujungpandang has documented the names given to various village administrations together with the relevant background. In this, as in other work, close co-operation is always maintained with scientific institutions and local universities.

ARCHAEOLOGY

The archaeology programme includes the identification of archaeological sites, conservation, preservation and protection. Field research since 1970 has enabled the government to identify at least 2,885 archaeological sites. Meanwhile 2,110 have come under government control. As was already mentioned, five archaeological preservation centres, in Central Java, the

36


Yogyakarta area, East Java, Bali and South Sulawesi have been established to assist in protection and preservation.

A m o n g the many projects for protection and restoration, there are such large long-term programmes as the project for the restoration of the temple of Borobudur (international aid through Unesco was received for this), which was finished in October 1982, and inaugurated in February 1983 by the President of the Republic of Indonesia in the presence of the Director- General of Unesco. Other long-term programmes are the restoration of the temple complex of Prambanan in Central Java, or the historical site of the capital of the Kingdom of Majapahit in East Java, the port city of Banten, West Java and several others. These concern the so-called ‘dead‘ monuments. However, a number of still functioning monuments, such as old mosques, churches, traditional houses, government buildings and so on are likewise restored and protected. For the fiscal year 1981/82 some examples m a y be cited: 1. Protection and preservation: (a) protection of a megalithic site in West

Java, near the town of Cianjur, that was threatened by the building of a new road; (b) a statue, probably from the twelfth century, was moved from Bogor, West Java, to the site museum at Pasir Angin; (c) preservation measures for 200 historical buildings and the relevant sites in fifteen provinces; (d) purchase of fossils and prehistoric pottery from private owners.

2. Restoration: (a) twenty-nine sites were mapped for restoration measures; (b) techno-archaeological studies were made of seven historical places of worship in Bali, of the temple of Kalasan in Central Java, and of an ancient church in Menado, North Sulawesi; (c) restoration work started in Banten, West Java, on the islands in East Indonesia (Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores), in the Moluccas and the Jakarta area; (d) restoration of the Borobudur temple was finished; (e) other long-term restoration programmes continue.

3. Documentation and inventories: (a) registration of historical and archaeological objects, totalling 5,168 items; (b) data collecting of the remains of two temples situated on the L a w u mountain, East Java; (c) data collecting of various traditional houses and old sultan’s palaces (e.g. of the Sumenep great house in Madura, former colonial government buildings on the island of Banda and others).

4. Activities at the preservation centres include the protection and preservation of sites in: (a) Central Java, 150 sites; (b) the Yogyakarta area, 65 sites; (c) East Java, 92 sites; (d) Bali, 70 sites; (e) South Sulawesi, 101 sites, including the well-known prehistoric rock paintings at Leang-Leang.

A s the object of this programme is protection and preservation, there is close collaboration with institutions that are concerned with security, such as the state police, the Attorney-General and the local administrations. Safeguarding the cultural heritage is a priority and much has already

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been achieved. None the less, with all Indonesia’s innumerable ports and harbours, security presents serious problems. A m o n g the objects saved in the fiscal year of 1981/82 were the following: elevenitems of gold jewellery weighing 180 grams; one prehistoric human skull; statues and parts of statues of Buddha and Shiva, possibly from the ninth or tenth century; a lamp of the thirteenth or fourteenth century; old ceramics from Kalimantan and other not yet identified places.

Excavations, specifically the task of the National Centre for Archae- ological Research, are conducted all over Indonesia. In the last five years, excavation activities have moved from Java and Sumatra to the east part of Indonesia on research into the existence of an archipelagic state in earlier times.

MUSEUM DEVELOPMENT

The museum development programme includes the establishment of state museums in every provincial capital. So far, ten state museums have been finished and are functioning. Jakarta, as the capital of the state, possesses the National Museum and various other, more specialized museums, such as the Museum of Textiles, the Wayang Museum, Museum for Ceramics, and others.

Aceh: State Museum in Banda Aceh. Vest Sumatra: Adityawarman Museum (named after an ancient king)

Vest Java: State Museum in Bandung. Yogyokarta area: Sonobudoyo Museum in the city of Yogyakarta, already

East Java: Tantular Museum (named after an Old Javanese author) in

Bali: State Museum in Denpasar, a very beautiful compound in Old-

South Kalimantan: L a d u n g Mangkurat Museum (named after a local

East Kalimantan: State Museum in Samarinda. South Sulawesi: State Museum in Ujungpandang, situated in the former

Moluccas: Siwalima Museum in Ambon, a new building on a beautiful

The programme is not only concerned with the building of museums, it also provides training and periodical refresher courses for museum personnel. Besides the ten state museums in the provinces and the National Museum in Jakarta, there are 118 specialized and thirty-four private museums all over Indonesia that are subsidized by the government. They

The ten state museums in the provincial capitals are as follows:

in Padang.

well known in colonial times.

Sur ab aya.

Balinese style.

hero) in Banjarmasin.

Dutch Fort Rotterdam.

site overlooking the Bay of Ambon.

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all need more qualified personnel, which is still a problem in Indonesia, although the number of trained staff has considerably increased in the past decade. In 1970, there were very few trained museum personnel, but in 1982 there were 532 well-qualified museum workers and administrative staff. Nevertheless, local training and refresher courses, as well as training possibilities abroad, need to be maintained to reach the numbers required for all the existing, as well as the planned museums.

Another serious problem is conservation of museum pieces. Various site museums have archaeologists working with pottery and other material found on the excavation sites. However, conservation techniques for old manuscripts, paintings, woodwork and so on, still have to be maintained through foreign assistance programmes. At present, a number of junior museum officials are being trained abroad in conservation methods.

The programme sometimes assists in the purchase of collections. Although the local administration is expected to cover the provinces, co-operation in general is excellent, as the museums are naturally considered an asset in each area.

Development of the arts

Nationally, the two aims for the arts are the development of artistic creativity and art appreciation. These are pursued through various activities. There are as follows:

1. The establishment of cultural centres, called Taman Budaya (‘cultural gardens’), in the provincial capitals. Art exhibitions, performances and other cultural activities are held in these centres. At present, thirteen cultural centres have been established: Aceh (Banda Aceh); North Sumatra (Medan); West Sumatra (Padang); Province of Lampung (Lampung town); West Kalimantan (Pontianak); South Kalimantan (Banjarmasin); East Kalimantan (Samarinda); North Sulawesi (Menado); South Sulawesi (Ujungpandang); Central Java (Surakarta; not the capital, but a well- known centre of Javanese traditional court dances and music); Yogyakarta area (Yogyakarta city); East Java (Surabaya); Bali (Denpasar).

Examples of activities in one of the cultural centres, Ujungpandang, during 1981 and 1982 are as follows:

Exhibitions: photos; paintings by local painters; paintings by w o m a n painters; exhibition of contemporary calligraphy, newspaper illustration, etc.

Performances: traditional dances and music from the villages of Wajo, Jeneponto, Pangkep, Takalar, Enrekang and Majene; competitive dance performances by pupils from primary schools; folksong festival; women’s choral singing; music for orchestra consisting of traditional musical instruments combined with modern (Western) instruments (experimental); drama performances by local theatre groups using local scripts.

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Miscellaneous: cultural films; reading of poetry or folk stories; first performances of local drama scripts followed by critical evaluation and discussions; recitation or stage performance; publication of local authors, etc.

Interest naturally varies from province to province. Some areas produce traditional arts, whereas others enjoy more contemporary and popular art forms.

2. Assistance to state art schools and art academies (see Tables 1 and 2). Although the state institutions have first priority, private establishments also receive aid (see 6 below).

3. Organization of national festivals of art. Such national festivals are usually held in Jakarta, but other provincial capitals m a y also be chosen. Yearly programmes include the national folk dance festival, the national competitive festival of wayang performances, the national festival of (Western) classical music and many others.

4. Competitions: Humorous entertainments (one-man as well as group performances) are very popular in Indonesia and are often performed, both live on the stage and on television. A national competition of humour was held in 1981, as were local competitions, with a view to promoting this type of entertainment in the provinces. These take place periodically with assistance from the cultural centres and the local administrations.

National competitions for music are also held including in 1982 kroncong (native music for small orchestra, based originally on Portuguese music, but long since adapted into local music). Competitions are also held for solo singing, composition, etc.

5. Exhibitions of painting, photography, woodcarving, ceramics (both modern and traditional), modern sculpture, textiles and many others are held.

6. Subsidies and other aid. Subsidies are given to individual artists as well as to artists’ organizations and institutions of art instruction. Subsidies m a y consist of grants, a yearly allowance or the purchase of equipment.

7. Special mention should be made of the promotion of folk theatre, called ‘s~cio-drama~. Indonesia possesses many types of folk theatre, sometimes consisting of one-man shows, very often with musical accompani- ment. In the old days, some of these types of folk theatre were the medium used for communication. In illiterate areas, with no modern communication systems, this type of cc~mmunication’ is still very popular. Many groups have reached a high level of art. The programme of art development is assisting around 60,568 villages in preserving and developing this art form.

Funds for international co-operation programmes in the arts are usually also provided by this programme for the development of the arts. In the fiscal year 1981/82 Indonesia organized various art programmes, both regionally and elsewhere, and has also set up art groups through the same channels. The following are of particular importance: the painting and photography exhibitions of ASEAN countries; the ASEAN youth orchestra music workshop and performances; the SPAFA worshop on

40


performing arts; accommodation and organization for various performances of foreign groups including individual performers from India, Turkey, Pakistan, France, Japan and other countries; the organization of exhibitions by foreign countries in Indonesia, such as the craft exhibition of Finland, etc.

Development of languages, literature, books and libraries

In a country which still has a large illiteracy problem, this programme is considered of major importance, as it enhances the government policy of development of literacy in general. These include special pioneer programmes as for example, ‘bringing books into the villages’, promoting the enjoyment of reading, etc.

L A N G U A G E

Language development concerns both the national language, Indonesian, as well as the vernacular. As the national language is a comparatively new developing language, based on Malay, much is still being done in the field of linguistic research and lexicographical development. One of the first successful endeavours was the development of a spelling system consistent with language conditions in the country. This new system, which was made legal in 1972, was developed from the earlier processes of spelling originating, in 1901 and 1946. This system is n o w also applied to the local languages.

The programme of national language development includes the following items: Linguistic study to improve textbooks on the teaching of Indonesian.

General and more intensive studies are published, both for the use of schools as well as for research.

Compilation of dictionaries. This includes the specialized or technical vocabularies resulting from studies of specific terms, made nationally and in co-operation with Malaysia within the framework of collaboration between the national languages of both countries as established in 1975 by a joint Ministerial mandate.

Language promotion through the mass media. The weekly programme on television aimed at the correct use of the national language at all levels and for all purposes of national communication. Various journals and magazines are also assisting the programme with language evaluation features.

Many of the local languages and dialects have not yet been mapped out or studied in detail. The programme is therefore concerned with the following:

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Mapping of these local languages. There has been widespread international co-operation in this for several years. The vernaculars in Irian Jaya, for instance, are being coded and mapped in collaboration with scholars of various nationalities.

Linguistic inventory, followed by more exhaustive research. This programme is likewise done with the assistance of scholars from various countries.

Compilation of vocabularies. Language research into old vernaculars, such as Old Javanese, Old

Balinese, Buginese and others through philological studies of ancient manuscripts.

LITERATURE

The literature development programme is closely connected with that of language, assisting as it does in literary-artistic, aesthetic and spiritual communication. For future success, it is essential that more people make use and take full advantage of the language in an appropriate way. For it is only by the development of the national language, both in practical use and at the spiritual level, that it will become completely established.

Together with the language development programme itself, literature development also encompasses Indonesian as well as local languages and dialects.

In developing national literature, it is important to refer to old literature written in Malay, on which the national language is based. Included in the programme are various activities, such as: philological study and publication of Old Malay manuscripts; publication and comparative studies of more recent Malay literature; organization of periodical competitions for writing literature in Indonesian; publication and reviews of contemporary works; subsidies and assistance with activities written in Indonesian.

Local languages and dialects face further problems for they do not all possess written literary works. Many areas have only recently become literate. Previously, outside communication was expressed either in Malay as the linguafranca or in the colonial language. Much local literary material has thus been transmitted orally.

Making an inventory of local literature, whether written or oral, is a huge task incorporating various institutions all over the country. The Centre for Language Development and the Directorate of History and Traditional Values are the only two government institutions concerned with this task, but provincial universities, offices of the local administration, the various branch offices of the Department of Education and Culture and many private organizations and persons all have an interest in local literature. There is concern that with the development of Indonesian, local languages will suffer and ultimately die out. The younger generation, even those who are using them at home in everyday life, write in Indonesian.

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However, the languages with a written tradition, such as Javanese, Sundanese (West Javanese), Balinese, Buginese and others, still possess journals and periodicals in their o w n languages and much interest is shown in them.

The following was achieved in one year by this programme, through the Centre for Language Development, in the fiscal year 1981/82.

Various Old Malay manuscripts that have been studied and are ready to be published are: Hikayat Seribu Masalah (Book of a Thousand Problems); Hikayat Pandu (Story of Pandu, from the Hindu epic Mahabharata); Hikayat Agung Saktì (Story of Agung Sakti); Hìkayat Maharaja Ali (Story of King Ali).

Research has also been carried out comparing Malay texts of older and more recent periods, and texts that show Islamic influence.

Animal stories in local literature, such as those with the deer as the hero, and others have also been collected, together with an anthology of orally transmitted stories.

B O O K S A N D LIBRARIES

Following the Government of Indonesia’s policy of eliminating illiteracy, books and libraries with the opportunities they offer for intellectual development, and the diffusion of knowledge, obviously have high priority.

Since 1979, provision for the publication of books, translations from foreign works, as well as original writing, has been high on the list. Apart from the purchase and publication of books, the book development programme also encourages research and subsequent publishing of research achieved, Co-operation is welcomed between government-sponsored pub- lishers, such as Balai Pustaka, various state university presses and others, with private publishing houses, both national and foreign, in the publication of books that enhance study, development of reading habits and interest in general knowledge. For instance, the National Book Development Programme located at the Department of Education and Culture, has received assistance from Unesco/UNDP.

The programme of the Centre for Library Development also involves other institutions. It not only consists of building and maintaining provincial libraries, but includes many other activities. In addition to the National Library in Jakarta, and the twenty- seven provincial libraries, there are at the moment 285 general libraries scattered over many districts. The number will reach 316 by the end of the current five-year development programme, in 1984. This number does not include the many village, school and mobile libraries, which consist at present of twenty-four specially converted buses that have been sent to twenty-four of the twenty-seven provinces.

The main problem with these libraries is the lack of trained personnel. The programme of library development is therefore also involved in

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personnel training. There is co-operation between the library schools and education centres in Indonesia and with foreign institutions, particularly the Department of Library and Archival Education at the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, and two other government establishments in Bandung (attached to the Teachers’ College) and Surabaya. However, considering the overall national needs, the output from these institutions is still considered much too small. The library- development programme has, therefore, to hold various refresher courses for existing library personnel and short technical courses for new recruits. These courses are given in co-operation with lecturers from the institutions already mentioned with the assistance of representatives from foreign library education centres invited to Indonesia. Staff are also sent abroad for additional training. Of particular note are the British Library Schools operating through the British Council.

Cultural inventory

As with the other programmes, the cultural inventory programme covers more than one directory and centre, as it is concerned with the recording and inventory of many local cultures.

Making an inventory of local cultures incorporates all the aspects that have developed throughout history, including archaeology and other socio-cultural features. Extensive knowledge is needed to understand the underlying currents of socio-cultural behaviour which m a y help to solve present-day problems.

Research work on the history of the Indonesian people, as well as on archaeological and historical remains, has been conducted intensively since 1976. The research activities bave dealt with all parts of Indonesia. Some of the results have been published nationally in approximately 130 books, and a number of articles have been written for foreign journals.

The cultural inventory programme has provided personnel and offices in the provinces, to assist the corresponding directorates and centres in Jakarta. In addition to the provincial branches already mentioned, there is the National Centre for Cultural Information established in Jakarta for which Unesco assistance was received in the initial stage. The centre collects all kinds of information on Indonesian culture by audio-visual means, written and spoken records, manuscripts, etc.

In this programme, films, videotapes, audiotapes and cassettes have been made on an as yet modest scale, in addition to books and magazines which are published regularly. Older film productions (such as those made during Dutch colonial times) considered to be important for the programme of cultural inventory are copied for study and other purposes. A m o n g such old films are those on Javanese customs and culture dating from the 1930s which are in the possession of the Sonobudoyo Museum at

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Yogyakarta. Copies have been, and are still being, made at the National Archives, for use both by the archives as well as the National Centre collection. In co-operation with some foreign countries, a number of personnel have been sent abroad for on-the-job training in audio-visual aids.

Local religious beliefs

The programme includes: inventory, study, documentation and evaluation of the various beliefs; guidance and information for those interested; development of technical staff; formulation of a national policy concerning these beliefs.

Research and bibliographical studies are conducted in order to understand the different concepts. Care is taken that destructive superstitions are not tolerated in these local beliefs. Thus, it is explicitly stated that the beliefs involved should concem a trust in God.

The final objective is to promote mutual understanding between the proponents of such beliefs and those of the established religions, to encourage a national equilibrium that is the ideal of the Indonesian concept of culture.

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Cultural development is founded on the basis of the Constitution and the state ideology, Pancasilo. Although this ideology has been established in the programmes, it is obvious that other regulations are involved. With archaeology, for instance, specifically in relation to the programmes concerned with preservation and conservation, w e have in the first place, the Ordinance on Monuments, established in 1931 by the then Dutch East Indies Government. This Ordinance is well structured and still has the power of law. None the less, many regulations are no longer considered adequate. For the past twenty years special instructions, decrees and other regulations have been added to the Ordinance cited below. Meanwhile, a complete new bill on cultural heritage is being prepared, which it is hoped will be passed in the near future.

Special instructions and decrees in connection with monuments

1. Instruction of the Minister of the Interior, February 1960, addressed to the Provincial Administratinn, on transgressions against the Ordinance of Monuments.

2. Decree of the President of the Republic of Indonesia, 1962, on co- ordination of the duties of the police force and security officials of departments and other institutions of state (this includes the security measures for the safeguarding of monuments).

3. Combined decree of the Minister of Commerce, the Minister of Finance and the Director of the Central Bank, 23 March 1970, on the export of goods from Indonesia (including measurements for the safeguarding of antique and archaeological objects).

4. Instruction of the Minister of Education and Culture, 15 August 1972, on the safeguarding of archaeological finds, addressed to the Provincial Representatives of the Department of Education and Culture.

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5. Instruction of the Minister of Education and Culture, 8 January 1973, on co-operation between the provincial representatives of the Depart- ment of Education and Culture and the police force on the safeguarding and preservation of the national cultural heritage.

6. Instruction of the Commander in Chief to restore security, 8 January 1973, specifically with respect to the safeguarding of the national cultural heritage.

7. Letter of the Chief of Police, April 1973, on the implementation of the safeguarding and preservation of archaeological objects.

8. Letter of the Chief of Police, 10 January 1976, on the protection, safeguarding and preservation of objects of national cultural value.

9. Letter of the Minister of Education and Culture, 10 March 1980, on the safeguarding of national cultural objects, addressed to the Provincial Representatives of the Department of Education and Culture.

10. Instruction of the Minister of the Interior, February 1982, on the safeguarding of monuments and objects of national cultural value, addressed to the Provincial Administration, from the Governors to the Village Administrators.

Formal co-operation was set up between the Director-General of Tourism and the Director-General of Culture to promote tourism without adverse influence on cultural values and objects, from which the following documents m a y be cited: a memorandum of the Minister for Administration Reform, 17 November 1973, regarding projects on the development of culture and projects on the promotion of tourism, addressed to the Minister of Education and Culture and the Minister of Communication; a programme of co-operation between the Directorate-General of Culture and the Directorate-General of Tourism, as based on three joint decrees signed by both Directors-General.

For various cultural activities involving the mass media, formal co- operation programmes have been established between the Directorate- General of Culture and the Directorate-General of Radio, Television and Films. Programmes include joint productions of radio and television series (art performances and exhibitions) and documentary cultural films.

Close co-operation also exists between the Directorate-General of Culture and of General Information, specifically involving the Directorate for Village Information. Programmes include socio-drama performances that m a y be used as a means of information, joint art and communication exhibitions, and so on.

The L a w of Copyright was established in 1982 enabling copyright to be better protected on all original creations of art and science.

A bill towards the regulation of libraries is in hand, and a bill for museums is being drawn up.

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The government has taken various measures to encourage artistic creativity and cultural dissemination.

A special national medal was established in 1980, to be awarded for outstanding merit in the field of culture. The medal is named Bintang Budaya Parama Dharma (star of ment to honour the highest achievement in the field of culture). The medal can only be awarded to Indonesian citizens. T o date no one has been deemed worthy of receiving it.

Satyalencana Kebudayaan, a medal of lower merit, has existed since 1959 and m a y be awarded to people of any nationality. This medal has already been awarded several times.

There are also the awards for art, science, education, social dedication and sports. These awards were established in 1976 by presidential decree. They are awarded every year through the Department of Education and Culture. Candidates m a y be selected from any part of the country with a board in Jakarta making the choice.

The basis for granting an award in art is both creative merit and achievement in propagating the arts. Awards have thus been given to creative artists and to inspired teachers and instructors of art, both living and dead. The award consists of a medal, certificate of merit and a grant.

The Department of Education and Culture offers an award for the best book in various fields, such as literature and practical science. The award consists of a certificate of merit and a grant.

Such grants and awards in culture and the arts are not only provided by the government; local administrations have their provincial awards in various fields. Private organizations exist which sometimes give very substantial grants for creative works that they consider are of good quality. In the case of performing arts, such organizations also assist in production. Youth art organizations which are considered promising often receive assistance for their productions from various private concerns.

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Participants and contestants receive certificates of participation at national festivals and art competitions. These certificates are given to all individuals and organizations. Thus, even if they do not win a prize or certificate of merit, they have written proof that they have participated in a national festival or contest which has encouraged people to join national activities and is much appreciated.

At the provincial level, local art festivals and competitions are likewise held periodically. Many of the candidates for national activities are chosen from the winners of local competitions.

The art schools, art academies and art institutions, both private and state organizations, hold periodic exhibitions and performances as a demonstration of their pupils’ creativity. Often these activities are combined with local festivals.

Indonesia does much to promote art and general cultural activities through many channels.

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International co-operation is conducted on a bilateral, regional and multilateral basis. Regional and multilateral co-operation is becoming increasingly important as it becomes more effective. However, in certain fields, co-operation between several parties is considered more advantageous.

Nevertheless, bilateral arrangements have so far appeared to be the simplest, fastest and probably most beneficial as there are only two parties involved w h o can communicate with each other directly. Technically, bilateral co-operation works in many ways, according to the needs and capabilities of the parties concerned, each method having its own advan- tages and drawbacks.

Co-operation based on cwltural agreements

Cultural agreements are drawn up on a reciprocal basis. As was, for instance, stated in one of the agreements drawn up between Indonesia and a participating country:

The two Contracting Parties agree to facilitate the organization of artistic, literary, scientific and educational exhibitions, the holding of lectures, concerts and theatrical performances, in the territory of the other party.

Some cultural agreements are drawn up in very general terms so as not to restrict the activities over any length of time. With some countries, the agreements concerning exchange of publications, art items, films, and television and radio broadcasts are set out in more detail. For practical purposes, auch detailed agreements very often need modification by adding statements such as ‘in accordance with the capability of each of the parties’, or ‘taking into consideration the situation in each country of the parties concerned‘. Such modifications are necessary because it has proved to be impossible to implement exchange programmes as intended

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in a fully balanced manner for various reasons, such as economics, internal politics and cultural conditions.

A cultural agreement m a y also incorporate special programmes that are established with separate and more restricted agreements, as in the cultural agreement between Indonesia and the Netherlands which consists of an umbrella agreement and separate special programmes on Dutch teaching and Indonesian studies. The programme of Indonesian studies is essentially a joint research and training programme benefiting from expertise on both sides in the fields of archaeology, philology, history, anthropology, customary (adut) law and linguistics, based largely on sources written in the Dutch language and research in the field executed in Indonesia.

Co-operation without cultural agreements

For many reasons some cultural agreements are considered far too binding. They are therefore not always deemed necessary or even beneficial. Indonesia has, for instance, no agreements with such countries as the United States of America, Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany. Yet cultural co-operation between these countries is considered very necessary and also highly beneficial to Indonesia as a developing country. Co-operation is effected through ad hoc bilateral needs with each agreement decided individually.

Reciprocal co-operation between a developing and a developed country for funding and facilities is not always equal as, in general, funding is borne by the developed country involved due to its stronger financial position. Indonesia has benefited greatly from such co-operation but has also contributed itself as in the Borobudur exhibitions organized in 1980 and 1981. These were fully funded by the host countries, the Federal Republic of Germany and Japan, with Indonesia paying for domestic staff and facilities which came within the regular programmes and budget of the Directorate for the Preservation and Restoration of Historical and Archaeological Remains. With the Borobudur exhibition in Japan, air transportation for the items exhibited was largely paid by the Garuda Indonesian Airways, insurance being borne by the host countries. However, the value of the exhibited items (statues of the eighth century among other things) far exceeded the amount of funding made available for the whole enterprise and it is for this reason that exhibitions abroad involving such valuable items of the cultural heritage are not easily agreed upon by the Indonesian authorities. Various regulations in fact restrict lending such items for exhibitions outside Indonesia.

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Regional and multilateral co-operation

Regional co-operation in South-East Asia is conducted through such international bodies as the South-East Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) and the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), where every programme has to be approved by consensus or by a majority of votes.

Co-operation through SEAMEO includes various programmes, such as education, science and technology, in addition to art and culture. For the purpose of this report, the relevant programmes are RELC (SEAMEO Regional Language Centre) of which the Head Office is in Singapore. RELC provides training and scholarships for proficiency and teaching of English. SPAFA (SEAMEO Programme of Archaeology and Fine Arts) of which the centre is in Bangkok, but every member country has its o w n regional ofice. The Programme of SPAFA is very important, specifically in archaeological research and training programmes.

RELC is conducted through the Centre for Language Development, and SPAFA through the Directorate-General of Culture. Various books and articles have already been published through these programmes.

The member countries contribute to the budget of the organization and have to fulfil certain obligations in relation to the implementation of the programmes. Indonesia is responsible for the programmes linked with those in departments and other government institutions involved. In the case of SPAFA, for instance, the activities are linked to the programmes of the Directorate-General of Culture.

Regional co-operation for culture through ASEAN is relatively new. In this programme, culture is classified as closely linked with information, which in ASEAN is called ‘communication’. This programme is therefore called GProgramme of Culture and Communication’. Activities in this field include painting and photographic exhibitions, and the performing arts and music. The ASEAN Youth Workshop on Orchestral Music, held in Kuala Lumpur (1981), Jakarta (1983) and Manila (1984), continuing on to Singapore and Bangkok, has had outstanding results, both in technical performance and as a manifestation of regional co-operation.

Multilateral programmes are considered the most difficult to implement. Many cultural programmes are executed through Unesco which, to facilitate co-operation, divides them into regional programmes as well. Indonesia has received much assistance from Unesco in facilitating its multilateral programmes.

Indonesia participates in many of Unesco’s cultural programmes, specifically those concerned with archaeology and literature, as well as regional programmes in anthropology and sociology as in the South-East Asian Programme of Culture (with specific interest in Malay culture), the regional programme on the research of ancient ports and so on.

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Co-operation through Indonesian embassies abroad

A s yet, Indonesia has placed attachés for education in culture in only nine countries with one ambassador to Unesco in Paris. The attachés for education and culture are in the Indonesian embassies of the following countries: Australia, Egypt, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, Thailand, United States of America. In other countries, education and culture is covered by the attaché for information.

The embassies with or without special attachés in the field of education and culture have two duties. They have to represent their country’s culture, and also to advise Indonesia on the culture of the country in which they are stationed. Frequently, however, it is not often possible to carry out the necessary programmes of education and culture owing to lack of funds.

Some Indonesian embassies are already equipped to represent their art with traditional Indonesian musical instruments, such as a complete gamelan set (Balinese or Javanese), a set of angklung (bamboo musical instruments), or a kolintang set (xylophones as traditionally used in north Celebes), and so on. Embassy staff very often participate in embassy cultural performances. Sometimes embassies receive visiting art missions that are sent from Indonesia. Films, slides, video and audio cassettes are periodically sent to the embassies for cultural programmes, and books on Indonesian culture are likewise made available with craft items being sent for exhibitions.

Programmes for Indonesian embassies are executed through and assisted by the joint efforts of various departments, such as the Departments of Foreign Affairs, Education and Culture, Information, Industries and Trade and Commerce.

Co-operation through institutions

Co-operation programmes with various countries, involving specific institutions for language and literature, are as follows.

CO-OPERATION W I T H MALAYSIA

Co-operation in language and literature with Malaysia is implemented through the Indonesian-Malaysian Language Council. This was established on the basis of the existing cultural agreement between Indonesia and Malaysia and was signed in 1972 in Jakarta.

The Indonesian-Malaysian Council has a meeting twice yearly, alternating between Indonesia and Malaysia. The eighteenth meeting took place at Palembang, Indonesia, from 29 March to 4 April 1982.

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,

The council has so far succeeded in producing a handbook on spelling including the formation of technical terms of various branches of science and technology. Policy in the formation of technical terms is to present a common base, with variations according to different traditions of speech and language.

The Asian Association on National Languages (ASANAL) has also co-operated together with ASEAN and Unesco for language and literature in Asia. Co-operation with ASANAL is conducted through scientific conferences on language and literature policies. These conferences are organized every two years and held in a different Asian country each time. So far ASANAL conferences have been held in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. The sixth ASANAL Conference was held in Bali, Indo- nesia, in September 1981.

The above-mentioned activities are fully funded by the Indonesian Government.

CO-OPERATION WITH AUSTRALIA

Co-operation in language and literature with Australia is organized by the Centre for Language Development, Department of Education and Culture, Indonesia, the Satya Wacana Christian University in Central Java, and the University of Sydney, Australia.

The aim is to organize intensive courses on the Indonesian national language, literature and culture for Australians. The courses in Indonesia are organized by the Satya Wacana Christian University with technical assistance from the Centre for Language Development. An Indonesian lecturer is also assigned to the University of Sydney, Australia. Various other courses in the Indonesian national language and literature exist in Australia. Indonesian lecturers are recruited for this purpose by various Australian universities on an individual basis or through the institutions of higher education in Indonesia.

The programmes are fully funded by the Australian authorities.

CO-OPERATION WITH T H E UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Co-operation in language and literature with the United States of America includes co-operation with the United States International Service (USIS), Jakarta, which is specifically concerned with the teaching of English in Indonesia. This co-operation also includes aid to the American Studies Centre at the University of Indonesia, Jakarta.

Provision is made for intensive courses in Indonesian for American students. These courses are provided by the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, and by the Institute for Teacher Training in Malang, East Java.

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Indonesian lecturers for American institutions of higher education are recruited, and books and other reading and study material are provided. Co-operation with the United States is also assisted through the Ford Foundation consisting of the provision of scholarships for overseas training, not necessarily to the United States of America; funding for in-service training in Indonesia and funding for the participation of foreign scholars in programmes of language and literature and other cultural fields in Indonesia, or for Indonesian scholars in related programmes in Asia; library facilities, for various institutions in Indonesia, including the Centre for Language Development, the National Library and others. This co- operation is fully funded by the Ford Foundation.

CO-OPERATION W I T H T H E N E T E E R L A N D S

Co-operation in language and literature with the Netherlands exists through the Indonesian Linguistics Development Project (ILDEP). This is a co- operative project with the Centre for Language Development, Indonesia, and the University of Leyden, Netherlands, completely separate from the cultural agreement between Indonesia and the Netherlands.

In this specific project, co-operation is concerned with the provision of scholarships for in-service training in Indonesia and for advanced training at the University of Leyden. Books and other facilities are provided by the Centre for Language Development.

In this ILDEP project, various scientific books in linguistics have already been published with projects in hand for philology and classical literature. Both Indonesian and Dutch scholars are actively involved in this publication programme. Except for the in-service training programme that is partly the responsibility of the Centre for Language Development and the publication of books which is partly borne by the Indonesian Government through various institutions, the ILDEP programme is funded by the Netherlands Government through the University of Leyden.

CO-OPERATION W I T H F R A N C E

Co-operation in language and literature with France is implemented through the French Embassy and the French Cultural Centre in Jakarta. It includes aid to the development of teaching the French language and literature at Indonesian universities and teacher training institutions. A specific programme: also exists between the University of Indonesia, Jakarta, and the University of Montpellier, France, for French language and literature. However, other inter-university co-operation programmes exist between Indonesian and French universities in various fields, including science and technology.

Programmes dealing with classical Indonesian literature, such as Sundanese (West Javanese) and Buginese (South Celebes) literature are

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organized by the ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, through the University of Padjadjaran, Bandung, West Java, and the University of Hasanuddin, Ujungpandang, South Sulawesi. A number of scholarly books have been published through this programme. Another programme of the hole Française d’Extrême-Orient concerns archaeology involving the National Centre for Archaeological Research with funds being provided for by both countries through the institutions involved.

CO-OPERATION WITH JAPAN

Co-operation with Japan is co-ordinated through the Japan Foundation and includes language, literature and the arts. Aid is given to the Depart- ment of Japanese Studies at the Faculty of Letters, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, and in the case of teachers of Japanese, to various other institutions in Indonesia for co-operation between language, literature and Japanese culture. Aid to the Japanese section at the University of Indonesia, ‘Jakarta, includes the provision of lecturers at the level of university professor and books and other equipment for language teaching. The section has already produced one Ph.D. in Japanese history and various M.A.s in Japanese studies.

Co-operation in the arts, including the exchange of art groups and individual artists, is through the Directorate-General of Culture.

Some specific programmes

The following programmes are of special interest to Indonesian cultural development:

CO-OPERATION REGARDING M U S E U M S

Co-operation regarding museums has two objectives: first, to introduce the national and local cultures of Indonesia to non-Indonesians and, second, to introduce foreign cultural items to Indonesians.

Preparations are already being made to establish an Indonesian law for museums for which Indonesia, as a member of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) has used its suggestions and information for the development of museums in Indonesia.

ICOM has likewise assisted in the promotion and dissemination of information on the cultures of Indonesia by organizing exhibitions of Indonesia’s museum collections abroad.

Exhibitions of foreign cultures have also been held, mainly through bilateral co-operation programmes, but also with advice from ICOM.

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CO-OPERATION R E G A R D I N G A R C H A E O L O G Y A N D HISTORY

There have been many co-operation measures concerning the protection of the Indonesian cultural heritage having archaeological and historical value. Active co-operation has been established internationally through Interpol. Indonesia was represented at the Symposium on Cultural Heritage and Prevention of Cultural Smuggling which was organized by Interpol in the Philippines in 1977.

Bilateral arrangements have been used to recover Indonesian cultural items that are considered unique and of special interest to Indonesian cultural development with such countries as Belgium and the Netherlands. These arrangements have so far resulted in the return of two sculpted heads of Buddha from Belgium, and various items from the Netherlands including the famous Prajnaparamita statue (thought to be a queen of East Java), paintings by a nineteenth-century Indonesian painter, Raden Saleh, regalia of the Kingdom of Lombok, and other smaller items returned through private channels. The Unesco Convention on the Protection of Cultural Heritage was highly significant.

Co-operation programmes in archaeological research are also considered important. These are primarily organized for the development of research methodology in Indonesia and the exchange of data and information. Indonesia needs to develop research methods and equipment to be able to cope with excavations and field-work all over the country. Some of the activities implemented through foreign co-operation, include the participation of Indonesian researchers in short-term training, specialization and exchange programmes; participation of Indonesian researchers in international conferences in the field; organization of joint research programmes in Indonesia, involving foreign researchers; employment of foreign experts as instructors and consultants; and exchange of publications.

Such activities are in general funded both by the Indonesian Govern- ment and the relevant foreign countries.

CO-OPERATION IN HISTORY A N D TRADITIONAL VALUES

This programme is mainly concerned with research on history and traditional values. A m o n g the activities planned and already implemented are exchange of written material; exchange of literature on methodology; participation of Indonesians in training programmes in foreign countries (primarily the United States and the Netherlands); participation of Indonesian scholars and researchers in international conferences and seminars; exchange of documentary films and television programmes on history and traditional values (at present prepared for ASEAN countries only); and participation in programmes of the Asian Committee of Culture for Unesco (ACCU), etc.

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CO-OPERATION IN THE ARTS

These co-operation programmes consist mainly in participation by Indonesian artists and scholars in bilateral, regional and multilateral programmes, such as the Annual Asian Arts Festival in Hong Kong, SPAFA Seminars on Technological Development of the Traditional Performing Arts and various cultural missions.

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Since the first Five-Year Plan of the Republic of Indonesia, set up in 1968, culture has been a prominent feature in the government’s overall planning of national development. In the final year (1983) of the third Five-Year Plan, it did not seem that culture would lose its importance. National cultural development is acknowledged as being the basis for national development in general. Indonesia gives priority to the development of national culture to enhance cultural identity and national unity as outlined in the constitution and the state ideology.

Thus, the programmes already mentioned on national language, national history and traditional values, will remain relevant for the development of Indonesia.

For, as outlined in the Five-Year Plan (in the section on long-term planning in the chapter on culture), the features considered important are as follows: 1. Indonesian traditional values have to be developed to enhance cultural

identity, cultural security and national unity. 2. National culture has to be developed on the basis of the Pancasila

(national ideology) and to follow the guidelines of those values that enhance cultural identity and increase the values of those traditions that have come down to us.

3. Once a strong cultural identity is established, there is less negative foreign influence and the people are more able to absorb such foreign influence as is necessary, which will be positive for the development of their o w n culture.

4. The national language should be developed so as to become the language used at all levels of communication.

5. Local languages have to remain developed as part of the national heritage and to enhance the development of the national language.

6. Art development should aim at creativity with the artists themselves a part of the nation and national culture.

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7. Ethnic and provincial art forms have to be developed to furnish the nuances of colour in national art which is itself already varied and pluralistic.

8. Traditions and historical remains, which are of value for national identity, national pride and national cultural security, must be developed and enhanced.

Cultural policy has thus to enhance cultural identity in the widest and most basic sense.

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Titles in this series:

Cultural policy: a preliminary study Culturalpolicy in the [Jnited States, by Charles C. Mark Cultural rights as human rights Cultural policy in Japan, by Nobuya Shikaumi Some aspects of French cultural policy, by the Studies and Research Department of the

Cultural policy in Tunisia, by Ra& Sand Cultural policy in Great Britain, by Michael Green and Michael Wilding, in

Cultural policy in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, by A. A. Zvorykin with the

Cultural policy in Czechoslovakia, by Miroslav Marek with the assistance of Milan

Cultural policy in Italy, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Italian National

Cultural policy in Yugoslavia, by Stevan Majstorovii: Cultural policy in Bulgaria, by Kostadine Popov Some aspects of cultural policies in India, by Kapila Malik Vatsyayan Cultural policy in Cuba, by Jaime Saruski and Gerardo Mosquera Cultural policy in Egypt, by Magdi Wahba Cultural policy in Fidand, a study prepared under the auspices of the Finnish National

Cultural policy in Sri Lanka, by H. H. Bandara Cultural policy in Nigeria, by T. A. Fasuyi Cultural policy in Iran, by Djamchid Behnam Cultural policy in Poland, by Stanislaw Witold Balicki, Jerzy Kossak and Miroslaw

The role of culture in leisure time in New Zealand, by Bernard W. Smyth Cultural policy in Israel, by Joseph Michman Cultural policy in Senegal, by Mamadou Seyni M’Bengue Cultural policy in the Federal Republic of Germany, a study prepared under the auspices

of the German Commission for Unesco Cultural policy in Indonesia, a study prepared by the staff of the Directorate-General

of Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia Cultural policy in the Philippines, a study prepared under the auspices of the Unesco

National Commission of the Philippines Cultural policy in Liberia, by Kenneth Y. Best CuZtural policy in Hungary, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Hungarian

The culturalpolicy of zhe United Republic of Tanzania, by L. A. Mbughuni Cultural policy in Kenya, by Kivuto Ndeti Cultural policy in Romania, by Ion Dodu Balan with the co-operation of the Directorates

Cultural policy in the German Democratic Republic, by Hans Koch Cultural policy in Afghanistan, by Shafie Rahe1 Cultural policy in the United Republic of Cameroon, by J. C. Bahoken and Englebert

Some aspects of cultural policy in Togo, by K. M. Aithnard Cultural policy in the Republic of Zaire, a study prepared under the direction of

Cultural policy in Ghana, a study prepared by the Cultural Division of the Ministry of

Cultural policy in the Republic of Korea, by Kim Yersu

French Ministry of Culture

consultation with Richard Hoggart

assistance of N. I. Golubtsova and E. I. Rabinovitch

Hromádka and Josef Chroust

Commission for Unesco

Commission for Unesco

Zulawski

National Commission for Unesco

of the Council of Socialist Culture and Education

Atangana

Dr Bokonga Ekanga Botombele

Education and Culture, Accra

Aspects of Canadian cultural policy, by D. Paul Schafer Cultural policy in Costa Rica, by Samuel Rovinski Cultural policy in Jamaica, a study prepared by the Institute of Jamaica Cultural policy in Guyana, by A. J. Seymour Cultural policy in Peru, by the National Institute of Culture Cultural policy in Colombia, by Jorge Eliécer Ruiz, with the assistance of Valentina

Aspects of Algerian cultural policy, by S i d - b e d Baghli C ~ S U T Q ~ policy in the Republic of Panama, by the National Institute of Culture Cultural policy in Bolivia, by Mariano Baptista Gumucio Cultural policy in Argentina, by Edwin R. Harvey Cultural policy in he Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, by the Institute of Art Criti-

cism, Ethnography and Folklore of the Academy of Sciences of the Byelorussian SSR Cultural policy in the Revolutionary People’s Republic of Guinea, by the Ministry of Edu-

cation and Culture under the auspices of the Guinean National Commission for Unesco Cultural policy in Amaralia, by Jean Battersby Cultural policy in Guatemala, by Edna Nuiíez de Rodas Cultural policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by Muhammad Abdullah al-Mani and

Cultural policy in Jordan, by Hani Al-amad Cultural policy in the Sudan, by Mohamed Abdel Hai Cultural policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic, a study prepared under the auspices

Cultural policy in the United Kingdom, by Nigel Abercrombie Cultural policy ín the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, by G. Shevchuk Cultural policy in the Yemen Arab Republic, by Abdul-Rahman Al-Haddad Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, by Shaphalya Amatya Cultural policy in the People’s Republic of China, by Bai Liu Cultural policy in Indonesia, by Haryati Soebadio

The serial numbering of titles in this series, the presentation of which has been modified,

Marulanda

Abd ur-Rahman Sbit as-Sbit

of the Mongolian National Commission for Unesco

was discontinued with the volume Cultural policy in Italy

[II] CLT. 84/XIX. 77/A

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