THE STRUCTURE OF A DISSERTATION OR THESIS

Dissertation / Thesis submitted by

FULL NAMES SURNAME

Student number: 2013……

to the

Department of Computer Science and Informatics

Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences

University of the Free State, South Africa

Submitted in full/partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Magister Scientiae / Philosophiae Doctor

3 March 2014

Study Leader: Prof P.J. Blignaut

Co-Study Leader: Prof. T.R. Beelders

FOREWORD

The content and guidelines in this document are not the official guidelines of the University of the

Free State or the Department of Computer Science and Informatics. Neither are they prescriptive.

This has just been an attempt to answer some common questions that students ask. They encompass a

set of “best practice” guidelines that works for me. Other supervisors may, and are most welcome to,

differ on formatting aspects, language use, chapter content, etc.

Pieter Blignaut

March 2014

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ABSTRACT

This document serves as a guideline to master’s and PhD students to structure and format their

dissertations or theses. The contents of a research proposal as well as the typical contents of each

chapter of the dissertation or thesis are discussed. Guidelines with regard to document formatting and

good academic language are given. Guidelines are also given for doing a literature review. Basic

statistical principles and the way in which statistics must be reported, are discussed. The document is

concluded with some hints on rounding off the dissertation or thesis.

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OPSOMMING

Hierdie dokument dien as ’n riglyn aan meesters en PhD studente met betrekking tot die struktuur en

formaat van verhandelings of tesisse. Die inhoud van die navorsingsvoorstel asook die tipiese inhoud

van elke hoofstuk word bespreek. Riglyne met betrekking tot formattering en goeie akademiese

taalgebruik word gegee. Riglyne word ook aangebied vir ’n literatuuroorsig. Basiese statistiese

beginsels en die wyse waarop statistiek gerapporteer behoort te word, word bespreek. Die dokument

word afgesluit met ’n paar wenke omtrent die afronding van die verhandeling of tesis.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank the following for their contributions and support:

My wife, A, for her prayers and moral support

Prof B for his invaluable guidance

Mr C for assistance with the data capturing

Ms D for proofreading and editing of the final document

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. The Research Proposal

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Minimum content 1

1.2.1 Background 1

1.2.2 Problem statement 1

1.2.3 Research question / Focus 1

1.2.4 Additional aspects in the research 2

1.2.5 Hypotheses 2

1.2.6 Research methodology 2

1.2.7 Planned schedule 2

1.2.8 General 3

1.2.9 References 3

1.3 Chapter summary 3

2. Chapter Content and Organisation

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 Initial material 4

2.3 Sequence of chapters 4

2.3.1 Abstract 4

2.3.2 Chapter 1: Introduction 5

2.3.3 Chapter 2: Theoretical foundation 5

2.3.4 Chapter 3: Research problem theory 5

2.3.5 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology 6

2.3.6 Chapter 5: Research results 6

2.3.7 Chapter 6: Conclusions and implications 7

2.3.8 References 7

2.3.9 Appendices 7

2.4 Be organised 8

2.4.1 Make regular backups 8

2.4.2 Saving and submission 8

2.4.3 Keep record of communication with your supervisor 8

2.5 Chapter summary 8

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3. General Formatting Guidelines

3.1 Introduction 9

3.2 Page numbering 9

3.3 Numbering and naming of chapters 9

3.4 Naming of sections 9

3.5 Numbering of sections 9

3.5.1 Second level headers 10

3.5.2 Stay focused 10

3.5.3 References to sections 10

3.6 Line spacing 10

3.7 Paragraph formatting 11

3.8 Bulleted lists 12

3.9 Font types and sizes 12

3.10 Margins 13

3.11 Formatting of figures 13

3.12 Formatting of tables 14

3.13 Cheating a bit 14

3.14 Reporting statistics 15

3.15 Referencing 15

3.16 Footnotes 17

3.17 Chapter summary 17

4. General Language Guidelines

4.1 Introduction 18

4.2 Grammar and spell checking 18

4.3 Tenses 17

4.4 General language issues 19

4.5 Writing style 19

4.5.1 An exercise 20

4.6 Ground your assertions 21

4.7 Chapter summary 21

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5. The Literature Review

5.1 Introduction 22

5.2 Basic guidelines 22

5.3 Where to search for literature 23

5.4 Organising your literature 23

5.5 How much is enough? 24

5.6 Chapter summary 24

6. Basic Statistics

6.1 Introduction 25

6.2 Descriptive statistics 25

6.2.1 Number of observations 25

6.2.2 Mean (Average) 26

6.2.3 Variance 26

6.2.4 Correlation 26

6.3 Inferential statistics 27

6.3.1 Hypothesis 27

6.3.2 Probabilities 28

6.3.3 Contingency tables and chi square (2) 28

6.3.4 Normality of data and parametric tests 30

6.3.5 Correlation 30

6.3.6 One-sample t-tests 31

6.3.7 Two-sample t-tests 31

6.3.8 One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) 33

6.3.9 Multi-way analysis of variance (MANOVA) 33

6.4 Regression 34

6.5 Analysis of questionnaires 35

6.6 Bibliography 35

6.7 Chapter summary 36

7. Adding the Finishing Touches

7.1 Evaluation of your work is an evaluation of you 37

7.2 Check the basics 37

7.3 Text editing 37

7.4 Chapter summary 38

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8. Conclusions

8.1 Introduction 39

8.2 Overview of the document 39

8.3 Final remarks 39

References 40

Appendices

Appendix A: Assessment of dissertations for master’s degrees 41

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Paragraph indents and spacing 10

Figure 3.2 Widow / orphan control 11

Figure 3.3 Layout of text around tables 13

Figure 3.4 Formatting of citations in text 15

Figure 4.1 Setting the default language 17

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Values per condition and group 13

Table 4.1 Examples of formal and informal language 19

Table 6.1 Pacman scores and percentage in BRS111 per person 25

Table 6.2 Observed frequencies 28

Table 6.3 Expected frequencies 28

Table 6.4 Students’ marks for two tests 30

Table 6.5 Pacman scores and percentages in BRS111 per person 33

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GLOSSARY

Dissertation A dissertation is a long formal piece of writing on a particular subject, especially for a

university degree. A dissertation is usually based on existing research work which

requires the student to add his/her own thoughts to it.

Thesis A thesis is based on a student’s own ideas and research that he or she writes as part of

a university degree, especially a higher degree such as a PhD. A thesis involves

conducting and reporting original research.

(Note that this is the case in Europe and most universities in South Africa follow the same standard.

In the US, it is the other way round: A thesis is on master’s level and a dissertation for PhD).

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CHAPTER 1

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1.1 Introduction

Before attempting a research project you may be expected to hand in a research proposal. This will

enable the department to assess your research plan.

This chapter offers some guidelines on important aspects that should feature in the proposal. Please

use the framework suggested in section 1.2 below and add the information relevant to your proposal.

1.2 Minimum content

1.2.1 Background

Provide sufficient background information. The purpose here is to highlight the context in which the

research question/focus should be seen.

1.2.2 Problem statement

Within the topic that you address, there has to be a problem that you will be investigating. In the

problem statement you need to name and discuss the problem itself. As Hofstee (2004) puts it “What

exactly is the problem? Why is it a problem? What facets are there to it?”.

1.2.3 Research question / Focus

The research should focus on a clearly defined aspect. In other words it is not sufficient to only

indicate a general area of research. It is often possible to combine the problem statement and research

question. If you formulate your problem as a question, the answers must address the problem.

Please note that the mere development of a computer system will not necessarily be regarded as

research. Research entails the design of new techniques and/or the discovering of information that

were previously unknown.

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1.2.4 Additional aspects in the research

Although your research should have a single main focus, the research might produce outputs not

directly contributing to that focus, but nonetheless interesting and may add value to your project.

Please list these outputs and briefly discuss them.

1.2.5 Hypotheses

This section is essential to specify exactly what contributions you aim to make to the body of current

knowledge. A null hypothesis is stated in a negative way, for example “The … does not contribute to

….” or “This treatment has no effect”.

The concept of a null hypothesis is used differently in two approaches to statistical inference. In

the significance testing approach, a null hypothesis is potentially rejected or disproved on the basis of

data that is significant under its assumption, but never accepted or proved. In the hypothesis

testing approach, a null hypothesis is contrasted with an alternative hypothesis. There can be more

than one alternative hypothesis for a null hypothesis. Read about the different types of alternative

hypotheses.

1.2.6 Research Methodology

There are different methods to do research. For example,

empirical research could entail the statistical analysis of feedback (e.g. from users) and the

interpretation thereof,

the researcher might have to design a solution (e.g. a technique or a framework) to an existing

problem and evaluate the solution.

It is important to note that these methods are not necessarily mutually exclusive, i.e. a research project

could encompass several methods. Please describe the research methodology that you plan to follow.

1.2.7 Planned schedule

Give an outline of the schedule that you plan to follow. Try to be realistic. For example, a literature

study on its own could take several months. Use a Gantt chart to convey the idea that some tasks

could be executed in parallel.

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1.2.8 General

Please mention any other aspects that might be relevant to the assessment of your proposal.

1.2.9 References

List all literature (including URLs) that you have referred to in your proposal. Use the APA

referencing style. See later in this document for some guidelines in this regard.

1.3 Chapter summary

Some basic guidelines regarding the research proposal were given in this chapter. The next chapter

will focus on the chapter content and organisation of the actual dissertation or thesis.

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CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER CONTENT AND ORGANISATION

2.1 Introduction

In Europe and other countries, including South Africa, the research report for a master’s degree is

referred to as a dissertation while that of a PhD student is called a thesis.

This document is formatted in the same way as is expected for your dissertation or thesis. You can

save this document under another name and then copy your material into it to make numbering, etc.

easier. You might, however, find that the approach taken in this document is more informal. In a

formal academic document you don’t, for example write “don’t” and neither do you address the reader

directly.

This chapter will focus on the general content of the individual chapters.

2.2 Initial material

Your dissertation / thesis should start with a title page, preferably formatted as in this document. The

Abstract (in Afrikaans and English) and (optional) Acknowledgements should follow – each on a

separate page. The Table of Contents, List of Figures and List of Tables should each start on a new

page.

2.3 Sequence of Chapters

The following sequence is a guideline and can be adapted to your specific needs. It is largely taken

from Du Plessis (2005).

Every chapter should have an introduction and a summary or conclusion(s). The introduction should

follow up on what was discussed in the previous chapter and refer to what the reader can expect in the

chapter. The conclusion summarises the gist of the chapter and must link to the following chapter.

2.3.1 Abstract

The abstract is approximately 600 words or 1½ - 2 pages long. Although it appears at the beginning of

the document, it is written last. It should provide the reader with an overview of the entire dissertation

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or thesis. It should refer to the problem statement, motivation for the research, methodology, results

and conclusions. At the University of the Free State it is expected that the abstract is given in both

English and Afrikaans.

2.3.2 Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction

Background

Problem statement

Hypotheses / propositions / objectives

Importance of the research

Methodology (Sources, population, sample, measuring instrument, data collection, data analysis)

Demarcation / Scope

Structure of the dissertation or thesis

Conclusion

(Taken from Du Plessis, 2005)

You should write Chapter 1 in its entirety when you embark on the road of a master’s or PhD but then

revisit it once you are done. The initial draft will provide you with a framework of what is to come,

but you will most probably find that some things do not work out as you envisaged. The proposal is

very similar to Chapter 1 and in most instances the proposal can serve as the first draft of Chapter 1. It

is then refined and updated as the study proceeds and finalised last.

2.3.3 Chapter 2: Theoretical foundation

This is a literature study to lay the basis of the subsequent investigations. The reader must be fully

conversant with the terminology and basic theory of the research area. The examiner must also be

convinced that you are up to date with the latest research and findings that are in any way related to

your research area.

You should preferably not use “Literature study” or “Theoretical foundation” as the title of the

chapter, but rather refer to the type of content such as “The Usability of Mobile Devices”. You may

have more than one chapter of theoretical foundation, each addressing a specific aspect of your

problem environment.

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2.3.4 Chapter 3: Research problem theory

This chapter provides the background of your research problem. Describe the environment in which

your study is embedded. Why did you undertake the study? Discuss the theoretical frameworks and

models on which your study will be based. You can also motivate the type of methodology you will

use based on your problem statement and research questions. The motivation is all theoretical – the

concrete methodology will be discussed in the following chapter.

2.3.5 Chapter 4: Experimental design and methodology

Specific details on your methodology must be given here. Some specific aspects include:

Justification for the methodology (if not given in the previous chapter)

Practical aspects such as population, method of data collection, measuring instrument,

operationalisation of variables, qualifying questions, research procedures, including method of

analysis, statistical techniques, etc.

Ethical considerations

Limitations

(Taken from Du Plessis, 2005)

If possible, do not use “Research design” or “Methodology” as title of the chapter but rather refer to a

general description of your methodology such as “Using … to …”.

2.3.6 Chapter 5: Research results

Description of the sample / respondents (indication of representativeness)

Analysis of data (supporting tables / figures / exhibits / diagrams, etc.). Use of statistical analysis

to interpret findings, validity and reliability of the data.

(Taken from Du Plessis, 2005)

You might want to separate the research results and the analysis and discussion thereof into a number

of coherent chapters. This will assist in guiding readers and lessening their burden to remember how

the study was constructed. It will also assist you in writing a sound, well rounded logic analysis of

each unit of the study.

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2.3.7 Chapter 6: Conclusions and implications

Conclusions on each hypothesis / research issue / proposition (based on the results in Chapter 5)

Conclusions on the research problem

Relation to theory

Implications and recommendations (to management, academia / scholars)

Limitations

Recommendations for future research

Final conclusions

(Taken from Du Plessis, 2005)

2.3.8 References

Follow the APA standard (APA, 2010) for references. See (APA, 2010) for a quick overview.

2.3.9 Appendices

Appendices can be any material that could enlighten the text but are not considered to be part of the

leading content of the text. Survey forms or questionnaires, lengthy tables of results, source code of

computer programs, etc. should be attached as appendices.

It is also common practice to attach any papers that were published as part of the research as

appendices. Since published papers were probably peer reviewed, they should convince an examiner

of the academic quality of the research.

In computer science, it often happens that a candidate, as part of the research, developed a tool to

capture data. Since the tool itself cannot be regarded as scientific research, screen shots and perhaps a

user manual can be attached as an appendix.

All material that appears inside an appendix can be referenced in the main body of the text.

Appendices should be listed in the order in which they are referenced in the text, with published

papers (which will not be referenced) listed last.

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2.4 Be organised

2.4.1 Make backups regularly

The importance of this speaks for itself. Regularly backup your work on a separate hard disk or

another computer. Better still, save on the cloud. Your laptop can be replaced when it breaks down or

is stolen, but not your time.

2.4.2 Saving and submission

While working on individual chapters, save every chapter as a separate document. Enter the name of

the chapter and the latest date of revision in the file name when you submit it to your supervisor for

feedback, for example “Chapter 2 (26 February 2014).docx”. Your supervisor will probably use track

changes and insert electronic comments. When you receive the document from your supervisor, do a

“Save as…” with a different date and work through all the comments and suggestions, accepting or

rejecting or commenting on comments. Do not simply ACCEPT ALL as you should view the

feedback as a learning process. Next time your supervisor gets a document from you, he/she will be

able to compare it with a previous version to see how you reacted on his/her comments.

2.4.3 Keep record of communication with your supervisor

You and your supervisor are human. You will forget what was decided at a previous meeting. Take

notes and/or record the conversation. Send an e-mail to your supervisor immediately after a meeting

with a brief summary to have a record of what was discussed and decided.

2.5 Chapter Summary

This chapter focused on the general content of the individual chapters. General formatting guidelines

will be discussed in Chapter 3.

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CHAPTER 3

GENERAL FORMATTING GUIDELINES

3.1 Introduction

The previous chapter focused on the general content of the individual chapters of a dissertation or

thesis. This chapter will address some general formatting guidelines such as page numbering, line

spacing, font sizes, numbering and layout of figures and tables, etc.

3.2 Page numbering

Number pages in the centre of the bottom margin. The title page should not be numbered. The pages

of the initial material (all material after the title page prior to the first chapter) should be numbered

with Roman numerals. Use section breaks to start numbering the initial material from i and the

chapters from 1.

3.3 Numbering and naming of chapters

Each chapter should have a number and a title as above. Centre the chapter number and title across

the page. Use all capitals or initial capital with small caps. Use a larger font than for the rest of the

text. Start every chapter on a new page.

References to chapters from within the text should be with capitals, e.g. “The general content of

individual chapters was discussed in Chapter 1.”

3.4 Naming of sections

You can decide if you want to use title case or not. Whatever you do, be consistent. For title case, all

verbs, nouns, adverbs and adjectives are written with a capital letter. Prepositions and conjunctions

are written in lower case.

3.5 Numbering of sections

Sections should be numbered starting with the number of the chapter. Set a tab at 1 cm for the

beginning of the section title. First level headers should be boldfaced. All headers should be preceded

and followed by an empty line.

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3.5.1 Second level headers

Second level headers should be numbered as in this document, for example 2.4.1. Set a tab at 1.25 cm

to start the title of a second level header. Second level headers can be italicised. You should

preferably not have more than two levels.

3.5.2 Stay focused

You should always keep the reader informed about the topic of the current page. A section should

preferably not be longer than one page but definitely not longer than two pages. Any section that runs

over more than two pages should be broken up into separate sections – each with a specific and topical

section header. This will also force you to focus while writing.

3.5.3 References to sections

References to sections from within the text should be done with capitals, e.g. “See Section 2.4.2

for ..”.

3.6 Line spacing

Use 1.5 spacing throughout. You should not have any automatic spaces before or after paragraphs.

See Figure 3.1 for the correct settings in MS Word.

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Figure 3.1 Paragraph indents and spacing bla bla _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ bla

bla bla _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ bla bla _ _.

3.7 Paragraph formatting

Paragraphs should be justified without any indents. Leave an empty line between paragraphs (press

Enter twice to start a new paragraph). You should not justify the References section.

Never use Enter to start a specific section or paragraph on a new page! Use Ctrl-Enter (page break)

instead.

Make sure that you do not have widow or orphan paragraphs (Figure 3.2). In other words, you should

never have a single line at the bottom or top of a page. It is also totally unacceptable to have a figure

or table on one page and its caption or part thereof on another. Also avoid having a section header on

the bottom of one page with its content starting on the next page.

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Figure 3.2 Widow/Orphan control

3.8 Bulleted lists

The line spacing of bulleted lists is also 1.5 lines. The list must be preceded by and followed with a

blank line. The bullets are left aligned with normal paragraphs but multi-line items are indented as

indicated in the list below. A bulleted list should preferably start and end on the same page. If it is not

possible, the list must have more than one item on the bottom or top of a page.

Item 1

Item 2 … bla bla _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ bla bla _

_ _

Item 3

3.9 Font types and sizes

Normal text: Times New Roman 11 pt or 12 pt

Figure and Table headers: Times New Roman 11 pt or 12 pt, Italics

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Chapter headers: Times New Roman 14 pt, Bold

Text in tables: Arial 10 pt. You can use smaller fonts in tables if you struggle to fit all text.

References to menu items within the text: Arial Narrow, 10 pt, Bold, for example “Press F1 to

obtain help.”

Code fragments: Consolas 10 pt (Consolas is a non-proportional spaced font that looks like Arial.)

3.10 Margins

Set margins to be 2.5 cm from all edges.

3.11 Formatting of figures

Please note the following general guidelines regarding the formatting of figures and captions:

Figures should be preceded by one open line after the preceding text.

Figures should be placed as near as possible to the first reference thereof.

Figures should be centred across the page. Ensure that there are no tabs or indents in the line of the

figure. In other words, the figure must visually appear in the centre of the line.

Layout of figures: Right-click on figure, select Wrap Text / In Line with Text. See Figure 3.3.

Figure captions should be numbered on two levels: Chapter number followed by figure number

within the chapter. For example, the fourth figure in Chapter 3 will be numbered as Figure 3.4.

Write out the word “Figure” followed by the number, followed by two spaces, followed by the

caption of the figure.

If the figure number and caption fits in one line, centre the figure number and caption below the

figure. If the figure number and caption run over more than one line, left-align (not centred) the

figure number and caption with a 1.5 cm tab from the left and a right-indent of 1.5 cm. The second

line of the caption should be indented to be left aligned with the start of the caption (not with the

word “Figure”). See Figure 3.1 above for an example.

The figure number and caption must be in Italics.

Add an extra line below the figure before you start with the text again.

All figures must be referenced at least once in the text. Use a capital “F”, for example “See Figure

2.1 for an example of …”.

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Figure 3.3 Layout of text around figures

3.12 Formatting of tables

Tables and table captions are formatted very similar to figures with the difference that table captions

are aligned to the left edge of the table and placed above the table. The table caption should convey a

brief explanation of the contents of the table. Use single line spacing for table content (not 1.5 as for

normal paragraph text). The entire table should be centred across the page and column headers must

be centred within a column. Row and column headers may be boldfaced. You may use a smaller font

and even revert to Arial Narrow if there are too many columns to fit the page width. Numerical

values are aligned with respect to the decimal point. See the example in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Values per condition and groupGroup A Group B Group C Group D

Condition A 0.34 0.56 1.3 0.78Condition B 1.2 1.7 1.5 1.91Condition C 0.068 0.005 0.26 0.45

3.13 Cheating a bit

It is sometimes difficult to fit text, figures or bulleted lists on a page while abiding by all the above

rules. If you have, for example, an orphan line at the top of a page, you may change the line spacing

of a paragraph to 1.4 instead of 1.5. This will not be visible to the naked eye but will enable you to fit

a paragraph on a page that would not fit otherwise.

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Of course, you should postpone this until you are sure that you are done with the contents of a chapter.

If you do it prematurely, you will find that all your hard work in spacing the content may be undone

when you edit a paragraph somewhere in a chapter.

3.14 Reporting statistics

Consider the following example conclusions:

There is a significant difference ( = .01) in skill level between male and female players of

Pacman (²=10.04, df=2).

Test 2 is significantly (=.01) more difficult than test 1 (t=3.45, df=6).

Home language is a significant contributor (=.05) to the number of errors made

(FLanguage(3,104)=9.8, p<.001) but gender not (FGender(1,104)=0.83, p=.36). The interaction

between gender and home language is significant (F(3,104)=7.23, p<.001).

Note the following:

Use italics for p, t, F, df, etc.

Do not precede with 0 if the value cannot be larger than 1 or less than -1. In other words =.05

and not =0.05.

It is not necessary to report p. Rather report the appropriate statistic, e.g. F or t along with .

The word “significantly” must always be associated with a value for .

Note the way in which the degrees of freedom is communicated.

See Chapter 6 for more examples of how statistics should be reported.

3.15 Referencing

Follow the APA standard for citations (APA, 2010).

3.15.1 Citing references in text

In the text we refer to the author’s surname followed by the date of publication.

NB: Please study slides 13-25 in APA (2014) in detail.

Please do not use the facility from MS Word to insert references. It is extremely difficult to

get it formatted correctly. Since the APA format differs for references with one, two, three to

five, and six or more authors (see slide 15 of APA (2014)), it is much easier to do it manually.

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You may use a third-party tool, such as Zotero, to insert references if you are sure that the format

complies with that of the APA.

See the examples below. Also see Allison and Race (2004), (Chapter 20), Cornell University Library

(n.d.) and Purdue University (n.d.).

As mentioned by Duchowski (2007), saccades range in duration from 10 ms to 100 ms.

Saccades range in duration from 10 ms to 100 ms (Duchowski, 2007).

- Note the position of the period after the citation.

According to Duchowski (2007:57) the “Purkinje image is relatively stable whereas the eyeball,

and hence the pupil, rotates in its orbit”.

- Use quotation marks and indicate the exact page number when quoting directly from a source.

According to Holmqvist et al. (2011) still images are the most prevalent of stimulus type for eye

tracking studies.

- Use et al. (not in italics) to refer to a source with 6 or more authors. See Figure 3.4 for

variances depending on the number of authors.

- Note the position of the period in “et al.”.

Figure 3.4 Formatting of citations in text (Taken directly from APA (2014))

3.15.2 List of references

Eventually, references are listed at the end of the thesis or dissertation, but it might be convenient to

have a References section at the end of every chapter while you are still writing. When you are done

with a chapter and your supervisor has approved it, you can move the references to the References

16

section at the end of the thesis or dissertation. Look at the References section at the end of this

document for examples of proper formatting of the references. Only works you have cited should

appear in the reference list.

It is standard practice to use title case for the titles of articles/books/papers in the list of

references. Make sure that you are consistent even if the original reference does not use title

case.

Remove the hyperlink facility of MS Word so that the URLS are not displayed as blue underlines

text.

Please don’t justify the list of entries. This often causes awkward-looking long spaces as in

Turner, S. (2001). Livelihoods in Lesotho.

http://sarpn.octoplus.co.za/documents/d0000204/P211_Livelihoods_Lesoto_April%2001.pdf Last

accessed 12 February 2014.

3.15.3 References to websites

Citing content from websites is problematic.

First priority is to find an author as in Blain (2014).

If you can’t find author, cite the organisation as in Purdue University (n.d.) or Cornell University

(2014).

If you can’t find an organisation you can use the first few words of the title as a last resort, as for

example in APA (n.d.).

Although mentioned as an option (http://www.apastyle.org/learn/faqs/cite-website.aspx, 8 March

2014), we prefer that you do not cite the entire website in the text.

3.16 Footnotes

Try to avoid footnotes1. When used, they must be numbered sequentially in Arabic numbers on the

page on which they appear. Footnotes are printed in a smaller font than the normal text. Three line

spaces should be left between the bottom line of the text and the first line of footnotes.

3.17 Chapter summary

This chapter focused on general formatting principles. The next chapter will discuss a number of

language aspects and the writing style in a formal academic document.

1 This is a footnote.

17

CHAPTER 4

GENERAL LANGUAGE GUIDELINES

4.1 Introduction

The previous chapter focused on some general formatting guidelines such as page numbers, line

spacing, font sizes, numbering and layout of figures and tables, etc. This chapter will discuss a few

language aspects and the writing style in a formal academic document.

4.2 Grammar and spell checking

It is very important to set your document to UK or South African English and use the spelling and

grammar checkers. I found that the easiest way to set the language is to press Shift-F1, then Ctrl-A, then

click on Language in the Formatting window on the right of the screen. See Figure 4.1 for an example

of the dialog that will then appear.

Figure 4.1 Setting the default language

18

4.3 Tenses

Reference to discussions in the thesis: Present tense or future tense when it comes after the

current section/chapter. Past tense when it was before the current section/chapter.

Reference to experiments that was done, e.g. surveys or eye tracking sessions with participants:

Always past tense.

Reference to generally applicable facts that always hold: Present tense.

You may, therefore even have two tenses in the same sentence.

Examples:

- In Chapter 3: “The questionnaire that learners had to complete is available in Appendix A.”

- In Chapter 2: “The protocol that was followed during the eye tracking assessments, will be

discussed in Chapter 4.”

- In Chapter 6: “The protocol that was followed during the eye tracking assessments, was

discussed in Chapter 4.”

4.4 General language issues

Know the difference between nouns and verbs with similar pronunciation, e.g. practice and

practise.

Note that South African and British English prefer “-ise” for verbs instead of “-ize”, e.g. organise,

customise, socialise, etc. Since the z is also acceptable in UK and SA English, the spell checker

will not underline instances where the z is used. Please take note of the issue and concentrate –

don’t rely on the spell checker.

Other words that occur regularly are “centre” (not “center”) and colour (not “color”).

Use the South African date format, e.g. 12 February 2014 or 12/02/2014 or 2014/02/12. Note that

02/12/2014 or February 12, 2014 is the American format and should not be used.

Use a 24-hour time format with a : between the hour and minutes, e.g. 15:00 and not 15h00 or 3

pm.

When working with currency, use a decimal point (not comma) with a comma or space as

thousand separator, R 1,230.50 or R 1 230.50 and not R 1 230,50.

Whatever you do, be consistent. If you decide to write “eye tracking” (two words) then stick to

it.

Numbers are followed by a space before the unit, for example 10 cm and not 10cm. The only

exceptions are the percentage sign, for example 10% and currency indicators, for example (45c).

19

Numbers less than twenty, round numbers and numbers at the beginning of sentences are written

out in full. See Allison & Race (2004), p75, for examples.

See Allison & Race (2004), p74, for a list of common abbreviations.

The following words are commonly used incorrectly:

- “regards” means “convey my greetings to”. Use “with regard to” (no “s”) or “regarding”.

4.5 Writing style

Most of the examples in this section are credited to Monash (2014).

Write in the third person. In other words avoid words such as “I”, “we”, “us”, “my”.

Do not address the reader as “you”.

Wrong: “You can find support for this proposition in several studies.”

Rather use: “Support for this proposition can be found in several studies.”

Phrases such as “In my opinion …” or “I found that …” is taboo. Instead, use the passive voice,

for example “It was found that …”

Avoid informal language.

Wrong: “Lots of people said that …”

Rather say: “The majority of respondents asserted that …”.

Limit the use of direct questions.

Avoid: “What are the indications of a robust trading strategy?”

Rather: “The indications of a robust trading strategy are …”

Or: “It is important/useful to consider what the indications of a robust trading strategy are.”

Don’t () use “don’t” or “won’t” or “wouldn’t”. Write out “do not”, would not”.

Limit the use of “and so forth”, “etc.”. etc., but rather add a phrase such as “and other techniques”

as in the example below:

Wrong: “Analysis involves using summaries, coding, etc. to select, focus and simplify data.”

Rather write “Analysis involves using summaries, coding and other techniques to select, focus

and simplify data.”

Table 4.1 Examples of informal and formal language

Informal Formallook into investigatework out determine, calculatecome up with Develop / proposemake up constituteget rid of eliminateshockingly very, extremelyheavyweights leading specialistsdon’t, wouldn’t do not, would notnot … any no

20

The subjects didn’t experience anynegative effects from the procedure.

The subjects experienced no side effects as a result of the procedure.

not … much“There hasn’t been much researchon this topic.”

little“There has been little researchon this topic.”

not … many“This line of research has notproduced much results.”

few“This line of research has produced limited results.”

done conduct / conducted

4.5.1 An exercise

Comment on the structures in the following paragraph and rewrite it in formal academic language:

“Take a sales person who is really churning out the sales. They have surpassed their all-time best

results, and are riding the wave of success. Watch them operate. They don't stop to fool around.

They grab that phone and make one more call. Everything they touch turns to success. They can't

seem to do a thing wrong.”

“Take” and “Watch” address the reader directly, as though giving instructions.

“really” and “all-time” are often used in informal spoken language making another words sound

stronger (“really churning out”, “all-time best”).

“don’t” contractions are used in informal writing.

“churning out”, “fool around” and “grab” are slang expressions.

“riding the wave”, “Everything they touch turns to success” and “They can’t seem to do a thing

wrong” are idiomatic expressions.

Now, have a look at the following version:

“When observing the behaviour of staff who achieves a high volume of sales, it is clear that they do not

waste time, but seize every opportunity to make contact with potential customers. All their efforts seem to

be rewarded with success.”

4.6 Ground your assertions

Every assertion is based on one of three grounds:

It is common sense. It is assumed that even a reader who is ignorant about your research area

knows it.

Someone else said so and you have a credible scientific reference for it.

21

It flows from your results or argumentation.

4.7 Chapter summary

This chapter highlighted some general language guidelines. The next chapter will discuss a few

guidelines with regard to writing a sound literature study.

22

CHAPTER 5

THE LITERATURE REVIEW

5.1 Introduction

The previous chapter focused on some general language guidelines. This chapter will guide you

towards a sound literature study.

“A good literature review is comprehensive, critical and contextualised.” (Hofstee, 2006:91). The art

of writing lies in the ability to say as much as possible in as few words as possible. In other words,

while being comprehensive, it is important to write as compact as possible.

5.2 Basic guidelines

Focus, focus, focus . Do not write long sections addressing several topics without sub-headings.

Use sub-headers whenever you address a new topic.

Sections should appear in a coherent order. The first section of a chapter should be broad to lay

the foundation of what is to follow. Later sections can be narrowed to what is of particular

relevance to the study.

The same applies to content with a section. Every section or sub-section should start broad,

giving some background on what is to follow and then narrow down to the details.

Always apply the content to your study. Whatever you say has to be relevant to what you are

doing. Every section or sub-section should be concluded with “In this study …” (or something

similar).

Integrate the references to a specific topic. The biggest mistake that you can make is to take a

single reference and discuss it in detail, then take the next one, etc. Stay on a topic and discuss

the views of all your references on that topic. A golden rule is that you should have at least five

references on every topic that you discuss. Critically compare the references and tell the reader

which ones are most relevant to your study and, importantly, why you say so.

23

We want to hear your own voice. Discuss. Compare. Evaluate.

5.3 Where to search for literature

www.academia.edu

ACM Digital Library. dl.acm .org . Ask for a user name and password to log in.

www.freefullpdf.com

scholar.google.com

Scopus. http://library.ufs.ac.za/.

Follow the links: Electronic resources, Databases, Off/On campus users, Log in (not required if

you are on campus), Scopus, Off/On campus.

Tips:

Try all combinations of compound principles, e.g. “eye-tracking”, “eye tracking”.

Enter the words “full text”

Enter the authors followed by the title or part thereof in quotes, for example

If you have a reference, but cannot find the full text from one of the links above, search for the

authors – you might find the full text on their personal websites.

If you still did not find the full text, send an e-mail to the author to request the full text. Authors

normally appreciate it if somebody approaches them in this regard.

5.4 Organising your literature

No one can remember everything that he/she is supposed to read for a thesis or dissertation. You can

dedicate two months to find and read literature only to discover thereafter that you do not have

anything to write.

Some tips:

Write down a summary of every article while (not afterward) you are reading it. Short, cursory,

sentences. This is never to appear in this format in your final document, but spell correctly or you

will have difficulty afterwards finding the material with Ctrl-F.

Enter the full reference (for easy copy and paste later) with the summary.

In a separate document, copy, paste and reorganise all the material under specific topics. You are

now starting to integrate the material.

You are a computer person – you are organised and you like structure, but moreover: you know

SQL. I found that it works well to keep a database in Access or a similar DBMS. Create a table

24

“Holmqvist” and “An adaptive algorithm” and “full text”

with fields for authors, keywords, the full reference and a summary (memo). As you read, enter

the data in your database. (By the way, I prefer not to use Excel as it is difficult to manage long

summaries.)

When you start writing your actual literature review, use Ctrl-F or an SQL query to find the

relevant material. Copy and paste this material to the appropriate place.

5.5 How much is enough?

The literature review should be about one third of your entire thesis or dissertation. In other words, for

a master’s dissertation of 150 pages, it should be about 50 pages. For a PhD thesis of 250 pages, it

should be about 80 pages. For a master’s it may be slightly more than one third. For a PhD it may be

less than one third since the bulk of your thesis must contribute to new knowledge.

The literature study is not limited to one or more dedicated chapters. There will also be a short

literature review in the first chapter and again in the very last one. References to literature may also be

interspersed throughout the thesis or dissertation where applicable, for example, in motivating a

specific aspect of your methodology.

5.6 Chapter summary

This chapter provided some guidance towards writing a good literature review. Of course, there are

many more aspects that could be addressed and you are welcome to share other tips that you found

useful. The next chapter will focus on basic statistical principles and how to communicate statistics in

your dissertation or thesis.

25

CHAPTER 6

BASIC STATISTICS

6.1 Introduction

There are two approaches to research: qualitative and quantitative. For quantitative studies we do

experiments, obtain results and compare scenarios. Without a proper knowledge and understanding of

statistics, you will not be able to read quantitative scientific papers or analyse and report your own

results.

This chapter is, of course, not an attempt to be a complete statistical reference. We only focus on

those tests that are used most often during quantitative research.

A trained statistician knows the formulas for each test. He will also know how to deduct the formulas.

We, as users of statistics, are not interested in the formulas or where they come from. For our purpose

it is necessary only to know when to implement which test and how to interpret the results.

When using statistics in research, it is common practice to report the raw data (or just a representative

extract thereof), the final statistical results and the interpretations thereof. We never show the details

of the calculation. Therefore, we may use tools to do the calculations, e.g. Statistica, XLSTAT, SAS,

or others. You can even get quite far with the basic statistical functions that are available in Excel and

the Data Analysis Add-In of Excel. (To activate: Click on Tools/Add-Ins, select Analysis ToolPak,

press OK).

6.2 Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics are used to describe a sample or population. Be careful when comparing two

samples/populations based on descriptive statistics only.

6.2.1 Number of observations

N = size of population

n = size of sample

26

6.2.2 Mean (Average)

Mean of population:μx=

∑ j=1

NX j

N

Mean of sample:X̄=

∑ j=1

nX j

n

6.2.3 Variance

Measure of distribution around the mean.

Variance in population: ² =

∑ j=1

N( X j−μ)2

N

Variance in sample: s² =

∑ j=1

n( X j− X̄ )2

n

Std. dev. of population: σ=√σ2

Std. dev. of sample: s=√s2

6.2.4 Correlation (Pearson’s correlation coefficient)

For the population:

For a sample: r

1: Two variables in a population correlate perfectly

0: No correlation

-1: Perfect negative correlation

Example: Determine the correlation between the scores that a group of users can obtain with Pacman

and their performances in a computer literacy course (Table 6.1):

Table 6.1 Pacman scores and percentage in BRS111 per person

A B C1 User Score in

Pacman% in

BRS1112 Koos 40 303 Jan 50 404 Gert 60 555 Sannie 70 656 Sarel 80 607 Average 60 50

St.dev. 15.8 14.6r 0.922

27

The correlation above has been calculated with the Excel function:

r = PEARSON(B2:B6, C2:C6) (The shaded regions)

The correlation gives an indication of the degree of correspondence between the two sets of data. The

correlation itself is not particularly meaningful. All that we can deduct is that there is a positive

correlation, but whether this is accidental or meaningful cannot be determined without inferential

statistics (see below).

6.3 Inferential statistics

Because it is often impractical to describe populations, we have to use representative samples of the

populations.

Consider the following problem statement: Determine if males are better than females in playing

Pacman.

Of course it is impossible to test all males and all females and get the average scores of the two

populations. Therefore, we select a representative sample of males (M) and females (F) and get the

average scores of the samples. It is, however, not necessarily true that males are on average better

than females if M̄ >F̄ . It could be true for the specific selected samples only and for two other

samples we could haveM̄ <F̄ .

Inferential statistics are used to compare some variable of a population with some constant or to

compare two or more populations with each other based on a sample of each and make a conclusion

with a certain amount of certainty.

6.3.1 Hypothesis

The purpose of hypothesis testing is to try to reject a null-hypothesis. Although possible, you should

avoid trying to prove that a hypothesis holds.

A null-hypothesis can be formulated to express equality of the population mean of some variable with

some constant, e.g.

28

H0: = 50 (e.g. the mean score of males in Pacman is 50.)

An alternative hypothesis is anything else, e.g.

H1: < 50

H2: > 50

Above-mentioned is a two-tailed test. A one-tailed test would be

H0: 50 (e.g. the mean score of males in Pacman is 50 or more.)

H1: < 50

When comparing two populations, the null-hypothesis relates to the mean score of each population,

e.g.

There is no difference between the mean scores of males and females when playing Pacman (two-

tailed, i.e. alternatively males are better than females or females are better than males), or

Males are at least as good as females (one-tailed)

A null hypothesis is always stated as a hypothesis of no difference.

6.3.2 Probabilities

It is possible to wrongly reject a hypothesis (type I error). You can also fail to reject a hypothesis

which should have been rejected (type II error). Statistics helps us to determine the probability of

making an error. If this probability is less than .05, we say that we are 95% sure of our conclusion.

We refer to this as a level of significance (). Another common level of significance is = .01.

6.3.3 Contingency tables and chi-square (²)

Contingency tables are used when we do not have a mean score of samples to compare or the series of

mean scores is not normal (see normality later). Instead, we have the number of observations in each

of a few categories of data.

Let’s say that we have three categories of Pacman skills: Novice (score < 50), Intermediate (50

score < 100) and Expert (score 100).

Null-hypothesis: There is no difference in skill level between male and female players of Pacman.

29

Instead of using the scores itself, we place the number of observations in each category in a

contingency table (Table 6.2):

Table 6.2 Observed frequencies

A B C D E1 Novice Intermediate Expert2 Males 40 50 30 1203 Female 60 30 40 1304 100 80 70 250

A table of expected frequencies (Table 6.3) can be produced by multiplying row and column totals for

each cell and dividing the answer by the total number of observations:

Table 6.3 Expected frequencies

A B C D11 Novice Intermediate Expert12 Males 100120/250=48 80120/250=38.4 70120/250=33.613 Female 100130/250=52 80130/250=41.6 70130/250=36.4

The Excel function CHITEST can calculate the probability of wrongly rejecting the null-hypothesis:

p = CHITEST(B2:D3, B12:D13) (Shaded regions)

= .007

For statistical completeness, the ² statistic must be reported as well:

² = CHIINV(p, df) (df = degrees of freedom = (rows-1) (columns-1) )

= CHIINV(0.007,2)

= 10.04

Because p is less than the threshold value of .05, we can reject the hypothesis with a 95% certainty.

The correct way of communicating the results and conclusion would be as follows: There is a

significant difference ( = .01) in skill level between male and female players of Pacman (²=10.04,

df=2).

Note the mentioning of the level of significance () and not the exact value of p. Note also that we

can at most conclude that there is a difference between males and females and not that males are better

or worse than females.

30

Note: There is an important prerequisite before you may use a chi-square test: None of the individual

frequencies in the table of observed frequencies may be less than 5.

6.3.4 Normality of data and parametric tests

Many of the useful tests in inferential statistics are dependent on the fact that the data should be

normally distributed. In Excel, you may use the Data analysis Add-in of Histogram to have a quick

view of your data. It is usually easy to see if the data is definitely not normal. In order to be sure that

you may use parametric tests, it is a good idea to test for normality before you start. Unfortunately,

there are no normality tests in Excel.

If the data is not normal, we have two options:

Apply a non-parametrical test

Transform the data into a normal format beforehand.

Warning: Data sets containing a time variable are often not normal and one should be wary to apply

parametric tests on time variables.

Consider, for example, the following experiment: Ask a number of computer users to execute a

specific task with a specific computer program. Measure the time it takes to complete the task in

seconds and calculate the average time for all users. Then change the user interface and repeat the

experiment. Use statistics to determine if interface B allows users to be more productive than

interface A.

This experiment is subjective to invalid results if the data is not handled with care. You should

transform the results to 1/t and test for normality before commencing the analysis.

6.3.5 Correlation

For the example in 4.2.4 above we could postulate the following null-hypothesis:

There is no correlation between the score that a person obtains with Pacman and his/her

performance in a computer literacy course.

In order to determine whether the observed correlation is significant, we first have to calculate the t-

statistic:

31

t=r×√n−2

√1−r2

=0. 922×√5−2

√1−0. 9222

=4 . 123From this we can use the Excel function TDIST to calculate the probability of wrongly rejecting the

null-hypothesis:

p = TDIST(t, n-2, tails)

= TDIST(4.123,3,2)

= .026

Since p is less than =.05, we can reject the null-hypothesis with 95% accuracy. In other words, we

conclude that the observed correlation is significant (=.05). That means that we are 95% sure that

there is indeed a correlation between the score that a person get for Pacman and his performance in

BRS111.

6.3.6 One-sample t-tests

One-sample t-tests are used in cases where the null-hypothesis expresses equality of the population

mean of some variable with some constant, e.g.

H0: 50 (e.g. the mean score of males in Pacman is 50 or more.)

H1: < 50

See Berenson & Levene (1996, p 425) for details.

6.3.7 Two-sample t-tests

The Student’s t-test can be used to determine if the means of two samples differ significantly.

Consider the marks that a group of students got for two tests:

Table 6.4 Students’ marks for two tests

A B C1 Student Test 1 Test 22 John 34 233 Michael 56 504 Joseph 60 555 Sarah 88 75

32

6 Mary 76 787 Julian 54 468 Peter 65 619 Average 61.9 55.4

10 Std. dev. 17.2 18.7

The question is whether it is justified to say that the second test was more difficult than the first one.

A look at the average indicates that it might be the case, but who says it was not accidental? Mary got

more for the second test!

A rule of thumb (not for formal use!): The difference in means is significant if the standard

deviation is larger than the difference in means.

Null-hypothesis: Test 2 is not more difficult than test 1.

The paired t-test is used in cases where we have two sets of values that are paired for the same

members of the population. We use it, for example, to determine if experience with a computer

program makes a significant difference in efficiency. That is, measure the performance of users prior

to experience and then test the same users again after they have gained more experience.

Another way to determine if experience makes a difference is to test an experienced and an

inexperienced group of users. Then apply the standard (unpaired) t-test for two samples (assuming

equal variances).

Use the Excel function to calculate the probability of wrongly rejecting the hypothesis:

p = TTEST(Range 1, Range 2, Tails, Type)

= TTEST(B2:B8, C2:C8, 1, 1) (Tails = 1 because of the directional implication in the

null-hypothesis; Type = 1 for paired test, 2 for unpaired

test)

= .0068

Use the Excel function to calculate the t-statistic:

t = TINV((2-tails)*p, df) (df = n – 1)

= TINV(2*0.00681, 6)

= 3.45

33

A correct formulation of the conclusion would be: The null-hypothesis can be rejected. Thus, test 2 is

significantly (=.01) more difficult than test 1 (t=3.45, df=6).

The Data Analysis tool, t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means, can also be used.

6.3.8 One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)

One-way ANOVA is exactly the same as an unpaired t-test with the difference that it makes provision

for more than two groups. That is, when using one-way ANOVA with two groups you should get the

same results as with an unpaired t-test.

Consider an experiment to test the number of errors made by users of different home languages:

Afrikaans, English, Sesotho/Tswana, Xhosa/Zulu.

Null-hypothesis: Home language does not have an influence on the number of errors made.

The Data Analysis tool, Anova: Single Factor, can be used to analyse the data (see Statistics.xls,

sheet Anova (Excel)). An F value is calculated that is similar to the t value in a t-test. The p value

of .0014 is less than the .05 threshold and therefore we can reject the null-hypothesis. We can

conclude that language is a significant factor (=.05) of errors made (F(3,77)=5.71).

Note the way in which the degrees of freedom is communicated.

Note that we cannot make any conclusion regarding which one or more than one of the languages

is responsible for the effect, although the averages can give an indication. For a more detailed

analysis, we need a post-hoc test (which Excel cannot do).

Tukey’s test for the honestly significant difference (HSD) returns probability values for each possible

combination of group means. For example, consider the null-hypothesis: There is no difference in the

number of errors between Sotho-speaking and Afrikaans speaking users. The p value of .118 indicates

that we have no justification to reject the null-hypothesis on the .05 level of significance.

6.3.9 Multi-way analysis of variance (MANOVA)

Multi-way ANOVA makes provision for more than one factor, each having two or more groups of

independent variables.

Consider an experiment to test the number of errors made by users of different genders (Male, Female)

and home languages (Afrikaans, English, Sesotho/Tswana, Xhosa/Zulu).

Null-hypotheses:

34

H0,1: Gender has no effect on the number of errors made

H0,2: Home language has no effect on the number or errors made.

H0,12: The interaction between gender and home language has no effect on the number of errors

made.

The Data Analysis tool, Anova: Two-Factor WITH Replication, can be used to analyse the data (see

Statistics.xls, sheet Manova (Excel)). A series of three F values and corresponding p values are

calculated, one for each factor and for the overall effect. From these we can conclude that we may not

reject the first null-hypothesis above (FGender(1,104)=0.83, p=.36) but we may reject the second null-

hypothesis (FLanguage(3,104)=9.8, p<.001). In other words, home language is a significant contributor

(=.05) to the number of errors made but not gender. The combined contribution of gender and home

language is also significant (F(3,104)=7.23, p<.001).

Note that we can once again not make any conclusions regarding which one or more than one of

the languages are responsible for the effect although the averages can give an indication. For a

more detailed analysis, we need a post-hoc test.

Once again, XLSTAT provides much more detailed results (see Statistics.xls, sheet Manova

(XLSTAT)). The graphs of the interaction between the factors are especially valuable. Also, the

post-hoc tests provide detailed feedback about which of the individual differences between the group

means are significant.

6.4 Regression

Regression analysis is used primarily for the purpose of prediction. The goal is to be able to predict

the values of a dependent variable based upon the values of at least one independent variable.

Consider again the example of 4.2.4: We want to be able to predict a student’s outcome in BRS111

based on his skill level in Pacman.

Table 6.5 Pacman scores and percentages in BRS111 per person

A B C1 User Score in

Pacman% in

BRS1112 Koos 40 303 Jan 50 404 Gert 60 555 Sannie 70 656 Sarel 80 607 Average 60 50

St.dev. 15.8 14.6r 0.922

35

The easiest way to do it is to draw an X-Y scatter plot of the data in Excel and then add a trend line.

Select the most appropriate type of trend line and check the options to display the equation and R2 on

the chart. R2 gives us an indication of the goodness of fit – the higher R2 the better the fit. Normally a

value of .8 and higher is acceptable.

The Data Analysis add-in has regression tools, but for two-dimensional regression (only one

independent variable) it does not do anything that cannot be done by adding a trend line with Excel. It

is invaluable, however, when we have more than one independent variable.

Categorical independent variable

If the independent variables are not continuous but categorical, e.g. gender, home language, etc. we

need to do the regression with dummy variables. (You can read about that when you need it.)

6.5 Analysis of questionnaires

The following tests are appropriate when analysing questionnaires. Google for details if necessary.

Cronbach Alpha

Factor analysis

Correspondence analysis

6.6 Bibliography

The following sources may be useful for further reference:

Abran, A., Suryn, W., Khelifi, A., Rilling, J., Ahmed, Seffah, A. Consolidating the ISO Usability

Models.

Berenson, M.L. & Levine, D.M. Basic Business Statistics: Concepts and Applications. Prentice

Hall, 6th edition, 1996.

Olivier, M.S. Information Technology Research: A practical guide for Computer Science and

Informatics. Van Schaik, 2nd edition, 2004.

Ott, L. & Hildebrand, D.K. Statistical Thinking for Managers. Duxbury Press, Boston, 1983.

Runyan, R.P. & Haber, A. Fundamentals of Behavioural Statistics. Addison-Wesley, 3rd edition,

1976.

http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/

stat_workshp/chose_stat/chose_stat_04.html

http://phoenix.phys.clemson.edu/tutorials/excel/index.html

36

http://faculty.vassar.edu/lowry/webtext.html

http://metriscient.com/linreg.htm

37

6.7 Chapter summary

This chapter was dedicated to basic principles of descriptive and inferential statistics. Of significant

importance are the guidelines to communicate your statistics in a formal academic document.

38

CHAPTER 7

ADDING THE FINISHING TOUCHES

7.1 Evaluation of your work is an evaluation of you

Your dissertation or thesis says something about yourself. You had to eat, sleep and drink this thing

for two or three years or more – your personality will show. Whatever you do, be consistent and make

sure that the final document appears neat. Carelessness, untidy formatting and bad/non-scientific

language will negatively influence the examiner to the extent that he/she will be negatively inclined

towards your work even before he/she has read the academic content. See Appendix A for the

guidelines that are sent to the external examiners regarding a master’s dissertation.

7.2 Check the basics

Make sure that all citations in the text appear in the list of references and vice versa.

Check once again that the spell checker is switched on and set to South African English for the

entire document. Press Ctrl-A and then Shift-F1.

Make sure that sections are numbered correctly. MS Word can create havoc with auto-

numbering.

Make sure that all figures and tables are numbered correctly and agree with references in the text.

Make sure that the page numbers in the Table of Contents agree with the actual page numbers.

Make sure that page numbers in the List of Figures and the List of Tables agree with the actual

page numbers.

Skim your document for obvious formatting problems, specifically

- paragraphs that are not justified,

- widow/orphan paragraphs or bulleted lists,

- separation of figures/tables and their captions over two separate pages,

- an unnecessary white space at the bottom of a page,

- words underlined by the spell checker,

- inconsistent indenting of headers and paragraphs,

- inconsistent use of title case in headers.

7.3 Text editing

Having a professional read your dissertation or thesis prior to submission is expensive but will prove

to be worthwhile. Even if English is your mother tongue, you are an IT person and not a language

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specialist. Although you might consider your language use to be good, an unbiased reader might

differ from you. Employ somebody who is willing to make electronic track changes to your document

so that you have the opportunity afterwards to accept or reject the recommendations, or ask a second

opinion on some issues. You should budget about 30c per word, which is approximately R100 for a

page that does not contain figures or tables. This may amount to R20,000 for a 200 page dissertation.

If you have a bursary, spend the money on what it was intended for – support to finish off your show-

piece.

7.4 Chapter summary

This chapter covered some basic principles regarding the final editing of your dissertation or thesis so

that you can submit a professionally looking document.

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CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS

8.1 Introduction

This document was dedicated to guide a master’s or PhD student towards writing a well formatted

dissertation or thesis.

8.2 Overview of the document

Chapter 1 focused on the research proposal and its contents. Chapter 2 provided an overview of the

document and indicated the typical content of each chapter of a dissertation or thesis. The topic of

Chapter 3 was general formatting guidelines. Aspects such as page numbering, font sizes, paragraph

alignment and spacing, formatting of figures and tables and captions, the communication of statistics

and referencing were addressed. Chapter 4 focused on general language guidelines. The importance

of a spell and grammar checker as well as some typical errors that students make was highlighted.

Examples of unacceptable writing style were provided. Chapter 5 was aimed at providing guidelines

towards writing a comprehensive, yet compact and integrated literature review. Chapter 6 was

devoted to the basic principles of descriptive and inferential statistics and how to communicate results

in a formal academic document. Chapter 7 provided a few hints to ensure that your dissertation or

thesis has a professional appearance.

8.3 Final remarks

This document is not intended to provide an exhaustive guideline towards academic writing. It was

merely an attempt to assist students who are confused about what is expected of them. There are

many good sources available on thesis writing, for example Allison and Race (2004), Hofstee (2006)

and Mouton (2004).

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REFERENCES

Allison, B., Race, P. 2004. The Student’s Guide to Preparing Dissertations and Theses. 2nd

edition. RoutledgeFalmer, London and New York. ISBN 0-203-41642-2.

American Psychology Association (APA). 2010. Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association. Sixth Edition. Retrieved on 9 February 2014 from

http://www.apastyle.org/.

American Psychology Association (APA). 2014. Basics of APA Style Tutorial. Retrieved on 9

February 2014 from http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm.

American Psychology Association (APA). n.d. How do you reference a web page that lists no

author? Retrieved from http://www.apastyle.org/learn/faqs/web-page-no-author.aspx on 8 March

2014.

Berenson, M.L. & Levine, D.M. Basic Business Statistics: Concepts and Applications. Prentice

Hall, 6th edition, 1996.

Blain, L. 2014. Spritz reader: Getting words into your brain faster. Retrieved from

www.gizmag.com/spritz-speed-reading-galaxy-s5/31063/ on 8 March 2014.

Cornell University Library. n.d. Citation Management. Retrieved on 8 March 2014 from

https://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/apa.

Du Plessis, F. 2005. Proposed Structure of a Master Dissertation and Doctoral Thesis.

Department of Marketing and Communication Management, University of Pretoria.

Hofstee, E. 2006. Constructing a good dissertation: A practical guide to finishing a masters’,

MBA or PhD on schedule. EPE, South Africa.

Monash University. n.d. Learning support for Higher Degree Students. Retrieved on 18

February 2014 from http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/hdr/build/3.5.1.2.html.

Mouton, J. 2014. How to succeed in your Masters and doctoral studies. JL van Schaik, Pretoria.

Seventh impression.

Purdue University. Online Writing Lab. n.d. Reference List: Electronic Sources (Web

Publications). Retrieved from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/10/ on 8 March

2014.

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APPENDIX A

ASSESSMENT OF DISSERTATIONS FOR MASTER'S DEGREES

GENERAL INFORMATION AND INSTRUCTIONS TO ASSESSORS FOR ASSESSMENT OF DISSERTATIONS FOR MASTER'S DEGREE

1. Candidates' dissertations are written under the guidance of supervisors (joint supervisors) and the dissertation must prove that the candidates are able to do scientific research and report on such research in an academic manner.

2. For assessment purposes the candidates may submit either a properly bound copy of their dissertation or a final copy that is provisionally bound or joined together.

3. Assessors may keep the copy of the dissertation sent to them for assessment unless the dissertation is rejected or compulsory amendments are required, in which case it must be returned to the Registrar: Student Academic Services as soon as possible. When the recommended amendments have been accepted the amended copy will be given to the assessors and they may then keep it. In the case of a dissertation that is provisionally bound or joined together a properly bound copy will be presented to the assessors when the degree is conferred and they may then keep such copy.

4. The names of assessors as well as the assessment reports are treated confidentially. Only technical details may be given to the candidate by the supervisor without consulting the assessors.

5. Acceptance to the role of assessor does not mean that the assessor is obliged to give any guidance to the candidate.

6. If the assessors require further details in connection with the dissertation or experiences problems with it, they should contact the supervisor directly.

7. It is expected of the assessor to examine the dissertation professionally and to submit a complete report on it.

8. The report should cover the following aspects:

8.1 Subject/Investigation

Whether the candidates proved their understanding of and insight into the nature and purpose of the investigation, and whether they circumscribed the subject significantly and appropriately on master's degree level.

8.2 Research

The candidate's knowledge of related literature and other scientific sources. The utilisation of such literature and other research sources. The candidate's understanding and knowledge of scientific research methods and techniques.

8.3 Contents

Scientific processing of the contents, taking into consideration the handling of appropriate research methods and/or techniques such as experimenting, systematising, interpreting, justifying of statements, etc.

Clear formulations. Presentation of a logically justified structure.

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Critical approach and independent insight. Ability to evaluate and interpret findings/results. The relative meaning of the study summarised concisely.

8.4 Technical editing

Index. Chapter grouping and balance. Bibliography. Abstract. A consistent and self-explanatory reference technique in accordance with the requirements of the

specific field of study. Typing, illustrations and/or graphic representations.

8.5 Language and style

Attention to all facets of language usage and style.

8.6 Recommendation in summary form.

9. When a dissertation is evaluated, a mark is awarded. The pass mark is at least 50 % and a pass with distinction at least 75 %. The recommendation must be made in accordance with one of the following:

Accepted unconditionally – that the dissertation is accepted in fulfilment/partial fulfilment of the relevant requirements of the degree.

Accepted with corrections of the contents – that the dissertation is accepted on condition that corrections of the contents be made as stipulated in respect of technical corrections and/or language and/or contents to the satisfaction of the head of the department.

Rejected – that the dissertation is rejected.

10. An assessor must also mention whether the dissertation:

Is recommended for a pass only; Is recommended for a pass with distinction.

11. If there is a difference of opinion in the recommendations of assessors the University reserves the right to nominate additional assessors. The final decision rests with the University in any event.

12. The attached form must be completed and sent with the written report to:

Registrar: Student Academic Services For attention: Miss B. HiscockUniversity of the Free StateP.O. Box 339BLOEMFONTEIN9300ORMiss. B. HiscockGeorge du Toit Administration BuildingRoom 144University of the Free StateBLOEMFONTEIN9301

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